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International Academic Journal of Information Sciences and Project Management | Volume 2, Issue 2, pp. 21-42
21 | Page
DETERMINANTS OF EFFECTIVE UTILIZATION OF
CASH TRANSFER FOR ORPHANS AND VULNERABLE
CHILDREN BY CAREGIVERS IN KENYA: A CASE OF
TIGANIA WEST, MERU COUNTY
Stephen Njenga Mwangi
Master of Arts in Project Planning and Management, University of Nairobi, Kenya
Dr. Anne Ndiritu
Senior Lecturer, Department of Distance Studies, University of Nairobi, Kenya
©2017
International Academic Journal of Information Sciences and Project Management
(IAJISPM) | ISSN 2519-7711
Received: 12th October 2017
Accepted: 17th October 2017
Full Length Research
Available Online at:
http://www.iajournals.org/articles/iajispm_v2_i2_21_42.pdf
Citation: Mwangi, S. N. & Ndiritu, A. (2017). Determinants of effective utilization of cash
transfer for orphans and vulnerable children by caregivers in Kenya: A case of Tigania
West, Meru County. International Academic Journal of Information Sciences and Project
Management, 2(2), 21-42
International Academic Journal of Information Sciences and Project Management | Volume 2, Issue 2, pp. 21-42
22 | P a g e
ABSTRACT
Kenya like other developing countries has had
its share of social economic challenges one of
them being the growing number of orphans
and vulnerable children in the society due to
HIV/AIDS, the breakdown of the traditional
family structures, change in family values
among others. The government and its
partners, the donors has been providing social
assistance to extremely poor households living
with orphans and vulnerable children through
a cash transfer programme with clearly
stipulated objectives with the caregiver in the
household expected to utilize the cash stipend
to promote their human capital development.
The purpose of the study was to investigate
the determinants of the effective utilization of
cash transfer for orphans and vulnerable
children by caregivers in Tigania West Sub-
County which has 1320 beneficiaries in the
programme. The study was guided by four
objectives namely; To establish the extent to
which the level of education of caregivers
determined effective utilization of cash
transfer grants for orphans and vulnerable
children in Tigania West, To examine the
effect of the size of the household on effective
utilization of cash transfer for orphans and
vulnerable children in Tigania West, To
investigate the extent to which the gender of
caregivers determine effective utilization of
cash transfer grants for orphans and
vulnerable children in Tigania West and to
explore the extent to which complementary
services determine effective utilization of cash
transfer grants for orphans and vulnerable
children in Tigania West. A descriptive survey
research design was used where data was
collected directly from the beneficiaries of the
programme across three locations through
questionnaires, observation and interview
schedules. The 1320 beneficiary households
formed the target population. Purposive
sampling was employed in the first instance
followed by proportional quota sampling.
Finally, descriptive statistics were used to
analyze data with help of Statistical Package
for Social Scientists Program (SPSS) and
presentation done in tables, frequencies and
percentages. In addition, a few test statistics
were performed on the data through chi-
square. The study had a response return rate of
89%. The findings of the study revealed that
the gender of the caregiver, the size of the
household and the quality and availability of
complimentary services were strong
determinants in the effective utilization of the
cash transfer. However, the level of education
of the caregiver was not a determinant in the
effective utilization of the cash transfer since
most of the caregivers were illiterate. The
study established most of the caregivers
having experienced challenges in the uptake
of civil registration as a complimentary
service and were merely motivated by the
programme objectives. The study recommends
due consideration of the size of household in
the design of the cash transfer programme to
promote effective utilization of cash transfer.
Additionally, it recommends a limited
entrepreneurial approach rather than mere
handouts in the cash transfer to reduce
dependency. Further, a recommendation of a
gender based approach has been made
considering the dominance of female as
caregivers in the programme in order to
enhance the effectiveness of the design and
implementation of the programme.
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Key Words: utilization of cash transfer,
orphans and vulnerable children, caregivers,
Kenya Tigania West, Meru County
INTRODUCTION
Cash transfers are direct, regular and predictable non-contributory cash payments that help poor
and vulnerable households to raise and smooth incomes. The term “cash transfer” encompasses a
range of instruments such as social pensions, child grants or public works programmes (DFID,
2011). In most developing countries, cash transfer programmes targeted to orphans and
vulnerable children are expected to provide a wide range of economic benefits including but not
limited to social protection. Recipients of cash transfers for Orphans and Vulnerable Children
therefore do not receive government or donor money as mere handouts. Therefore, the utilization
of cash transfers by beneficiaries has for a long time been the concern of donors and respective
governments. Examples of cash transfers with a utilization aspect targeted on children at the
household levels are the Conditional cash transfers (CCTs) programs like Opportunindades in
Mexico, Bolsa Familia in Brazil, among many others around the world (Morley & Coady, 2003).
The agenda on utilization of cash transfers has also been promoted for the political acceptability
of programs. This is because taxpayers and donors may agree to fund a cash transfer program,
only if the recipients display a given socially acceptable behaviour (DeJanvry & Sadoulet, 2005).
The argument that conditions are politically appealing is based on the idea that conditions satisfy
the tax base that their money is being spent well (Garcia & Moore, 2012).
Cash transfers have been in existence for a long time. Managed by public authorities, cash
transfers sourced from taxes, to poor people, were already in place in several countries in Europe
by the early years of the last century complementing other forms of social assistance, such as
free education and subsidised health care and housing (Pearson & Alvair, 2009). Eventually,
Cash transfers programmes spread across the Atlantic to the USA and Canada and to other parts
of the world such as Australia and South Africa towards the middle of the last century and
brought with them a more emphasis on the aspect of utilization of resources by beneficiaries.
In Latin America, cash transfers were designed with some measures to demand effective
utilization of resources from the selected beneficiaries. In Mexico, a cash transfer programme,
Oportunidades has established specific objectives targeted on beneficiaries of the cash transfer
set as conditions to enhance various children outcomes (Ningenda, 2005). In order to enhance
effective utilization of the cash transfers, many such large cash transfer programmes have been
made conditional, with payment dependent on regular school attendance, or use of preventive
health services or other specified conditions (DFID, 2006). An example of this is Bolsa Familia –
a Brazilian national programme with strong political support that transfers $6-19 to a household
a month to an estimated 5 million families, at a cost of 0.15% of gross domestic product
(Rawlings, 2004). The main focus of Brazil’s Bolsa Familia, is to break the inter-generational
transmission of poverty by conditioning cash transfers on beneficiary compliance with human
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capital requirements like school attendance, vaccines and pre-natal visits (Lindert, Linder, Hobbs
& Brière, 2007). The Bangladesh Female Secondary School (FSS) Stipend Programme paid
school fees and transferred an incentive payment direct into girls’ bank accounts on condition of
at least 85% school attendance, remaining unmarried until at least 18 years old, and passing
exams. This is said to have increased enrolment rates by at least 12% per year in rural areas.
Drop-out rates fell for some time, but are now rising due to the introduction of conditions based
on performance (DFID, 2005). Opportunindades in Mexico provides cash transfers linked to
children’s enrolment and regular school attendance and to clinic attendance (Skoufias, 2001).
The PROGRESA (later renamed Oportunidades in (2002) conditional cash transfer scheme in
Mexico boosted demand by women for antenatal care by 8%, and contributed to a 25% drop in
the incidence of illness in newborns and 12% lower incidence of ill-health among under five-
year-olds compared with non-Progresa children (SKoufias & McClafferty, 2000). Evidence from
Latin America suggests that there is a direct causal relationship between conditionality’s and
increased uptake or utilization of services. In Peru, for instance, CCTs encouraged greater
demand for services from beneficiary populations, which in turn influenced the government’s
decision to allocate increased funds similar services as a result (Fiszbein & Schady, 2009).
However, a wide range of other factors at different levels could affect the delivery, uptake and
outcomes of CCTs: for example, household decision making patterns could shape how the cash
transfer funds are spent on access to health and education services (Diepeveen & Stolk, 2012).
In Africa, the design of most cash transfer programmes has slightly taken a different shape with
most cash transfers having little or no conditions attached on their utilization. In spite of a
proportion of cash transfers being increasingly designed as CCTs, the conditions are said to be
“soft” with no penalties for non-compliance and with a flexible application (Garcia & Moore,
2012). The idea of imposing soft conditions was thought as the best option where beneficiary
households agree verbally or in writing that they will abide by listed conditions (World Bank,
2009). Hanlon, Barrientos and Hulme (2010) questions the importance of conditionality’s, citing
numerous cases in which unconditional programmes improved welfare while Jaspers, Harvey,
Hudspeth, Rumble and Christensen (2007) cite the inappropriateness of CCTs in many parts of
Africa due to the general poor quality of services. World Bank, (2012) instead proposed a strong
communications strategy supporting maternal and children’s nutrition to help beneficiaries make
appropriate investments in nutrition and health without the need for conditions.
Conditions or no conditions in cash transfers; little has been said about other determinants that
drive beneficiaries to utilize cash transfer resources effectively for the purposes intended by
donors and governments. Despite the popularity of CCTs, little is known about how the gender
of the recipients of the cash account for the observed outcomes (Filmer & Schady, 2009).
Findings from Ghana’s LEAP program indicated that households utilized conditional cash
transfers for all children (both beneficiary and non-beneficiary) residing in the households of
caregivers (Dako-Gyeke & Oduro, 2013). This suggests that household size, rather than
programme conditions, influenced the spending decisions of caregivers, While Gaarder and Todd
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(2010) identified conditionality as key to increasing service utilization, they also noted that
providing information to poor women induced behavioural changes.
In Kenya, Cash transfer had began as far back as 2004 with a pilot project with only 500
households spread out in Nairobi, Kwale and Garissa with each household getting a monthly
cash transfer grant of K.sh 500 (Kenya OVC Secretariat, 2010). By December 2012, the
government had succeeded in providing regular bi-monthly cash transfers of K.sh 4,000 to over
153,139 households nationwide across 47 districts. Between 2013 and 2014, beneficiary
households were scaled up from 153,139 to 253,000 with a budget of over 6.5 billion (MLSSS,
2014). The main objective of the CT-OVC Programme is to provide a social protection system
through regular and predictable cash transfers to families living with OVCs in order to encourage
fostering and retention of OVCs within their families and communities, and to promote their
human capital development. According to the Kenya OVC Secretariat (2013) the programme
was specifically aimed at increasing school enrolment, attendance and retention of OVC aged
between 6-17 years; increase access to health care among 0-5 year old children through
immunization and growth monitoring; improve nutrition and food security by providing regular
and predictable income support to extremely poor households with OVCs, and increase the
number of OVCs accessing birth certificates and death certificates for the deceased parents and
national identity cards for the household members who are above 18 years.
Considering the large amounts being allocated to such programmes, countries in Latin America
have linked them to incentives to encourage the uptake and utilization of education and health
services for children. Cash Transfer programmes such as Mexico Opportunidades and Brazil
Bolsa Familia cash payments are made conditional on specific behaviour like school attendance
of children, visits to health clinics or regular immunizations to induce effective utilization of
cash transfers (Fiszbein & Schady, 2009).
While the design of Cash transfer programmes with specific conditions may be considered as a
major determinant in the effective utilization of cash transfers in Latin America, most cash
transfer programmes in African countries with Kenya included are mostly unconditional where
regular and predictable transfers of money are given directly to beneficiary households with few
or no conditions for their utilization (OVC secretariat, 2013). Unconditional Cash transfers do
not require recipients to strictly meet conditions of using basic health services or sending their
children to school (Asfaw et al., 2012). However, even without Conditions being attached in the
design of cash tansfer programmes, impact evaluations in Kenya have found significantly high
expenditures on food and health services among beneficiary households as well as favorable
outcomes on schooling (Muyanga, 2014). Since Kenya has only applied “soft” conditions that
encourage behavioral change but do not penalize beneficiaries for non-compliance, other
determinants could be responsible for the effective utilization of cash transfers for Orphans and
Vulnerable Children. This study is therefore intended to establish the determinants responsible
for the effective utilization of cash transfer by caregivers in Kenya with the main focus in
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Tigania West Sub County, Meru County. The cash transfer programme is supposed to support
five key areas namely: food consumption, education, health, civil registration and strengthening
capabilities within the households.
In Tigania west, Meru County, the Cash Transfer for Orphans and Vulnerable Children (CT-
OVC) was first implemented in 2005 and covered 2 locations namely Athwana (169 HHs) and
Miathene (96HHs). However in 2013-2014, the programme was scaled up to all the 15 locations
with a total of 1320 HHs (DCO, Annual report, 2014). No conditions have been imposed on
caregivers as incentives to invest in the human capital development.
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The government of Kenya with its partners, UNICEF, DFID and the World Bank has funded the
Cash transfer programme for orphans and vulnerable children with billions of shillings since
2005. Budget allocation to the programme increased almost 12-fold between 2005/06 and
2008/09, from US$ 800,000 to over US$ 9 million (Ikiara, 2009) with a few commensurate
studies on effective utilization of the funds. Some studies done in Kenya on Cash Transfers
focused only on the outcomes (Mariara, 2013), the challenges (Mohammed, 2012) and
implementation (Sanganyi, 2011; Muyanga, 2014) of cash transfers for OVC and not on the
factors that determine how cash transfer is effectively utilized within benefitting households. A
study carried out on the determinants of effectiveness of cash transfer programmes on the
livelihood status of the urban poor in Korogocho Slums, Nairobi County (Nyokabi, 2013)
focused on an urban setting quite different from the rural setting of this study. The social
livelihoods of beneficiaries of cash transfer in the rural setting in Kenya such as in Tigania West
Sub-county are uniquely dynamic; and other factors may definitely come into play to determine
how the cash transfer is utilized to derive the desired outcomes for OVC. While the above
researches have been undertaken on the implementation and the impact of cash transfer
elsewhere, no study has been done on the determinants of effective utilization of grants in the
cash transfer programme in Tigania West in Meru County; hence the researcher sought to
investigate these determinants of effective utilization of Cash Transfer in Tigania West Sub-
County.
GENERAL OBJECTIVE
The purpose of the study was to investigate the determinants of effective utilization of cash
transfer for orphans and vulnerable children by caregivers in Kenya focusing on the cash transfer
programme for orphans and vulnerable children in Tigania West sub-county.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
1. To establish the extent to which the level of education of caregivers determine effective
utilization of the cash transfer grant for orphans and vulnerable children in Tigania West.
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2. To examine how the size of the household determine effective utilization of the cash
transfer grant for orphans and vulnerable children in Tigania West.
3. To investigate the extent to which the gender of caregivers determine effective utilization
of the cash transfer grant for orphans and vulnerable children in Tigania West.
4. To explore the extent to which complementary services determine effective utilization of
the cash transfer grant for orphans and vulnerable children in Tigania West.
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
The study was based on the Progressive Utilization Theory (PROUT). PROUT is a social and
economic theory developed in 1959 by the late Indian scholar-author and activist Prabhat Ranjan
Sarkar. The Theory advanced by Sarkar (1959) addresses the world systems of inequality.
According to Sarkar, the material world is but an expression of consciousness and humans are
stewards rather than ultimate owners of any physical wealth. This spiritual basis of PROUT has
important implications for the management of physical resources, for the development of human
resources and for the establishment of proper government. Sarkar agreed with some aspects of
modern welfare economics and stated that the minimum necessities of life should be guaranteed
to all members of society. If we want to bring about the economic well-being of all of the people,
then we must also make sure that some geographic areas are not depressed while other areas are
thriving. The best way to bring about economic development and prosperity for everyone is to
decentralise the economy, develop all sectors of the economy and to strive for regional economic
self-sufficiency. Miller (2000) in his theory of Social Justice places the responsibility of
allocating and distributing resources to people on social institutions.
PROUT is a social economic model that promotes the welfare and development of every person,
physically, mentally and emotionally (Sarkar, 1959). PROUT recognizes all material goods as
common property and seeks the rational and equitable distribution of that property to maximize
the physical, mental, and spiritual development of all people (Onwuka et al, 1985). Sarkar (1959)
actively sought a practical alternative to the theories of Marxism (communism) and
Capitalism. The departure of PROUT is that it is based on universal values recognizing and
protecting the rights of all to the fulfillment of their basic needs; the protection of the
environment, plants and animals; and a dynamic, incentive-based multi-tiered economy with
local and cooperatively-employee-owned enterprises at its core. It encourages a balance in the
effort of satisfying individual and collective needs. It states that no one should be left behind as
society marches forward. Compared to this idealism, the current policy interventions such as
Social Cash Transfers for OVC have equally focused on poverty eradication and emphasize
redistributive economic systems. Social protection interventions can be viewed in the light of
PROUT as they are designed to contribute to reducing inequality - both by redistributing income
and by facilitating the very poor and marginalized people’s participation in economic growth
(Marcus, 2004).
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According to PROUT, the source of the immediate problem is not shortage of resources but their
poor utilization. A narrow range of resources are badly overused and misused. To cure these
maladies, PROUT's economic program promotes economic decentralization, in which people
have a real say in their economy. It is economic democracy that will produce long term
expansive effects and full, balanced and sensible utilization of our planet's many resources, i.e.
maximum utilization. Progressive utilization theory states that the resources of the universe are a
joint property of the human society, with right for maximum and proper utilization. The theory
emerges with the social concept of proper utilization of natural and human resources. Both
conditional and unconditional Cash transfer programmes are tied to specific objectives to
enhance social-economic outcomes for Orphans and vulnerable children. Further, in CCT
programmes a certain kind of behavior that is welfare enhancing is expected of beneficiaries
towards the effective utilization of cash transfer and maximization of their benefits (Janvrey &
Sadoulet, 2005).
According to PROUT, economic democracy tends to fall evenly and fairly over the whole globe
like an undiscriminating blanket. And, to take the same approach from beneath – so that at the
basic level everyone has their minimum necessities of life met, to get them into as many pockets
as possible,. Importantly, also to provide incentives so more people can activate their special
potentialities, creatively, innovatively, intellectually; so that in turn they will stimulate
production, jobs and wealth. More often than not proponents of Conditional cash transfers have
justified conditions as a means to reinforce monitory incentives for households to invest more in
the human capital of their children for example, when there is inadequate information about the
returns to these investments, myopia, “incomplete altruism” between parents and their children,
or externalities that are not taken into account by households (Fisbein & Schady, 2009). In the
spirit of SPROUT, cash transfer programmes can be designed to promote a wide range of
benefits which include immediate poverty alleviation; improved health, nutrition and education
outcomes; economic productivity and growth; empowerment and social cohesion. In the longer-
term, growing evidence (most importantly from Mexico) indicates that cash transfer programmes
can catalyze important effects that can help to break the intergenerational transmission of
poverty (DFID, 2011).
The essence of PROUT is that an expanding circle of resources is used at a proportionate, or
even contracting, rate of speed (per resource) benefiting an increasing number of people. These
people in turn activate their potentials and contribute themselves and the unique resources of
their lands and other resources, and human minds and inner potentials, as further new resources.
Beneficiary caregivers in cash transfer programmes act as intermediaries in the transfer and the
transformation of monitory resources to human resource and capital through the children they
take care of. The PROUT theory is relevant in this study as it establishes the moral and ethical
basis of resource redistribution in the society and effective utilization by those who are entrusted
with them. To conserve existing resources, their use is a paramount question that requires
continuous dialogue across all levels.
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SUMMARY OF LITERATURE REVIEWED AND RESEARCH GAP
The chapter was a review of what other researchers have done on the determinants of effective
utilization of cash transfer by caregivers in other parts of the world. The review has described
both conditional and unconditional cash transfers. Conditional cash transfer has been found to be
very instrumental in Latin America as the major determinant of cash transfer utilization.
However, in Kenya, the Unconditional cash transfer is more pronounced and only a few studies
have been done on what makes caregivers utilize cash transfers effectively in the absence of
conditions.
The literature also reviewed what other scholars have mentioned on the significance of education
and its effects on resource utilization by those who have it. For example, Rose and dyer (2008),
associate education with development related outcomes while Kigozi, (2005) observed that the
level of education of caregivers affected the quality of life of orphans in the household. While
there is much emphasis on the education of the OVC through the utilization of cash transfer,
there is less attention given on the education level of the caregivers and the effect it may have on
the future wellbeing of the OVC
Dako-Gyek and Oduro (2013) carried out a detailed study on the effect of household size on cash
transfer utilization for orphans and vulnerable children in the LEAP program in Rural Ghana. In
Kenya the household size has been found to have impact on nutrition intake in the household
(Asfaw et al., 2012) yet little has been done on the size of household as a determinant of
effective utilization of cash transfers in Kenya and no such study has been carried out in Tigania
West sub county.
Gender can be said to be the most significant variable in most studies as one of the major factor
determining the use of resources in the household. The literature on the effect of gender is quite
inexhaustible but notably; Duflo (2000) and Edmonds (2005) found money in the hands of
women to have positive impacts on household’s members’ especially orphaned children. Most of
these studies were done where cash transfer was preferably given to women by program design
such as in Nicaragua (Maluccio & Flores, 2005), and where it was difficult to assess outcomes if
money was given to men. The CT-OVC programme in Kenya does not discriminate between
gender and it will be interesting to find out the pattern of cash transfer utilization.
Finally, the literature reviewed studies done on the utilization of complimentary services such as
health, education, and nutrition and birth registration. In Kenya, the CT-OVC programme in
most cases does not tie beneficiary households to service utilization due to the absence or limited
infrastructure (UNICEF, 2012) but expects them to use these services. Challenges in the
effective use of services have been identified even in Latin America where there is CCTs (Miller,
2009). Caregivers could face different experiences in Kenya while seeking to utilize the services.
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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research Design
The research study was undertaken by use of descriptive survey. A descriptive survey is a
method of collecting information by interviewing or administering a questionnaire to a sample of
individuals. This type of research attempts to describe such things as possible such as behaviour,
attitudes and characteristics.
Target Population
By the end of 2014, The GOK had implemented the CT-OVC in all the 15 locations in Tigania
West sub-county bringing a total number of 1320 beneficiary households into the fold (Kenya
OVC Secretariat, 2014). All the 1320 caregivers representing the households as beneficiaries of
the Cash Transfer constituted the target population for the study.
Sample Size and Sampling Procedures
Due to limited time and resources, to study the entire target population of 1320 caregivers in the
beneficiary households would have been costly. As described by Mugenda and Mugenda (2003),
a proportion of the population under study was derived for the research study. This constituted a
sample designed to determine the proportion from the population (Kothari, 2004). In the first
instance, Purposive sampling was applied in the study. Kothari (2004) considers purposive
sampling to be more appropriate when a known characteristic of the population is to be studied
intensively. From the target population of 1320 beneficiary households, the researcher
purposively sampled three locations namely Athwana (199HH), Kiandiu (47HH) and Miathene
(74HH) which are as old as 10 years in the CT-OVC program. The three locations were
considered due to their longer gestation period in the program. Thereafter, a study sample size
was derived through proportional quota sampling to arrive at 132 households which is 10% of
the target population of 1320 households. According to Mugenda and Mugenda (2003), 10% of
accessible population is adequate for descriptive study.
Data Collection Methods
The study employed both quantitative and qualitative methods. Questionnaires were designed to
collect data from beneficiary caregivers. Observation guides went hand in hand with
questionnaires to supplement data collection and a key informant interview schedule designed
for the Sub-County Children’s Officer.
Questionnaire
The questionnaire collected data on the opinions, knowledge as well as attitudes of beneficiary
caregivers towards the cash transfer. The questionnaire is considered to be more cost effective as
well as being able to collect information from a large number of respondents within a short time.
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Observation Guide
Observation method entails the collection of information by way of the researcher’s own
observation, without interviewing the respondents. It involves the systematic noting and
recording of events, behaviours and objects in the social setting chosen for the study (Westbrook,
1994). Observation method was used to supplement other research methods in the study. The
researcher documented situations, actions and interactions noted while carrying out the study.
The researcher also observed the living conditions of beneficiary caregivers, including the
condition of their houses, and the presence of domestic animals and the physical condition of
children in the beneficiary households.
Key Informant Interview
Key informant interviews are qualitative in-depth interviews with people who are knowledgeable
in the community, who are likely to provide the needed information, ideas and insights based on
knowledge of a particular issue (Kumar, 1986). The interview guide was used used to collect
data from the Sub-County Children’s Officers to establish their opinions on what determines
effective utilization of cash transfer in Tigania West Sub-County. The researcher opted to use
face to face interviews due to their likelihood to achieve a high response rate and their usefulness
in obtaining detailed information about personal feelings, perceptions and opinions. The
researcher engaged the services of the two research assistants. They were given orientation on
what was expected before sending them to the field to assist in the distribution and thereafter
collection of the filled questionnaires.
Validity of Research Instruments
Validity is a measure of the degree to which result obtained from data represents the phenomena
under study (Mugenda & Mugenda, 1999). According to Kothari (2004), the validity of the data
should be checked with utmost care. The research used content validity as a measure of the
degree to which the data collected using the questionnaire shall represent the objectives of the
study. A pilot study was undertaken on the beneficiaries of CT-OVC in one of the three locations
to test the validity and content of the instruments through the help of a research assistant. The
researcher engaged ample discussion on the meaning of terms with experts in the subject matter
and also with the supervisor. To ensure construct validity, the stated questions were limited to
the conceptualization of the variables.
Reliability of the Research Instrument
Reliability is a measure a measure of the degree to which a research instrument yields consistent
results or data after repeated tests when administered a number of times (Mugenda and
Mugenda, 2003). Reliability of the instruments was ascertained through a pilot study conducted
on beneficiary households. Pre-testing was undertaken to gauge the clarity and relevance of the
instrument items so that those items found to be inadequate for measuring variables was either be
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discarded or modified to improve the quality of the research instruments. The researcher used the
split half method whereby a sample of 20 caregivers was made to fill the questionnaires. The
questionnaires were divided into equal halves and an internal analysis score obtained for each
half through the application of SPSS. The scores derived were then correlated using the
Spearman correlation Formula. The coefficient correlation score was found to be 0.736
establishing the reliability of the instrument.
Data Analysis and Presentation Techniques
Both qualitative and quantitative data was generated by the study. The data generated from
structured and semi structured questionnaires was recorded, coded, numbered and classified
under different variables for easy identification and then summarized. Descriptive statistics was
used to analyze data with the help of Statistical Package for Social Scientists and presented in
tables, frequencies and percentages. Finally, a few test statistics such as chi-square and spearman
correlation analysis was performed on the data to deduce more information on the characteristics
of the population.
RESEARCH FINDINGS
Chi-Square: Size of Household and Utilization of Cash Transfer
The purpose of the study was to examine how the size of the household determines effective
utilization of cash transfer grants for OVC in Tigania West. The analysis compares the size of
household and the duration of cash transfer for one cycle in the household as shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Size of the household versus duration of use of the cash grant
Period
1 w
eek
2 w
eeks
3 w
eeks
1 M
onth
Total
Siz
e of
the
House
hold
1-2
Persons
Count 17 1 1 0 19
% within Size of the
Household 89.5% 5.3% 5.3% 0.0% 100.%
3-5
Persons
Count 17 9 1 0 27
% within Size of the
Household 63.% 33.3% 3.7% 0.0% 100%
Above 5
Persons
Count 40 18 7 7 72
% within Size of the
Household 55.6% 25% 9.7% 9.7% 100.%
Total
Count 74 28 9 7 118
% within Size of the
Household 62.7% 23.7% 7.6% 5.9% 100%
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The size of the household affected the duration of the use of the cash transfer funds, 40(55.6%)
of households with 5 persons and above utilized the funds for one week, 17(63.0%) of
households with 3-5 persons utilized the funds for one week while 17(89.5%) of households with
1-2 persons utilized the funds for one week. From this we conclude that the many households
with larger number of persons utilized the funds for a short duration as compared to smaller sized
households. The Chi-square value has been calculated as shown in Table 2.
Table 2: Size of the household and duration of use Chi-square Test
Value df Asymp. Sig. (2 sided)
Pearson Chi-square 12.158 6 0.039
Likelihood ratio 15.638 6 0.016
Total Cases 118
Our p-value is 0.039 which is a low probability making our variables dependent and thus
concluding that the size of the household affected the duration of use of the cash stipend.
Chi-Square: Gender and Utilization of Cash Transfer
The purpose of the study was to examine the extent to which the gender of caregiver determined
effective utilization of cash transfer grants for OVC in Tigania West. Table 3 shows the pattern
of decision making in relation to the gender of the beneficiary caregiver.
Table 3: Gender of the caregiver versus who makes decision on how money is spent in the
household
Husb
and
Wif
e
Husb
and
&
Wif
e
Chil
dre
n
Gra
nd
fath
er
Gra
nd
moth
er
Total
Gen
der
of
the
Res
ponden
t
Male
Count 4 1 6 1 2 1 15
% within
Gender of the
Respondent
26.7% 6.7% 40% 6.7% 13.3% 6.7% 100%
Female
Count 2 84 6 3 0 8 103
% within
Gender of the
Respondent
1.9% 81.6% 5.8% 2.9% 0% 7.8% 100%
Total
Count 6 85 12 4 2 9 118
% within
Gender of the
Respondent
5.1% 72% 10.2% 3.4% 1.7% 7.6% 100%
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The gender of the caregiver determined how the money was utilized in the household, when the
gender of the caregiver was female, most decisions were made by wife at 84(81.6%), when the
gender of the caregiver was male, few decisions were made by both husband and wife at
6(40.0%) and 4(26.7%) made by husband. This is a clear indication that the female gender made
major decisions on how the cash stipend was to be utilized in the household. Table 4 summarizes
the Chi-square results of the influence of gender on decision making.
Table 4: Gender of the caregiver and decision making on utilization chi-square test
Value d.f Asymp. Sig. (2 sided)
Pearson Chi-square 55.270 5 0.000
Likelihood ratio 43.961 5 0.000
Total Cases 118
Our p-value is 0.000 which is a very low probability making our variables dependent and that
concluding that the gender of the caregiver affected the decision on how the stipend was to be
utilized.
Chi-Square: Level of Education and Utilization of Cash Transfer
The purpose of the study was to examine the extent to which the level of education of caregivers
determined effective utilization of cash transfer grants for OVC in Tigania West. Table 5 relates
the level of education of the caregiver with a few aspects of utilization of the cash transfer.
Table 5: Level of education of the caregiver verses utilization of the cash transfer grant
Utilization of the cash transfer grant
Total Educa
tion
Food
Hea
lth
Clo
thin
g
Liv
esto
ck
Busi
nes
s
Lev
el o
f E
duca
tion o
f R
esponden
ts
Never to
School
Count 16 14 0 1 0 1 32
% within Level
of Education of
Respondents 50% 43.8% 0% 3.1% 0% 3.1%
100
Primary
Drop out
Count 35 15 0 0 1 0 51 % within Level
of Education of
Respondents 68.6% 29.4% 0% 0% 2% 0% 100
Completed
Primary
Count 19 5 1 0 0 0 25 % within Level
of Education of
Respondents 76% 20% 4% 0% 0% 0% 100
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35 | P a g e
Secondary
Drop out
Count 3 3 0 0 0 0 6
% within Level
of Education of
Respondents 50% 50% 0% 0% 0% 0% 100
Completed
Secondary
Count 3 0 0 0 0 0 3
% within Level
of Education of
Respondents 100% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 100
University
Count 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
% within Level
of Education of
Respondents 100% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 100
Total
Count 77 37 1 1 1 1 118 % within Level
of Education of
Respondents 65.3% 31.4% 0.8 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 100
From the analysis, majority of the respondents utilized the stipend on education and food
irrespective of their level of education. This is an indication that education levels did not affect
much the utilization of the CT-OVC funds a part from the stipulated use. Table 6 summarizes the
Chi-square results of the influence of education on utilization of cash transfer.
Table 6: Level of education and utilization of the grant chi-square test
Value d.f Asymp. Sig. (2 sided)
Pearson Chi-square 17.612 25 0.858
Likelihood ratio 18.328 25 0.828
Total Cases 118
Our p-value is 0.858 which is a high probability making our variables independent and that
concluding that the level of education does not have any effect on how the stipend was to be
utilized.
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
The cross tabulation of the level of education of caregiver yielded a value of 0.858 on the Chi-
square revealing a high probability; making our variables independent and thus the conclusion
that the level of education does not have any effect on how the stipend is to be utilized. Majority
of the respondents effectively utilized the stipend on education and food irrespective of their
level of education. Therefore, the level of education of the caregiver did not determine the
effective utilization of the cash transfer grant apart from the stipulated use. This concurs with a
study done on the determinants of effectiveness of cash transfer programmes on the livelihood
status of the urban poor in Korogocho Slums, Nairobi County (Nyokabi, 2013) where the
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36 | P a g e
education level of the recipient of cash transfer for OVC was found not to determine the use to
which the cash enhances the livelihood of the household.
However, the outcome of our study is however in dispute with Kigozi’s (2005) view that the low
level of caregiver’s education affected the quality of life of an orphan. Inversely and in tandem
with the findings of this study, Siedenfield, Handa and Tembo (2013) found strong impacts on
education outcomes for children whose mothers were less educated. For the less educated
caregivers, positive outcomes on the utilization of cash transfer may arise from the desire to
recover a lost opportunity and impact this on the OVCs who are a future generation and build
their human capital development. Another motivation on utilization rather than the education of
the caregiver may arise from the perceived linkage of beneficiary utilization of the cash transfer
to schools which make caregivers strive to attain the education objective for the OVC. Although
majority of the caregivers were found to be illiterate in the study, 53.3% appreciated the
significance of education in increasing the uptake of complementary services for OVCs while a
combination of 72.6% both agreed and strongly agreed that education can be an efficient tool for
effective utilization of cash transfer.
The analysis of the data revealed that the size of the household determined effective utilization of
the cash transfer grant for OVC in Tigania West. The size of the household was cross tabulated
with the duration the cash transfer lasted in the household. The size of the household determined
the duration of the use of the cash transfer funds; 55.6% of households with 5 persons and above
utilized the funds for one week, 63.0% of households with 3-5 persons utilized the funds for one
week while 89.5% of households with 1-2 persons utilized the funds for one week. From this
analysis it can be concluded that many households with larger number of persons utilized the
funds at a short duration compared to smaller sized households. The chi-square test also revealed
a low probability making our variables dependent and thus concluding the size of the household
determined the duration of use of the cash stipend.
However, there is a notable disconnect with a study done in Ghana by Gyeke and Oduro (2005)
which associated cultural influence in the form of extended family to utilization of cash transfer.
The study done in Tigania West found little or no influence on the impact of the extended family
on the use of the grant by caregivers. Benefits of the cash transfer grant were selfishly contained
in respective households. Those who provided assistance to the extended family with the CT-
OVC grants were a mere 15.3% while 84.7% concentrated utilization within the beneficiary
household. The value of the grant was not diluted by the extended family as Awusabo (1995)
found in Ghana where the number of meals a beneficiary OVC had in a day was negatively
affected due to the extended family in larger households. The dilution of the value of cash
transfer in larger households referred to by Ward et al., (2010) can be compared to the shorter
duration of the cash grant in larger households.
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Of the respondents sampled, females represented a whopping 87.3% while males represented
12.7% hence a big variation. However, a study done by Zezza et al.,(2010) in Kenya but which
considered households with the average of 56 years found a lower domination of women in the
cash transfer programme at 67%. The large number of women in the programme ultimately
influenced the bulk of household decision making due to differentiated roles and priorities
between male and female caregivers. Zezza et al., (2010) posited that male preferences tended
towards acquiring productive assets rather than the indirect investment in the long-term human
capital development of the OVC. The large number of women in the programme greatly
determined the direction of utilization of the cash transfer. Villatoro (2004) viewed women as
able to produce better results in food security and in the quality of life of children.
When gender of the caregiver was cross tabulated on who made the decision on the use of the
stipend, the results indicated the gender of the caregiver having determined how the money was
utilized in the household. When the gender of the caregiver was female; most decisions were
made by wife at 81.6 %, than when the gender of the caregiver was male. A few decisions were
made by both husband and wife at 40% and 26.7% made by husband. This is a clear indication
that the female gender made major decisions on how the cash stipend was to be utilized in the
household. The chi-square test revealed a low probability making our variables dependent and
thus concluding that the gender of the caregiver affected the decision on the use of the cash
stipend.
From the analysis, majority of the respondents rated the accessibility of education
complementary service as good at 49.1%, health at 41.9 %, nutrition at 40.2 % and civil
registration service at 22.3%. A majority of the respondents rated the quality of education
complementary service as good at 45.3 %, health at 46.6 %, nutrition at 33.1% and civil
registration service at 20.4%. Civil registration was rated poorly in terms of quality and
accessibility among the respondents.
From our analysis, there is a heavy utilization of the cash transfer for OVC on education where it
was ranked first in the priority index. Caregivers preferred buying books and paying school fees
at 84.7% to boost education. Nutrition complementary services were rated fairly at 47.5%. This
denotes inadequate support from nutritionists to guide caregivers on good practice on nutrition.
This explains why 82.2% of the households observed did not have an established kitchen garden
to plant vegetables. However, despite the absence of kitchen gardens for many households,
caregivers maintained acceptable standards of nutrition for the OVCs at 91.5%. Only 4.3% of the
children were found to be malnourished. This could have been due to some linkage to food and
nutrition complementary services at 59.4% and perhaps due to their own effort to seek these
services and fulfill some project objective. The absence of kitchen gardens is an indicator of
most households being unable to produce their own food in sufficient quantity and generate
income to purchase food. According to World Food Program (WFP, 2011), the average Kenyan
family spends almost half of the household income on food. The study found linkage to civil
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38 | P a g e
registration fairly weak with 61.2% of caregivers confessing no linkage to the complementary
service. They cited difficulties such as the high cost and distances. Moulton (2001) decried
physical access to complementary services a serious barrier to utilization. The study found both
quality and accessibility to health and education relatively good and no extraneous factors were
reported by respondents. Brown (2013) noted such extraneous factors like distant to travel and
access to health and education services as barriers limiting utilization of complementary services.
The study did not find decreased utilization of public health care as Lavy and German (1984)
found in Ghana. Actually Filmer, Hammer and Pritchet (2000) found poor quality of health
services a major problem in many but not all developing countries. Our study did not get into the
specifics of quality and accessibility parameters such as absenteeism of doctors and nurses
(Dodd and Munich, 2001) and instead focused merely on the behavior and perception of
caregivers in the uptake of these services.
CONCLUSIONS
Since the cash transfer grant was not being provided in a vacuum, a range of factors were found
to enhance its effective utilization by caregivers in Tigania West. The caregivers are expected to
promote the education, health, food security and obtain birth certificates for the Orphans and
vulnerable children in their household The study examined the determinants of effective
utilization of cash transfer by caregivers for the orphans and vulnerable children in Tigania West
such as the level of education, gender of the caregiver, the household size and complementary
services. The study traced the use of the cash stipend by caregivers to ascertain whether these
were determinants of effective utilization of the cash transfer grant. The study also examined
aspects such as decision making, preferences and linkage to complementary services. The study
also applied observation into a few aspects and indicators of programme outcomes to establish
the level of utilization by caregivers in areas such as nutrition, health and civil registration.
Although formal conditions were not in place to enhance utilization, caregivers were found to
have good understanding of programme objectives. Despite there being no such conditions,
caregivers had a perception of conditions leading to the use of the grant in line with the
programme objectives. An example is where majority of caregivers had already acquired birth
certificates for the OVCs in the household in spite of the challenges faced in acquiring the same.
The study revealed that effective utilization of Cash Transfer program funds was determined by
various factors including the gender of caregiver, the size of the household and the extent of the
quality and availability of complementary services. According to the research findings, the size
of the household was identified as one of the determinants of effective utilization, followed by
gender of the caregivers and lastly the quality and extent of availability of complementary
services. The level of education of the respondent was identified as the least determinant of
effective utilization of the cash transfer grant by caregivers in Tigania West Sub-County. Hence
it can be concluded that the size of the beneficiaries’ household is the key determinant of
effective utilization of the cash transfer grant by caregivers.
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39 | P a g e
RECOMMENDATIONS
The study found that the value of the cash transfer grant was concentrated with smaller
households and diluted with larger households. Therefore, in order to enhance the value of the
cash transfer, the amount of the cash transfer should be indexed to the size of the household
especially with the number of the OVCs. This will have an effect of improving the quality of life
of individual orphans.
The inadequacy of the cash transfer grant was decried by most caregivers in the programme. The
granted amount was not adequate for the support of the OVC especially in larger households. It
is necessary to shield the stipend from prevailing market forces to promote its effectiveness. The
size of the grant also requires regular review pegged on the rising standard of living.
Apart from the usual stipend, the study proposes a separate kit designed to empower and
strengthen the household with entrepreneurial skills through small business training and start up
kits. This will ultimately free the cash transfer grant from competing household needs and
enhance effective utilization thus reducing dependence of beneficiaries on the government
stipend.
The government and its partners should also improve supply side interventions for the Cash
transfer programme and build and strengthen the existing infrastructure to enhance caregiver
uptake of services for the OVC. The study noted lethargy of some caregivers in the uptake of
some complementary services due to quality and accessibility issues. For example, the delivery
systems for civil registration needed to be brought closer to the people in the sub county and the
red tape that makes it very expensive removed.
The study found gender to be a strong determinant in the effective utilization of the cash transfer
grant. It is therefore recommended that a gender based approach is integrated in both the
programme design and implementation. Programming with a gender approach and consideration
will encourage inclusiveness and improve efficacy in the process of implementation.
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