determiner - mit csail 1995... · determiners (in the sense of milsark, 1974), proper names and...
TRANSCRIPT
-
Laye
rsin
the
Det
erm
iner
Phr
ase
Rob
erto
Zam
pare
lli
Un
ive
rsity
ofR
och
est
er
RE
VIS
ION
:F
EB
RU
AR
Y20
00
Thi
sw
ork
isa
revi
sion
ofm
y19
95U
nive
rsity
ofR
oche
ster
diss
erta
tion(
refe
r-en
ceda
sZam
pare
lli19
95,d
istr
ibut
edas
aC
ogsc
itech
nica
lrepo
rtin
1996
),in
tend
edfo
rweb
dist
ribut
ion.
Mos
toft
hech
ange
scon
sist
offo
otno
tesa
dded
orm
odifi
ed;r
ef-
eren
cesh
ave
been
upda
tedw
hen
nece
ssar
y,and
anin
dex
hasb
eena
dded
atth
een
d.T
here
are
also
min
orre
visi
ons
inth
ete
xt,p
artic
ular
lyin
chap
ter1
,“P
relim
inar
ies”
and
sect
ion4
.3,“
Spe
c/he
adag
reem
ent.”
Nee
dles
stosa
y,th
esec
hang
esdo
notm
ean
that
Iha
vetr
ied
tom
ake
the
diss
erta
tionf
ully
cons
iste
ntw
ithm
ycu
rren
tthi
nkin
gon
the
stru
ctur
eand
inte
rpre
tatio
nofD
Ps.
Iha
ve,h
owev
er,i
nser
tedp
oint
erst
ola
ter
wor
kw
hen
poss
ible
.T
hedi
sser
tatio
nisto
bepu
blis
hedb
yG
arla
nd,in
the
serie
s“O
utst
andi
ngD
isse
r-ta
tions
inLi
ngui
stic
s”.N
ote
that
,due
toch
ange
sinth
efo
rmat
and
cont
ent,t
hepa
genu
mbe
rsin
this
‘dra
ft’di
strib
utio
nve
rsio
ndiff
erbo
thfr
omth
enu
mbe
rsin
the
1996
Tech
nica
lRep
orta
ndfr
omth
eG
arla
nded
ition
.S
ectio
nnu
mbe
rsan
dtit
les
diff
erve
ryoc
casi
onal
lyfro
mth
osei
nth
e19
95/9
6orig
inal
,and
arei
dent
ical
toth
eG
arla
nded
ition
.It
isad
visa
blet
ous
ethe
sew
hen
citin
g.
The
auth
orca
nbe
reac
heda
tthe
follo
win
gad
dres
s:
Faco
lt̀adi
Ling
ueU
nive
rsit̀a
diB
erga
mo
P.zz
aV
ecch
ia8
2412
9Ber
gam
o,Ita
lyte
l:+
39-0
35-2
7723
9e-
mai
-
ii
Ack
now
ledg
men
ts
Aca
refu
lobs
erve
rofa
cade
micl
ifem
ight
have
notic
edth
at,t
owar
dth
een
dof
thei
rdi
sser
tatio
n,gr
adua
test
uden
tssp
enda
lot
oftim
ein
the
libra
ry,
brow
sing
thro
ugh
diss
erta
tions
.The
yar
eno
tcol
lect
ing
refe
renc
es,bu
tsa
mpl
ying
ackn
owle
dgm
ent
sect
ions
,inor
dert
ow
rite
thei
row
n.In
deed
,acl
asst
hatt
each
esth
ear
tof
writ
ing
ackn
owle
dgm
ents
isso
rely
mis
-se
d.A
sfo
rw
eddi
ngin
vita
tions
,the
rese
emto
betw
ost
yles
;som
estu
dent
stha
nkev
eryb
ody,
for
spea
king
,liste
ning
orju
stex
istin
gat
the
right
time
and
plac
e;ot
hers
than
kve
rysp
arin
gly,
only
Tho
seW
hoT
ruly
Hel
ped.
Any
thin
gin
betw
eeni
sfe
ltto
beun
fair
toth
ena
mes
that
didn
’tqu
item
ake
it—th
ebo
unda
ryca
ses.
Of
cour
se,
the
long
erth
elis
t,th
em
ore
boun
dary
case
s.T
hem
oral
is:
fair
ackn
owle
dgm
entis
impo
ssib
le.H
avin
gsa
idth
is,I
mov
eon
tow
rite
one
ofth
eseu
nfai
r,m
id-o
f-th
e-ro
adac
know
ledg
men
tsec
tions
.F
irst,
man
yth
anks
tom
yad
viso
r,Gre
gC
arls
on,w
holis
tene
dto
alo
tof
stra
nge
idea
son
the
way
toth
iste
xt,a
ndal
way
shad
help
fulr
emar
ks,s
ugge
stio
nsan
dpo
int-
ers,
even
whe
nm
yid
easc
once
rned
aspe
ctso
flin
guis
ticth
eory
that
wer
efar
from
his
dom
ain
ofex
pert
ise.
He
hasb
eena
sour
ceof
cons
tant
enco
urag
emen
tthro
ugh
the
year
s. Hav
ing
San
droZ
ucch
ias
apr
ofes
sorin
Roc
hest
er,as
aco
mm
ittee
mem
berfo
rm
ydi
sser
tatio
n,and
asa
frie
ndha
sbee
nabi
gpr
ivile
ge.H
eha
ssha
pedt
hew
ayI
dolin
guis
ticsa
spe
rhap
snob
odye
lse
has,
givi
ngm
ean
incr
edib
lyge
nero
usam
ount
ofhi
stim
e,th
em
ostd
etai
ledc
omm
ents
,and
the
shar
pestc
ritic
ism
.H
em
adea
rgui
ngfu
n.I
owe
toItz
iarL
aka
ase
nseo
fwha
tit
mea
nsto
look
atsy
ntax
with
the
Big
Que
s-tio
nsin
min
d.H
erpr
ovoc
ative
styl
eof
teac
hing
ison
eoft
hebe
stIh
ave
enco
unte
red,
and
hash
ada
big
influ
ence
onm
e.O
urid
easo
nho
wto
play
life
and
lingu
istic
sare
very
diff
eren
t,bu
ther
view
poin
tis
pow
erfu
l,an
dI
resp
ectit
.W
ithhe
r,I
wis
hto
than
kal
lth
epr
ofes
sors
who
play
eda
role
insh
apin
gmy
educ
atio
n:To
mB
ever
,Y
oshi
Kita
gaw
a,P
eter
Lase
rsoh
n,Je
ffR
unne
r,Le
nS
chub
ert,M
ike
Tane
nhau
sand
seve
ralm
ore.
Spe
cial
diss
erta
tiont
hank
sto
Chr
isB
arke
r—di
scus
sion
sinhi
sof
fice
wer
efre
quen
tlyen
light
enin
g(W
este
rner
scan
beE
nlig
hten
edov
eran
dove
r)—
andt
oW
hitn
eyTa
bor.
iii
-
ivA
CK
NO
WLE
DG
ME
NT
S
Fin
ally
,P
ino
Long
obar
diis
noti
nm
yco
mm
ittee
only
for
logi
stic
reas
ons.
The
sem
este
rIsp
entin
Ven
ice,
wor
king
with
him
,is
atth
eor
igin
ofth
isdi
sser
tatio
n,w
hich
isla
rgel
yba
sedo
nhi
svi
ews
ofth
esy
ntax
/sem
antic
sinte
rpla
y.Li
kew
ise,
Iw
antt
oth
ank
Gug
lielm
oC
inqu
e,G
enna
roC
hier
chia
,Giu
liana
Giu
sti,
Val
entin
aB
ianc
hian
dall
the
othe
rlin
guis
tical
lyim
port
antp
eopl
eoft
hetim
esp
entin
Italy
,for
extr
emel
yint
eres
tingd
iscu
ssio
nsan
dco
mm
ents
.
Som
etim
es,w
ritin
ga
diss
erta
tiono
nth
esy
ntax
/sem
antic
sinte
rface
seem
slik
eha
ving
tow
rite
ase
amle
ssdo
cum
entin
two
lang
uage
s.Ta
lkin
gw
ithm
yfe
llow
stud
entsi
nbo
thfie
lds
hasb
eena
big
help
inso
rtin
gth
ings
out.
Inpa
rtic
ular
,tha
nks
toM
assi
moP
oesi
o,N
aoya
Fuj
ita,J
anet
Hitz
eman
,Koj
iH
oshi
,Dan
ielA
rdro
n,an
dJu
lieS
edivy
.A
trul
ysp
ecia
ltha
nkto
Gra
ham
Kat
z.W
eha
vego
nea
long
way
toge
ther.
As
this
text
was
taki
ngsh
ape,
Ica
me
upon
two
diss
erta
tions
that
chan
gedi
tde
eply
;one
isby
And
rea
Mor
o,th
eot
her,
byLo
uise
McN
ally
.I
owe
them
agr
eat
deal
. My
life
inR
oche
ster
wou
ldha
vebe
enm
uch
less
rich
expe
rienc
ewith
outt
he‘B
arnf
ell’
Coo
p.T
hank
sto
allt
heB
arnf
ellit
es(B
arnf
alle
n?),a
ndin
part
icul
arto
Bev
-er
lyS
pejev
ski,
Bor
isG
oldo
wsk
iand
Der
ekG
ross
.Als
o,th
anks
toR
ober
taC
olon
,fo
rre
min
ding
me
ofm
any
dead
lines
,and
toH
arol
dPa
rede
s-F
rigol
et,fo
rfo
rcin
gm
ym
ind
away
from
lingu
istic
sin
the
dark
estd
ayso
fDee
pWrit
ing.
On
the
typo
grap
hi-
cals
ide,
the
look
ofth
isdi
sser
tatio
nisdu
eto
the
auth
orso
fGN
UE
mac
sand
LAT E
X,
buti
neq
ualm
easu
reto
ourl
ocal
wiz
ard,
Chr
isG
iord
ano.
Ido
n’tk
now
wha
tIw
ould
have
prod
uced
with
outh
im.
Last
butn
otle
ast,
Bec
caW
ebb,
Jeff
Run
ner,W
hitn
eyTa
bora
ndG
reg
Car
lson
corr
ecte
dmy
Eng
lish,
am
ajor
and
occa
sion
ally
amus
ing
task
. Ala
rge
part
ofth
epa
stye
arsh
asbe
ensp
entin
Italy
.H
avin
ga
loto
ffrie
ndst
hat
gave
me
ach
arge
toen
dure
Roc
hest
er’slo
ngw
inte
rsw
aspr
obab
lyin
stru
men
talin
finis
hing
.With
outm
yfa
mily
,and
with
outB
irgi
t,I
doub
tIw
ould
have
ever
mad
eit.
Toth
em,m
yde
epes
tgrat
itude
.
Abs
trac
t
The
mai
nfo
cus
ofth
edi
sser
tatio
nis
onth
eex
iste
nceo
fm
ultip
lest
ruct
ural
laye
rsw
ithin
noun
phra
ses,a
ndth
ecl
aim
that
each
laye
ris
endo
wed
with
adi
ffer
ents
e-m
antic
func
tion.
Inpa
rtic
ular
,I
will
focu
son
the
topm
ostp
arto
fth
eno
unph
rase
,th
eon
eco
ntai
ning
dete
rmin
ersa
ndqu
antifi
ers,
prop
osin
gtha
tthi
spa
rtsh
ould
besp
litin
totw
om
axim
alpr
ojec
tions
whi
chto
geth
erco
nstit
utet
he‘d
eter
min
ersy
stem
.’I
prop
oset
hatt
hehi
ghes
tmax
imal
proj
ectio
nco
ntai
ns‘s
tron
g’de
term
iner
s(in
the
sens
eofM
ilsar
k,19
74),
prop
erna
mes
andp
erso
nalpr
onou
ns,w
hile
the
inte
rmed
iate
proj
ectio
ncon
tain
stho
sede
term
iner
sthat
can
appe
arin
pred
icat
ivepo
sitio
n(in
def-
inite
s,pl
usth
ede
finite
dete
rmin
erin
aw
ell-s
peci
fieds
etof
case
s);b
elow
this
laye
r,w
eha
veot
herf
unct
iona
lpro
ject
ions
,and
final
lyth
eN
Ppr
oper
.T
heex
iste
nceo
fmul
tiple
func
tiona
lpro
ject
ions
rais
esth
equ
estio
nofh
owth
eir
head
scan
belic
ense
d.I
will
argu
eth
atin
som
ecas
es,a
nab
stra
ctfu
nctio
nalh
ead
can
belic
ense
dif
am
odifi
erof
the
appr
opria
tety
peis
gene
rate
dor
mov
edin
toits
spec
ifier.
InE
nglis
han
dIta
lian,
mov
emen
ttoth
issp
ecifi
erpo
sitio
nis
usua
llyvi
sibl
eth
roug
hth
eap
pear
ence
ofth
epr
epos
ition
“of”
(di
inIta
lian)
.T
his
will
acco
unt
for
ava
riety
ofill
-und
erst
oodc
onst
ruct
ions
acro
ssR
oman
cean
dG
erm
anic
,suc
has
the
‘kin
d’-c
onst
ruct
ion
(“th
iski
ndof
car”
and
“aca
rof
this
kind
”),
whi
chw
illbe
unifo
rmly
redu
cedt
osm
all-c
laus
espl
usra
isin
g,in
para
llelw
ithcu
rren
tana
lyse
sof
copu
larc
onst
ruct
ions
atth
ese
nten
tialle
vel(
“Joh
nis
the
culp
rit”
and
“the
culp
ritis
John
”).
Take
nto
geth
er,th
eid
eaof
mul
tiple
leve
lsw
ithdi
ffer
enti
nter
pret
atio
nsan
dth
eid
eaof
noun
-phr
asein
tern
alra
isin
gto
spec
ifier
posi
tion
will
bea
pow
erfu
lto
olto
expl
ain
the
beha
vior
ofob
ject
cliti
csin
Italia
n,th
epr
esup
posi
tiona
laspe
ctof
the
stro
ng/w
eakd
istin
ctio
nfor
dete
rmin
ers,t
hedi
ffer
entd
istr
ibut
ion
ofno
unph
rase
sw
ithin
Th
ere
-sen
tenc
esin
Italia
nan
dE
nglis
h,an
dth
ein
tern
alst
ruct
ureo
fasp
ecia
lki
ndof
defin
itepr
edic
ates
inco
pula
rcon
stru
ctio
ns.
Fin
ally
,in
the
last
chap
terI
will
turn
toan
exam
inat
iono
fth
ein
tern
alst
ruct
ure
ofth
eA
djec
tive
Phr
asea
cros
sIta
lian
and
Eng
lish,
givi
ngev
iden
ceth
atm
any
ofth
eph
enom
enaid
entifi
edat
the
Nou
nP
hras
eleve
lcan
befo
und
inth
eA
djec
tive
Phr
ase
asw
ell.
The
sem
antic
refle
xeso
fthe
sesy
ntac
ticph
enom
enac
anex
plai
nth
epr
esen
ceor
abse
nceo
fpre
supp
ositi
onsa
ssoc
iate
dwith
adje
ctive
sand
mea
sure
phra
ses.
The
anal
ysis
will
beca
stin
age
nera
lGov
ernm
enta
ndB
indi
ngap
proa
ch(C
hom
-
v
-
viA
BS
TR
ACT
sky,
1981
,Cho
msk
y19
86a,
Cho
msk
y19
86b)
,als
ous
ing
som
eno
tions
from
the
Min
imal
istP
rogr
amof
Cho
msk
y(1
992)
,Cho
msk
y(1
994)
.
Con
tent
s
Intr
oduc
tion
1
1P
relim
inar
ies
51.
1S
eman
ticsp
relim
inar
ies:
type
-shi
fting
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
51.
1.1
Pro
blem
sfor
invi
sibl
ety
pe-s
hifti
ngop
erat
ors
..
..
..
..
81.
1.2
Type
-shi
fting
and
spec
ifici
ty.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
91.
1.3
Qua
ntifi
ers:
e-ty
peat
LF.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
111.
1.4
Intr
oduc
tiont
oth
ela
yers
yste
m.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
141.
1.5
The
sem
antic
cont
ribut
ion
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
181.
2S
ynta
ctic
prel
imin
arie
s:th
eD
Phy
poth
esis
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
191.
2.1
Fun
ctio
nalp
roje
ctio
ns.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.20
1.2.
2N
-mov
emen
t.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
211.
2.3
The
rela
tive
posi
tion
ofN
and
attr
ibut
ive
adje
ctive
s.
..
..
221.
2.4
Attr
ibut
ive
adje
ctive
sin
pred
icat
ivepo
sitio
n.
..
..
..
..
251.
3W
hatt
his
diss
erta
tionis
nota
bout
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
291.
4D
ata
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
291.
5Te
rmin
olog
ical
conv
entio
ns.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.31
1.6
Ove
rvie
wof
the
cont
ents
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.33
2T
heS
tron
g/W
eak
Dis
tinct
ion
and
the
Defi
nite
ness
Effe
ct37
2.1
Intr
oduc
tion
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
372.
2T
he‘s
tron
g/w
eak’
dist
inct
ion
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.38
2.2.
1E
xist
entia
lSen
tenc
es.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
382.
2.2
Num
eral
sin
ES
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
402.
3T
reat
men
tsoft
heD
efini
tene
ssE
ffect
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.44
2.3.
1M
ilsar
k(1
977)
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
442.
3.2
ES
inG
ener
aliz
edQ
uant
ifier
The
ory
..
..
..
..
..
..
.45
2.3.
3H
eim
onW
Hs
inE
S.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
482.
3.4
Pre
supp
ositi
onalS
etT
heor
ieso
fES
..
..
..
..
..
..
.50
2.3.
5M
cNal
ly(1
992)
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
58
vii
-
viii
CO
NT
EN
TS
2.3.
6C
ritic
ism
ofM
cNal
ly’s
acco
unt
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.64
3T
heki
nd-c
onst
ruct
ion
and
itsre
lativ
es73
3.1
Two
orde
rsof
kind
-nou
ns.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
733.
2T
hefa
mily
of‘p
ivot
al’c
onst
ruct
ions
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.76
3.2.
1In
vert
ibili
ty.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.86
3.2.
2A
gree
men
tfact
s.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
873.
3C
opul
arse
nten
ces.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
883.
3.1
Mor
o’s
theo
ryof
copu
lars
ente
nces
...
..
..
..
..
..
.91
3.3.
2O
nem
ptyp
ro-p
redi
cate
s..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.96
3.4
The
mic
rost
ruct
ureo
fthe
kin
d-co
nstr
uctio
n.
..
..
..
..
..
..
983.
4.1
Pre
dica
tean
dA
rgum
entin
the
kin
d-co
nstr
uctio
n.
..
..
.99
3.4.
2Id
entifi
catio
nwith
KIP
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
102
3.5
Ext
ract
ionp
ossi
bilit
ies
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
104
3.5.
1S
umm
ary
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.10
93.
5.2
Rea
sons
for
rais
ing
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
111
3.6
Cha
pter
conc
lusi
ons.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.11
6
4T
hela
yers
ofD
P11
74.
1In
trod
uctio
n.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.11
74.
1.1
Som
egen
eral
prin
cipl
es.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
118
4.1.
2T
hest
ruct
ureo
fwea
karg
umen
taln
oun
phra
ses.
..
..
..
122
4.1.
3W
eakq
uant
ifier
sasa
djec
tives
:the
prob
lem
ofne
gatio
n..
.12
44.
1.4
On
the
abse
nceo
fmul
tiple
dete
rmin
ers
..
..
..
..
..
.12
54.
2E
vide
ncef
orth
reel
evel
s.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
126
4.2.
1C
oord
inat
iona
ndba
repr
edic
ates
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.12
64.
2.2
Pre
dica
tive
poss
essiv
es.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.13
04.
2.3
Ne
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.13
24.
2.4
Qua
ntifi
ersu
nder
inde
finite
sin
Italia
n.
..
..
..
..
..
.13
64.
2.5
Con
clus
ions
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
142
4.3
Spe
c/he
adlic
ensi
ng.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.14
24.
3.1
Adj
Pra
isin
gan
dpr
edic
atio
n.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
144
4.3.
2O
nso
med
iffer
ence
sbet
wee
nSD
Pan
dK
IP.
..
..
..
..
147
4.4
The
SD
��� le
vel.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.14
84.
4.1
Nou
nm
ovem
entto
SD
��� .
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.14
94.
4.2
Long
obar
di’s
(199
4)th
eory
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.15
24.
4.3
Am
inim
alis
tim
plem
enta
tion
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
155
4.4.
4A
nan
alys
isfo
rpr
oper
nam
esan
dki
nd-d
enot
ing
com
mon
noun
s.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
161
4.5
Ano
teon
float
ing
quan
tifier
s.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
165
4.6
Sem
antic
aspe
ctso
fthe
mul
ti-la
yerh
ypot
hesi
s..
..
..
..
..
..
169
4.6.
1O
ntol
ogic
alpr
elim
inar
ies.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
169
CO
NT
EN
TS
ix
4.6.
2S
eman
ticso
fsim
ple
pred
icat
ion
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.17
04.
6.3
The
inte
rpre
tatio
nfor
“kin
d”.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
174
4.6.
4“K
ind”
and
Qua
ntifi
erR
aisi
ng.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.17
5
5E
xist
entia
ls,L
ocat
ives
and
Iden
tity
179
5.1
Intr
oduc
tion
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
179
5.2
An
anal
ysis
for
ES
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
180
5.2.
1M
oro’
s(1
993)
trea
tmen
tofT
he
re-s
ente
nces
..
..
..
..
.18
05.
2.2
The
logi
calf
orm
ofE
S.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.18
35.
2.3
Exi
sten
tials
and
loca
tives
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.18
65.
2.4
The
prop
osal
:ES
asth
eop
posi
teof
loca
tives
..
..
..
..
187
5.2.
5F
urth
eris
sues
:fam
iliar
ityan
dne
gatio
n.
..
..
..
..
..
190
5.2.
6S
ynta
ctic
aspe
cts:t
heex
trac
tion
fact
srev
isite
d.
..
..
..
196
5.2.
7O
ndo
uble
cliti
cs.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
200
5.2.
8E
Sin
Italia
n:ci
aspr
o-ar
gum
enta
ndci
aspr
o-pr
edic
ate
..
201
5.2.
9P
re-c
opul
arsu
bjec
tsan
dC
LLD
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.20
35.
2.10
Italia
nin
finiti
vesa
ndE
S.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
208
5.3
On
the
synt
actic
form
ofpr
edic
ates
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
212
5.3.
1E
quat
iveco
pula
rsen
tenc
es.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.21
45.
3.2
Two
inte
rpre
tatio
nalst
rateg
ies
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
218
5.4
T-de
finite
pred
icat
enom
inal
s.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
219
5.4.
1T-
defin
itesa
repr
edic
ates
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.22
05.
4.2
Pos
sibl
edet
erm
iner
sinT-
defin
ites
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
221
5.4.
3T-
defin
itesa
s‘tr
ansp
aren
t’cat
egor
ies
..
..
..
..
..
..
223
5.4.
4A
nan
alys
isfo
rT-
defin
ites
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
228
5.5
Sum
mar
y:in
terp
retin
gDP
s,th
efin
alsc
hem
a.
..
..
..
..
..
.23
3
6N
umer
als
and
Spe
cific
ity23
56.
1In
trod
uctio
n.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.23
56.
1.1
On
som
earg
umen
tsfo
r‘R
efer
entia
lity’
..
..
..
..
..
.23
76.
2T
hepo
st-D
posi
tion
ofnu
mer
als
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.24
06.
2.1
Intr
oduc
ingp
artit
ives
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.24
06.
2.2
The
doub
lefo
rce
ofpa
rtiti
ves
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
242
6.2.
3Pa
rtiti
vesa
fterd
efini
tes.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.24
76.
3V
ague
num
eral
svs.
card
inal
num
eral
s.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.25
06.
3.1
Syn
tact
icm
otiv
atio
nsfo
ra
head
/XPd
istin
ctio
n.
..
..
..
251
6.3.
2C
ompl
exde
term
iner
s..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.25
86.
4S
omer
emar
kson
term
sofs
peci
ficity
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.26
36.
4.1
Rea
soni
ngby
oppo
site
s:Ita
lian
“Qua
lsia
si”
..
..
..
..
.26
46.
4.2
The
data
:Uni
vers
alan
dE
xist
entia
l“qua
lsia
si”
..
..
..
.26
5
-
xC
ON
TE
NT
S
7T
heIn
tern
alS
truc
ture
ofA
djP
s26
97.
1In
trod
uctio
n.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.26
97.
2E
vide
ncef
orpa
rtia
lhea
d-m
ovem
entw
ithin
Adj
P.
..
..
..
..
.27
07.
2.1
Adj
ectiv
esw
ithM
easu
reP
hras
es.
..
..
..
..
..
..
.27
07.
2.2
The
posi
tion
ofm
easu
reph
rase
s..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.27
27.
2.3
Deg
reeP
hras
es.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.27
47.
3P
ro-f
orm
sfor
[Spe
c,D
egP
].
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.27
97.
3.1
Pre
supp
ositi
onsan
dth
ele
velo
fatta
chm
entof
MP
s.
..
..
281
7.4
Som
enot
eson
Deg
Pac
ross
categ
orie
s.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.28
37.
5C
oncl
usio
ns.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.28
7
Intr
oduc
tion
Thi
sdi
sser
tatio
nis
anex
plor
atio
nof
the
synt
axan
dse
man
ticso
fno
unph
rase
s.Its
mai
ngo
alis
tore
conc
ileth
eid
eaof
ast
rictm
appi
ngbe
twee
nsyn
tact
ican
dse
man
ticca
tegor
ies,
whi
chw
aspa
rtof
Mon
tagu
e’s(1
970)
and
(197
3)re
sear
chpr
ogra
mw
ithth
ena
tura
lidea
that
diff
eren
tnou
nph
rase
smay
have
diff
eren
ttyp
esof
deno
tatio
nsi.e
.tha
tthe
sem
antic
type
soft
hebr
acke
tedn
oun
phra
sesin
(1)m
aybe
diff
eren
t.
(1)
a.[
John
]sm
iled.
b.[
Eve
rydo
g]
bark
ed.
c.M
ary
is[
ape
rson
.]
Inor
dert
oac
hiev
eth
isgo
al,I
wan
tto
take
adva
ntag
eofr
esul
tsin
the
synt
actic
stud
yof
the
inte
rnal
stru
ctur
eof
noun
phra
ses,b
uild
ing
inpa
rtic
ular
onw
ork
byA
bney
(198
7),C
inqu
e(19
90),
Cin
que(
1992
)and
Long
obar
di(1
994)
.The
sew
orks
sugg
est
that
the
stru
ctur
eofn
oun
phra
sesis
muc
hm
ore
com
plex
than
the
trad
ition
alpi
ctur
eof
asi
ngle
proj
ectio
nhe
aded
byN
,w
itha
dete
rmin
erin
itssp
ecifi
eran
dpo
ssib
lyre
curs
iveN
� pro
ject
ions
toho
stad
ject
ives,
asfo
und,
for
inst
ance
,inS
elki
rk(1
977)
(2): (2
)[ N
PD
et[ N
’A
dj..
.[N
’N
]]]
abe
tters
ynta
ctic
repr
esen
tatio
nwou
ldha
veth
eno
unan
dits
mod
ifier
sas
com
ple-
men
tsof
the
dete
rmin
er,w
hich
beco
mes
the
topm
osth
eado
fth
eno
unph
rase
(now
de
term
ine
rph
rase
,or
DP
).In
the
wor
kof
rece
ntpr
opon
entso
fth
eD
P-h
ypot
hesi
s(in
part
icul
arC
rism
a19
91;C
rism
a19
96;P
ical
lo19
91;R
itter
1991
;Cin
que
1992
;G
iust
i199
2b;B
erns
tein
1993
,etc
.)(2
)sh
ould
bere
plac
edby
(3),
whe
reF
Pis
a‘fu
nctio
nalp
roje
ctio
n’pr
opos
edin
som
eacc
ount
stoho
stad
ject
ivesa
nd/o
rmor
pho-
logi
calm
ater
ial.
(3)
[ DP
Det
[ FP
Adj
...[
NP
N]]]
Ifa
stru
ctur
eof
this
kind
isne
cess
aryo
nsy
ntac
ticgr
ound
s,th
ere
sear
chpr
ojec
tth
atth
isdi
sser
tatio
nbeg
ins
toca
rry
outi
sth
atof
putti
ngsy
ntac
ticco
mpl
exity
atth
ese
rvic
eofm
eani
ng.
1
-
2IN
TR
OD
UC
TIO
N
Spe
cific
ally,
Iw
illex
plor
eth
eid
eath
atth
etw
oto
pmos
tpro
ject
ions
ofth
est
ruc-
ture
in(3
)con
stitu
teto
geth
erth
e“d
eter
min
ersy
stem
”ofa
lang
uage
(whe
reI
uset
hete
rm‘d
eter
min
er’to
cove
rart
icle
s,d
em
on
strativ
esa
ndq
ua
ntifi
ers)
.A
tth
ein
terp
re-
tatio
nalle
velo
f‘L
ogic
alFo
rm’(
LF),
thes
epro
ject
ions
are
univ
ocal
lym
appe
dont
odi
ffer
ents
eman
ticty
pes.
The
high
erpr
ojec
tion
will
deno
tean
indi
vidu
al,t
helo
wer
one,
apr
oper
ty.T
hede
nota
tiono
fth
eno
unph
rase
asa
who
lew
illde
pend
onth
ree
fact
ors:
whe
ther
the
topm
ostp
roje
ctio
nis
pres
ento
rm
issi
ng;w
heth
erth
eto
pmos
tpro
jec-
tion,
whe
npr
esen
t,is
occu
pied
byle
xica
lmat
eria
l,orh
eade
dby
anem
ptye
lem
ent;
whe
ther
ale
xica
llyfil
led
topm
ostp
roje
ctio
nis
inte
rpre
tedi
nsi
tu,
orun
derg
oest
heop
erat
iono
f‘Q
uant
ifier
Rai
sing
’(Q
R)a
ndQ
uant
ifier
Con
stru
al(Q
C)—
inth
ese
nse
ofH
eim
(198
2).T
hese
setti
ngsw
illgi
veth
edi
ffer
ence
betw
eenp
redi
cate
nom
inal
san
dar
gum
entn
omin
als,
betw
een‘
stro
ngly
’and
‘wea
kly’
quan
tified
noun
phra
ses—
inth
ese
nseo
fM
ilsar
k(1
974)
—an
dbet
wee
npro
pern
ames
and
stro
ngqu
antifi
ers,
acco
rdin
gto
the
follo
win
gsc
hem
a:
(4)
Topm
ostla
yerp
rese
nt?
No
Yes
PR
ED
ICA
TIV
ELe
xica
llyfil
led?
INT
ER
PR
ET
AT
ION
No
Yes
WE
AK
LY
QU
AN
TIF
IED
Und
ergo
esQ
R/Q
C?
INT
ER
PR
ET
AT
ION
No
Yes
RE
FE
RE
NT
IAL
ST
RO
NG
LY
QU
AN
TIF
ED
INT
ER
PR
ET
AT
ION
INT
ER
PR
ET
AT
ION
Und
erth
isas
sum
ptio
n,th
ebr
acke
ted
noun
phra
sesin
(1)
corr
espo
ndto
diff
eren
tpo
ints
inth
istr
ee.(
1)a
and
bbo
thha
vea
fille
dto
pmos
tlaye
r,th
eref
oret
hey
deno
tean
indi
vidu
alat
LF,b
utth
eydi
ffer
inth
efa
ctth
at(b
)but
not(
a)un
derg
oesQ
Ran
dQ
C;(
1)c,
onth
eot
herh
and,
belo
ngst
oa
syn
tact
icca
teg
ory
diff
eren
tfro
m(a
)or(
b),
sinc
eit
lack
sth
eto
pmos
tDP
laye
rwhi
chis
pres
entin
(a)a
nd(b
).U
nlik
e(1
)aan
d(1
)b,(
1)c
deno
tesa
prop
erty.
Thi
sap
proa
chgi
vest
hepo
ssib
ility
ofre
cons
truc
tingin
ave
rydi
ffer
ents
ynta
ctic
back
grou
ndon
eof
Mon
tagu
e’sfu
ndam
enta
lpro
posa
ls,th
edi
rect
corr
espo
nden
cebe
twee
nsyn
tact
icca
tegor
iesa
ndse
man
ticty
pes:
“The
reis
aun
iform
corr
espo
nden
cebet
wee
nthe
categ
orie
sofE
nglis
hand
the
type
sofI
L[In
tens
iona
lLog
ic];
that
is,i
fan
Eng
lish
expr
essi
onof
categ
ory
xm
ustt
rans
late
into
anIL
expr
essi
onof
type
a,th
enal
lEng
lish
expr
essi
onso
fca
tegor
yx
mus
ttra
nsla
tein
toex
pres
sion
soft
ype
a”(M
onta
gue1
970)
.
3
Of
cour
se,if
one
assu
mes
,cont
raM
onta
gue,
that
the
brac
kete
dno
unph
rase
sin
(1)
dono
tall
have
the
sam
esem
antic
type
(as
argu
ed,f
orin
stan
ce,b
yW
illia
ms
1983
and
Part
ee19
87),
this
corr
espo
nden
cecan
bem
anta
ined
only
bysp
littin
gth
e‘n
oun
phra
se’in
totw
osy
ntac
ticca
tegor
ies.
The
DP
hypo
thes
isoffe
rsth
eth
eore
tical
tool
sto
doth
isw
ithou
tdis
rega
rdin
gw
hati
sin
com
mon
betw
eenp
redi
cativ
ean
dar
gum
enta
luse
sofn
oun
phra
ses.
Inde
ed,I
will
try
tosh
owth
atth
isan
alys
isoffe
rsa
stra
igth
forw
ard
expl
anat
ionf
orse
vera
lphe
nom
enaa
cros
sEng
lisha
ndIta
lian,
incl
udin
gth
eco
nditi
onsu
nder
whi
cha
pred
icat
ivere
adin
gofn
oun
phra
sesis
(im)p
ossi
ble,
the
way
Th
ere
-sen
tenc
esim
pose
(or
appa
rent
ly,fa
ilto
impo
se)a
defin
itene
ssre
stric
tion
onth
eno
unph
rase
sthe
yem
bed,
how
the
kind
-den
otin
grea
ding
ofno
unph
rase
sisob
tain
edan
dw
hyso
me
pred
icat
enom
inal
sare
‘tran
spar
ent’t
oth
ese
man
ticty
peof
thei
rcom
plem
ent.
Eve
nth
ough
the
acco
untp
rese
nted
here
give
sasy
ntac
ticex
plan
atio
nto
som
eof
the
sam
esem
antic
phen
omen
a,it
isve
rydi
ffer
entf
rom
the
one
prop
osed
byK
ratz
er(1
989)
and
Die
sing
(199
2).K
ratz
er’s
and
Die
sing
’sac
coun
tsar
eba
sedo
nth
eid
eath
atso
me
aspe
ctso
fth
ein
terp
reta
tiono
fno
unph
rase
sdep
endo
nth
epo
sitio
nin
the
sent
ence
inw
hich
they
are
inte
rpre
ted,
whe
reas
my
acco
untp
lace
sthe
stre
sson
thei
rin
tern
als
truc
ture
.How
ever
,my
idea
shou
ldre
ally
bese
enas
anex
tens
iono
fth
eirs
,intw
ow
ays;
first
,it
prov
ides
asy
ntac
ticsp
ell-o
utof
wha
tit
mea
nsfo
ra
noun
phra
se‘to
prov
ide
afr
eeva
riabl
e,’a
cruc
ialc
once
ptsi
nceH
eim
(198
2)an
dR
einh
art
(198
7);s
econ
d,it
recu
rsive
lyex
tend
sto
quan
tifier
swith
inD
Pth
eid
eath
atth
esa
me
phra
sem
ight
rece
ivea
diff
eren
tint
erpr
etat
iond
epen
ding
onth
epo
sitio
nat
whi
chit
isin
terp
rete
d.In
aK
ratz
er/D
iesi
ng-t
ypea
ccou
nt,a
noun
phra
seis
inte
rpre
ted
exis
tent
ially
ina
low
erpo
sitio
nin
S,a
ndqu
asi-u
niver
sally
ina
high
erpo
sitio
n;in
my
DP
stru
ctur
e,nu
mer
alsa
rein
terp
rete
dasc
ardi
nalit
ypre
dica
tesin
alo
wer
posi
tion
inD
P,as
stro
ngqu
antifi
erso
rref
eren
tiale
lem
entsi
na
high
erpo
sitio
n.In
addi
tion,
inth
ela
stch
apte
rIw
illsh
owth
ata
gene
ralc
orre
spon
denc
ebetw
een
mea
ning
sand
stru
ctur
alle
vels
can
also
befo
und
toth
elit
tle-s
tudi
eddo
mai
nof
the
inte
rnal
stru
ctur
eofa
djec
tive
phra
ses.O
vera
ll,th
epr
esen
ceof
thes
ecor
resp
onde
nces
acro
ssdi
ffer
entp
hras
esde
epen
sAbn
ey’s
(198
7)an
dSza
bolc
si’s(1
983,
1987
)insi
ght
ofan
over
arch
ingo
rgan
izat
iona
cros
sdiff
eren
tbas
icca
tegor
iesi
nhu
man
lang
uage
.
-
4IN
TR
OD
UC
TIO
N
CH
AP
TE
R1
Pre
limin
arie
s
Toco
nstr
ucta
wor
king
theo
ryof
the
synt
ax/s
eman
ticsin
terp
lay
inth
eno
unph
rase
,se
vera
lpre
limin
arie
snee
dto
bead
dres
sed.O
nth
ese
man
ticsi
de,w
ene
edto
exam
ine
the
evid
ence
that
diff
eren
tsem
antic
type
ssho
uldb
eas
sign
edto
the
noun
phra
sesin
(1). (1
)a.
[Jo
hn]
smile
d
b.[
Eve
rydo
g]
bark
ed
c.M
ary
is[
ape
rson
]
On
the
synt
actic
side
,we
need
toin
trod
ucea
vers
iono
fthe
DP
hypo
thes
istha
tIw
illre
fert
oas
the
“Mul
ti-La
yer
DP
Hyp
othe
sis.”
1.1
Sem
antic
spre
limin
arie
s:ty
pe-s
hifti
ng
“Joh
n”in
(1)a
seem
store
fert
oa
part
icul
arin
divi
dual
,whi
le(1
)bdo
esn’t
seem
tobe
abou
tany
part
icul
arin
divi
dual
,but
abou
tato
talit
yor
colle
ctio
nofd
ogs,
andt
hem
ost
natu
ralin
terp
reta
tiono
f(1)
cis
one
whe
re“a
pers
on”in
dica
tesa
prop
erty
that
Mar
yha
sas
apa
rtof
hern
atur
e;in
this
case
,itm
akes
little
sens
eto
ask
‘whi
chpe
rson
’M
ary
is.
Yet
,the
seth
ree
noun
phra
sesw
ere
unifo
rmly
assi
gned
byM
onta
guet
hety
peof
Gen
eral
ized
Qua
ntifi
ers(
GQ
),i.e
.set
sofp
rope
rtie
sor
� e,t
� t
� ,in
apu
rely
exte
nsio
nallo
gic.
1
Ado
ptin
ga
com
mon
term
inol
ogy,
Iw
illsa
yth
at(1
)aan
db
cont
ain
arg
um
en
tal
noun
phra
ses,
that
“Joh
n”is
are
fere
ntia
lnou
nph
rase
,“eve
rydo
g”is
aq
ua
ntifi
-ca
tion
aln
oun
phra
se,w
hile
the
post
-cop
ular
noun
phra
sein
(1)c
isp
red
ica
tive
(ap
red
ica
ten
om
ina
l).E
vide
ncet
hatt
here
fere
ntia
land
quan
tifica
tiona
lnou
nph
rase
scan
notb
ere
adily
unifi
edco
mes
from
wor
kon
disc
ours
eana
phor
adon
ein
Dis
cour
seR
epre
sent
atio
nT
heor
y(K
amp
1981
)and
File
-Cha
nges
eman
tics(
Hei
m19
82),
whi
chsh
ows
that
1I
will
mos
tlyde
alw
ithan
exte
nsio
nalfr
agm
entin
this
diss
erta
tion.
The
inte
rest
edre
ader
shou
ldbe
able
tofil
lin
the
inte
nsio
nalim
plic
atio
ns.
5
-
6P
relim
inar
ies
quan
tifica
tiona
lexpr
essi
onss
uch
as“e
very
man
”or
“no
man
”do
notl
icen
sein
ter-
sent
entia
lana
phor
a:
(5)
a.
� John
� /th
em
an
� /a
man
��
wal
ked
in.H
e
� look
edtir
ed.
b.
� Ever
ym
an/n
om
an/m
oret
hano
nem
an
� wal
ked
in.*
He
� look
edtir
ed.
Not
ice
that
the
defin
itean
din
defin
itear
ticle
spa
ttern
with
refe
rent
iale
xpre
ssio
nshe
re,n
otw
ithqu
antifi
ers.
On
the
othe
rhan
d,W
illia
ms
(198
3)di
scus
sesth
efa
ctth
atqu
antifi
ersl
ike
“eve
ry”
or“b
oth”
cann
otin
gene
rala
ppea
rinpr
edic
aten
omin
als.
Ass
umin
gtha
tthe
obje
ctof
“gro
ws
into
”is
apr
edic
aten
omin
al,w
eha
ve:
(6)
a.E
very
acor
ngro
ws
into
[atr
ee.]
b.*A
nac
orng
row
sin
to[e
very
tree
.]
Inan
influ
entia
lart
icle
,Par
tee(
1987
)arg
uest
hatt
hese
cont
rast
sare
best
acco
unte
dfo
rif
refe
rent
ial,p
redi
cativ
ean
dqu
antifi
catio
naln
oun
phra
sear
eas
sign
eddi
ffer
ent
type
s,na
mel
ye(in
divi
dual
s),
e,t
� (set
sof
indi
vidu
also
rpro
pe
rtie
s,in
the
exte
n-si
onal
logi
cus
edby
Part
ee)a
nd
� e,t
� t
� (set
sof
prop
ertie
s,i.e
.G
Q)r
espe
ctive
ly.
Mon
tagu
e’spr
ogra
mca
nbe
mad
ecom
patib
lew
ithth
isst
andb
yas
sum
ingt
hatl
an-
guag
esha
vea
seto
flex
ical
orab
stra
ctty
pe
-sh
iftin
gope
rato
rs(c
f.Pa
rtee
and
Roo
th19
83)t
hatc
anco
nver
tthe
nativ
ety
pesi
nto
othe
rs,a
sne
cess
itydi
ctat
es.A
case
inpo
inti
sco
ordi
natio
n.If
we
adop
tthe
stro
ngse
man
ticpr
inci
ple
in(7
)(M
unn
1993
):
(7)
Prin
cipl
eof
Sam
e-Ty
peC
oord
inat
ion:
Onl
yca
tegor
ieso
fthe
sam
esem
an-
ticty
peca
nbe
coor
dina
ted.
the
poss
ibili
tyof
(8)i
spr
oble
mat
icif
John
dire
ctly
deno
tesa
nin
divi
dual
.
(8)
[Joh
nan
dev
ery
wom
an]e
nter
ed.
InPa
rtee
’sap
proa
ch,“J
ohn”
hass
impl
ybe
en‘ra
ised
’to
aG
Qde
nota
tiona
ppro
pri-
ate
tojo
inth
equ
antifi
edco
njun
ct.O
nth
eot
herh
and,
allo
win
gpr
edic
aten
omin
als
tode
note
e,t
� exp
lain
sco
ordi
natio
nsw
ithad
ject
ives,
whi
chun
disp
uted
lyde
note
prop
ertie
s:
(9)
a.M
ary
cons
ider
sJoh
n[c
ompe
tent
inse
man
ticsa
ndan
auth
ority
onun
i-co
rns.
]Pa
rte
e(1
98
7)
b.T
hata
nim
alin
the
sun
is[a
cata
ndve
rypl
ease
dto
beso
.]
Part
ee(1
987)
also
sugg
estst
hatla
ngua
gesm
ight
have
the
gene
ralp
roce
ssin
gstr
ateg
yof
tryi
ngna
tive
deno
tatio
nfirs
t,an
dtha
tsom
eoft
hety
pe-s
hifti
ngop
erat
orsm
ight
bem
ore
‘nat
ural
’tha
not
hers
,asr
eflec
tedi
nth
eor
deri
nw
hich
they
are
lear
neda
ndin
the
amou
ntof
lexi
caliz
atio
nre
quire
dacr
ossla
ngua
ges.T
hefo
llow
ing
isa
com
plet
edi
agra
mof
the
oper
atio
nsav
aila
ble
inhe
rsys
tem
:
1.1.
SE
MA
NT
ICS
PR
ELI
MIN
AR
IES
:TY
PE
-SH
IFT
ING
7
BE
lift
low
er
pred
iota
nom
A
ident
THE
� �
�
��
� �
�
�lif
tj
�� P[
P(j)
]lo
wer
map
sapr
inci
palu
ltrafi
ltero
nto
itsge
nera
tor;l
ower
(lift(
j))=
jid
ent
j
�� x[
x=
j]io
taP
� � x[P
(x)]
iota
(iden
t(j))
=j
nom
P
�� P
(fro
mC
hier
chia
1984
)pr
edx
�� x
(fro
mC
hier
chia
1984
)pr
ed(n
om(P
))=P
BE
� �� x[
� x
� ��
](S
et-t
heor
ydefi
nitio
n)A
� Q
� P
� x[Q
(x)
� P(x
)]B
E(A
(man
� ))=
man
�
TH
E
� Q
� P
� x[Q
(x)
� P(x
)
�� y[
Q(y
)
� x=
y](R
usse
ll)
Thu
s,in
Part
ee’ssy
stem
any
ofth
eth
reeb
asic
deno
tatio
ns,e,
e,t
� and
� e,t
� t
�
can
beco
nver
tedi
nto
any
othe
rpro
vide
dth
atth
ere
leva
ntop
erat
orsa
reav
aila
ble
ata
‘low
enou
gh’c
osti
nth
ela
ngua
ge,a
ndth
atth
ere
sult
ofth
eap
plic
atio
nis
nota
de-
gene
ratec
ase.
Fora
nex
ampl
eof‘
dege
nera
te’ca
se,c
onsi
derth
eop
erat
orB
E,w
hich
Part
eeas
soci
ates
with
copu
larp
redi
catio
n.B
Eta
kes
aG
ener
aliz
edQ
uant
ifier
,find
sal
lthe
sing
leto
nsin
itan
dco
llect
sthe
min
toa
prop
erty.
Sin
cequ
antif
ersl
ike
“mos
t”do
notn
eces
saril
ycon
tain
any
sing
leto
n,2th
isac
coun
tpre
dict
stha
tBE
appl
ied
to“m
ostm
an”w
illbe
empt
y,a
dege
nera
tecas
e;th
us,it
expl
ains
why
*“th
ose
are
mos
tm
en”i
sill
-for
med
.S
imila
rly,B
Eap
plie
dto
“eve
rym
an”w
illgi
vea
sing
leto
nonl
yif
the
dom
ain
cont
ains
only
one
man
,aga
ina
mar
gina
lcas
e,w
hich
coul
dbe
mor
efe
licito
usly
expr
esse
dby
“the
man
.”
Part
ee’s
syst
emha
sace
rtai
nde
gree
ofna
tura
lnes
s,but
itbr
eaks
the
Mon
tago
-vi
anm
appi
ngof
all
noun
phra
sest
oan
iden
tical
sem
antic
categ
ory.
Aba
ndon
ing
2S
uppo
sefo
rin
stan
ceth
at“m
ost”
mea
ns“a
tle
astt
wo
third
s,”an
dta
kea
mod
elw
ith3
indi
vid-
uals
,a,
b,an
dc,
and
3pr
oper
ties,
P
� =
� a,b
� ,P
� =
� b,c
� ,P
� =
� a,c
� .Now
“Mos
tX
”w
ould
be
�� a,b
�� b,c
�� a,c
�� ,w
hich
does
n’tco
ntai
nany
sing
leto
nand
hasn
oge
nera
tor.
-
8P
relim
inar
ies
Mon
tagu
e’ssy
ncat
egor
emat
ictr
eatm
ento
fde
term
iner
s,th
esy
stem
embo
dies
sev-
eral
type
-shi
fting
func
tions
into
lexi
cald
eter
min
ers:
the
oper
ator
Ais
one
plau
sibl
em
eani
ngfo
rthe
Eng
lishd
eter
min
er“a
,”T
HE
map
sto
(one
ofth
em
eani
ngso
f)“t
he,”
and
BE
onth
eve
rb“b
e.”
Pre
sum
ably,
one
task
for
the
child
lear
ning
ala
ngua
gew
illbe
that
offig
urin
gou
tthe
type
-shi
fting
func
tion
asso
ciat
edw
ithea
chde
term
iner.
But
lexi
calo
pera
tors
are
note
noug
h.Ty
pe-s
hifti
ngop
erat
orsc
anal
sobe
appl
ied
‘invi
sibl
y’to
mak
ean
NP
-typ
econ
form
toth
esu
bcat
egor
izat
ionr
equi
rem
entso
fits
pred
icat
e,si
ncen
owve
rbss
ubca
tegor
ize
noto
nly
for
synt
actic
,but
also
for
sem
antic
‘cat
egor
ies,’
soth
esy
stem
asa
who
leis
very
‘pre
dica
tedr
iven
.’Fo
rin
stan
ce,B
Eis
repr
esen
tedb
y“is
”in
the
pred
icat
ivere
adin
gof
“Joh
nis
the
king
”(w
hich
give
sB
E(T
HE
(kin
g
� ))(Jo
hn))
,but
ther
eis
now
ord
deno
ting
BE
in“I
cons
ider
John
the
king
.”B
Eis
requ
iredb
yth
efa
ctth
at“c
onsi
der”
take
san
XP
ofty
pe
e,t
� ,eith
erA
djP
orN
P.S
o,w
hile
the
syst
emis
beau
tiful
lysi
mpl
ein
itsco
ncep
tion,
we
have
anu
mbe
rofa
mbi
guiti
esto
take
care
of,a
ndth
erei
nlur
ksth
epo
ssib
ility
ofov
erge
ner-
atio
n.Le
tme
give
som
eexa
mpl
es,a
llpo
intin
gto
ace
rtai
nrel
ucta
nceo
nth
epa
rtof
the
noun
phra
seto
have
itsty
peen
tirel
yde
term
ined
byth
epr
edic
ates
elec
tingi
t.
1.1.
1P
robl
emsf
orin
visi
ble
type
-shi
fting
oper
ator
s
Firs
t,al
thou
ghth
epo
sitio
nun
der“
cons
ider
”-ty
peve
rbss
eem
sto
beof
type
e,t
� ,an
dba
reco
mm
onno
unsa
reca
noni
cally
e,t
� ,Par
teen
otic
esth
atin
defin
itesc
an-
notb
edr
oppe
d:“I
cons
ider
John
*(an
)ex
celle
ntte
ache
r.”M
oreo
ver,
the
abst
ract
oper
ator
BE
,whi
chm
ustb
eop
erat
ivein
Eng
lish
togi
ve“I
cons
ider
John
the
king
,”ca
nnot
appl
yto
man
yot
here
-typ
een
titie
s,su
chas
“Die
gode
laV
ega,
”“t
hate
xcel
lent
swor
d-m
aste
r,”“h
e/hi
m”:
(10)
*Ico
nsid
erZ
orro
� Die
gode
laV
ega
/tha
texc
elle
ntsw
ord-
mas
ter/
he/h
im
� .
The
nw
eha
veco
ntra
stss
ucha
s:
(11)
Ico
nsid
erth
emth
e
� two
/?fe
w/?
man
y
� kin
gsth
atbe
stem
bodi
edth
esp
irit
ofth
eirt
imes
.
whe
resh
iftin
gfr
oma
card
inal
num
eral
to“f
ew
”or
“man
y”in
post
-det
erm
inerp
o-si
tion
seem
sto
wor
sent
heap
plic
abili
tyof
BE
.3In
othe
rcas
es,it
isth
ety
peof
the
com
plem
ento
fan
NP
wha
tcon
ditio
nsth
eac
cept
abili
tyof
that
NP.
Con
side
r(12
),w
here
capi
taliz
atio
nmea
nsst
ress
,and
ever
ythi
ngin
low
erca
seis
dest
ress
ed:
(12)
a.I
cons
ider
him
[
� a/??
the
� goo
dso
n.]
b.I
cons
ider
him
[the
son
of
� a/?
?the
� VE
RY
IMP
ORT
AN
Tm
an.
3Fo
rso
mes
peak
ers,
the
“fe
w”
case
isin
terp
reta
blei
nth
ispo
sitio
n,as
“Ico
untt
hem
amon
gthe
few
king
s..
..”
1.1.
SE
MA
NT
ICS
PR
ELI
MIN
AR
IES
:TY
PE
-SH
IFT
ING
9
In(1
2)a
ade
finite
intr
oduc
ingt
hebr
acke
tedn
oun
phra
seso
unds
odd,
whi
lein
(12)
bit
isth
e(in
)defi
nite
ness
ofth
eco
mpl
emen
tof
“the
son”
wha
tsee
mst
oaf
fect
the
acce
ptab
ility
ofth
ew
hole
sent
ence
.Sho
uld
we
conc
lude
that
BE
isse
nsitiv
eto
the
stat
usof
the
com
plem
ento
fits
argu
men
t?
1.1.
2T
ype-
shift
ing
and
spec
ifici
ty
Ase
cond
issu
efor
Part
ee’s
syst
emis
the
follo
win
g:w
hati
sth
ere
latio
nbe
twee
nthe
thre
eden
otat
ions
shed
iscu
sses
and
the
notio
nof
‘spe
cific
ity’?
Itis
aco
mm
onpl
ace
obse
rvatio
nth
atth
esu
bjec
tpos
ition
and
the
obje
ctpo
sitio
nof
exte
nsio
nalv
erbs
inro
otcl
ause
sten
dto
bein
terp
rete
d‘sp
ecifi
cally
’eve
nw
hen
they
cont
ain
inde
finite
s.In
cont
rast
,the
obje
ctpo
sitio
nof
inte
nsio
nalv
erbs
such
as“lo
okfo
r”(1
4)a
isty
p-ic
ally
assu
med
toha
vetw
ore
adin
gs,(1
4)b
(spe
cific
)and
(14)
c(n
on-s
peci
fic).4
Asp
ecifi
crea
ding
isas
soci
ated
inth
elit
erat
urew
ithm
odifi
erss
ucha
s“sp
ecifi
c,”“p
ar-
ticul
ar”
and
“cer
tain
.”
(13)
a.A
man
ente
red.
b.I
saw
am
an.
(14)
a.Jo
hnis
look
ing
for
api
eceo
fpap
er.
b.“T
here
isa
� spec
ific/
part
icul
ar/c
erta
in
� pie
ceof
pape
rthat
John
islo
ok-
ing
for.”
c.“J
ohn
islo
okin
gfo
ran
yol
dpi
eceo
fpap
er.”
Var
ious
auth
ors(
e.g.
Fill
mor
e19
67,S
aarin
en19
81,H
intik
ka19
86,c
f.al
soQ
uine
1960
)hav
epr
opos
edth
atth
esp
ecifi
crea
ding
corr
espo
ndsto
the
noun
phra
seta
king
wid
esc
opeo
vers
omeo
pera
tor.Y
et,i
tis
hard
tose
ehow
scop
ealo
neco
uld
acco
unt
for
the
diff
eren
cein
mea
ning
betw
een:
(15)
a.T
hatm
anis
Alv
ar.
b.T
hatm
anis
anA
lvar
.
c.T
hatm
anis
ace
rtai
nAlv
arA
alto
.
Part
eean
alyz
esth
efir
ston
ere
sort
ingt
oth
eid
entit
yfu
nctio
nid
ent
(i.e.
j=
� x[x
=j])
whi
chse
emsto
give
the
intu
itive
lyco
rrec
tmea
ning
,and
sugg
estst
hatt
hese
cond
one
isre
inte
rpre
teda
sa‘s
alie
ntch
arac
teris
tic’o
fthe
orig
inal
indi
vidu
al(b
utde
faul
t,its
nam
e).B
ut(1
5)c
entir
ely
lack
sthi
sre
adin
g.“A
cert
ainA
lvar
Aal
to”
seem
sver
ym
uch
toha
veth
esa
mer
eadi
ngas
(15)
a,ye
tthe
reis
novi
sibl
eop
erat
orov
erw
hich
“ace
rtai
n”co
uld
take
scop
e.A
nin
tere
stin
galte
rnat
ivew
ithin
Part
ee’s
syst
emis
that
the
spec
ific/
non-
spec
ific
dist
inct
ion
corr
elat
esw
ithdi
ffer
entt
ypes
.For
inst
ance
,we
coul
dhy
poth
esiz
etha
ta
spec
ific
read
ing
istr
igge
red
byth
eG
Qm
eani
ngof
“a.”
Inde
ed,D
iesi
ng(1
992)
4T
his
usag
eoft
hete
rm‘s
peci
fic’i
scr
edite
dby
Ioup
(197
7)to
Bak
er(1
966)
.
-
10P
relim
inar
ies
prop
oses
that
inde
finite
sin
thei
rspe
cific
inte
rpre
tatio
nsho
uld
betr
eate
das
quan
ti-fie
rslik
e“e
very
”or
“bot
h,”
whi
chca
rry
apr
esup
posi
tiono
fex
iste
ncea
ndun
derg
oth
eop
erat
iono
f‘Q
uant
ifier
rais
ing’
atLF
—th
efo
rmal
equi
vale
ntof
aG
Qde
nota
tion
inth
eH
eim
ian
fram
ewor
kad
opte
dby
Die
sing
.Apr
oble
mfo
rth
isid
eais
that
,tak
-in
ga
conj
unct
ions
uch
as“b
oth
pens
and
api
ece
ofpa
per,”
whe
re,b
yth
epr
inci
ple
ofS
ame-
Type
Coo
rdin
atio
n,th
eG
Qin
terp
reta
tiono
f“a
piec
eof
pape
r”sh
ould
befo
rced
,we
obse
rveth
esa
mea
mbi
guity
asbe
fore
:the
piec
eofp
aper
can
bea
spec
ific
one
(e.g
.“..
.tha
the
lost
yest
erda
y”)o
rany
old
one
(e.g
.“..
.to
try
them
out”
).
(16)
John
islo
okin
gfo
r[b
oth
pens
]and
[api
eceo
fpap
er.]
An
addi
tiona
liss
uefo
ra
GQ
trea
tmen
tof
spec
ifici
ty,po
inte
dou
tin
Fodo
ran
dS
ag(1
982)
,is
that
the
spec
ificr
eadi
ngof
inde
finite
scan
appa
rent
lyes
cape
‘sco
pe-
isla
nds’
that
rest
ricto
ther
clea
rGQ
-typ
equa
ntifi
ers.
(17)
a.??
IfJo
hnse
es[e
very
anim
alin
the
zoo]
� ,he
alw
aysw
ants
tofe
edit
� .b.
IfJo
hnse
es[a
cert
aina
nim
alin
the
zoo]
� ,he
alw
aysw
ants
tofe
edit
� .In
(17)
a,th
esc
opeo
f“e
very
”in
the
ante
cede
ntis
notw
ide
enou
ghto
bind
the
pro-
noun
inth
eco
nseq
uent
,whi
leno
prob
lem
aris
esfo
r(1
7)b.
Thi
sef
fect
isno
tjus
tdu
eto
the
pres
ence
of“a
cert
ain/
part
icul
ar/s
peci
fic,
”bu
tto
the
fact
that
thes
e‘te
rms
ofsp
ecifi
city
’are
used
topi
ckpu
tasp
ecifi
cin
div
idu
al.
Inde
ed,H
intik
ka(1
986)
disc
usse
scas
esw
here
“cer
tain
”is
notu
sedt
opi
ckou
tan
indi
vidu
al,b
uta
spec
ific
fun
ctio
n(h
ere‘
mot
her’)
,in
the
scop
eofa
noth
erqu
antifi
er:
(18)
Eve
rytr
ueE
nglis
hman
ador
esa
cert
ainw
oman
—hi
smot
her.
Hin
tikka
(19
86
)
Inth
esec
ases
“ace
rtai
nN”
cann
otlic
ense
apr
onou
nin
the
cons
eque
nt.C
ompa
re:
(19)
a.If
ever
ytr
ueE
nglis
hman
ador
es[a
cert
ain
wom
an]� ,
she�
coul
dbe
ape
rson
that
ofte
nap
pear
sinth
epo
pula
rpre
ss.
b.??
Ifev
ery
true
Eng
lishm
anad
ores
[ace
rtai
nw
oman
]� ,sh
e�
coul
dbe
am
othe
r.
In(1
9)a,
the
sam
ewom
anis
ador
ed,w
here
asin
(19)
bea
chE
nglis
hman
ador
esa
diff
eren
tone
.A
nob
viou
spo
ssib
ility
isth
at“a
man
”in
itssp
ecifi
crea
ding
isaf
tera
llof
type
e,i.e
.re
fere
ntia
lto
anin
divi
dual
inth
edo
mai
n,m
uch
like
ape
rson
alpr
onou
n.Pa
rtee
(198
7)at
trib
utes
toK
amp’
s(1
981)
andH
eim
’s(1
982)
theo
rieso
fnou
nph
rase
inte
rpre
tatio
nthe
idea
that
(in)d
efini
tesa
reve
rysi
mila
rto
boun
dva
riabl
epro
noun
sw
ithad
ditio
nalc
ondi
tions
onth
eire
ffect
inup
datin
gthe
curr
entd
isco
urse
mod
el.5
5“t
here
mov
alof
the
exis
tent
ialq
uant
ifier
from
the
inte
rpre
tatio
nofi
ndefi
nite
sm