developing the tourism workforce of the future in the apec ... · asia-pacific economic cooperation...

Sponsor: AustraliaCo-sponsors: Chile; Malaysia; Papua New Guinea; The Republic of the Philippines; Viet Nam

Developing the Tourism Workforce of the Future in the APEC RegionAPEC Tourism Working Group February 2017

Developing the Tourism Workforce of the Future in the APEC Region Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) Tourism Working Group February 2017

APEC Project: TWG 02 – 2015 Produced by: Ms Nicole Garofano, Ms Antje Martins, Mr Mark Olsen – EarthCheck Dr Andreas Chai, Professor Kate Hutchings, Dr Char-Lee McLennan – Griffith University

Submitted by: Earthcheck Pty Limited ABN 30 096 357 149 PO Box 12149 George Street Queensland 4003 Australia P: +61 7 3238 1900 Email: [email protected] W: www.earthcheck.org

Prepared for: Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Secretariat 35 Heng Mui Keng Terrace, Singapore, 119616 Tel: +65 6891-9600 Fax: +65 6891 9690 Email: [email protected] Website: www.apec.org

Copyright © 2017 APEC Secretariat. All rights reserved. Printed in Canberra, Australia. This publication is protected by Copyright and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any forms or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise.

APEC Publication number: APEC#216-TO-01.25

Cover image: Tourism and Events Queensland. Other images: As noted.

The information and recommendations provided in this document are made on the basis of information available at the time of preparation and the assumptions outlined throughout the document. While all care has been taken to check and validate material presented in this report, independent research should be undertaken before any action or decision is taken on the basis of material contained in this report. This report does not seek to provide any assurance of project viability and the project team (led by EarthCheck Pty Ltd.) accepts no liability for decisions made or the information provided in this report.

The views expressed in this paper are those of the author and do not necessarily represent those of the APEC Member Economies. The recommendations considered in this report may be further considered by relevant APEC fora.

Developing the Tourism Workforce of the Future in the APEC RegionAPEC Tourism Working Group (TWG)February 2017

ii Developing the Tourism Workforce of the Future in the APEC Region February 2017

Contents

Acknowledgement� v

Glossary� vi

Acronyms� vii

Executive�Summary� 1The Challenges 1

The Opportunities 2

Recommendations 3

Introduction� 5i. Aim 5

ii. Background 5

iii. Scope of this report 7

iv. Methodology 7

v. Report structure 10

1� Key�Trends�in�the�APEC�Tourism�Labour�Force� 121.1 Introduction 12

1.2 Demographic trends 13

1.2.1 Womenintheworkforce 14

1.2.2 Youthintheworkforce 15

1.2.3 SMEsinthetourismworkforce 15

1.3 Benchmark Performance Table 16

1.4 Recent growth trends in tourism 17

1.5 Tourism relevant skills 21

1.6 The digitisation of tourism 26

1.6.1 Growingdemandfordigitalmediaskills 26

1.6.2 Automationandwideningwageinequality 27

1.6.3 Theriseof‘gig’workers 28

1.6.4 Monitoringlabourforcetrends 28

1.7 Summary of chapter recommendations 29

2� Planning�the�Tourism�Workforce� 312.1 Challenges 32

2.1.1 Skillsshortages 322.1.2 Industryperception 34

2.1.3 Staffrecruitment 41

2.1.4 Staffretention 42

2.2 Policies and practices 44

2.2.1 Lackofreliabledataforworkforceplanning 47

2.3 Case Study — Australia 49

iiiDeveloping the Tourism Workforce of the Future in the APEC Region February 2017


3� Building�Training�Capacity� 573.1 Challenges 57

3.1.1 In-housetrainingbybusiness 57

3.1.2 Strengtheningthelinksbetweeneducationandtourism 60

3.1.3 Developingtrainingstandardsorbenchmarks 63


3.2.1 Apprenticeships 65

3.2.2 SMEsandtraining 68

3.2.3 Strengtheninglinksbetweeneducationandtourism 69

3.3 Case Study — Peru 71

3.4 Case Study — People’s Republic of China 74


4� Labour�Mobility� 794.1 Challenges 79

4.1.1 Migration 79

4.1.2 Skillsrecognition 83

4.1.3 Perceivedbarrierstolabourmobility 85


4.2.1 Seasonalmigrationprograms 86

4.2.2 TemporarySkilledLabourMigrationPrograms 87

4.2.3 Pre-migrationtrainingandpreparation 88

4.2.4 SkillsRecognitionFrameworks 89

4.3 Case Study — The Republic of the Philippines 91

4.4 Case Study — Chinese Taipei 95


5� Women� 995.1 Challenges 99

5.1.1 Gendergapinemployment 99

5.1.2 Gendergapinpay 101

5.1.3 Under-representationofwomeninmanagement 102

5.1.4 Womenentrepreneursandself-employment 103

5.1.5 Womenandinternationalwork 104

5.2 Employment Practices 106

5.2.1 GenderEqualitySealCertificationProgramforPublicandPrivateEnterprises 108

5.3 Case Study — Papua New Guinea 109


iv Developing the Tourism Workforce of the Future in the APEC Region February 2017

6� Youth� 1126.1 Challenges 112

6.1.1 Youthandtourismcareers 112

6.1.2 Youthemploymentandworkingconditions 113

6.1.3 Youthentrepreneurship 114

6.1.4 Youthandlabourmobility 115

6.2 Employment practices 116


7� Conclusion� 1187.1 The challenges 118

7.2 The opportunities 118

7.3 Recommendations 119

7.4 Some caveats 119

8� References� 122

Appendix�A:��APEC�Tourism�Labour�Force�Survey� 131

Appendix�B:��Survey�Respondent�Overview� 140

Appendix�C:��Workshop�Participants�� 145

Appendix�D:��Workshop�Summary� 146

Appendix�E:��Case�Study�Questions� 148

Topic 1: Evolving skills challenges for the tourism workforce 148

Topic 2: Industry perceptions among employees and career pathways 148

Topic 3: Encouraging tourism SMEs to invest in training 148

Topic 4: Strengthening the links between education and tourism sectors 149

Topic 5: Migration and skills recognition 149

Topic 6: Issues for women and youth in tourism 149

Appendix�F:��Benchmark�Performance�Table� 150

Appendix�G:��Methodological�Notes� 154

Appendix�H:��Overview�of�APEC�Best�Practice�–��VET�Programs� 155

Appendix�I:��Overview�of�Best�Practice�–�Training� 164

Appendix�J:�Overview�of�Best�Practice�–�Skilled�Migration� 173

vDeveloping the Tourism Workforce of the Future in the APEC Region February 2017

Acknowledgement

ThisresearchcouldnothavebeencarriedoutwithoutthesignificantcontributionoftheProjectOverseer,MsMelanieCrosswell(DepartmentofForeignAffairsandTrade(DFAT),Australia)whichhasbeeninvaluableastheprojectevolved,particularlyinorganisingtheworkshop.ThanksalsotoMsRuthWeir(DFAT)forsupportinadministeringtheproject.TheExpertAdvisoryGrouphasalsocontributedtotheshapeoftheproject.Fromthisgroup,thanksisextendedtoProfessorSusanneBecken(GriffithUniversity),MsRochelleTurner(WTTC),MrNickMowbray(DepartmentofEmployment,AustraliaandHRDWG)MrMarioHardy(PATA),MrAlainDupeyras,MsJaneStacey(OECD)andDrChrisBottrill(CapilanoUniversity).AnumberofemailexchangeswerealsoveryhelpfulbetweenMsHelenMarano(WTTC)andEarthCheckregardingworkshopandsurveymanagement.FromtheAPECSecretariat,thecontributionoftheProgramManagerMsGraceCruz-FabellaandProgramExecutiveMsJoyceYongwereverymuchappreciatedindistributingthesurvey,workshopinvitations,anddraftsofthereportsproducedfromtheproject,andintheadministrationoftheproject.

MembersoftheTourismWorkingGroup(TWG)fromeachofthe21economieswhorespondedtothesurveyandthoseabletoattendtheworkshopcontributedgreatlytothefinaloutcomesaspresentedinthisreport.Thankyouforsharingyourexperience.Economiesabletoattendtheworkshop,takingplaceasasideeventtoTWG49inKokopo,PapuaNewGuinea,providedexcellentcontributionstotheworkshopdiscussion.Industryrepresentatives,academia,non-governmentalorganisationsandotherindustrysupportorganisationscontributedtothesurvey.Thankyoutoeachofyoufortakingthetimetocontributeyourexperience.Lastly,particularthanksgoestotherepresentativesfromthoseeconomieswhocontributedtheirtimeandexperiencetothedevelopmentofthecasestudies.

vi Developing the Tourism Workforce of the Future in the APEC Region February 2017

Glossary

Terms�of�Regional�ReferenceReferencesaremadeinthisdocumenttovarioustermsofgeographicalreferencegroups.Thecontextforeachofthereferencegroupisoutlinedbelow.

APEC: Refers to the twenty-one economies of APEC

Australia NewZealand

BruneiDarussalam PapuaNewGuinea

Canada Peru

Chile TheRepublicofthePhilippines

People’sRepublicofChina Russia

HongKong,China Singapore

Indonesia ChineseTaipei

Japan Thailand

RepublicofKorea UnitedStates

Malaysia VietNam

Mexico

ASEAN: Refers to the ten Member States of the ASEAN

BruneiDarussalam Myanmar

Cambodia TheRepublicofthePhilippines

Indonesia Singapore

LaoPeople’sDemocraticRepublic Thailand

Malaysia VietNam

Asia-Pacific: Refers to the Member States of the UNWTO of East Asia and Pacific

Australia Mongolia

BruneiDarussalam Myanmar

Cambodia PapuaNewGuinea

People’sRepublicofChina TheRepublicofthePhilippines

Fiji RepublicofKorea

HongKong,China Samoa

Indonesia Thailand

Japan Thailand

LaoPeople’sDemocraticRepublic Timor-Leste

Macao,China Vanuatu

Malaysia VietNam

viiDeveloping the Tourism Workforce of the Future in the APEC Region February 2017

Acronyms

ABTC APECBusinessTravelCard OECD OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment

AQF AustralianQualificationFramework OH&S occupationalhealth&safety

AQRF ASEANQualificationReferencingFramework

PATA PacificAsiaTravelAssociation

ASEAN AssociationofSoutheastAsianNations

RSE RecognisedSeasonalEmployment

CATC CommonASEANTourismCurriculum SDG SustainableDevelopmentGoal

EEO� equalemploymentopportunity SME Small-to-mediumenterprise

EQF EuropeanQualificationsFramework STEM Science,Technology,EngineeringandMaths

EU EuropeanUnion SWP SeasonalWorkersProgramme

HKQF HongKongQualificationFramework TEP TourismEmploymentPlans

HR Humanresources TFW Temporaryforeignworkers

HRDWG HumanResourcesDevelopmentWorkingGroup

TSA TourismSatelliteAccount

HRM Humanresourcemanagement TVET TechnicalVocationalEducationandTraining

ICT Informationandcommunicationstechnology

TWG TourismWorkingGroup

ILO InternationalLabourOrganization UN UnitedNations

IOM InternationalOrganizationforMigration

UNDESA UnitedNationsDepartmentofEconomicandSocialAffairs

MoU MemorandumofUnderstanding UNESCO UnitedNationsEducational,ScientificandCulturalOrganization

MRA MutualRecognitionAgreements UNWTO UnitedNationsWorldTourismOrganization

MSME Micro,smallandmediumenterprises VET VocationalEducationandTraining

NGO non-governmentorganisations VPET VocationalandProfessionalEducationandTraining

NQF NationalQualificationFramework WTTC WorldTravelandTourismCouncil

NSTVET AsiaPacificNationalSystemofTechnicalVocationalEducationandTraining

viii Image credit: Gellinger – Pixabay.com

1Developing the Tourism Workforce of the Future in the APEC Region February 2017

ExecutiveSummary

TourismintheAPECregionisontrackforaboveglobalgrowthrates,creatingafutureofbothskillandlabourshortages.Skillrequirements,includingbothspecialisthardskillsandgeneralsoftskillsarealsoincreasing.Digitisationandthechangingnatureoftheindustryisalsodrivingagreaterrequirementforinformationandcommunicationstechnology(ICT)skills,softskillsandentrepreneurshipamongSmall-to-andMediumEnterprises(SMEs).

ThisreporthasbeenpreparedfortheAPECTourismWorkingGroup(TWG)andbuildsontheAPECLeaders’ActionPlanforPromotingQualityEmploymentandtheAPECTourismMinisters’2014commitmenttodiscussandenhancetourismcoordinationmechanismsintheAsia-Pacific,includinginpersonneleducationandtraining,andjobcreationthroughtourism.Moreover,akeygoaloftheAPECTWGistopromotesustainableandinclusivetourismdevelopmentintheAPECregionthatwillenablemembereconomiestoincreasetheircompetitiveness.Thefindingsfromthisreportaredrawnfrom:a)anextensiveliteraturereview;b)asurveyofthetwenty-onemembereconomiesacrossGovernment,industryandacademia(with335responses;60%fromnon-Englishspeakingparticipants);c)aworkshopwithindustryleaders;andd)casestudiesofmembereconomies.

The�Challenges�•� A�growing�need�for�labour�and�skills:growthinvisitationismorerapidthangrowth

inpopulation(especiallyyoungpeople)acrossmostoftheAPECeconomies.SomeAPECeconomieshavelatentlaboursupply,buttheylacktheskillsrequiredinthoseeconomieswithalabourshortage.Acrossalleconomiesthereisanidentifiedskillsshortagein‘softskills’suchascustomerserviceandmanagementskillsaswellassomeidentified‘hardskills’suchastechnicalstaff.

• Participation�by�women�and�young�people�needs�to�be�a�focus:womenandyoungpeoplegenerallyfilltourismjobsthatarelowerpaid.Womenandyouthtendtoexperiencepoorerworkingconditions.Tourismcan,however,provideflexibilityforworkingmothersandstudents,andcanofferapathtooperatingtheirownbusiness.

• Participation�requires�a�shift�in�perceptions�to�address�some�realities�of�the�industry:theattractivenessoftheindustrytoworkersispoorduetolowwagesanddifficultworkingconditionsinjuniorpositions.Inaddition,thelackofgenderequality,lessappealingworkingconditions(casualemployment,discrimination,limitedentitlements,etc),andunclearcareerpathsareahindrancetoattractingandretainingthebestpeople.

• Micro,�small�and�medium�enterprises�(MSMEs)�have�the�greatest�need:in-housetrainingcapacityisessentialbutgenerallyscarceamongtourismMSMEs.Firmsrespondtoskillsshortagesbyinvestingmoreinrecruitmentratherthanaimingtoimproveinternalcapacitythroughtrainingandretention.Somebusinessesarenotwellinformedorlackthecapacitytotakeadvantageofexistingapprenticeshipprograms.

2 Developing the Tourism Workforce of the Future in the APEC Region February 2017

The�Opportunities• APECeconomiesneedtoadopta�standard�approach�to�collecting�and�sharing�

workforce�data,includingacommonapproachtoskillsneedsidentification.

• Governmentswouldbenefitfromsystematicallyengaging�with�employers,�trade�unions�and�education�providerstodevelopandimplementqualificationframeworksforin-housetraining,andcloseralignmentofVocationalEducationandTraining(VET)programstomeetindustryneeds,supportedbyfundingprogramsforSMEs.

• AnAPEC-wide�approach�to�labour�mobilityiscriticalforaddressingskilledlabourgaps;however,thecurrentarrangementspresentanumberofchallenges.Thesecanbeaddressedbyimprovingtransparency,streamliningvisaprocesses,andmulti-lateralskillsrecognition.

• Thetourismindustry,particularlywithintheAPECeconomies,canbea�leader�in�meeting�the�global�key�challenges�for�human�capital�development�of�the�future.Theindustrycould,andshould,becomean‘IndustryofChoice’,withaproactiveapproachtogenderequality,workers’rightsandsustainability.

• ThroughtheAPECTWG,aproactive�approach�to�the�issues�facing�women�and�youthcouldbeadopted.ThiswouldincludeinformationsharingonprogramsandapproachesusedinAPECeconomiessuchasmigrationprogramsthatsupportwomen,entrepreneurshipprogramsandcareerpathwayssupport.


RecommendationsDrawingonboththeprimaryresearchconductedwithAPECeconomies(includingthecasestudies)andtheliteraturereview,thekeyrecommendationsaregroupedinthreekeyareas:

1 Theimportance�of�the�TWGasaclearinghouseforinformationandknowledgetransfer,anditsleadershiproleintourismhumancapitaldevelopment:

a. EstablishaWomen�and�Youth�Advisory�Grouptoshareknowledge;

b. DevelopanIndustry�of�Choice�charter;

c. Undertakeapilot�project�on�reporting�of�comparable�workforce�and�skills�needs�dataacrossAPECeconomies;and

d. Share�experiencesonthealignmentofgovernment,industryandeducationandthebenefitsoftourismemploymentawarenesscampaigns.

2 Acommon�and�systematic�approach�to�workforce�challengesacrossAPEC:

a. Developaframework�for�Labour�and�Skills�Needs�Analysis�and�a�common�approach�to�labour�and�migration�data�collection;

b. Develop occupational� standards� and� training� tools which support thedevelopment�of�soft�skillsandanewskillset,entrepreneurial�skills;

c. Improvecollaboration�between�government,�industry�and�training�providersto deliver more industry relevant and job-ready� graduates, more industry-experienced�teachers,andmorewell-equipped�businessestoprovidetrainingandinductionstotheirstaff;

d. Monitortheeffectiveness�of�SME�support�programsacrossAPECeconomies,encouragingthesharingoflessonsfromgrantfundingandothersupportprograms;

e. Develop�labour�mobilityprogramssuchasalignmentofvisaprocessing;and

f. Collaborate through the HRDWG� to� work� towards� common� occupational�standards in the piloting of the APEC project: ‘APEC Occupational StandardsFramework:TestintheTravel,TourismandHospitalityIndustry’.

3 Theneedforfurther�researchtobesharedacrossAPECeconomies:

a. Partner�with�universities�and�industry�associationstomonitortrendssuchasdigitisationoftheworkforce,careerpathsandentrepreneursupportprograms;and

b. Highlight thebenefitsofSME�funding�programs,�seasonal�worker�programs�and� labour� migration� programs that include women and provide pathways foryouth.

4 Image credit: www.istockphoto.com


Introduction

i.� AimThepurposeofthisreportistopresentinformationonthecurrentstateofskillshortagesfacedbytheAsia-PacificEconomicCooperation(APEC)tourismsectorandidentifytheleadingpracticesthatcanbeadoptedbykeystakeholderstoovercometheseskillsshortages.Thekeystakeholdersinquestionincludebusinesses,government,industrybodies,educatorsandnon-governmentorganisations(NGOs)inthetwenty-oneAPECeconomies:

Australia NewZealand

BruneiDarussalam PapuaNewGuinea

Canada Peru

Chile TheRepublicofthePhilippines

People’sRepublicofChina Russia

HongKong,China Singapore

Indonesia ChineseTaipei

Japan Thailand

RepublicofKorea UnitedStates

Malaysia VietNam

Mexico

ii.� BackgroundAPECleadersrecentlyrenewedtheircommitmenttodeveloptheservicessectorintheregion,tosupporteconomicgrowthandinclusion(APEC2015a).TheyalsoagreedtoredoubletheireffortstoempowerpeopleintheAPECregionbyinvestinginhumancapitalanddevelopmenttoexpandtheskillsessentialforsecuringfutureeconomicgrowth.Thisprojecthasthepotentialtomakeanimportantstrategiccontributiontotheidentificationandimplementationofsolutionsthatwillhelp:

• Fostergreaterregionalintegration;

• Promotetheregionalgrowthofservices;and

• Investinhumancapitaldevelopment(HCD)inasociallyinclusivemanner.

ThisreportalsobuildsontheAPECLeaders’ActionPlanforPromotingQualityEmploymentandtheAPECTourismMinisters’2014commitmenttodiscussandenhancetourismcoordinationmechanismsintheAsia-Pacific(APEC2014),includinginpersonneleducationandtraining,andjobcreationthroughtourism.Moreover,akeygoaloftheAPECTourismWorkingGroup(TWG)istopromotesustainableandinclusivetourismdevelopmentintheAPECregionthatwillenablemembereconomiestoincreasetheircompetitiveness.


Thisgoalwillbeachievedby:

• Assistingsmallandmediumsizeenterprises(SMEs),includingwomen,youthandlocalentrepreneurs,togainbetteraccesstoglobalmarkets;

• Facilitatingworkerretraining,skillsupgrading,careerpathdirectionandskillsrecognitiontopromotelabourmobilityinthetravelandtourismindustry;and

• Continuingtodevelopoccupationalstandards,certificationprograms,andcapacitybuildingforthetourismworkforce.

United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

ReferenceismadetotheSustainableDevelopmentGoals(SDGs)(UN2015)(seeTable1)announcedbytheUnitedNationsinSeptember2015tosupportsustainabledevelopmentthroughto2030.Theseventeengoalsrepresenttargetsforalleconomiesandbroadlyaimtoassistinendingpoverty,protectingtheplanet,anddeliveringprosperityforall.

Table�1:�United�Nations�Sustainable�Development�Goals

GoalNo. Goal

GoalNo. Goal

1 Nopoverty 10 Reducedinequalities

2 Zerohunger 11 Sustainablecitiesandcommunities

3 Goodhealthandwell-being 12 Responsibleconsumptionandproduction

4 Qualityeducation 13 Climateaction

5 Genderequality 14 Lifebelowwater

6 Cleanwaterandsanitation 15 Lifeonland

7 Affordableandcleanenergy 16 Peace,justice,andstronginstitutions

8 Decentworkandeconomicgrowth 17 Partnershipsforthegoals

9 Industry,innovation,andinfrastructure

Source: United Nations 2015

ManyoftheSDGshaveapplicationtothetourismindustry(UNWTO2015).Particularlyrelevanttolabourandworkforcedevelopmentaregoalsthree,four,eightandnine;however,goalsfive,ten,twelveandseventeenalsohaverelevancetotheindustry,andtotheaimofthisstudy.

WiththeUnitedNations(UN)GeneralAssemblyadopting2017astheInternationalYearofSustainableTourismforDevelopment,thetimingofthisstudyisparticularlyrelevantandsupportsbothAPECandUNobjectivestoencouragesustainableeconomicgrowth,throughemploymentopportunitiestoassistinreducingpovertywhileseekingtoprovideabetterqualityofliving.


iii.�Scope�of�this�reportSpecifically,thisreportwillprovideanin-depthanalysisofthefollowingtopicareaswithinAPECeconomies:

• KeytrendsintheAPECTourismLabourForce;

• Workforceplanning;

• Training;and

• Labourmobility.

Thisreportidentifieschallengesineachoftheaboveareas.Policiesandpracticesadoptedwithintheindustryarepresented.Casestudiesofpracticesinthethreekeyareasofworkforceplanning,trainingandlabourmobilityarepresentedfromrespondingeconomies.IssuesfacingSMEsareidentifiedthroughoutthereport,withwomenandyouthpresentedintheirownrespectivechapters.Recommendationstoaddresstheareaspresentedaredrawnfromthedesktopaudit,theworkshopandsurveyfindings,aswellasthefindingsfromthecasestudies.Itisenvisagedtheserecommendedsolutionscouldassistinthedevelopmentofpracticalmeasuresthatfacilitateworkforceplanning,careerpathways,skillsdevelopment,staffretention,training,andlabourmobilityinthetourismindustry.Theycouldbeadoptedbybusinesses,theVETsectorandgovernment,orothers.Thereportrecognisesthattherecommendationsmadeoffergreaterapplicationinsomeeconomiesthaninothers.

iv.� MethodologyThisreportreflectstheworkundertakenbytheProjectTeambetweenMarchandNovember2016,incorporatingseveralmethodsofdatacollection.Inorder,theseare:

1. Desktopaudit;

2. Stakeholdersurvey;

3. Stakeholderworkshop;and

4. Casestudydevelopment.

Throughthedesktopaudit,manysourcesfromacrosstheAPECeconomiesandbeyondwereidentified.Economieswereinvitedtocontributerelevantsourcedocuments,someofwhichwereprovided.Sourceswerealsorevealedthroughareviewofprimaryandsecondarydatausinginternetsearcheswhichincludedacademicliterature,relevantagencypublishedreportsandsupportingdocuments,andthroughcurrentindustrysiteswherelocalexperiencewaspresented.Thedesktopauditassistedindevelopingthestakeholdersurvey.

Thestakeholdersurveywasdevelopedandreleasedtoseveralstakeholdergroupson1July2016andremainedopenuntil3October2016(seeAppendixA).ThestakeholdergroupsdirectlyinvitedtoparticipateincludedtheTWGanditsmembership,identifiedbytheAPECSecretariatfromwhomtheirinvitationwassent.ParticipationbykeyindustryrepresentativeswasinvitedviatheProjectOverseer,andviaEarthCheckwhosepartnersarelocatedacrosstheregion.Methodsusedtocontactthesestakeholdersincludeddirectemail,websitepostingsandtheuseofthesocialmediaplatform,Facebook.Atotalof335qualifiedresponses1

1 Qualifiedresponsesarethosewhorespondedtoatleast30%ofquestionsinthesurvey,includingtheeconomyrepresented.


acrosstheeconomieswerereceived(seeFigure1)fromadirectmailoutofover5,000contacts,aswellasthesurveylinksuploadedtoatleastsixothermembership-drivenwebsites.

ThehighestrespondingeconomywasAustralia,followedbyIndonesia.Thehighestrespondenttypewas‘businessmanager’followedby‘governmentrespondents’.Therespondentstothequestionregardinggenderindicatedalmostparity,with48%femaleand52%male.However,ofthe335respondents,only154respondedtothisquestion.Regardingage,thegreatestnumberofrespondentstothisquestionidentifiedthemselvesasbetween40and44years,reflecting19%oftheresponses.SeeAppendixBforamoredetailedbreakdownofrespondentsbyeconomyandrespondenttype,followedbyselectedbusinessrespondentanalysis.

Figure�1:�Responses�across�all�economies

Thesurveywastranslatedintoninelanguages:SimplifiedChinese,BahasaIndonesia,Japanese,Korean,BahasaMalaysia,Russian,Spanish,ThaiandVietnamese.TheEnglishversionofthesurveyisavailableinAppendixA.Fromthe335responses,194(58%)werefromnon-Englishspeakingeconomies,whichhighlightsthebenefitoftranslatingthesurvey.Approximately47%ofresponseswerecollectedfromdevelopedeconomies,with53%fromdevelopingeconomies(SeeFigure2).AdraftanalysisofthesurveywaspresentedinadiscussionpapermadeavailabletotheTWGmembersinpreparationforthestakeholderworkshop.

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Figure�2:�Number�of�responses�to�the�survey�by�economy

On30August2016,theproject’sstakeholderworkshopwasheldinKokopo,PapuaNewGuineaasasideeventtotheTWG49meeting.InvitationstotheworkshopweredistributedtoalleconomiesviatheAPECSecretariatandtheProjectOverseer.SeveralindustryrepresentativeswerealsoinvitedfromgroupssuchasthePacificAsiaTravelAssociation(PATA),theWorldTravelandTourismCouncil(WTTC),andtheAPECInternationalCentreforSustainableTourism(AICST).PresentersincludedrepresentativesfromtheWTTC,theeducationsectorinPapuaNewGuinea,membersoftheProjectTeamincludingrepresentativesfromEarthCheckandGriffithUniversity,SkillsIQAustralia,andseveralTWGrepresentatives.AfulllistofattendeesisavailableinAppendixC.ThesummaryfindingsfromtheworkshopweresenttoTWGmembersviatheAPECSecretariatandareavailableinAppendixD.Theworkshopfindingscontributetoboththesurveyandthedesktopaudittoprovidedataforthefinalreport.

Thisfinalreportrepresentsthereviewofalldatacollectedthroughtheprojectwithanadditionaldatasetsourcedfromeconomycasestudies.Economiesinvitedtoparticipateinthecasestudieswere:1)Australia,2)thePeople’sRepublicofChina,3)HongKong,China,4)Indonesia,5)Mexico,6)PapuaNewGuinea,7)Peru,8)thePhilippines,9)ChineseTaipei,and10)Thailand.Theseeconomieswereselectedbasedonthefindingsofthedesktopauditandtheresponsesreceivedfromthesurvey.Thoseeconomiesabletocontributearereflectedinthisreport.Toassistindevelopingthecasestudies,economiesweresentalistofquestionstoreviewandprovideresponsesinsixtopicareas(seeAppendixE).

Developing53%

Developed47%


Thesetopicareas,presentedbelow,weredevelopedbasedonthefindingsfromthedesktopauditandthesurvey:

1. Evolvingskillschallengesforthetourismworkforce;

2. Industryperceptionsamongemployeesandcareerpathways;

3. EncouragingtourismSMEstoinvestintraining;

4. Strengtheninglinksbetweeneducationandthetourismindustry;

5. Migrationandskillsrecognition;and

6. Issuesforwomenandyouthintourism.

Economiesthatprovidedresponsestothequestionswerethenfollowedupwithshortinterviewsbetweeneconomyrepresentativesandtheprojectmanagertoprovidedeeperanalysisonspecificissues.Respondentstothesurveyalsoindicatedtheirinterestincontributingtothedevelopmentofthecasestudies.

Alleconomieswereinvitedtocontributetotheprojectthroughtheprovisionofdocumentsforthedesktopaudit,participationinthestakeholdersurveyandattendanceattheworkshop.Selectedeconomieswereidentifiedforthecasestudies.Contributionswereinvitedvoluntarily,withoutcoercionorincentive.Theresultingdatapresentedinthisreportreflectstheinformationmadeavailabletotheprojectteamandrevealedthroughtheprojectteam’sownresearch.

v.� Report�structureThisreportispresentedinsevenchaptersandtenappendices.Chapter1presentsthekeytrendsaffectingtourismlabourforcesthroughouttheAPECregionincludingreferencetoabenchmarkperformancetableofkeyindicators.Chapter2presentsareviewofworkforceplanningincludingreferencetoskillsshortages,industryperception,careerplanningandstaffrecruitmentandretention.Chapter3presentsananalysisoftrainingandeducationandthedevelopmentofskills,withastrongfocusonstrengtheningthelinksbetweeneducationandindustrytodeliverjob-readygraduates.ThischapteralsoreferstotheopportunitieswhichexistspecificallyforSMEinvestmentintraining.Chapter4focusesonlabourmobility,outliningchallengeswithdomesticandinternationalworkersandtheissuesofcross-borderskillsrecognition.Chapter5presentsissuesforwomeninthetourismworkforce,whileChapter6presentsissuesforyouth.Inclosing,Chapter7presentsasummaryofrecommendationsandnextsteps.

AppendixApresentstheTourismWorkforceDevelopmentSurveywhichwascirculatedtoprivateandpublicsectorindustrystakeholders;thefindingsofthesurveyarepresentedvisuallyandreferredtoinrelevantchapters.AppendixBprovidestherespondentoverviewforthesurveyquestions.AppendixCliststheworkshopparticipants.AppendixDpresentsthesummaryfromtheworkshop.AppendixEpresentsthecasestudyquestions,reviewedbyinvitedeconomies.AppendixFpresentstheBenchmarkingPerformanceTable.AppendixGpresentsthemethodologicalnotesusedtodeterminebestpractice.AppendixHprovidesanoverviewofbestpracticeinVocationalEducationandTrainingwithinAPECeconomies.AppendicesIandJidentifybestpracticefromglobalexamplesfortrainingandskilledmigrationrespectively.

11Image credit: Michael Browning – Unsplash.com


1KeyTrendsintheAPECTourismLabourForce

Key Findings

Unequal growth in population (numbers and demographic profile), visitation and skills across the APEC economies will create an increased need for information sharing and workforce planning across the economies. The lack of comparable data sets for workforce participation, skilled migration, and labour and skills needs is an area requiring immediate action. A shared focus on the engagement of women and youth across the economies is an emerging priority.

1.1� IntroductionTourismisalabourintensive,seven-day-a-weekindustry,whichdependsonanadequatelysuppliedandskilledworkforcetoserviceitsglobalcustomerbase(TRA2015).Duetorisinghouseholdincomeandgrowingeffortstofacilitateinternationalvisitorflows,thetourismindustryissettogrowrapidlyincomingdecadeswiththenumbersofvisitorstotheAPECregionpredictedtoreachcloseto700millionby2030(WTTC2016a)(seeFigure3).

Figure�3:�Overnight�Visitor�Arrivals�in�the�APEC�Region

Source: WTTC (2016a)

Muchofthisindustryisgearedtowardsthedeliveryofhighqualityexperiencesforwhichskilledemployeesareessential.ItsfuturegrowthrepresentsbothachallengeandanopportunityfortheAPECregionastheindustrymustgrowitshumanresourcebasesufficientlytosupportpredictedincreasesinvisitornumbers.Thisrepresentsanopportunitytoempowertheworkforcebycreatingcareerpathwaysandthechancetoworkinhigherearningpositions.

ThischapterprovidesanoverviewofkeytrendsinthetourismindustryintheAPECregionandthetypeofskillsthatwillbeindemandastheindustrycontinuestogrow.Connectionstotechnologicaltrends,labourmarketsandinternationaldemandwillbediscussed.

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1.2� Demographic�trendsThedemographicprofileofseveralAPECeconomiesischangingrapidly.Theseeconomiesareexperiencingageingpopulationsthatposealong-termchallengefortheindustrytoattractyoungworkers.Forexample,currently,the50-64agecohortrepresents24%ofthetotalpopulationinHongKong,Chinaand22%inbothRussiaandinSingapore,whileinJapantheover65agebracketrepresents26%ofthepopulation(seeFigure4).Intermsoffuturetrends,theUNpredictsthatthegreatestdeclinesinyouthbetween2014to2024areprojectedtooccurintheRepublicofKoreaandChineseTaipei,wherethe15-24cohortisprojectedtodeclinebyover4%andinMalaysiaandSingapore(3.5%each),aswellasChileandthePeople’sRepublicofChina(3%each)(seeFigure5).Thesetrendssuggestthatthetourismindustriesintheseeconomiescouldfacegrowingdifficultiesinsourcingalaboursupply,despiteeffortstoimprovetherelativeattractivenessofwageandworkingconditionsforyoungworkersand/orencouraginggreaterinternationalskilledmigration.

Figure�4:�Demographic�profile�of�the�APEC�economies�(2015)

Source: United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA), Population Division (2015a). (No data available for Chinese Taipei)

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Source: United Nations (Data is not available for Brunei Darussalam; Hong Kong, China; New Zealand; Papua New Guinea; and Viet Nam).

Ageingpopulationsandpopulationgrowththroughbirthormigrationhasmeantthatthecurrentglobalworkforcehasmuchgreatergenerationaldiversitythanhasbeenpreviouslywitnessedinorganisations.Organisationswillneedtoincreasinglydevelopstrategiestomaximisetheinter-generationalworkforceandthecompetenciesavailabletotheirworkplaces,includingmaintainingandupgradingtheskillsofamaturingandageingworkforce(ILO2010).

1.2.1� Women�in�the�workforceWomenrepresentanaverageof60%ofthetourismworkforce(Ladkin2011,citedinAlonso–Almeida2012),withsomeeconomies,suchasRussia,identifyingashighas79%ofthetourismworkforce(Baum2013)aswomen.Women’srolestendtobecentredontraditionalsocietalrolessuchasfoodpreparation,cleaningandservingwhichtendtorepresentlowpayratesandprovidepoorworkingconditions.Socio-culturalfactorscancontributetothegendereddivisionofwork,resultinginlimitedpromotionofwomenintoseniorrolescomparedtotheirmalecounterparts(Baum2013).Thisisreflectiveofgendersegregationofworkintheindustry,andcanbeaddressedunderSDGFive“GenderEquality”.Indeed,theharmonisationofworkandfamilylifecontinuestobeaconditioningfactorthatdistinguisheswomenfrommenonthelabourmarket(Santero-Sanchezetal.2015),wherewomenmayhavedifficultybalancingtheirownfamilyresponsibilitieswithpaidwork.Moreover,womenmaysufferdiscriminationatworkandwomenareover-representedamongstthosewhosufferfromviolenceandharassmentatwork.Otherchallengeswhichfacewomenintheworkforceinclude:

• Unregulatedworkinghours;

• Highdegreeofemploymentsourcedfromtheinformalsector;

• Gender-basedviolence;

• Theprevalenceofpart-timeandtemporaryroles;

• Issuesofclassandgenderinequalitiesrelevanttowagesandworkingconditions;and

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• Limitedopportunitiesforself-employment.

Chapter5ofthisreportdiscusseswomeninthetourismworkforceingreaterdepth.FurtherworkregardingwomeninthetourismworkforceisplannedforMarch2017,whentheAustralianGovernmentDepartmentofEmploymentwillhostanAPECworkshoptodiscussstrategiesandsharebestpracticesaimedatimprovingqualityemploymentopportunitiesforwomen.

1.2.2�Youth�in�the�workforceThetourismindustryprovidesavaluablesourceofemploymentforyoungpeopleinmanydevelopedanddevelopingeconomies.Thisisparticularlytrueinareaswhichmayhavelargenumbersofstudentswhoareoftenkeentoundertakepart-timeworkintheindustrywhilestudying.AstudybytheUnitedNationsWorldTourismOrganization(UNWTO)(2009)reflectsasmuchas39%ofalltourismrelatedjobsarefilledbyyouthemployeesbetween15and24years,withmosteconomiesrangingbetween15-30%.TheWTTC(n.d.)predictsafuturedeclineinyouthemploymentastheindustryseeksoutamoreexperienced,agingpopulationwhichcanberetainedbasedonexperience,ratherthanafocusonrecruitmentofyoungpeoplewithhighturnover.Withsuchahighprevalenceofyoungemployedintheindustry,suchadeclineisconcerning.Chapter6ofthisdocumentexploresthechallengesofretainingyoungpeopleinthetourismworkforceingreaterdepth.

1.2.3�SMEs�in�the�tourism�workforceSMEsarevitaltothetourismeconomyandworkforceemployment.Theindustryischaracterisedbyahighshareofmicro,small,andmediumenterprises(MSMEs)(seeTable2).MSMEstypicallyproduceretail-levelfoodandbeverageservices,accommodationandculturalorsportingactivities.Thiscontrastswithlargeenterprisesthataretypicallyrepresentedbytravelagenciesandtouroperatorbusiness,aswellasglobalbrands(e.g.hotelchains,eventsandmeetingsmanagement,andfoodandbeverageservices)(Stacey2015).

Table�2:�Tourism�enterprise�size�as�defined�by�number�of�employees

TourismEnterprises Numberofemployees

Micro 1-4

Small 5–19

Medium 20–100

Large 101+

Source: Tarmidi (2005)


SMEsareakeysourceofemploymentandjobcreationintourismdestinations.ThecontributionofSMEstotourismworkforceemploymentincludes:

• Approximately80%ofthetourismworkforceislocatedinSMEsglobally;

• Almosthalf(47.5%)ofpeopleemployedinhotelsandrestaurantsworkinenterpriseswithfewerthan10people(comparedwith31.2%intheeconomyasawhole);

• Nearlythreequartersofemployees(72.6%)workinenterprisesoflessthan50people(comparedwith50.9%intheeconomyasawhole)(Stacey2015).

GiventhehighcontributionofSMEstoemploymentandthetourismeconomy,workforcedevelopmentintheseenterprisesisakeypriorityfortheindustry

1.3� Benchmark�Performance�TableThecurrenttourismworkforceprofileoftheregionisrepresentedbythefollowingindicators:

• Genderinequality;

• Wageconditions;

• Workingconditions;and

• Skilllevelandtraining.

DatareflectingthefindingsfromresearchforthisreportarerepresentedinAppendixF,identifiedfromanumberofsources.Whatthesedatarepresentisthediversityofeacheconomy’spositionrelevanttoitsworkforce.Forexample,thelevelofemploymentforfemalesintheindustryrangesfrom48.3%ofthetourismworkforceto79.1%oftheworkforce.Inotherareas,thereisconsistencyamongmosteconomies,suchasthewageconditionsforemployeesbeinglowerthantheaveragewage,withonlyChilerepresentingalmostparitytoaveragewagesat91%.

Itmustberecognisedthateacheconomypresentsadifferentcontextofworkforceprofileduetoeconomic,socialandenvironmentalfactors.Thesecontextsneedtobeconsideredwhilesettingfuturetargetsfortheindustrytosupporttheplannedgrowth.Furthermore,ongoingdatacollectionandanalysisofthesedatawillcontributetotheplanningoffutureworkforcerequirements.

Fromthedesktopaudit,andfromworkshopfeedback,monitoringandevaluationforpolicymakerswerehighlightedascriticalforunderstandingthecurrentstateofplayanddevelopingfuturestrategies(discussedbelow).Thereisaneedtocontinuallymonitorthelabourmarketregularlyineacheconomyasthemarketsituationchangesquicklyeveryyearandtheskillsrequiredchangewithineachmarket.

IthasbeensuggestedthattheHumanResourceDevelopmentWorkingGroup(HRDWG),inpartnershipwithInternationalLabourOrganization(ILO),theInternationalOrganizationforMigration(IOM),andtheOrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment(OECD),formanAPEC-widemonitoringmechanismfortrackingskillgapsandlabourimbalancesintheAPECregion(APEC2014).SpecificcontributionsbytheTWGandtheministerialrepresentativesoftheregionwouldbeavaluableadditiontosuchamechanism,giventhelowavailabilityoftourismspecificworkforcerelateddata,thebasisofwhichcouldbethebenchmarkindicatorspresentedinthisreport.


1.4� Recent�growth�trends�in�tourism Thetourismindustryisgrowinginarobustfashion,duetotheincreasingnumberofinternationaltouristvisitorsintotheAPECregion.AccordingtotheWTTC(2016b),theestimatednumberofvisitorstotheregionin2016is412.1million.By2026thisnumberispredictedtoincreaseto671.8million(WTTC2016b).Moneyspentbyforeignvisitors(visitorexports)intheAPECregionisexpectedtogrowby4.6%patoUSD884.4bnin2026(WTTC2016b).In2015,TravelandTourismdirectlysupported47.9millionjobsintheAPECregion(2.8%oftotalemployment).Thisisexpectedtoriseby1.7%in2016andbyafurther2.0%perannumto59.3millionjobsby2026(or2.9%oftotalemployment).SimilargrowthtrendshavebeenprojectedbytheUNWTO,whichforecastsa5%growthratefortourismintheAsiaPacificregion(2009).NorthAmericaandOceaniaareexpectedtohavelowergrowth,beingmorematuretourismmarketsandlong-hauldestinationsfromkeysourcecountries.

TheseestimatesofgrowthintheAPECregioncomparefavourablywiththeglobalaveragegrowthrate,estimatedat3.3%until2030.ThetablesbelowprovidetheWTTCprojectionsforeachAPECeconomyintermsofthetourismindustry’scontributiontoGDP(Table3)andemployment(Table4).

IntermsofcontributiontoGDP(Table3),tourismisexpectedtogrowrelativelyquicklybetween2011and2021inThailand(4.37%),VietNam(2.28%)andHongKong,China(1.44%).TheseexceptionalgrowthratesarelikelyduetotheirclosegeographicalproximitytotheChineseoverseastourismmarket.TheWTTCestimatesthatoutboundChinesetourismexpenditurewillgrowfromaboutUSD60billionin2011toUSD338billionin2021(WTTC2016a).Thisrepresentsoverafive-foldincreaseinspendingthatisbyfarthegreatestintheAPECregion.Incontrast,theUSoutboundspendingisprojectedtogrowbyafactorof1.5inthesameperiod.EconomieswherethetourismindustryisprojectedtoshrinkincludeMalaysia;PapuaNewGuinea;andChineseTaipei(WTTC2016a).


Table�3:�Direct�contribution�to�GDP,�share�of�GDP�(%)

APECmember 2011 2016Change2011-16 2021

Change2011-21

Australia 2.65 2.88 0.24 3.01 0.36

BruneiDarussalam 1.42 1.52 0.09 1.83 0.41

Canada 1.72 1.87 0.15 2.01 0.29

Chile 2.84 3.38 0.54 3.40 0.56

China 1.99 2.07 0.08 2.25 0.26

HongKong,China 7.73 8.02 0.29 9.17 1.44

Indonesia 2.91 3.30 0.40 3.42 0.52

Korea 1.76 1.77 0.01 1.92 0.16

Japan 2.29 2.63 0.34 2.83 0.53

Malaysia 5.10 4.56 -0.54 4.58 -0.52

Mexico 6.46 7.03 0.57 7.34 0.88

NewZealand 4.86 5.29 0.43 5.01 0.15

PapuaNewGuinea 0.89 0.55 -0.34 0.59 -0.30

Peru 3.26 3.78 0.52 3.94 0.68

Philippines 3.90 4.20 0.30 4.16 0.26

Russia 1.33 1.48 0.15 1.62 0.30

Singapore 4.79 4.91 0.12 5.04 0.25

ChineseTaipei 1.91 1.83 -0.08 1.84 -0.06

Thailand 6.86 9.40 2.55 11.22 4.37

UnitedStates 2.56 2.72 0.16 2.89 0.33

VietNam 4.73 6.56 1.83 7.01 2.28

APEC 2.54 2.74 0.20 2.91 0.37

Source: WTTC (2016a)2

Tosupportthepredictedincreasesintourismarrivalsandspend,employmentopportunitiesintheindustryacrossAPECneedtoincreasecorrespondingly.Table3reflectscontributionstoemploymentprovidedbytheindustryacrossAPECsince2011.Chile;HongKong,China;NewZealand;Thailand;andVietNamhavethegreatestprojectedemploymentgrowthintourismuntiltheendof2016.Someeconomiesinwhichthetourismindustryisprojectedtogrowwillexperienceadeclineintermsofthetourismindustry’sshareoftotalemployment,forexampleCanadaandAustralia,asreflectedinTable4below.Thetourismindustry’sshareoftotalemploymentinAustraliaisprojectedtoshrinkby0.54percentbetween2011and2021.Theseprojectionsarelikelyduetotherecentgrowthintheexport-orientatedprimaryresourcessectorthathasattractedworkersfromothersectors,suchastourism.

2 DirectcontributiontoGDP–GDPgeneratedbyindustriesthatdealdirectlywithtourists,includinghotels,travelagents,airlinesandotherpassengertransportservices,aswellastheactivitiesofrestaurantandleisureindustriesthatdealdirectlywithtourists.ItisequivalenttototalinternalTravel&Tourismspending(seebelow)withinaneconomylessthepurchasesmadebythoseindustries(includingimports).IntermsoftheUN’sTourismSatelliteAccountmethodologyitisconsistentwithtotalGDPcalculatedintable6oftheTSA:RMF2008.


However,in2016,theseeconomies(CanadaandAustralia)arere-adjustingtopostminingboomconditionsanditisthereforelikelythatthesedeclinesintourism’sshareoftotalemploymentwillnotberealised.

Table�4:�Direct�contribution�to�employment�as�share�of�total�employment�(%)

APECmember 2011 2016 2011-16 2021 2011-21

Australia 4.47 4.29 -0.18 3.93 -0.54

BruneiDarussalam 2.38 2.44 0.06 2.59 0.21

Canada 3.82 3.75 -0.07 3.60 -0.22

Chile 2.81 3.39 0.58 3.49 0.69

China 2.84 2.93 0.10 3.07 0.24

HongKong,China 7.77 8.71 0.94 10.06 2.29

Indonesia 2.48 2.94 0.45 3.05 0.57

Japan 1.80 1.96 0.16 2.11 0.31

Korea 2.09 2.29 0.20 2.51 0.42

Malaysia 4.90 4.34 -0.56 4.47 -0.43

Mexico 7.31 7.55 0.24 7.85 0.54

NewZealand 8.01 9.08 1.07 8.78 0.77

PapuaNewGuinea 0.72 0.44 -0.29 0.47 -0.25

Peru 2.09 2.43 0.34 2.57 0.14

Philippines 3.06 3.25 0.19 3.19 -0.06

Russia 1.29 1.43 0.14 1.69 0.40

Singapore 3.97 4.40 0.43 4.36 0.39

ChineseTaipei 2.30 2.41 0.11 2.78 0.48

Thailand 4.83 6.27 1.44 7.35 2.53

UnitedStates 3.61 3.77 0.16 4.00 0.39

VietNam 3.74 5.12 1.38 5.52 1.78

APECtotal 3.04 3.28 0.24 3.48 0.45

Source: WTTC (2016a)

Inadditiontotherapidgrowthinthetourismindustrybytheendof2016,itshouldbenotedthatAPECoutboundtourismspendingisexpectedtogrowatanevenfasterpaceby2021,particularlycomparedtogrowthexperiencedintheearly2000s(seeFigure6).

Forexample,accordingtodatafromtheAustralianGovernment’sTourismSatelliteAccounts,since2014thegrowthinspendingwithintheAPECregionbyinternationaltouristsforbothbusinessandleisuretravel(visitorexports)isbeingoutpacedbyAPECoutboundspending(spendingoutsidetheeconomybyresidentsonalltravelabroad).


Figure�6:�APEC�visitor�exports�versus�APEC�outbound�expenditure

Source: WTTC (2016a)3

ThereistheopportunityforAPECeconomytourismpartnerstocapturealargershareofthegrowinginternationalmarketwithinAPECeconomies.Currently,thetourismindustriesinAPECeconomiesarestilldominatedbythedomesticmarket,whichrepresentonaverage78%ofalltourismspendingintheAPECregion(seeTable5).ThePeople’sRepublicofChinaisoneofthemostdomesticallydominatedtourismeconomieswheredomestictourismexpenditurerepresents89%oftotalspendingbybothdomesticandforeign(international)arrivals.Similarly,domestictourismrankshighlyinJapan(87%),Mexico(86%)andtheUnitedStates(82%).

Amongthemostinternationally-orientatedtourismindustriesintheAPECregionisHongKong,China,wheredomesticspendingrepresentsonly20%ofalltourismspending,aswellasMalaysia;NewZealand;Singapore;andThailand.Havingacomparativelyhighershareofinternationalvisitorstheseeconomiescanbethoughtofasenjoyinga‘firstmover’advantageastheyhavehadanearlierstartinimplementingtheappropriateinfrastructure,andtodeveloptheskillsbase,tocopewiththeincreasinglyinternationalcharacteroftourism.

3 Visitorexports–spendingwithintheeconomybyinternationaltouristsforbothbusinessandleisuretrips,includingspendingontransport,butexcludinginternationalspendingoneducation.Thisisconsistentwithtotalinboundtourismexpenditureintable1oftheTSA:RMF2008.Outboundexpenditure–spendingoutsidetheeconomybyresidentsonalltripsabroad.Thisisfullyalignedwithtotaloutboundtourismexpenditureintable3oftheTSA:RMF2008

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Table�5:�Domestic�versus�foreign�spending�in�APEC�economies�(2016�projected;�USDbn)

APECmemberDomesticspending

ForeignSpending

TotalSpending

sharedomestic

Australia 70 20 91 78%

Canada 56 16 71 78%

Chile 13 3 17 80%

China 490 62 553 89%

HongKong,China 11 45 56 20%

Indonesia 38 12 50 76%

Japan 187 29 216 87%

Korea 45 20 65 69%

Malaysia 14 17 32 45%

Mexico 115 19 134 86%

NewZealand 12 11 23 52%

Russia 33 14 48 70%

Singapore 10 17 26 36%

ChineseTaipei 14 17 32 46%

Thailand 16 51 68 24%

UnitedStates 846 190 1036 82%

VietNam 8 10 18 45%

APEC 2011 566 2577 78%

Source: WTTC, (2016a)45�(Data is not available for Brunei Darussalam, Papua New Guinea, Peru, and the Philippines)

1.5� Tourism�relevant�skills�Thelevelanddepthofskillsrequiredinthetourismindustryvariesgreatlybythetypeofemploymentsought.Thereisaconsiderableamountofemploymentintheindustrywhereapplicantsarenotrequiredtoshowprioracquiredskills(WTTC2015).Intheseinstances,theabilitytodotheworkisascertainedbyon-the-jobtraining(Stacey2015,p.44).

Tourismindustryskillscanbecategorisedintofourmaincategories,includingthosethatarerelatedtospecifictechnicalcompetencies.Thesecategoriesareidentifiedas:hardskills,digitalskills,softskillsandgeneralbusinessskills(Table6).Manytourismhardskillsarenoteasilytransferabletootherindustriesastheyareveryindustryspecific,forexampleculinaryskillsneededbychefs.Formaltrainingandeducationprogramstendputastrongemphasisonhardskills,whereaparticularindustryrelevantskillistaught.

4 Foreignspending–moniesspentbyforeignerswithinthedestinationeconomy.

5 Visitorexports–spendingwithintheeconomybyinternationaltouristsforbothbusinessandleisuretrips,includingspendingontransport,butexcludinginternationalspendingoneducation.Thisisconsistentwithtotalinboundtourismexpenditureintable1oftheTSA:RMF2008.

Outboundexpenditure–spendingoutsidetheeconomybyresidentsonalltripsabroad.Thisisfullyalignedwithtotaloutboundtourismexpenditureintable3oftheTSA:RMF2008.DataisnotavailableforBruneiDarussalam;PapuaNewGuinea;Peru;andthePhilippines.


Table�6:�Categories�of�skills�for�the�tourism�industry

HardSkills DigitalSkills SoftSkills Businessskills

• Chef:Culinarytechnicalskills

• Sommelier:Wineskillsandtasting

• AirlinePilot:aviationskills

• Beautytherapist:Performingdifferenttypesoftreatments

• Accountsclerks:Knowledgeofaccountingsoftware

• Passengercheck-instaff:Knowledgeofairport/airlinesoftwaresystems

• Systemsadministrator:Systemandsoftwareknowledge

• Marketingexecutive:Socialmediaknowledgeandskills

• Language(incl.foreignlanguage),literacyandnumeracyskills

• Customerserviceskills

• Personalhygieneandpersonalpresentation

• Managerialskills

• Planningandorganisingskills

• Financialmanagement

• Problemsolvinganddecisionsmakingskills

• Abilitytoworkindividuallyandinateam

• Networking

Digitalskillsarebecomingmoreandmoreprevalentintheindustry,withthedigitisationoftourismakeydriverforskilledlabourintheindustry.TheimpactofdigitisationisanalysedfurtherinSection1.6.

Softskillsrefertothegenericskillsrequiredinworkplacesacrossindustries(ServiceSkillsAustralian.d.).Thesetypesofskillsreceivelessemphasisinmosttrainingandeducationprograms.However,arecentAustralianreportoncareerpathwaysinthetourismindustrynotedthatsoftskillsaregenerallyconsidereda‘musthave’fortheindustryirrespectiveofthejobroleorlevel(ColmarBrunton2016).Itnotesthatmanyemployersconsideremployeeworkattitudestobeatypeofskill.Formanytourismemployers,softskillsrelatetopersonality,friendliness,willingnesstohelpothersandworkingasateam,enthusiasm,awillingnesstolearnandculturalawareness–includinglanguages.GeorgeWashingtonUniversity(2008)identifiesthatmanytourismskillsareostensiblyconsistentworldwide:customer-focusedapproach,listeningskillsandproblem-solvingskills,amongothers.Itshouldbenoted,however,thattheroleofcultureplaysaroleinhowcustomerserviceintourismisprovidedandexperienced.Forexample,visitorsfromthePeople’sRepublicofChina,seehotelemployeesinaless-powerfulposition,withemployeesexpectedtoextendahighlevelofrespecttoguests(Wang,RoyoVelaandTyler2008).

IntheJobOutlookfromAustralia(2012),othersoftskillsarerankedbyimportancetotherole(seeFigure7).Oralcommunicationandactivelistening,bothnecessaryinthedeliveryofqualitycustomerservice,arestronglyrepresentedasimportanttotheskillsetoftheindustry.


Figure�7:�Importance�of�soft�skills�to�various�roles�(average�%�across��24�tourism�related�roles)

Source: Job Outlook, Australian Government (2012)

Despitetheindustryidentifyingsoftskillsasimportant,itistheleveloftheseskillsheldbyemployeeswhichwasidentifiedbystakeholdersinthesurveyandtheworkshopasoneareaofconcern.Surveyrespondentsindicatethereisamajorshortageofsoftskillswhenrecruitingforstaff,potentiallyimpactinguponthelevelandqualityofserviceexperiencedbycustomers(seeFigure8).Thequalityofcustomerservicewasraisedasanareaofconcernbyworkshopparticipants,withoneparticipantidentifyingworkers“needtobeabletomeetinternationalstandardstomeetinternationaltourists;qualityisabigissue”.Anotherworkshopparticipantrecognisedserviceasa“universallanguage”suggestingasetofconsistentservicestandardsbedevelopedacrosstheregionasoneopportunity.

40 50 60 70 80

Active listening

Critical thinking

Judgement and decision making

Monitoring/assessment of self and others

Reading comprehension

Oral Communication

Complex Problem Solving

Time management

Active learning

Coordination

Social perceptiveness

Importance of skill to various roles (average % across 24 roles)


Figure�8:�Perceived�shortages�across�the�four�core�skill�areas�when�recruiting

Thechallengeforgraduatesistohaveaccesstoopportunitiestodevelopsoftskillsthroughworkplacementsorinternshipprograms.Suchopportunitiesneedtobedevelopedcollaborativelybetweenindustry,educationandtrainingproviders,andgovernment.Thiswouldhelptoensurethereisagreementonthecapacityforemployerstoprovidesuchtraining,foreducationproviderstorecognisetheskills,andforgovernmenttoapproveschemesandsupportthroughfundingorotherpolicies.Surveyrespondentsidentifiedlimitedsoftskillsinuniversitygraduatesparticularlyindevelopingeconomieswhereofthethreetypesofgraduates(university,VETandapprentices),60%ofrespondentsindicatedalackofsoftskillsinuniversitygraduates.Thedifferencewasnotasmarkedindevelopedeconomies,with35%identifyinguniversitygraduatesaslackinginsoftskills.

Businessskillsarethosewhichincludetimemanagement,basicaccounting,networking,andplanningandorganising.Businessskillsalsoincludemanagerialskillssuchasahighlevelofcustomerservicethroughtheabilitytoeffectivelymarketandpromotebusinessproducts(QueenslandGovernment2016).Businessskillsareperhapsthemostchallenging,yetcanleadtoobtainingthemostrewardingpositionsintheindustry(e.g.destinationmanagers,hoteloperators,restaurantmanagersandtravelagencyexecutives).

Anotherimportantanalyticaldimensionrelatestoskillsrequiredbymanagementversusthosethatarerequiredbyrankandfileworkers.Thehigherthelevelofmanagementposition,themore

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transferableandgenerictherequiredskillsareacrossotherindustries(Jonckers2005citedinStrietska-Ilina&Tessaring2005).Thereisstrongdemandfromcompaniesseekingqualifiedandskilledmanagers,whicharestillscarcecommoditiesinmanydevelopingAPECeconomies.InarecentsurveyofWTTCmembers(2015),overhalfofthetravelandtourismcompaniesrespondingdescribedtheirexperienceofhiringstaffasdifficult,withthechallengegreatestforhigherskilledandmoreprofessionalroles.Whereasinthestakeholdersurveyofthisreport26%ofrespondentsindicatedchallengeswithlocatingmid-managementskillsets.

Fromthestakeholdersurvey,skilledoperational/technicalstaffreflectedthegreatestemploymentchallengeforbusiness,with32%ofrespondentsidentifyingchallengeswiththisskillset.TheWTTCreportconcurs,withengineers,chefsandothertechnicalrolesidentifiedaschallengingtorecruitfor,withrolessuchasaccountantsandfoodandbeveragemanagersparticularlydifficult.Nearly67%ofthecompaniesalsoreportedthatrecruitingstaffhasbecomemoredifficultinthepasttwoyears.

Thereisscopetoaddanadditionalskillscategoryfortourismdefinedasentrepreneurialskills.Inthiscategory,skillsinpitchingandnegotiatingforfunding(includinginvestmentfunds),researchandfeasibilitytestingskills,theidentificationofkeyopportunitiesandmethodsoftakingthebusinesstomarket,areimportantentrepreneurialskillstolearnandpossess.Theseskillsareparticularlyimportantinthetourismindustryasmanybusinessestendtobesmalltomediumenterprises(SMEs)(UNWTO2009).EspeciallyinAsia,whereculturesandbeliefsarefamily-centric,tourismbusinessestendtobefamily-ownedandmanagedbydifferentgenerationsoffamilymembers(Chang2011).ManagingSMEsintourismrequiresentrepreneurialskills,representedasanamalgamationofsoftandhardskills,withadditionalSMEspecificknowledge.FeedbackfromtheworkshopparticipantssupportstheuseofinductionandmentoringwithinSMEs,enablingentrepreneurstoguidestaffintheuseoftheirskillstothebusinessowner’srequirements.

Recommendations

• Continue to develop occupational standards which support the development of soft skills

• Industry, education and training providers and government to collaborate to provide soft skill learning opportunities

• Provide greater focus on the development of entrepreneurial skills relevant to the tourism industry.


1.6� The�digitisation�of�tourismTheemergenceofnewonlineplatformsanddigitaltechnologiesarefundamentallyreshapingtheorganisationandthenatureofcompetitionwithinthetourismindustry(Estêvãoetal.2014).Thiscreatesboththreatsandopportunitiesforthetourismworkforce.Thissectionwilldiscussthreemajorissuesthatthetourismindustrymustconfrontwhenmanagingitsworkforceinthefaceofrapidlychangingtechnologiesandmarketenvironments.

1.6.1� Growing�demand�for�digital�media�skillsTheinternetisthetopsourceforbothleisureandbusinesstravelplanning(BuhalisandLaw2008),whichsuggeststherewillbeagrowingdemandfore-marketingskills,webandanimationdesignandinformationtechnology(IT)supportwithintheindustry.Tourismbusinesseswillneedtodevelopanengagingonlinepresencetoremainviableinahighlycompetitiveinternationaltourismindustry.Ofparticularimportancewillbethedigitisationoflocalcultureinawaythathighlightstheuniquefeaturesofatraveldestinationtovisitorsusinggeolocationtechnologyonportabledevices,suchassmartphones.TheEuropeanUnionhasdevelopedinitiativesandguidelinesfordigitisingEuropeanculturetomaketheirculturalheritagemorewidelyavailable.Thisincludesputtingimportantculturalartefactsandmuseumcataloguesonlineandlinkingthemtogetherviaonlineplatformsthatallowuserstoexplorewidelyandgainanappreciationoflocalculture(CSES2016).Itisparticularlyimportantforthetourismindustrytoensureitcantrainandattractworkerswithdigitalskillsthatwillhelptheindustryadapttothesenewtechnologies.

Technologicaltrendssuchasdigitisationareimportantforcesdrivingthedemandforskilledlabourintourism(HavenandJones2004;Munaretal.2013;Baggio2014).Thespeedandintensityofrecentlyemergeddisruptivetechnologiesarehavingaprofoundimpactontheglobaleconomyandemployment.Thesetechnologicalforcesinclude:cloudservices,‘bigdata’artificialintelligence,robotics,3Dprintingandcrowdsourcing.

Intourism,thetrendtowarddigitisationhasimportantramificationsfortheindustry.Theinternetisthetopsourceforbothleisureandbusinesstravelplanning,as78%and57%respectivelycommencetheirtravelbookingprocesswithonlinesearches.Theopportunitiesfromadestinationperspectivearelarge,with65%ofleisuretravellersresearchingonlinebeforetheyhaveevendecidedwheretoholiday(Thinkwithgoogle2014).

Thissuggestsagrowingdemandfore-marketingskillsandITsupportwithintheindustry.Almost50%ofconsumersnowaccesssocialmediaeveryday(andupto79%forthe18–29agegroup),yetonly31%ofSMEbusinessessurveyedinanAustralianstudyactivelyoperateasocialmediaengagementstrategy(Sensis2015).WithonlyonethirdofSMEsactivelyoperatingasocialmediastrategy,theresultsfromthestakeholdersurveyofthisreportarenotsurprising.Inthesurveyforthisreport,16%ofbusinessesreflectedtheiruseofsocialmediatorecruitstaff,8%usedacompanywebsite,and10%usedonlinerecruitmentagencies.Beingactiveonsocialmediaisbecomingmoreandmorecriticalasthevisitoreconomygrowsaswellascreatinganemployerbrandtoattractnewtalent.Bothfortheuseofpromotionofabusinessandthepromotionofavailableemploymentopportunities,tourismbusinessesneedtodevelop(andmaintain)anonlinepresenceinwhatisahighlycompetitiveinternationalmarketfortouristexperiences.


ConnectiveICTsplayacrucialroleinconnectingconsumerstothefine-grained,personalisedandsocialinformationtheyneedtopurchaseindividuallymeaningfulexperiences.Thisiscompellingtravelandtourismproviderstoplacegreateremphasisonconsumerexperienceandhowthisisshared(Mitasetal.2015).Asaresult,thereisanincreasingdemandfore-marketingspecialistsfamiliarwithvarioussocialmediaplatformusedinsourceeconomies.

1.6.2�Automation�and�widening�wage�inequalityThereplacementofworkerswithmachinesisaprocessthathasbeenoccurringforseveralcenturies.ItislikelytoaccelerateinthenextfewdecadesasroutinetasksaremoresusceptibletoautomationduetoimprovementsinroboticsandArtificialIntelligence(Bostrom2014).Thesetasksaregenerallycharacteristicoflowandmiddle-skilledjobsoractivities.Modernexamplesofautomationincludeelectronicroadtollcollection,robotweldersandsoftwareprogramssuchasMYOB,whichhavereplacedmanualbookkeepingtasks.

Inthecaseofthetourismindustrycomposedofretail,transportandaccommodationworkers,thereexistsseveralprominentexamples.Forexample,theroleoftravelintermediarieshaschangedasnewonlinesearchtechnologieshaveenabledcustomerstosearchandorganisetheirownflightsmoreefficiently(HavenandJones2004).Likewise,onlinesearchplatformshavefundamentallyaffectedtheretailindustry.Self-drivingcarsmayimpacttheroleoftaxidriversandchauffeurs.Thisimpliesthatunemploymentinlow-skilledjoboccupationscouldriseacrosstheeconomy,whichcouldbenefitthelabour-intensivetourismindustrybyreducinglabourshortagesandslowdownthepaceofwagerisesintheindustry(Autor2015).

Atthesametime,automationcreatesnewopportunitiesashigh-skilledjobshavealsotendedtobecomplementarytonewtechnologyproductivityandthedemandforsuitablyskilledworkers(Autor2015;CoelliandBorland2015).Advancedmachineryandsoftwareprogramsrequiresupervisionandmaintenance.Thisimpliesthatthetypeofskillsrequiredbytheindustrywillchange.AgreatershareofskilledworkerswithbackgroundsinScience,Technology,EngineeringandMaths(STEM)willberequiredtofurthergrowtheindustry(PWC2015).Wagesandskillsshortagesintheseskilledoccupationsarelikelytoincreaseinthefuture.

Thesestructuralchangescreatebothrisksandopportunitiesfortheindustry.Growingdemandforhighskilledworkersduetoautomationcouldleadtorisinglabourcostsfortheindustry.Atthesametime,thedecliningwageattractivenessoflow-skilledjobsmayprovideasolutionfortheindustryasmorelowskillworkerswilllikelyseekcareerprogressionandpathwaystobetterpaidjobs.Toproperlymanagethesetwocounteractingforces,theindustryneedstoensurethatviablecareerpathwaysexistbetweenskilledandnon-skilledoccupationswithintheindustry(seeChapter2).Thiscanbedonebyprovidingmoreinformationaboutjobopportunitiesandcareerpathwaysandworkingwithkeystakeholdersinthesecondaryandtertiaryeducationsectors,includingschoolsandcareercounsellors,toraisetheprofileofthetourismindustryamongstpotentialworkers.

Recommendations

• Undertake a study with a noted university to test the assumptions in existing research on the effects on the tourism sector of the digitisation of the workforce to publish a definitive guide to the impacts on future roles in the sector.


1.6.3� The�rise�of�‘gig’�workersNewtechnologieshavealsointroducedanewcohortof‘gig’workerstothetourismindustry6.Understandingthecharacteristicsandmotivatorsofthisnewworkeriskeytoensuringthattheyareintegratedefficientlyintotheindustry.Thiseffectivelyrepresentsanincreaseinthenumberofcasualindependentsubcontractorsintheindustrywhobearadditionalriskswhichwouldtypicallybebornebybusiness.

DataobtainedfromUber,AirbnbandareportonCrowdworkerssuggeststhataveragegigworkersarenotyoungmillennialsbutprimeageworkers(25-55yearsold)andwomenwhoaremorewillingtoentertraditionalmale-dominatedindustriesviathegigeconomy(UberGlobal,2015).Studiessuggestthatmanyoftheseworkersrepresent‘newworkers’inthesensethattheywerenotpreviouslyemployedbyotherfirmsinthetourismindustry,butratherenteredtheworkforcethankstothesenewtechnologies(DiTella&MacCulloch2005).Otherswereworkingtocomplementtheirincomefromexistingjobs.Althoughtheworkerhasmoreflexibility,theymustalsoconsidertheriskofunsteadypaychequeswithnopaidsickorannualleave.Theemployeeneedstobemorededicatedandplanforunforeseeableriskssuchasinjuriesorhealthissues.Itisrecommendedthattheindustryprovideseducationonissuessuchassuperannuationandinsuranceastheworkerispersonallyliableforthesematters(LoosemoreandAndonankis2007).

1.6.4�Monitoring�labour�force�trendsBeyondimprovingdestinationattractiveness,big-datatechnologyalsoprovidesnewopportunitiestocollectandanalysecustomerandlabourdata.Totakeadvantageofthis,businessesneedtopossessspecialistsin(online)dataanalysis.Respondentstothestakeholdersurveyindicatelimitedshortagesofdigitalskillsintourismemployeesinbothdevelopedanddevelopingeconomies.Thisrepresentsanopportunitytocapitaliseonthepresenceofdigitalskillsheldbyemployeestoextractallrelevantopportunitiesrelatedtoonlinedata.

Profitingfromdataanalyticsrequiressensitivitytoprivacyconcernsandtheoptimalcontentanddegreeofcustomisationisalsocrucial.Culturalnormsofprivacyarechanginganddeveloping,sothereisnohard-and-faststandardthatSMEscanexpecttocarrydecadesintothefuture.Theymustbeawareofbothlawsandcustomers’evolvingexpectationsasfarasdataprivacyisconcerned.

6 ‘gig’workersaredefinedbyLobel(2016)as“peoplewhoprovidecontracted,freelanceworkonashort-termbasisviadigitalplatformtechnologies”(p.1).


Theneedtomonitorandevaluatelabourforcetrendsiscriticalforpolicymakerstocomprehendthecurrentmarketandtoassistindevelopingfuturestrategies.Monitoringthelabourmarketregularlyallowsemployerstoadapttotherapidchangesinthemarketsituation,atleastannually,includinganychangestorequiredskills,withtheincreaseofdigitaltechnologyasthecurrentcaseinpoint.ThesuggestedmonitoringmechanismdevelopedthroughapartnershipwiththeHumanResearchDevelopmentWorkingGroup(HRDWG),theILO,theIOM,andtheOECD,couldprovidekeydatasets(APEC2014).ThereisaplacefortheTWGtocontributetothismechanismtofillthecurrentgapsintourism-specificlabourdata.

1.7� Summary�of�chapter�recommendations• Develop a Women and Youth Advisory Group of the APEC Human

Resource Development Working Group to identify and progress priority projects identified through this study.

• Continue to develop occupational standards which support the development of soft skills.

• Industry, education and training providers and government to collaborate to provide soft skill learning opportunities.

• Provide greater focus on the development of entrepreneurial skills relevant to the tourism industry.

• Undertake a study with a noted university to test the assumptions in existing research on the effects on the tourism sector of the digitisation of the workforce to publish a definitive guide to the impacts on future roles in the sector.

• Develop an APEC Framework for Labour and Skills Needs Analysis to allow comparable data to be shared across the APEC economies.

• Undertake a pilot program in four APEC economies to share information on current tourism labour and skills supply and demand based on common data sets.

Recommendations

• Develop an APEC Framework for Labour and Skills Needs Analysis to allow comparable data to be shared across the APEC economies.

• Undertake a pilot program in four APEC economies to share information on current labour and skills supply and demand based on common data sets.

30 Image credit: Harvey Enrile - Unsplash.com


2PlanningtheTourismWorkforce

Workforceplanningrecognisesthecapabilityofaneconomytomeettheexistingandemergingneedsoftheindustryandthelevelofresiliencetoadapttoshocks.Workforceplanningrequiresathoroughunderstandingoftheeconomy’ssocial,economic,andenvironmentalcontextwhilealsounderstandingthecapabilityandcapacityofworkerstoachievedomesticindustryobjectives(CoA2013).However,workforceplanningisnotpurelyfordomesticlevelreviews;itisausefultoolforemployers,bothlargeandsmall,tomanageandtodeveloptheirworkforce.

Thecapacityofthetourismindustrytoattract,maintainandgrowaskilledlabourforceintrinsicallydependsonitscapacitytomanageitsgeneralworkforce,providecareerpathways,andappropriateworkingconditions,thatmotivateworkerstopursuelong-termcareersintheindustry.Improvingtherelativeattractivenessofthetourismindustrytopotentialandexistingworkersis,therefore,aprimarymechanismforcombatingfutureskillshortages.Thiscanbeachievedbyprovidingmoreinformationaboutjobopportunitiesandcareerpathways,upgradingwageandworkingconditions,andworkingwithkeystakeholdersinthesecondaryandtertiaryeducationsectors,includingschoolsandcareercounsellors,toraisetheprofileofthetourismindustryamongstpotentialworkers.SuchactionswouldpositivelyaligntotheSDGThree-“HealthandWellBeing”.

Commencingwiththeissueofskillsshortage,thischapteralsodiscussestheperceptionoftheindustryanditsimpactsoncareerpathways.Recruitmentandretentionarealsopresented.Anoutlineoftheworkforceplanningpracticesimplementedbycasestudyeconomy,Australia,follows.

“Our latest research indicates that the growth of Canada’s tourism industry will be restricted by labour challenges. Projections suggest the demand for labour (based on potential spending in tourism industries) will exceed labour supply by a total of 240,000 jobs over the 2010 to 2035 period.” – Canadian survey respondent.

Key Findings

For the sector to reach its growth potential, it needs to access the broadest range of workforce participants including women, youth, disadvantaged groups and older workers (in an ageing population) from across the APEC economies. While the gender divide is slowly disappearing, it remains an obvious element of the tourism sector in many parts of the APEC region. Wage inequality and lower rates of participation in management positions and in the boardroom continue to exist in the tourism sector, particularly for women. The tourism sector will need to become an employer of choice, a sector known for innovation and entrepreneurship and a career accelerator.


2.1� ChallengesSolnetetal.(2014)refertowide-rangingresearchthatsuggeststhattourismfacessystemicandintractableworkforcechallenges.Theseincludetheindustry’sstatusasanemployer,theimpactofvariabledemandoncareeropportunities,remuneration,workplaceconditions,employeeparticipation,problemsinrecruitment,andfailuretoretaingoodemployees.Whiletheynotethatindevelopingeconomiestourismcanofferemploymentopportunitiesandameansoutofpoverty,italsoresultsinworkthatisgenerallylowskilled,serviceworkthatcontrastswithcontemporaryhighskills/knowledge-aspirantworkinpost-industrialeconomies(Solnetetal.2014).

2.1.1� Skills�shortages SkillsshortagesareamajorfactorinhibitinginvestmentandeconomicdevelopmentacrossAPEC(Iredaleetal.2014).Theyemergewhenemployersareunabletofillorhaveconsiderabledifficultyfillingvacanciesforanoccupation,orsignificantspecialisedskillneedswithinthatoccupation,atcurrentlevelsofremunerationandconditionsofemployment,andinreasonablyaccessiblelocations.

Theseshortagesaretheresultofmarketdisequilibriumwherethereisanundersupplyofskillsrelativetoagivenlevelofdemand,andwherewagesandworkingconditionsareheldataconstantlevel(Iredaleetal.2014).Suchdisequilibriumcanbecausedbysupplyfactors(i.e.factorsthatinfluencethenumberofskilledworkersavailable)anddemandfactors(i.e.factorsthatrelatetoemployerdemandforaskilledlabourmarket).Figure9summarisesthelinksbetweensomeofthesesupplyanddemandfactors.Thisfigureshowsthatthereareanumberofdifferentsupplyanddemandsidefactorsthatcanpotentiallycontributetowardstheemergenceofskillsshortages.

Figure�9:�Supply�and�demand�factors�affecting�the�skilled�labour�market�

Source: Author (Chai, A)

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Intermsofthesupplyofskilledworkers,therearetwomajorsources:domesticandinternationalworkers.Domesticworkersgraduatefromtheunskilledlabourmarkettotheskilledlabourmarketbyeitherattainingthenecessaryskillsandexperiencewhileworking(in-housetraining)orviavocationaleducationandtraining(VET)(seeChapter3).Throughtraining,unskilledworkerscanaccessselectionforpromotion,increasingpossibilitiesofretentionfortheemployer.Internationalworkersinthetourismworkforcearesourcedthroughskilled(andsomeunskilled)labourmigrationprograms(seeChapter4).

Onthedemandside,itisnecessarytoconsiderhowindustryneedsforskilledworkersarechangingandhowlabourdemandfromotherindustriesandoccupationsmayalsoimpacttheavailabilityofskilledworkersinthefuture;forexample,thedigitisationofroles.Thedemandforworkersdependsonanumberoffactors,including:businesscycles;industrystructureandplanning;technology;and,importantly,thedomesticworkforceparticipationrate;thedemandforworkersinothernon-tourismindustries;andthebarrierstomigrationfacedbyinternationalworkers.

FindingsfromthestakeholdersurveyindicateseveralbusinesschallengeswithstaffsupplyforAPECbusinessesduringthe12monthsuptoSeptember2016.Figure10presentstheresponsesfrombusinessestoanumberofidentifiedchallengeswhichincludecompetitionfromotherbusinessesandotherindustriesandlimitedmotivationfromstaffwhenrecruitingstaff.

Figure�10:�Barriers�to�recruitment�(Developed�vs�developing)

Thereappearstobeagreaterissuewithfindingexperiencedandskilledstaffwithformaltrainingindevelopingeconomiesthanindevelopedeconomies.Indevelopingeconomies,thechallengesofcompetitionfromothertourismbusinesses,lackofapplicants,unmotivatedapplicantsandcompetitionfromothersectorsareslightlymoreprevalentthanindevelopedeconomies.Notableindevelopingeconomies,andinsomerolesindevelopedeconomies,therearealargenumberof

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jobssuitabletoworkerswhodonothaveexperience(orformalqualifications).Theseworkersmaydisplayothervalues,qualitiesandattributeswhichcanbeconsideredbypotentialemployersasofvalueforentryleveljobs.

2.1.2� Industry�perceptionThereisawidely-heldperceptionthattourismemploymentisgenerallycharacterisedbyjobsthatarenot‘real’careers.Thiscreatesanoveralllackofappealfortheindustryandrestrictsthepotentialcandidatepoolforprospectiveemployers(QueenslandTourismIndustryCouncil2013).Thetourismindustryisseentoofferunstableandirregularworkassociatedwithpoorworkingconditionsandlimitedcareerdevelopmentprospects.Furthermore,asindicatedbyworkshopparticipants,theindustryinsomeeconomiesisperceivedtobeawomen’sonlydomain,whereopportunities

formaleemploymentarelimited(exceptformanagement,whererolesareheldmorepredominantlybymen).Theseperceptionsmakeitdifficultforemployerstoattract,recruitandretainemployeeswithintheindustry.

SomeofthecommonchallengesidentifiedasbarriertoWorkforcePlanninginclude:

1. Poorwagesandworkingconditions;

2. Additionalchallengesrecruitinginruralorremoteareas;

3. Lackofrecognitionofthestrategicpriorityoftheindustrybygovernment;and

4. Limitedcareerpathwaysandopportunities.

IssuesincludingtraininganddevelopmentandlabourmobilityarecoveredinChapters3and4respectivelyofthisreport.

2.1.2.1.� Poor�wages�and�working�conditionsAccordingtotheILO(ILOn.d.),thewagesarelowandworkingconditionsareveryoftenprecariousinthetourismindustry.InastudyundertakenbytheILO,workersinhotelsandrestaurantstendedtoworklongerhoursandreceivealowerhourlypay.HotelandrestaurantworkersinIndonesia,forexample,worked17%morehoursthanthedomesticaveragebutreceivedwagesthatwerealso17%lowerthantheaveragedomesticwage.InthePhilippines,employeesworked19.5%longerhoursandreceivedanhourlywagethatwas41.8%lowerthanthedomesticaverage(ILOn.d.).Suchlowwagesandlongworkinghoursarelikelytobeacorefactordrivinghighturnoverandpoorindustryimage.

Recommendations

• Through research and consultation, design a common approach for the collection and sharing of workforce planning data across the APEC economies to allow sharing of information on workforce participation, skilled migration, and labour and skills.

“Many jobs in tourism seen as “unimportant” ie anyone can do it, no training required except learning on the job.”

–Australiansurveyrespondent.


Intheunskilledlabourmarket,poorrelativewagegrowthandworkingconditionshavebeenwidelyreportedinthetourismindustry(UNWTO2009).ThisissupportedbyresearchfortheBenchmarkPerformanceTableofthisreport(seeAppendixF).Economictheorysuggeststhatshortagesresultwhencurrentwagesofanoccupation/industryarerelativelylowcomparedtothoseofferedinotherindustriesoroccupations,includingunskilledoccupations.

Worker�entitlementsWorkplacepoliciesandprogramsreportedbybusinessesasaccessibleandavailabletostaffalsovary.Fromthestakeholdersurvey,businessrespondentsindicatearangeofemployeesupportmechanisms(seeFigure11).Mostprevalentarepaidmaternityandsomeformofsuperannuationorpensionsavingsinbothdevelopedanddevelopingeconomies.Incontrast,thedifferencebetweenthetwoforcarer’sleaveisquitemarked.Suchsupportmechanismswouldbemorechallengedindevelopingeconomies,particularlyasthereisahighprevalenceofSMEs.

Figure�11:�Programs�accessible�within�businesses�(all�economies)

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Workshopparticipantsconfirmthisexperience,identifyinghighturnoverwithcommonlyreportedlonghoursandcorrespondinglyunattractiveremuneration,particularlyinadevelopingeconomycontext.Yet,ontheotherhand,basedonthesurveyresults,63%ofrespondentsfromdevelopedeconomiesand65%ofrespondentsfromdevelopingeconomiesagreethatemployeesarepaidabovetheawardwageratereflectinganinconsistencywiththeexperienceofworkshopparticipants.

Worker�protectionPoliciesthatprotecttheworker,suchasoccupationalhealthandsafety(OH&S),sexualharassment,equalemploymentopportunity(EEO)andworkplacebullying,werealsorepresentedinthestakeholdersurvey,withmostbusinessrespondentsindicatingthepresenceofseveralpolicies(seeFigure12).

Workshopparticipantshighlightedthechallengesforwomenandyouth(agedbetween15and24)particularlyasbeingover-representedinlowerpaidpositionsandpositionswithpoorerworkingconditions.Furthermore,womenwerehighlightedasbeingover-representedamongstthoseworkerswhosuffermostfromharassmentandviolence,whereasyouthareover-representedinworkwithlonghours,splitshifts,andseasonalroles.WomenandyouthemploymentisdiscussedfurtherinChapters5and6respectively.

Figure�12:�Presence�of�workplace�policies�(business�respondents,�all�economies)

OH&S Policy

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Recommendations

• Through the APEC Tourism Working Group, develop an Industry of Choice Charter, aligned to the Sustainable Development Goals, to highlight the importance and economic value of healthy, safe and diverse workplaces and encourage economies to adopt programs to reduce unsafe and discriminatory practices from the tourism sector, rebranding tourism as an employer of choice and reducing references to ‘low-skill/low pay jobs’.

• Recognising the importance of mental health of employees as part of workplace health and safety, further exploration of mental health support services is suggested as part of an overall strategy for supporting workforce development, productivity and retention in the industry.


2.1.2.2.�Rural�or�remote�areasLocationoftourismjobscanoftenbeaninfluencingfactorinobtainingskilledstaff.Manyskilledemployeesarenotwillingtorelocateorcommutetoworkinregionalandremoteareas.Partoftheissuewithworkinginremoteareas,predominantlyforthoserelyinguponpublictransport,istheavailabilityofreasonablyscheduledtransportationservices,particularlygiventhe24/7hoursoftheindustry.Duetothestructureandnatureofworkavailableintourism,theindustryattractspeoplewhomaybemoremobile,inadditiontothosewhoaremorepreparedtohaveaboundary-lesscareerwhichtranscendsgeographicandorganisationalrestrictions.Remoteorruralworktypicallyappealstoyoungpeople,sotourismisavaluablesourceofoftentransientorshort-termemploymentforyouth.

2.1.2.3.�Lack�of�strategic�priorityWorkshopparticipantshighlightedthelackofstrategicpriorityallocatedtothetourismindustrybygovernmentinsomeeconomies.Participantsnotedthesomewhatrecentdevelopmentoftourismasamajoreconomiccontributortosomeeconomies,incomparisontomoretraditionalsectorssuchasagriculture,particularlyindevelopingeconomies.Opportunitiesforstrategicplanningbygovernmentwereidentifiedgiventheriseintourism’scontributiontodomesticeconomictargets.

Workshopparticipantsalsorecognisedthedifficultygovernmenthashadtraditionallyinrespondingquicklytolabourshortages.Thiscouldbeassistedthroughanimprovedperceptionofvalueoftheindustryandthroughstrategicalignmenttoprivatesectorworkforceplanning.Suchlackofpriorityfortheindustrycouldbetheresultoflimitedabilityofgovernmentstogeneratedatatoinformworkforceplanning(UNWTO&ILO2014).

2.1.2.4.�Limited�career�pathwaysAstheindustrysuffersfromperceptionsthatitofferslimitedcareerprogression,workers,particularlywell-educatedyouth,oftenseekworkinothersectors,whichareseentoofferbetterpay,securityandtenure.Forexample,Wu(2013),consideringChinesecollegeanduniversitystudents,foundthatfewhadapreferenceforworkingintourismandmostheldanegativeimageoftheindustry,consideringittohavelimitedcareeropportunities.Thisisdespitealargeincreaseinthenumberofpeopleenrollingintourismcourses.

Workshopparticipantsconfirmthisexperience,identifyinghighturnoverwithcommonlyreportedlonghoursandcorrespondinglyunattractiveremuneration,particularlyinadevelopingeconomycontext.Yet,ontheotherhand,basedonthesurveyresults,63%ofrespondentsfromdevelopedeconomiesand65%ofrespondentsfromdevelopingeconomiesagreethatemployeesarepaidabovetheawardwageratereflectinganinconsistencywiththeexperienceofworkshopparticipants.

Worker�protectionPoliciesthatprotecttheworker,suchasoccupationalhealthandsafety(OH&S),sexualharassment,equalemploymentopportunity(EEO)andworkplacebullying,werealsorepresentedinthestakeholdersurvey,withmostbusinessrespondentsindicatingthepresenceofseveralpolicies(seeFigure12).

Workshopparticipantshighlightedthechallengesforwomenandyouth(agedbetween15and24)particularlyasbeingover-representedinlowerpaidpositionsandpositionswithpoorerworkingconditions.Furthermore,womenwerehighlightedasbeingover-representedamongstthoseworkerswhosuffermostfromharassmentandviolence,whereasyouthareover-representedinworkwithlonghours,splitshifts,andseasonalroles.WomenandyouthemploymentisdiscussedfurtherinChapters5and6respectively.

Figure�12:�Presence�of�workplace�policies�(business�respondents,�all�economies)

OH&S Policy

Sexual Harassment

Policy

Workplace Bullying

Policy

Equal Employment Opportunity

Policy

ConsequencesSexual

Harassment Policy

ConsequencesWorkplace Bullying

Policy

ConsequencesEqual

Employment Policy

Designated staff

responsible for

EEO issues

External EEO expert

0

10%%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Develo

ping

Develo

ped

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ping

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ped

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ping

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ped

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ping

Develo

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ped

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Develo

ped

Develo

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Yes No

Recommendations

• Through the APEC Tourism Working Group, develop an Industry of Choice Charter, aligned to the Sustainable Development Goals, to highlight the importance and economic value of healthy, safe and diverse workplaces and encourage economies to adopt programs to reduce unsafe and discriminatory practices from the tourism sector, rebranding tourism as an employer of choice and reducing references to ‘low-skill/low pay jobs’.

• Recognising the importance of mental health of employees as part of workplace health and safety, further exploration of mental health support services is suggested as part of an overall strategy for supporting workforce development, productivity and retention in the industry.


Asabasicpathwayforavarietyofroleswithintheindustry,Table7offersguidanceforwhereemployeescanbegintheircareerinanumberofindustryrelevantroles(TourismTrainingAustralia2008).Itisimportanttorecognisethatprogressionthroughthesecareerscanbehorizontalaswellasvertical.Thisfigureprovidesanarrativeoftherolesrequiredtomoveuptheranksinaparticularsector;however,lacksasuggestedtimeframeorlistofmilestoneswhichworkerscanreachintraininganddevelopment.Suchadditionswouldbeusefultounderstandtheamountofinvestmentneededbyapotentialindustryworkerforstudytoprogresstheircareer.

Careerpathwaysintourismforyoungpeople(15–24),arelittleknown.Rather,theindustryisseentoprovidejobsthatareoftenseenas‘fun’,‘dynamic’and‘sociable’(ColmarBrunton2016).Inearlycareers,workersareprovidedwithexperiencesofwhattheindustryofferseitherthroughworkplacementsorinternships,orinmorestructuredapproachesthroughapprenticeshipsandothercertifiedtraining(Walmsley2012).InAustralia,commencingvocationaltrainingcourseswhileatschoolisoneopportunityforalonger-termvisionofcareerswithintheindustry(Smith&Green2005).Roleswhichrequireamuchmoretechnicallyfocusedtraining,suchaschefs,areseenaslonger-termcareers(ColmarBrunton2016).


Table�7:�Pathways�to�careers�in�the�tourism�and�hospitality�industry

TouristAttractions

TourGuiding WholesaleTourOperators

RetailTravel TouristInformationServices

Meetings,Events,Conferences

PolicyPlanningDevelopment

Seniormanager • TourguidesOwner/operator

Seniormanager Seniormanager Regional/areatourismmanager

Projectmanager Executivedirector/Seniorpartner

Managerofoperations,sales,marketingorpublicrelations

• Tourmanager

• Leadguide

• Groupcoordinator

• Specialistguides(ecotourism/cultural)

• Managerofproduct,sales,marketingorpublicrelations

• Reservations

• Operations

• Managerofsmalltravelagency/branch

• Traveladminis-tration

• Marketing

Managerofinformationcentresales,marketing,publicrelationsorstrategicplanning

Conferencemanager

Director/Seniormanager

Supervisorinoperations,marketingorpublicrelations

• Specialistsiteguide

• Tourguide

• Driverguide

• Supervisorinproduct,sales,marketingorpublicrelations

• Operations

Supervisor–retailtraveland/orcorporateinternationaland/ordomestic

Supervisorintourisminformationresearch,sales,marketing,publicrelationsorstrategicplanning

Conferencecoordinator

Principaladvisor

Groupcoordinator

• Siteguide

• Meetandgreetguide

Grouptourcoordinator

Seniortravelconsultantinternationaland/ordomestic

Seniortourisminformationofficer

Conferenceassistant

• Senioradvisor

• MarketanalystSeniorconsultant

SalesreservationagentGuestservicecoordinator

Salesorreservationagent

Internationaltravelconsultant

Traveladvisor Hospitalityandtraveloperation(e.g.functions,reservationsandgrouptravel)

AdvisorResearchofficer

AttractionsattendantTicketsalesofficer

Domestictravelconsultant

Administrativeassistant

Travelsalesassistant/clerk

Adapted from: Tourism Training Australia (2008)


Forthosewhohavechosentourismasahighereducationfocus,graduationdoesnotalwaysleadtocontinuedemploymentintheindustry(Richardson2008citedinLyons2010).Graduatesspeakofnegativeexperiencesworkingintheindustry,incasualrolesworkinglonghours,andwithlimitedpromotionopportunitiespresentedduringtheirstudies.Forcareerpathwaystoberecognisedforpotentialworkersinthe20–35-yearagebracket,moreopportunitiesforamoreintegratedapproachtocareervisioningarerequired(Lyons2010).InastudyfromChineseTaipei,careerpathwayswererecognisedbyinternationalhotelchains,whichwereseentobeofbenefitfortheemployerandnotfortheemployee(Yangetal2012).Togainaccesstocareerplanningintheseinstances,employeesneededtoreceiveapprovalfromtopexecutiveswhoidentifiedemployeeswithspecificgrowthpotential.Fornewemployees,perhapsnotengagedwithinsuchhotelchains,lackofknowledgeofopportunities,workingbenefits,andconditionsoftenpreventsworkersfromstayingintheindustry.Greaterexplanationbyemployersofthetasksanddutiesrequiredofrolestoprogressaswellasthebenefitsandworkingconditionsarenecessarytoretainstaff(Yangetal2012).

Matureworkers(45+years)areobserversofahighstaffturnover,particularlyintheyoungerworkforce,oftenbecauseoftheshiftwork,longhours,andgenerallylowpayoftheindustry(ColmarBrunton2016).Althoughsomematureworkershavebeenintheindustryformanyyears,theirtrainingwascompletedearlyintheiremployment,andtheydonotnecessarilyseethemselvesasundertakingfurthertrainingatthispoint.Matureworkersseethemselvesasgratefultohavetheroletheyhold,andinsteadofviewingtheindustryasacareer,theyoftenliveinfearthatwithayounger‘upandcoming’workercohort,thecontinuationoftheirjobsmaybelimited(ColmarBrunton2016).Moreover,matureworkersmaynotbesoflexibleintheiravailabilityandmobility,furtherexacerbatingtheirconcernsofstableworkingenvironments.AnewprojectbeingimplementedbytheHRDWGtosharebestpracticeinworkingwithmatureageworkers(HRDWG2016),couldconsidertourismasoneindustrywhichwouldbenefitfromthedesignandadoptionofmature-agespecificapproachesforthemanagementofthiscohortofworkers.

Recommendations

• Develop a research project and follow-up career campaign with a business and employment-oriented social networking service to showcase career paths of those in senior positions in the tourism sector and explore the career progression rates in tourism compared to other sectors.

• Build on the HRDWG project focused on mature workers to include specific reference to the opportunities which exist for the tourism industry from this worker cohort.


2.1.3� Staff�recruitmentAsaworkforceplanningtool,staffrecruitmentisanincreasinglycompetitiveaspectoftheindustry.Recruitmentseesinvestmentoftimeandenergybyindustrytoattractemployeesforvariousroles,whilealsodevelopingandpromotinganattractivepackagetosecurethe‘right’worker.Intoday’srecruitmentmarket,identifyingnotonlythejobdescription,butthestaffbenefits‘package’(includingtrainingandcareerdevelopmentopportunities,flexibleworkingarrangements,andarangeofworkforcepolicies,whilealsostatingthecompanybrandstatementandindustrypartners)aresought-afterinformationforemployeestomakeemploymentdecisions(ServiceSkillsAustralian.d.;DeloitteDevelopment2016).

Businessrespondentstothestakeholdersurveyindicatetheuseofbothtraditionalandmodernapproachestorecruitment,withpersonalandwebmethodsrankinghighly(seeFigure13).Fordevelopedeconomies,referralsfromcurrentemployeesrepresentedmostfrequentlywith58respondents,followedbyonlinerecruitmentwith57respondents,andtheuseofcompanywebsiteswith42respondents.Developingeconomiesrankedtheuseofacompanywebsiteandwordofmouthasmostpopularmethodstorecruitnewworkers.

Figure�13: Methods�of�recruitment�used�by�businesses�(number�of�respondents)�

Thehighresponsetotheuseofinternetbasedapproachestorecruitmentisreflectiveoftheindustry’smajorworkforcedemographic-youth.Particularlyforwhatisknownas‘GenerationY’(thoseindividualsbornbetween1981and1994),theneedtoestablishandpromotethevaluesofanorganisationthroughitsreputationand/orbrandcontributeslargelytoanindividual’sdecisiontoapplyforandworkwithacompany(Cairncross&Buultjens2007).Furthermore,individualsinthisagebracketaremoreinclinedtobeattractedtosocialandcommunity-basedactivities.Suchrequirementscanbepartofanattractiverecruitmentpackage,towhichorganisationssuchasHarveyWorldTravelinAustraliahaveadapted(Cairncross&Buultjens2007).Forthisgeneration,recruitmentusingvariousinternet-basedtoolsappearstobethebestmethod;however,thisisnotthecaseforallagegroups.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Developing

Developed

Recru

itmen

t age

ncies

Selecti

on su

rveys

& pr

obati

on pe

riods

Targ

eting

fore

ign w

orke

rs

Targ

eting

matu

re ag

ed w

orke

rs

Relatio

nship

s with

educ

ation

prov

iders

Online

recru

itmen

t

Social

med

ia

Compa

ny w

ebsit

e

Newsp

aper

Referra

ls fro

m emplo

yees

Wor

d-of

-mou

th


Recruitingthemorematureworker(45+years)canmakeuseofmoretraditionalrecruitmentapproachessuchaswordofmouth,referralsfromcurrentemployees,andtradeadvertising.Theuseofemploymentwebsites,recruitmentagenciesandothervoluntaryrecruitmentsupportorganisationsarealsoappropriate(DoEAustralia2012).Matureageworkerscanberecruitedforbothtraineeandmoreexperiencedroles,withthegreatestcontributiontobemadetotheorganisationfromthelifeexperienceoftheindividualprovidingarangeoftalent,knowledgeandskills(DoEAustralia2012).Furthermore,thetourismindustrycanprovideoptionsforthoseindividualsseekingtoapplytheirexperiencetocasualrolesastheyleadintotheclosingyearsoftheirworkinglivesandretirement.

Recommendations

• Promote and highlight the results of domestic recruitment and tourism career campaigns to improve the general capacity of tourism businesses to recruit-economies can consider adopting the approach of funding tourism awareness campaigns, including media and marketing blitzes and school-to-career programs.

• Encourage further exploration of the capabilities of employment services and recruitment agencies for activating jobseeking and responding to the workforce demands of the tourism sector, including the impending shortages facing the sector in many APEC economies.

• Encourage businesses to consider the recruitment of mature-age workers, able to apply their experience to selected casual roles as they lead towards retirement.

2.1.4� Staff�retentionRetainingstaffisessential,notonlyforcreatingstrongorganisationalculturesandteamwork,butalsoforreducingcostsassociatedwithrecruitmentandselection,andtraining.AsreportedbytheDepartmentofEmploymentinAustralia(2012),thecosttoreplaceanexistingemployeeisbetween75%and150%oftheindividual’sannualsalary,takingintoaccountrecruitmentcosts,aswellastraining,productivityandspecialistknowledge.Basedoncostalone,staffretentionispreferred;however,therearechallengesimplementingretentionstrategiessuchastraining,adjustmenttoworkingconditionsandmentoring,particularlyforSMEs.

WithadominationofSMEsintheindustry,theseorganisationsoftenlacktheresourcestoinvestinbestpracticesforhiring,trainingandretainingtheirworkforce.Suchpracticestendtorequiregoodprofitmarginsandlong-termbusinessplanning.Theyrequireorganisationstoaligntheirhumanresourcemanagement(HRM)policiesandpracticeswithaclearly-developedorganisationalstrategy.Consequently,whenSMEsstruggletofindtherightstaff,theyoftenre-doubletheirsearcheffort,ratherthanimplementlong-termmeasurestotrain,developandretainexistingstaff(Deloitte2015).ToensurebusinessescaneffectivelyimplementbestpracticeHRM,thereisacriticalrequirementformanagerstoupskillinunderstandingtheHRpracticesthatresultintalentmaximisation.


Apositiveworkplacecultureishighlyvaluedbyemployees,withmanyvaluingbeingapartofsomethingthatis‘makingadifference’(QTIC2013).However,someemployersdonotrecognisetheimportanceofagoodworkplacecultureandotherslackpeoplemanagementskills.Thus,acentralpartoftheroleofHRMinlargeorganisationsandgovernmentisnotonlytodeveloppolicyandpractice,butalsotoworkwithbusinessowners,managersandemployeestoreconcilecompetingviewsaboutwhatisvaluedinorganisationsandwhatassistsincreatingworkplaceharmony.Smallbusinessowners,generallybeingmorecloselyconnectedtotheirstaff,canalsoworkwithemployeestounderstandhowtheirworkplaceculturecanbeimproved,withinthecapacityoftheorganisationtodeliver.

Fromthestakeholdersurvey,competitionfromothertourismbusinesseswasrecognisedasthegreatestchallengeaffectingstaffretentioninbusinesses.AsFigure14indicates,respondentsseethecompetitionfromotherindustriesasanotherareaofconcern.

Figure�14:�Challenges�for�businesses�in�retaining�staff�(all�economies)

Insummary,factorscontributingtothedemandandsupplyoflabourinclude:

• Rapidtechnologicalchange:newtechnologicaltrendsincludingcloudservices,big-data,artificialintelligence,robotics,3Dprintingandcrowdsourcinghavethepotentialtorevolutionisethetourismworkforce.

• Limitedinvestmentinretention:thetourismindustrytendstobedominatedbySMEsthatdonothavetheresourcestoinvestinbestpracticesforhiring,trainingandretainingtheirworkforce.

• Training:thereisalackofcoordinationbetweenthetourismindustryandtheformaleducationsector,whichhamperstheabilitytodelivermutuallybeneficialtrainingopportunitiestoprovideasteadyflowoftrainedworkers.ThisisexploredfurtherinChapter3ofthisreport.

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

Other

Lack o

f app

lican

ts

Lack o

f for

mal tra

ining

Lack o

f exp

erien

ced

appli

cants

Lack o

f req

uired

skills

Locati

on

Compe

tition

from

othe

r indu

stries

Staff n

ot moti

vated

to w

ork

Compe

tition

from

othe

r

tour

ism bu

sines

ses

Num

ber o

f res

pond

ents

Recruitingthemorematureworker(45+years)canmakeuseofmoretraditionalrecruitmentapproachessuchaswordofmouth,referralsfromcurrentemployees,andtradeadvertising.Theuseofemploymentwebsites,recruitmentagenciesandothervoluntaryrecruitmentsupportorganisationsarealsoappropriate(DoEAustralia2012).Matureageworkerscanberecruitedforbothtraineeandmoreexperiencedroles,withthegreatestcontributiontobemadetotheorganisationfromthelifeexperienceoftheindividualprovidingarangeoftalent,knowledgeandskills(DoEAustralia2012).Furthermore,thetourismindustrycanprovideoptionsforthoseindividualsseekingtoapplytheirexperiencetocasualrolesastheyleadintotheclosingyearsoftheirworkinglivesandretirement.

Recommendations

• Promote and highlight the results of domestic recruitment and tourism career campaigns to improve the general capacity of tourism businesses to recruit-economies can consider adopting the approach of funding tourism awareness campaigns, including media and marketing blitzes and school-to-career programs.

• Encourage further exploration of the capabilities of employment services and recruitment agencies for activating jobseeking and responding to the workforce demands of the tourism sector, including the impending shortages facing the sector in many APEC economies.



2.2� Policies�and�practicesGovernmenttourismlabourpolicyintheAPECeconomiesisshifting.Forexample,inthePeople’sRepublicofChina,thefocushasshiftedfromthedevelopmentoftourisminfrastructuretoinvestmentintourismeducationtofillcriticallabourgaps(TheHospitalityTalentGap,China,BusinessReview,citedinWTTC(2015)).Figures15and16showthatintheeconomieswherethereisagreatereffortbybusinessestoinvestinworkforcetraining,itisrelativelyeasiertofindskilledworkers.Thisappearstobethecaseacrossdevelopedanddevelopingeconomies.

Figure�15:�Skill�shortages�versus�investment�in�training�(Developed�economies)

Source: World Economic Forum (2015)

Additional issues raised by stakeholders

• Tourism is perceived as a women’s only domain in some economies, with limited opportunities for male employment as identified by workshop participants.

• From the workshops, women and youth were identified as over-represented in lower paid positions and positions with poorer working conditions, with women more likely to suffer harassment and violence and youth more likely to work long hours, split shifts, and in seasonal work roles.

• Workshop participants suggested that training at a university level is not designed to make students specifically ‘job ready’ and questioned whether that is the role of the industry.

• Larger tourism businesses were identified by workshop participants as potentially assisting to build capacity of SMEs.

• Formalised induction programs were recommended by workshop participants.

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

Investment of trainingEase of finding skilled employees

Chinese TaipeiSingaporeRussiaNew ZealandJapanHong Kong, ChinaCanadaAustralia


Figure�16:�Skill�shortages�versus�investment�in�training�(Developing�economies)

Source: World Economic Forum (2015)

Theavailabilityofthe‘APECLabourMarketPortal’(APEC2016)providesanexcellentresourceforeconomiestoplantheirworkforce.Althoughtourismisincludedintheonlinetemplatesviacategoriesofaccommodation/foodservices,artsandentertainment,andperhapstransportandstorage,thereisanopportunitytocustomisethistooltoencompassthoseindustriesandoccupationswhichareidentifiedwithinthebroadertourismindustry.Asasubsetofaneconomy-wideworkforceplanningstrategy,atourismspecificinterpretationofthedatawouldbeaveryusefultoolfortourismemploymentplannersacrosstheregion.

KeytotheuseoftoolssuchastheAPECLabourMarketPortalistheengagementofindustrystakeholdersthroughpeople-centredapproachestoworkforceplanning.Suchengagementseekstoprovideworkforceplanningwhichmeetsbothcurrentandfuturebusinessneeds,andassistsgreatlyingeneratingindustryownershipoftheplan.Examplesofsuchapproachesarepresentedhere.

Australia:Thedevelopmentof‘Tourism2020’,aframeworkforgrowthfortheAustraliantourismindustry,wasaconsultativeplanningprocesswhichincludedthecontributionsofindustryleaders,stateandterritorygovernmentsalongwithfederalgovernmentrepresentatives.Tourism2020hasanimplementationphaseoffiveyearsbetween2015and2020andincludesatargetofanadditional152,000personstobeemployedtomeetthepredictedvisitorexpenditureincreasesduringthisperiod.Theactionstoaddressthechallenge(andopportunity)ofprovidingtheseadditionalworkersare:

1. Improvingrecruitmentandretentionfortheindustry;

2. Enhancingregionalworkforceplanninganddevelopment;

3. Identifyingeducationandtraininggapsandpotentialmechanismstoaddressthem;and

4. Facilitatingworkforcemobilityandexpandingthetraditionalworkforce.

Toensurealignmenttoindustry,AustradehasestablishedsixworkinggroupsformedofAustralianGovernment,stateandterritorygovernments,statetourismorganisationsandindustryrepresentativescurrentlyoperatingwithinaroundtable.Thegoalofthisroundtableprocessisto

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

Investment of trainingEase of finding skilled employees

Viet NamThailandPhilippinesPeruMexicoMalaysiaKoreaIndonesiaChinaChile

The PhilippinesPeruMexicoMalaysiaRepublic of KoreaIndonesiaPeople's Republic of China


developshorttermpracticalandlongertermstrategicrecommendationswhichareadoptedbyallstakeholderstoultimatelyachievethe2020targets.

Singapore:Generallyregardedasanexemplarforitstalentpolicies,thegovernmentundertakesforward-lookingworkforceplanningandindustrytalentresearch,forexampletheTourismTalentPlan.ThePlanaimstopreparetheworkforcetomeetaprojectedspikeinmanpowerdemand,drivenbynewtourisminvestments.Theholisticthree-prongedapproachcomprisescontinuingeducationandtrainingforadultworkers,pre-employmenttrainingforstudents,andindustrydevelopmenttoattractmoreworkerstojointhetourismindustry.ThegovernmentalsoaimstoeliminateinformationasymmetriesbylaunchingtheSingaporeWorkforceSkillsQualification(MOMSG2016)andtheSkillsFutureSGwebsite(SkillsFutureSG2016).Theseallowjob-seekerstoundertakeinformedcareerplanningandresourcesfortraining,andbusinessestoidentifywheretheycanmeettheirimmediateandnear-termlabourforceneeds.

Canada:TheBritishColumbiaTourismLabourMarketStrategy(2012–2016)identifiesbestpracticesmeanttohelpthetourismindustryattract,trainandretainqualityworkers.Thisincludespromotionofretentiontools,a“ForEmployers”sectionoftheGO2HRwebsiteandthe“EmployeesFirst”guidefortourismoperators.Thestrategywasdevelopedinconsultationwithapproximately1,000industrystakeholdersthroughdiscussions,workinggroups,surveysandregionalconsultationssessions.Theplancomplementsprovincialandfederalprioritiesandreflectsseveralimportantfederalinitiatives(go2hr2012).

Various�economies:ExamplesofdomesticcareerguidanceassociationsfromNewZealand,Korea,Canada,andindependentregionalbodiesprovideillustrationsofhowtoactivelyengagewithyoungworkers.Byengagingwiththeseassociationstoprovideinformation,thetourismindustrycanensurethedevelopmentofcareerpathwaymaterialstosuitemployersandtrainersalike.Examplesofsuchorganisationsinclude:

• CareerDevelopmentAssociationofNewZealand;

• KoreaResearchInstituteforVocationalEducationandTraining;

• AsiaPacificCareerDevelopmentAssociation;

• CanadianCareerDevelopmentFoundation;and

• InternationalAssociationforCareerVocationandGuidance.

Careerguidancereferstoservicesandactivitiesintendedtoassistindividualstomakeeducational,trainingandoccupationalchoices.Suchservicesarefoundinschools,universities,workplacesorinvoluntarycommunityorganisations.Careerguidancecounsellingincludescareerinformationprovision(deliveredface-to-face,in-print,viatheinternetorinotherforms),assessmentandself-assessmenttools,counsellinginterviews,careereducationprograms,worksearchprogramsandtransitionprograms(OECD2004).Toalignwiththetourismindustry,specifictourismonlineportalswouldfurthersupportindustryworkersbysupportingcareerprofessionalswhoseinterestliesintourism,inadditiontodevelopingtheworker’scareerpathmorebroadly.


2.2.1�Lack�of�reliable�data�for�workforce�planning�

AkeyfindingthroughthepreparationofthisreportwasthelackofreliableandcomparabledataacrosstheAPECeconomiesformonitoringtrendsinthetourismworkforce.Acommonsetofworkforceplanningandretention‘factors’havebeenidentifiedthroughouttheresearch,thesearepresentedinTable8.

Table 8:�Tourism�workforce�factors�that�can�be�monitored�and�evaluated

Quantitative

• Genderequality

• Wageconditions

• Workingconditions

• Skilllevel

• Femalerepresentationinmanagementroles

• Annualinternaltrainingandformationexpenditure

• Migration

• Participation-in-learningprograms

• Annualworkforcedevelopmentexpenditure

• Numberoftrainees/apprentices

• Externalorcorporateconnectedness(numberofconnectionsfromfirmtoindustryandfirmtotrainingprovider)

Recommendations

• Customise the APEC Labour Market Portal to encompass those industries and occupations which are identified within the broader tourism industry to assist in workforce planning.

• Encourage APEC economies to increase or continue to support SMEs to invest in workforce planning either through tax relief or subsidies to contribute to improve staff retention; to develop and introduce induction programs; and provide specific HR skills in SMEs through regional-specific approaches such as Tourism Employment Plans.

• Enhance online career guidance portals to filter by career professionals specifically interested and able to support workers within the tourism industry specifically.


Qualitative

• Workforcedevelopmentplans

• Integratedperformancesystem

• Trainingeffectivenessstrategy

• Informationexchangeatdomesticandregionallevel

Recommendations

• Using a standardised set of workforce planning measures and labour and skills needs analysis tools (developed by APEC), encourage each APEC economy to measure and report on workforce planning indicators. Partner agencies identified to assist the TWG in reporting and monitoring include the Human Resource Development Working Group (HRDWG), the International Labour Organization (ILO), the International Organization for Migration (IOM), and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).


2.3� Case�Study�—�AustraliaTourism employment plans: responding to regional labour and skills issues

Australia’stourismindustryemploys929,000peopledirectlyandindirectly.Tourismgenerated$116.6billioninvisitorexpenditureintheyearending30June2016andcontributed$47.5billiontoAustralia’sGDP(3.0percentoftotalGDP).ThetourismindustryiscurrentlygrowingthreetimesasfastastherestoftheAustralianeconomyandiscentraltoAustralia’seconomictransition.

Australia’snationaltourismstrategy,Tourism2020bringstogethergovernmentsandindustrytoputinplacereformstomaketheindustrymorecompetitive.Reducinglabourandskillspressuresisawhole-of-governmentpriority.

The2015DeloitteAccessEconomicsLabourForceReport,anupdateofthe2011report,foundthetourismsectorcurrentlyhasanestimated38,000unfilledvacancies.By2020theindustryisforecasttoneedanadditional123,000newworkersincluding60,000skilledworkersdrivenbystronginternationalvisitorgrowth.

Program features

FollowingfromthefindingsofareportpreparedforAustradebyDeloitteAccessEconomicsin2011–the2011TourismLabourForceReport–andunderTourism 20207,eightemployment‘hotspots’wereidentifiedtopilotregionallyfocusedTourismEmploymentPlans(TEPs)torespondtooneofthekeyrecommendationsofthe2011report.TheTEPswerethefirstoftheirkindinAustralia–alocally-ledplantorespondtoaregion’slabourandskillsissues.

TEPsaimedtodelivertargetedandpracticalmeasurestoaddressrecruitment,retentionandskillsdevelopmentandtobuildcapacityintheregion,bybringingtogetherkeypartners.

• Forabusiness,TEPsofferedtoprovidesolutionstoattractandkeepworkersandtoprovidenewideasandtoolstoundertakemoreeffectiveworkforceplanning,whichwouldhelpbusinessesmeetfuturerecruitmentneedsmoreeasily.

• Fortheindustry,TEPswereameansforgreatercollaborationbetweenbusinesses,industrybodies,theeducation/trainingsectorandgovernment;andofensuringeffortswereconcentratedinworkingtowardsacommongoal.

• Fortheregion,TEPsweredesignedtoleadtoimprovedtrainingandemploymentopportunities,meaningabetterskilledworkforce,enhancedservicequalityandbettertourismexperiences.TEPsweretomaketheregionmoreinternationallycompetitive;andaregionwherepeoplewanttoholiday,liveandwork8.

Funding and governance structure

Co-contributionseedfundingofaroundAUD1.1millionfromtheAustralian,StateandTerritoryGovernmentswasprovidedtoimplementeightTEPsundertheTourism2020program.Expertconsultantswereputinplaceforupto12monthstodeliverathree-yearplanforeachregion.TheconsultantworkingwiththeTEPRegionalCommitteewasrequiredtoidentifyafundingsourceforanyfundingrequiredoverandabovetheseedfunding,oralternativelydeliveraTEPthatwascostneutral.ThisresultedinsomeTEPsbeingdeliveredwithin-kindsupportandotherswherefundingforspecificinitiativeswasfoundlocally.

TheTEPsweresupportedbyastronggovernancestructuretoensuresustainabilityandindustryownership.Australian,StateandTerritoryGovernmentsprovidedoversightthroughaformal7 https://www.austrade.gov.au/Australian/Tourism/Policy-and-Strategy/tourism-2020

8 Moreinformationcanbefoundathttps://www.austrade.gov.au/Australian/Tourism/policy-and-strategy/Labout-and-skills/tourism-employment-plans

Qualitative

• Workforcedevelopmentplans

• Integratedperformancesystem

• Trainingeffectivenessstrategy

• Informationexchangeatdomesticandregionallevel

Recommendations

• Using a standardised set of workforce planning measures and labour and skills needs analysis tools (developed by APEC), encourage each APEC economy to measure and report on workforce planning indicators. Partner agencies identified to assist the TWG in reporting and monitoring include the Human Resource Development Working Group (HRDWG), the International Labour Organization (ILO), the International Organization for Migration (IOM), and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).


committeedesignedtosharelessonslearntandlinksacrossregions.EachTEPhadaregionalcommitteewhichmetregularlytoguidetheTEP.Stakeholdersrepresentedavarietyofareas,including:tourism,education,employmentandimmigrationgovernmentagencies;chambersofcommerce;trainingproviders;skillscouncils;andtourismandhospitalitybusinesses.ThesepartnersprovidedtheTEPswithregionalandworkforceexpertiseanddrovethedeliveryofpracticalstrategies.UndertheStateOversightCommitteeprocess,lessonsfromeachoftheTEPswerereportedbackandappliedtotherolloutoftheprogram.

Operation

PilotTEPswererolled-outinavarietyofareasacrossAustraliatoprovideaseriesof‘models’thatcouldbeadaptedforotherregions.SeeFigurebelow.

Figure�17:�Pilot�regions�within�Australia�for�Tourism�Employment�Plans�(TEPs)

Thesemodelsare:

• Remote�Area�(Red�Centre�and�Broome):RemoteareaTEPsweredesignedtorespondtolaboursupplyandskillsissuesparticularlywherethereiscompetitionfromotherhigherpayingindustries,impactsofseasonalityandlabourmobility.Solutionsincludedboostingtheregion’semploymentprofileandengagingspecificuntappedlaboursourcessuchasyouthandIndigenousworkersandbestutilisingappropriatemigrationstreams.

• Regional�Area�(Kangaroo�Island,�Tropical�North�Queensland�and�regional�Tasmania):TEPsinregionalareasrespondedtolaboursupplypressures,impactsofseasonalityandlabourmobility,workforcedevelopmentandup-skilling.Possiblesolutionsincludedbetterregionalco-ordinationbetweenagencies,increaseduseofunder-representedlaboursources(suchasIndigenous,youth,mature-agedandlongtermunemployedpeople)andadoptingappropriatemigrationoptions.

Tropical North Queensland TEP

Sydney TEP

Canberra TEPKangarooo Island TEP

Broome TEP

Red CentreTEP

West Coast Tasmania TEP

Mornington Peninsula/Phillip Island TEP


• City-Fringe�(Mornington�Peninsula/Phillip�Island):City-fringeTEPsrespondedtothesupplyof,andimprovingtheskillsofworkersinregionsthatsitonthefringeoflargercitiesbyengagingunder-representedlaboursources,improvingcollaborationwithtrainingproviders,respondingtoimpactsofseasonalityandlabourmobility,andaccessingappropriatemigrationchannelstosupplementthelocallabourforcewherethiswasneeded.

• Capital�City�(Sydney�and�Canberra):ThecapitalcityTEPsconsideredhowtoeffectivelymeetcapitalcitylabourandskillsneedsparticularlywherethecitywasexperiencingshortages.Thiswasachievedthroughbetteruseoflocallabour(includingIndigenousworkers),under-representedgroups,up-skillingtheexistingworkforcethroughbetterlinkswithtrainingproviders,improvingcoordinationwithstakeholdersandutilisingappropriatemigrationstreamstofillskillgaps.

Inaddition,evidencegatheredthroughconsultationswithmorethan1,250stakeholdersduringthedeliveryprocessprovidedvaluablelessonsonpossiblesolutionstoeaselabourandskillspressuresatthenationallevel,andidentifiedcommonpolicyissuesthathaveassisteddecisionmakers.

Approximately150strategieswereidentifiedacrossthefourareasbelow:

i. Business�awareness�and�uptake�of�government�and�industry�programs�ConsultantsacrossallTEPsdevelopedregionalspecificprogramguides,factsheets,bestpracticecasestudiesandhumanresourcetoolstodistributetolocalbusinesses.Thesewerecomplementedbycloseto50targetedworkshopswhichbroughtinexpertstohighlightthemostimportantprogramsforaregion.Thisstrategywasimportantastherewerealotofsupportoptionsavailabletoassistbusinesseswithrecruitment,retentionandtrainingandthisapproachsoughttoincreaseuptakeofthemostusefulprogramsforaregion.

ii. Embedded�programs�TheTEPswereabletoembedkeyprogramsandtrialsintoTEPregionstoactivelyencourageuptake.Forexample,theTEPregionswereselectedtoreceivespecificfundingtosupportbusinesseswithworkforceplanningadviceandtrainingbytheAustralianGovernmentandimplementedbytheindustry’sskillscouncilworkingwithindustry.Over900businessesinTEPregionsparticipated,withtheaimofsupportingworkforceplanning,trainingemployeesandprovidingamorehighlyskilledworkforce.

iii.Inclusion�of�the�accommodation�sector�TheaccommodationsectorwasincludedinaSeasonalWorkerProgrammepilottrialledinfourTEPregionsacrossAustralia9.ThispilotprovidedaccommodationbusinesseswithaccesstolowskilledlabourduringpeakseasonsfromFiji,Kiribati,Nauru,PapuaNewGuinea,Samoa,SolomonIslands,Timor-Leste,Tonga,TuvaluandVanuatu.Sixty-oneseasonalworkerswereinitiallyemployedintheaccommodationsector,withasignificantintakeinBroomefromTimor-Lesteworkerstosupportthisregiontorespondtoseasonalityissuesandallowseasonalworkerstobuildcapacityandremittance.

Newandinnovativestrategiesdesignedtomeetregionalissuesweredevelopedtosupportrecruitment,retentionandskillsdevelopmentinspecificregions.Forexample,acampaigntoattractandretainpeopleintheRedCentre,includedinnovativeorientationandinductionprogramsfornewstafftoimproveretention.

ThreeregionsdevelopedonlinetrainingprogramstoliftcustomerservicelevelsinTropicalNorthQueensland,KangarooIslandandCanberra.TEPsalsoworkedtomakeformaltrainingmorerelevanttoindustrythroughproposingamendmentstotrainingprograms;directly

9 www.employment.gov.au/seasonal-worker-programme


connectingIndigenousworkerstotourismvacanciesandtraining;andsupportingIndigenousbusinessesinworkforceplanningandmanagingtheirworkforce.

TheAustralianGovernmentalsoprovidedseedfundingforthedevelopmentofasustainablecareercampaignwhichbecameindustry-ownedandoperatedbytheNationalTourismAlliance.Importantly,thecampaignsoughttochangeperceptionsaboutcareersintourismandhospitalitybytargetinghighschoolchildren,matureagedworkers,Indigenousworkers,currentworkersandpeoplefromnon-Englishspeakingbackgrounds.ThisinitiativeassistedtheTEPregionstohighlighttheirlocationasadesirableplacetoworkintourism.10

iv.Build�a�better�understanding�for�government�and�industry�of�cross-regional�issues�impacting�the�supply�of�labour�and�skills

AustradeistheAustralianGovernmentagencyresponsiblefortourismpolicybutdoesnotcontrolmanyofthedirectpolicyleversforreformstolabourandskillsissues.

However,AustradehasusedevidencefromthepilotTEPprogramtomakesubmissionsandrepresentationstootheragenciestoinfluencerecommendationstoaddressissuessuchasimprovinglabourmobility,housingaffordability,transportationofworkers,migration,cross-jurisdictionalrecognitionofoccupationalcertificatesandrelevanceofthejobservicessystemtothetourismindustry.

EvidencegainedfromtheTEPshasalsobeenusedtoinfluencechangeinmigrationprograms,includinghavingchefsonthegeneralskilledmigrationspecifiedlist,theSkilledOccupationListin2014.

TheGovernment’sbroaderTourism2020strategyalsolookstoaddresskey‘gamechanging’reforms,includingsomestrategiesthathavebeenidentifiedinTEPregions.

Concluding comments11

ThiscasestudywasbasedonresearchbyAustrade’sLabourandSkillsPolicySectiondoneinNovember2016anddrewonanearliercasestudywhichwaspublishedbytheOECDin2014.12

ThepilotTEPprogrammeisconsideredtohavebeenhighlysuccessfulandcontinuestodeliverinnovativeresultsforindustry.AustradeiscurrentlyreviewingtheprogrammetotestthekeylessonsandrecommendationsperceivedtohavebeencrucialinthedevelopmentoftheTEPs:

• AstaggeredapproachtotherolloutofeachTEPtoensurebestpracticelearning,toacknowledgethateachregionisdifferentandtoensurethatplanswerebedevelopedaccordingly

• EarlyengagementofindustrythrougharangeofpartnersandprojectchampionstogainsupportandownershipoftheTEPanditsstrategieswasseenasthefoundationforasuccessfulTEP

10 ATEPToolswebpageidentifyingotherTEPstrategiesforregionscanbefoundathttps://www.austrade.gov.au/Australian/Tourism/policy-and-strategy/Labour-and-Skills/tourism-employment-plans

11 FormoreinformationonAustralia’slabourandskillsinitiativespleasevisithttp://www.austrade.gov.au/Australian/Tourism/Policy-and-Strategy/labour-and-skills

12 CFE/TOU(2014)3/REV3OrganisationdeCoopérationetdeDévelopementÉconomiquesOrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment16-Dec-2014ANNEX1:AUSTRALIA–TOURISMEMPLOYMENTPLANSpps70-73


• Realisticexpectationsonwhatcanbeachievedwiththefundingavailable,andadaptingtochangeUtilisationofexistingresources,toolsandsupportprogrammestoassistbusinessesmaketherightconnections–notingSMEscanfinditdifficulttobefullyawareoftheallprogrammesthatexist

• Maintenanceofanorganisedgovernancestructureandestablishingkeyperformanceindicators.

Toensurebroaderbenefitstootherregions,AustradedevelopedaGuide to Developing a TEP13(‘theGuide’)andimplementedaTEP Advisory Service.Thesetoolssupportregionstomovefromthinkingaboutaregionalworkforceplantoactuallydeliveringone.

BothtoolsattractedstronginterestandwereusedinthedevelopmentofthelatterTEPs.

TheGuideincludesdetailedinformationonthefiveessentialprocessesandconsiderationsinsettingupaTEP:

TheGuidealsocomplementsarangeofotherinitiativesbeingdeliveredthroughTourism2020toincreasethesupplyoflabour,skillsandIndigenousparticipationacrossAustralia—someofwhicharealsohighlightedwithinthetext.14

AcomplementaryWorkforceDevelopmentGuidewasalsodevelopedbytheindustry’sskillscouncil.15

Thisoutlinesasimplesetofstepsonhowtobuildaworkforceplanforabusiness.Itincludesleadingpracticetechniques,toolsandcasestudiestosupportbusinessesinworkforceplanningandensuretheyhavetherightworkersandskillstomeettheirneeds.

Postscript

AnupdateoftheTourismLabourForceReportwasreleasedinSeptember(Part1)andOctober2015(Part2),whichfoundthattheshortagesforecastin2011hadnoteventuatedintheirentirety.

Thereportnoted38,000unskilledvacanciesinthetourismindustry(withavacancyrateof7percent);andstatedthatimprovementsinlabouravailabilityonthebackoftheminingboommovingfromtheinvestmenttotheproductionphasemayhavecontributedtothisimprovement.(The2011surveyhadestimatedthatanadditional56,000workerswouldbeneededin2015.)

Intheabsenceofanyintervention,thisfigureof38,000vacancieswasexpectedtogrowtoaround123,000workersby2020,whichincludesashortageofaround60,000skilledworkers.

13 www.austrade.gov.au/Australian/Tourism/Policy-and-Strategy/Labour-and-Skills/Tourism-Employment-Plans/tourism-employment-plan-advisory-service

14 See:‘Tips’andCaseStudiesonaspectsofdevelopingaTEP;adetailedmatrixofsuggestedsolutionstoissuesidentified–Appendix1,pps45–67;anda‘skeleton’TourismEmploymentPlanstructure–Appendix2,page68.

15 WorkforcePlanningGuidefortheTourismandHospitalityIndustry:SkillsDevelopmentProgramsforTourismandHospitality,April2015(Austrade)

Step 1

Define andprofile the

region

Step 2

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and skills issues

Step 3

Select theappropriate

solutions forthe region

Step 4

Allocate roles,responisbilities

and timelinesfor delivery

Step 5

Implement,communicate,

measure,revise


CASE STUDY

Thesefindingswereinthecontextofrelativelyfavourableeconomicconditionsforthetourismindustrycontributingtohigherinternationalvisitornumbers.(Recruitmentandretentiondifficultieseasedslightlybetween2011and2015duetothevacancyratedecliningbytwopercentagepoints.)

Whilebusinessesreportedhavingslightlylessdifficultiesinemployingandretainingstaffin2015,theyoverwhelminglyreportedthatthesestaffarenotappropriatelyskilledforthepositiontowhichtheywererecruited.Thiswasevidencedacrossmostjurisdictionsandmosttourismindustrysectors.Businessresponsestotheseskills/experiencegapsrangefrommovingtomoreflexibleworkarrangementstoformaltrainingandsourcingalternativesourcesoflabour.

Businesseslookingtoalternativesourcesoflabourtofillvacanciesmostcommonlylookedtomatureageworkers,whichrankedhighestacrossalljurisdictionsexceptWesternAustralia.BusinessesinWesternAustraliaidentifiedoverseasworkersasthemostimportantsourceofalternativelabour.

Overall,underabusinessasusualscenario,the2015TourismLabourForcereport16foundthatthetourismindustryisexpectedtoneedanadditional123,000workers,whichincludes30,000skilledworkers,by2020.

2.4� Summary�of�chapter�recommendations• Promote and highlight the results of domestic recruitment and tourism

career campaigns to improve the general capacity of tourism businesses to recruit, economies can consider adopting the approach of funding tourism awareness campaigns, including media and marketing blitzes and school-to-career programs.


• Through research and consultation, design a common approach for the collection and sharing of workforce planning data across the APEC economies to allow sharing of information on workforce participation, skilled migration, and labour and skills.

• Through the APEC Tourism Working Group, develop an Industry of Choice Charter, aligned to the Sustainable Development Goals, to highlight the importance and economic value of healthy, safe and diverse workplaces and encourage economies to adopt programs to reduce unsafe and discriminatory practices from the tourism sector as an employer of choice and reduce references to ‘low-skill – low pay jobs’.

16 www.tra.gov.au/research/Australian-Tourism-Labour-Force-Report-2015-2020.html


CASE STUDY

• Develop a research project and follow-up career campaign with a business and employment-oriented social networking service to showcase career paths of those in senior positions in the tourism sector and explore the career progression rates in tourism compared to other sectors.

• Build on the HRDWG project focused on mature workers to include specific reference to the opportunities which exist for the tourism industry from this worker cohort.

• Customise the APEC Labour Market Portal to encompass those industries and occupations which are identified within the broader tourism industry to assist in workforce planning.

• Encourage APEC economies to increase or continue to support SMEs to invest in workforce planning either through tax relief or subsidies to contribute to improve staff retention; to develop and introduce induction programs; and provide specific HR skills in SMEs through regional-specific approaches such as Tourism Employment Plans.

• Enhance online career guidance portals to filter by career professionals specifically interested and able to support workers within the tourism industry.

• Using a standardised set of workforce planning measures and labour and skills needs analysis tools (developed by APEC), encourage each APEC economy to measure and report on workforce planning indicators. Partner agencies identified to assist the TWG in reporting and monitoring include the Human Resource Development Working Group (HRDWG), the International Labour Organization (ILO), the International Organization for Migration (IOM), and the OECD.

56 Image credit: Photographee.eu - fotolia.com


3BuildingTrainingCapacity

Key Findings

The link between industry, government and educators needs to improve as the skills and labour shortages challenge grows. Issues of transferability of skills and the limitations SMEs face in providing training can be addressed through government support programs and better use of the existing commercial and government-led programs.

Beyondthebodyofworkersemployedinthetourismindustry,anotherkeycomponentessentialtolong-termgrowthofthetourismworkforceistheeducationsectorandthenumerousformsofinternalandexternaltrainingprogramsthataredesignedtotrainandequipworkerswiththeskillsneededtosucceedintheindustry.Thischaptersummarisesthemainformsoftrainingandeducationrelevanttotheindustry,discussessomestrategiestobuildcapacityandensureeducationandtrainingprogramsmeetindustryneeds.

3.1� Challenges3.1.1� In-house�training�by�businessAshighlightedinChapter2,akeychallengetoworkforceplanningintourismisaperceivedlackoftrainingandeducationoptionsintheindustry.Inthestakeholdersurvey,22%ofoverallrespondentsidentifiedcostasthemainbarriertoinhibitinggreaterinvestmentintraininganddevelopment(seeFigure18).WithmorethanhalfoftherespondentstothesurveyrepresentingSMEs,thisresultisnotunexpected.Generally,theresultswerenotdissimilaracrossdevelopedanddevelopingeconomies,however,therewasoneresponsethatreflectedadifferingexperience.

Indevelopingeconomies,13%ofrespondentsindicatedalackofresourcesfortrainingasopposedto8%fordevelopedeconomies.Thesefindingsmayindicateanopportunityforgreateralignmentbetweengovernmentandindustrytoprovide(orpromotetheavailabilityof)resources,orbetweenindustry–largeandsmall–tocollaborateonsharingresourceswhereappropriate.Otherchallengeswithtrainingarepresentednext.


Figure�18:�Main�barriers�inhibiting�tourism�organisations�from�investing�in�staff�training�and�development�(all�economies)

Certaininherentcharacteristicsofthetourismindustryconstrainthecapacityfortourismbusinessestoprovidetrainingfortheirstaff.Revenueflowstendtobehighlyseasonal;whichpartiallyaccountsforthehighturnoverrateintheindustryleadingtoatransientworkforce(ServiceSkillsAustralia2013;WTTC2015;Deloitte2015).EspeciallyamongSMEs,thebusinesscasefortrainingandretainingstaffishighlydependentontheabilitytoretainandfinancestaffinoff-peakseasons.Furthermore,theremaybeconcernsaboutinvestinginstaffwhothenmovetocompetitororganisationsafterthetrainingexpenseisinvested.

In-houseandVocationalEducationandTraining(VET)opportunitiesrepresentthemainpathwaysthroughwhichworkerscanaccesstheskilledlabourmarketmorebroadly.TypesofVETofferedincludetraineeshipsandapprenticeships,requiringtheemployeetoundertakeacombinationofon-the-jobandin-classroomcurricula(BusinessEurope2015;G20TaskForce2012).Intermsofin-housetraining,thehighnumberofSMEsandseasonalrevenueflowsintourismrepresentaseriousconstraintonthecapacityofbusinessestofinanceandofferextensivetraininganddevelopmentopportunitiesfortheiremployees.SMEsmaylackthein-houseskillsandexpertisetoeffectivelysupportthistypeoftraining.Muchon-the-jobtrainingisadhocandinformalinnatureandmaybedeliveredbypeoplewhothemselves“learntbydoing”orreceivedsimilarlyunstructuredtraining.Thisislikelytobeparticularlytrueinsmallandmicro-enterprises(Stacey2015).

ConcerningVETtraining,akeyissuefortrainingraisedthroughtheindustryconsultationisthepoorindustryuptakeofgovernmenttrainingschemes,theregulatoryburdensassociatedwithtrainingandhowtiesbetweenindustryandeducatorscouldbestrengthened(e.g.throughadvisoryboards,scholarships,etc.).Workshopparticipantssuggestedalackofscholarshipsandtrainingfundsisachallengetobusiness,particularlytoSMEs.Ontheotherhand,theavailabilityofprogramsisoftennotcommunicatedthroughchannelswherethegreatestuptakecanbeachieved.

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EvidenceofalimiteduptakeofVETtrainingwasreflectedinthesurveyresults.Only21%ofthebusinessesreportedtohaveaccesstospecificgovernmentfundededucation,training,scholarshiporapprenticeshipprogramsavailableintheeconomy.Intermsofwhytheydidnotaccesstheseschemes,thesurveydistinguishedwhetherbusinesseswereawareofsuchgovernmentprograms(seeFigure19).Inthisregard,allbusinessesthatdidnotengageingovernmentschemesdidindicateawarenessoftheexistenceofsuchprograms.Thissuggeststhatwhilebusinessesmaybeawareofgovernmentschemes,otherfactorsmaybeinhibitingtheirengagement,suchaslackoftimeorlackoftrainingcapacity.

Figure�19:�Access�of�government�funded�education,�training,�scholarship,�or�apprenticeship�programs�or�schemes

Datafromthesurveyrepresentsagreaterextentofonthejobtrainingofferedtostaffthanformalcareerpathwaysinbothdevelopedanddevelopingeconomies.Notabledifferencesincareerdevelopmenttoolsaretheofferingofinternationalworkprogramsandformalnetworkingprograms,bothofwhichsawahighernumberofresponsesindevelopedeconomies(seeFigure20).

Don’t Know

No

Yes


Figure�20:�Methods�of�career�development�offered�to�staff��(the�extent�to�which�methods�are�offered)�

3.1.1.1.�The�challenge�of�an�SME-dominated�industryWithmanybusinesseswithintheindustryoperatingasSMEs(upto80%)thatareoftenchallengedbylimitedresourcestoinvestintraininganddevelopment,theperceptionofalackoftraininganddevelopmentisinmanyinstancesthereality(Stacey2015).SMEsarethelargestemployersintheindustryandwereidentifiedbyworkshopparticipantsasnothavingthesupportprogramsinplacetoprovidevaluableon-the-jobtrainingopportunities.Inlargercentreswheretherearegreaternumbersoftourismproviders,opportunitiesforbothin-houseandexternaltrainingareincreased,insomecasesprovidinganoversupplyoftrainedworkers(NCVER2011).Workshopparticipantsidentifiedlargertourismbusinessesasapotentialforhelpingtobuildcapacity,yetthesebusinesseshavelimitedengagementwithSMEstoshareandprovidetrainingsupport.Traininganddevelopment,particularlyforSMEs,isdiscussedinfurtherdetailinChapter3.2.2.

Incontrast,careerprogressionoftourismemployeesinsomedevelopingeconomieshasbeenaffectedbyashortageoftrainedlocalemployees.Thishasmeantthatmanagerialandotherseniorpositionshavebeenfilledbyexpatriates,withthelowerskilled,lowerpaidpositionsbeingleftforlocals(Liu&Wall2005;citedinShakeela2009,Dwyer2015).Indeed,insomecountries(e.g.theMaldives),eventhelower-levelpositionsaretakenbyexpatriatesfromotherdevelopingeconomies(Shakeela2009).

3.1.2� Strengthening�the�links�between�education�and�tourismArecentreportonGlobalTalentTrendsandIssuesfortheTravel&TourismSector(WTTC2015)concludedthattourismeducationneedstobemoreresponsiveandbetteralignedtotheindustry’sneed.Ingeneral,coursescanbeoutdatedandlackanappropriatebalancebetweentheoryandpractice,orfailtorespondtomodernised,international,innovative,andinteractiveteachingmodes.Insomeeconomiestourismeducationmaybelackingduetoalackofqualifiededucatorsand,althoughVEToptionsaregrowinginnumber,thistypicallyfallsshortofdemand(OxfordEconomics2015).

Training on the

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Workshopparticipantsidentifiedtheperceptionthattrainingatauniversitylevelfortourismisnotdeliveringalignmenttojobrequirementsnortostudentexpectations,resultinginlimitedgraduatesbeing‘job-ready’.Thegrouprecognisedthechallengeforcollegesanduniversitieswheretherearelimitstowhatcanbetaughtinaclassroomsetting,withmanyskillsinemploymentrequiringhighlycustomisedtraining.Forexample,coreskillsmightbesimilar,however,thewayinwhichtheyaredeliveredand/orneedtobeappliedintheworkplacewillbecontextualisedtotheorganisation.

Businessrespondentstothestakeholdersurveysupportedtheperceptionoftheworkshopparticipantsidentifyingagreater‘job-ready’skillsetavailablefromgraduatesofCertifiedapprenticeshipprograms(seeFigure21).Theinclusionofon-the-jobtrainingislikelytocontributetothisreadiness,withcloseto70%ofapprenticegraduatesbeingrecognisedasjobready,whereas40%ofuniversitygraduateswerefoundtobejobready.Theseresultswerealmostmirroredinbothdevelopedanddevelopingeconomies.

Figure�21:�Are�graduates�entering�employment�job-ready?

Specifically,graduatesareidentifiedaslackinginsoftskills,withbothdevelopedanddevelopingeconomiesrecognisingthistalentdeficit17.Figure22representsresponsestothesurveyquestionaskingrespondentswhatskillsaspecifictypeofgraduateislackingthatbusinessesneed.Interestinglyinbothdevelopedanddevelopingeconomies,digitalskillswereleastlacking,whilethegradientbetweenthedifferenttypesofgraduatesrelevanttohardskillswassimilarforbothdevelopedanddevelopingeconomies,bothreflectinguniversitygraduatesasthosewiththegreatestlackofhardskills.

17 Forarefresheronthetypesofskillsidentifiedunderthefourcategories,thereaderisdirectedtoChapter1.5ofthisreport.

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Figure�22:�What�skills�are�graduates�lacking�that�your�business�needs?

Inthefaceofsuchconcerns,akeychallengefortheVETsectoristogettourismbusinessesengagedandcontributetothedevelopmentofregionaloccupationalstandardsorcurriculaspecifictotheirindustry,orinthecaseoflargeemployers,totheirorganisation(BusinessEurope2015;Smith&BrennanKimmis2013).Fromtheinceptionoflearningprogramdevelopment,andthroughtimelyreviewofcurricula,employersareabletocontributethestate-of-the-artintheirindustrytothelearningdevelopedbothintheclassroomandon-thejob.Theabilityforindustrytocontributetothedesignofprogramsalsoprovidesgreaterconnectiontolabourmarketdemand(BusinessEurope2015;ILO2012).Furthermore,encouragingeducatorstospendtimeintheindustrycouldassistindevelopingacadreofindustrytrainededucators,abletocontributetothedevelopmentofgraduateswhomaybemore‘job-ready’.

Thedesignoftrainingprogramsdirectlylinkedtoagreedcareerpathwaysiscriticalinensuringtherelevanceoftrainingtobothindustryneedsandensuringthattheprogramssupportspecificcohortsofstudents.Forexample,anassumptionmadebyanemployerthattrainingprogramsprovidedbyeducatorsarealignedtotheneedsofyoungpeopleandtheircareerpathscouldbemisinformedwhenyoungpeopleareaskedoftheircomprehensionoftheprogram.Shouldyoungpeoplelackunderstandingofhowsuchtrainingcoulddirectthemalongaspecificcareerpath,itismostlikelyeithertheemployerslackunderstandingoftherelevanceofthetrainingtoyoungpeople,orthattheexpectationsoftheemployerarenotbeingdeliveredbytheeducator(Bonifazetal.2010).Thereistheopportunity,inthisinstance,foraconnectiontoathirdparty,suchascareerguidancecounsellorsorotherhumanresourceagenciestoassistinmappingoftrainingagainstcareerpathways,particularlyforyoungpeople.

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3.1.3� Developing�training�standards�or�benchmarks�ArecentreportonTourismCareersinAustralia(ColmarBrunton2016)notedthereexistswidespreadconcernamongtourismemployersaboutthecurrentqualityoftourismandhospitalitytrainingprograms:

• Coursesthatarenotnecessarilybasedonspecificworkplaceneeds;

• Trainerswholackpracticalindustryexperience;

• Trainingbeingtootheoreticalandnotequippingpeoplewithkeypracticalskills;

• Hospitalitycoursesthatdonotdedicatesufficienttimetoindustryplacements;

• Insufficientfocusoncomputer/ITskills;and

• AperceptionofstudentsinVETthatyouneedtoattendbutnotnecessarilylearn.

Feedbackfromworkshopparticipantssupportsthecallforthedevelopmentofdomesticstandardsoftrainingtoassistinimprovingthequalityofgraduatesandinturn,thequalityofcustomerserviceexperiencedfromwithintheindustry.ThisisparticularlythecaseforSMEs,whereoftenthetrainingprovidedtoemployeesiswithoutformalqualification,andalthoughsomeskillsmaybetransferable,thestandardoftrainingprovidedisnotanindustryrecognisedqualificationwhichmaybeproblematicfortheemployeeinfuturedomestic,oreveninternational,roles(ColmarBrunton2016).

Thedevelopmentofagreedregionaloccupationalstandardscouldbeseenasanextensionofeconomydevelopedstandards.IntheHRDWG’s‘APECOccupationalStandardsFramework:TestintheTravel,TourismandHospitalityIndustry’project,thereisanopportunitytodefinetheskillsrequiredofemployees(ratherthanqualifications)infiveoccupationsinthetravel,tourism,andhospitalityindustries.

Theintentofthisprojectistoinformdistincttrainingstandardsand/orcurriculumwithineacheconomy’stechnicalvocationaleducationandtraining(TVET)system.Inturn,theprojectseekstoprovideabenchmarkfordevelopingconsistenttrainingthatmeetsindustryneedsacrosstheregionandwillinturnsupportmobility,whetherthrougharecognisedqualificationorabilitytoassessagainstastandard(whereaqualificationisnotavailable).Involvingemployers,tradeunionsandotherstakeholdersinthedevelopmentofthestandardswouldencourageindividualeconomyuptakeofthestandards.

Fromtheperspectiveofskillsrecognition,onechallengewillbetheagreedstandardisationofhowsoftskillsarerecognised.Thedevelopmentofanagreedsetofcriteriausedinanassessmentstyleapproachwheretheemployeereceivesformalacknowledgementscouldbeonesolution.


Summary from the stakeholders

Training and education

• The strongest barrier to investing in training and development of staff, as indicated by the survey, is cost

• Workshop participants suggest a lack of scholarships and training funds are a challenge to business, particularly to SMEs, and SMEs do not have the support programs in place to provide in-house training.

• 55% of business survey respondents stated they did not access any government funding for training, indicating a greater need for access or communication of program availability.

• Business survey respondents indicated that graduates of apprenticeship programs have a greater ‘job-ready’ skillset than those with higher or lesser education levels.

• Development of economy-specific standards of training will assist in improving the quality of graduates.

Recommendations

• Encourage each APEC economy to establish an economy-appropriate process of improving the collaboration between government, industry and training providers aimed at delivering more industry relevant and job-ready graduates, more industry-experienced teachers, and more well-equipped businesses to provide training and inductions to their staff.


3.2� Policies�and�practices3.2.1�ApprenticeshipsOneofthemorecommonlyconsideredpoliciesfortrainingisapprenticeship.Thedefinitionofapprenticeshipshaschangedovertime,withmorerecentdefinitionsrecognisingthemoremodernuseofapprenticeshipstomaintainorupdateskillsforadultworkers(Smith&BrennanKemmis2013).TodefineapprenticeshipsacrossAPECbordersischallenging(UnionLearnn.d.);however,ausefulbroaddefinitionis:

A training program that combines vocational education with work-based learning for an immediate increase in occupational skills (i.e., more than routinized job training) and that are subject to externally imposed training standards particularly for their workplace component (Ryan, Wagner, Teuber, Backes-Gellner, 2010, cited in ILO 2012).

Broadlytherearetwotypesofapprenticeships–informalandformal.Thecharacteristicsareexplainedbelow,withspecificcharacteristicsidentifiedinTable9.

Informal�apprenticeships:Employeesarebroughtintotherolethroughwhatisoftenaverbalagreementwhere,particularlyinlowereconomicstatussocieties,theskillslearnedareoftenpassedfromonegenerationtothenextthroughfamilialconnections.Inthesearrangements,employeesaregivenpurelyaworkplace-basedlearningenvironment,withoftenaminimumwage,perhapsunsafeworkingconditions,extendedworkinghours,andlittleprotectioninthecaseofinjuryofillness(ILO2012).Itisthisimageofapprenticeshipsininformaleconomieswhichmanyrecogniseastheunregulatedsystemwhereemployeesaredisadvantagedandexploitedthroughemployerdisregardforregulations(ILO2012).

Formal�apprenticeships:Employeesarebroughtintothecompanyunderaregulatedsystemoflearning,whereminimumwagesareprovidedunderacontractualagreement,wherelegalisedworkingconditionsidentifytheresponsibilitiesoftheemployee,theemployer,andathird-partytrainingprovider(whereappropriate)(NCVER2011).Insomeeconomies,theemployeebecomessuchfromthestartoftheapprenticeshipperiod,whereasinotherstheemployeeisbroughtintothefirmonaprovisionalbasisforatrialperiod.

Summary from the stakeholders

Training and education

• The strongest barrier to investing in training and development of staff, as indicated by the survey, is cost

• Workshop participants suggest a lack of scholarships and training funds are a challenge to business, particularly to SMEs, and SMEs do not have the support programs in place to provide in-house training.

• 55% of business survey respondents stated they did not access any government funding for training, indicating a greater need for access or communication of program availability.

• Business survey respondents indicated that graduates of apprenticeship programs have a greater ‘job-ready’ skillset than those with higher or lesser education levels.

• Development of economy-specific standards of training will assist in improving the quality of graduates.

Recommendations

• Encourage each APEC economy to establish an economy-appropriate process of improving the collaboration between government, industry and training providers aimed at delivering more industry relevant and job-ready graduates, more industry-experienced teachers, and more well-equipped businesses to provide training and inductions to their staff.


Whendesigningapprenticeshipprogramsthereareanumberofsuccessfactorswhichcanbeconsidered.Table10provides a list of these according to a review of the key apprenticeship programs in the European Union (EU 2015).

Table�10:�Success�factors�of�apprenticeship�schemes�from�the�European�Commission

• Robustinstitutionalandregulatoryframework

• Activesocialpartnerinvolvement

• Strongemployerinvolvement

• Closepartnershipsbetweenemployersandeducationalinstitutions

• Fundingincludingemployersubsidiesandotherincentives

• Closealignmentwiththelabourmarketneeds

• Robustqualityassurance

• High-qualityguidance,supportandmentoringofapprentices

• Appropriatematchingofapprenticetohostorganisation(company)

• Combinationoftheoretical,school-basedtrainingwithpracticalwork-relatedexperience

• Existenceofanapprenticeshipagreement

• Certificationofacquiredknowledge,skillsandcompetences

• Tailoredandflexibleapproachestotheneedsofvulnerableyoungpeople

Source: EU (2015)

ThislistisinstructiveinthedevelopmentoffutureapprenticeshipprogramsintheAPECeconomies.Importantly,theavailabilityofgovernmentfundingforsubsidieseitherforemployersand/oreducationalinstitutionscanassistinmaintainingthenumberofgraduatesandthequalityoftheprogrammingdelivered.

Recommendations

• Through APEC, encourage the consideration of the EU findings on successful apprenticeship programs (and others where appropriate) for application to suitable programs in APEC economies.

• Through the connection between the APEC TWG and the HRDWG, establish and maintain stronger connections to internationally recognised educators and industry associations.

Table�9:�Characteristics�of�formal�apprenticeships�compared�with�other�workplace-based�learning�programs

Traineeship InternshipInformalApprenticeship

Work-placelearning

FormalApprenticeship

Wage Maybe No Pocketmoneyorinkind

Yes Yes

Legislativeframework

No No No No Yes

Work-placebased Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Programoflearning No No No No Yes

On-the-jobtraining Maybe Maybe Maybe Maybe Yes

Off-thejob-training No No No No Yes

Formalassessment No No No No Yes

Recognisedcertificate

No No No No Yes

Duration Variable Variable Variable Variable Fixed

Source: ILO (2012), p.3

Thereare,however,exploitationconcernsforyoungpeopleundertakingapprenticeships.Bothininformalandformalarrangements,youngpeopleengagedasapprenticesmaybeunprotectedbyemployerswhochoosenottoabidebyanyrulesorwhereconditionsofemploymentarenotenforcedincountriesthatlackthequalitystandardscalledforbymanyproponentsofthesystem(ILO2012).Youngpeoplecanfindthemselveswithoutpayment,withoutacceptableworkingconditions,andwithoutavoice,particularlyintheabsenceofasocialenterprisesuchasanemployeeunion(ILO&WorldBank2013).

AnexamplefromCanadaisworthconsideringforothereconomiesthatmayseektofinanciallysupporttheirapprentices.Severalfinancialmechanismsareputinplacetoprovidesupportatdifferentstagesofanapprenticeship.TheseincludetheCanadaApprenticeLoan,EmploymentInsurancewhileapprenticesattendtechnicaltraining,andApprenticeshipgrants.ApprenticeshipgrantsprovideuptoCAD4,000thatcanbeusedtowardsexpensessuchastuition,travel,toolsandotherexpenses(RedSeal2016).Tradeseligibleforthegrantsarethosethataredesignated“RedSeal”,whichmeansthatinadditiontoaprovincialcertificateofqualification,aninterprovincialendorsement(calledaRedSeal)canbeissued,meaningthatthetradespersonhasqualifiedtoanationalstandard.Thereare56tradesdesignatedintheRedSealprogram,whichtouchanumberofsectorsincludingconstruction,automobilerepair,manufacturing,resource-basedindustries,aswellastourism-relatedtrades,suchascooksandbakers.

18 Insomeeconomies,suchasAustralia,thedurationofformalapprenticeshipsisnotalways‘fixed’.Someschemespermittheapprovalofanapprenticeas‘competent’aheadofthestructuredtimeline,ifcompetenceisidentifiedearlier.


Whendesigningapprenticeshipprogramsthereareanumberofsuccessfactorswhichcanbeconsidered.Table10provides a list of these according to a review of the key apprenticeship programs in the European Union (EU 2015).

Table�10:�Success�factors�of�apprenticeship�schemes�from�the�European�Commission

• Robustinstitutionalandregulatoryframework

• Activesocialpartnerinvolvement

• Strongemployerinvolvement

• Closepartnershipsbetweenemployersandeducationalinstitutions

• Fundingincludingemployersubsidiesandotherincentives

• Closealignmentwiththelabourmarketneeds

• Robustqualityassurance

• High-qualityguidance,supportandmentoringofapprentices

• Appropriatematchingofapprenticetohostorganisation(company)

• Combinationoftheoretical,school-basedtrainingwithpracticalwork-relatedexperience

• Existenceofanapprenticeshipagreement

• Certificationofacquiredknowledge,skillsandcompetences

• Tailoredandflexibleapproachestotheneedsofvulnerableyoungpeople

Source: EU (2015)

ThislistisinstructiveinthedevelopmentoffutureapprenticeshipprogramsintheAPECeconomies.Importantly,theavailabilityofgovernmentfundingforsubsidieseitherforemployersand/oreducationalinstitutionscanassistinmaintainingthenumberofgraduatesandthequalityoftheprogrammingdelivered.

Recommendations




3.2.2�SMEs�and�trainingTypically,tourismisdominatedbySMEsthatdonothavetheresourcestoinvestinbestpracticesforhiring,trainingandretainingtheirworkforce.Suchpracticestendtorequiregoodprofitmarginsandlong-termbusinessplanning.TheyrequireorganisationstoaligntheirHRMpoliciesandpracticeswithclearly-developedorganisationalstrategy.Consequently,whenSMEsstruggletofindtherightstaff,theyoftenre-doubletheirsearcheffort,ratherthanimplementlong-termmeasurestotrain,developandretainexistingstaff(Deloitte2015).

FromanSMEperspective,challengesareidentifiedas(EuroChambres2014):

• Highinvestmentoftimeandfinancialresourcesintotrainingactivitiesincludingwages,workingthroughlaboriousadministrationprocedures,etc.;

• Lackoftimefortraining,particularlyfromtheperspectiveofSMES,whereresourcesareoftenlimited;

• Limitedpromotionoftheexistenceofapprenticeshipprogramsandtheprocessesrequiredtobenefitfromparticipation;

• Limitedin-housetrainingfacilitiesandresourcestodedicatetothetrainingoftheindividual/s;and

• Lowqualityofskills/educationofschoolleaversperceivedbybusinesstofullyaddressthebasicskillrequirements.

ToensurebusinessescaneffectivelyimplementbestpracticeHRM,thereisacriticalrequirementformanagerstoupskillinunderstandingtheHRpracticesthatresultintalentmaximisationandretention.Businessesaregraduallybeginningtoconsiderwhattheyofferintermsoftheiremploymentarrangements,theircareeranddevelopmentopportunities,theirmanagementandleadershipstyleandultimately,theirorganisationalculture.

ForSMEs,informaltrainingisoftentheonlyandmostcost-effectiveoption.Forexample,forsmall-scaletradersinIndonesia,manylearntheirtradeinBali,butthenopenbusinessesonotherislands(Hitchcock2000).Thoughmanyofthesearemostlyyoungsinglemaleswithlimitededucation,theirabilitytospeaktheirownlocallanguage,theIndonesianBahasa,andatleastoneforeignlanguage,whichisoftenEnglish(Cukier1996;citedinHitchcock2000)providesthemwiththerequisiteskillstogrowtheirbusinesses.Suchlanguagecompetenciesmayoftenbereflectedamongstthosewhosucceedasself-employedvendorsinthetourismindustrythroughoutdevelopingeconomies.


3.2.3�Strengthening�links�between�education�and�tourismToassistinaddressingthelackofjob-readinessofuniversitygraduates,asidentifiedfromthestakeholdersurvey,amorepracticalapproachtoteachingtourismandhospitalitymanagementisrequired.Lecturers,workingcloselywithindustryrepresentatives,canorganisemandatoryindustryplacementsorshadowingprograms,andsupplementwithfieldtripsorcasestudyworkwherepossible.

AnAPECexampleofhowthelinksbetweeneducationandtourismcanbestrengthenedistheworkthattheCentrodeFormaciónenTurismo(CENFOTUR)–partoftheMinistryofForeignTradeandTourism(MINCETUR)-hascompletedinPerutodevelopjobprofilesandfunctionalmapsofdifferenttourismsubsectors(seeFigure23).CENFOTURhaspreparedandupdatedoccupationalprofilesforarangeofjobs,includinghousekeepingstaff,cooks,customerservicestaff,ruraltourismservices,foodandbeveragestaff.Theseprofilesfeedintolarger‘functioning’mapsdescribingtheworkflowsandtasksthattakeplacewithinthesubsector.CENFOTURhasdevelopedfunctioningmapsforthefoodandbeveragesubsector,accommodationsubsector,toursalesandoperationsubsector,andcasinoandentertainmentsubsector,amongothers.

Recommendations

• Government funding is essential to maintain sufficient volume and quality of travel and tourism related vocational training– including accredited apprenticeships. Funding can be paid directly to tourism educators or via industry as an incentive to accept a greater number of trainees for placement or provide on-the-job training opportunities.

• Explore further opportunities for larger employers to assist with SME training utilising the structures larger employers have in place to assist SMEs or for SMEs to send their staff to undertake co-training with larger organisations

• Monitor the effectiveness of SME support programs across APEC economies and encourage economies to share lessons from grant funding and support programs at APEC Tourism Working Group meetings.


Figure�23:�Job�profile�mapping�of�tourism�subsectors�(Burns�2016)

Aswaspresentedattheprojectworkshop,theseprofilesandmapshelpenablethestandardisationofskillsacrossthesectorsandenablethedevelopmentofappropriatetrainingmodulesintheeducationsector.Newtrainingmoduleshavebeendevelopedthatmatchthesejobprofilesandaremadeavailablethroughhighschools,VETcollegesaswellason-the-jobmodules.Inthisway,workershavetheopportunitytoaccessongoinglearningprogramsthroughouttheircareerandhavetheabilitytocertifyandgainaccreditationfornewlyacquiredskills.Theexpectedbenefitsofthisschemeincludeimprovingtheemployabilityofworkers,improvingthetransferabilityofskillsacrossjobs,closingthewagegapbetweenmenandwomenintourismactivities,increasingtheproductivityofworkers,andenhancingthequalityoftourismservicesprovided.

Australiaismakingin-roadstoimprovethealignmentbetweenindustry,government,andeducationproviders.Throughthedevelopmentoftheirfour-yearworkplan,submittedforapprovalinSeptember2016,theTourism,TravelandHospitalityIndustryReferenceCommittee(IRC)seekstoundertakeareviewofthethirty-threequalificationswhichsupportfivesubsectorsofthetourismindustryincludingexhibitionsandevents,hospitalityandholidayparksandresorts.Thereviewwillinformthedevelopmentofthenationalreviewschedule,whichisafour-yearrollingprogram.Itisenvisagedthatsuchaninitiativewillassistinmaintainingcurrencyandrelevanceincurriculumdeliverybytrainingprovidersnationally,andwillbeaimedatsupportingthenewandemergingworkforceskillsneeds(SkillsIQ2016).

Qualifications(Functional maps, job profiles)

Skill-based training(Training modules, capacity building)

Recognition ofskills acquired

(Evaluation and certification of

occupational skills)

Work

Production Sector

Education

Validation of skills for crossover from work world

to formal education

Quality Assurance – Information Management

QualificationsFramework

Recommendations

• Involve employers, trade unions, and other key stakeholders in the development of occupational standards frameworks to assist in generating greater uptake in implementation.


3.3� Case�Study�—�PeruPeruisaneconomyrecognisedworldwideforitsauthenticity,biodiversity,historicallegacyandforbeingthebirthplaceofoneoftheoldestcivilisationsontheplanet.Recognisingtourismasakeyengineofeconomicgrowth,theNationalTourismStrategicPlan(PENTUR)2016-2025hasbeenupdatedandsetsobjectivesviathreestrategicpillars.Onepillar,PillarTwo,“DiversificationandConsolidationoftheTourismOffer”,referstothecomponentofthe“DevelopmentofHumanCapital”.InthispillarPeruwillpromotethestrengtheningatnationallevelofaqualityeducationalofferforthetrainingofhumanresourcesofthetourismindustry,withaclearfocusonthecompetenciesdemandedbythelabourmarket.Thepillaridentifiesgapsbetweenthesupplyofeducationandtheindustrydemandforhumanresourcesandtheirrespectivearticulationwhilerecognisinglabourcompetencies.

AccordingtotheMinistryofForeignTradeandTourism(MINCETUR),thetourismindustry’seconomiccontributiontonationalGDPwasalmost5%.Accordingly,akeytargetfortheStrategicPlanistotransformtheindustryintothesecondlargestcontributortotheeconomy.Nonetheless,challengesremainintheindustry,with87.6%ofthetourismworkforcehavingcompletedonlysecondaryeducation.Thislimitededucationhasledtotrainingbeingmorefocusedonoperationalpracticeswhichinturnhaslessimpactonlong-termworkerproductivityandhasnoinfluenceontheprofessionalisationoftheindustry.

Toaddressthisworkforceskillgap,theStrategicPlanincludeskeyactionssuchas:raisingcompetitivenessinthesector,strengtheninghumancapitalandworkforceskillsandharmonisingcross-institutionalvisions.Developmentofhumancapitalandworkforceskillsisbeingdeliveredthroughaseriesofcoordinatedprogramsandactionsincluding:

• Inter-ministerial�coordination:�

GreatercoordinationandcooperationbetweentheMinistryofLabourandEmploymentPromotionandtheMinistryofEducationhasallowedforeffectiverecognitionandassessmentofprofessionalexperience.Inturn,thishasenabledaccreditationofprofessionalcompetenciesandpromotesongoingworkforcedevelopment.

TheMinistryofLabourandEmploymentPromotion(MTPE)inconjunctionwithMINCETUR,theCentreforTourismTraining(CENFOTUR)andtheprivatesector,industryworkers,academiaandothergovernmentagencieshavecreatedtheLabourSkillsCommitteefortheTourismSector.TheCommitteehastheresponsibilityofimprovingtheprocessesofstandardisationandcertificationofskill-competencies,aswellasspecificvocationaltrainingandjobtrainingprograms,aimedatenhancingemployability,competitivenessandlabourproductivity.

Theobjectiveistoidentifyandprioritisetheneedsintermsofcompetenciesinthetourismsectorandtounderstandcurrentandfuturefunctional(role)mapsandoccupationalprofiles,relativetolabourcompetencystandardsforthesuccessfulperformanceofcurrentandfutureoccupations.Likewise,itisthebenchmarktodevelopeducationandjobtrainingrequirements,establishmanagementcriteriaforhumanresourcesattheenterpriselevel,aswellastoboosttheprocessesofevaluationandcertificationoflabourcompetenciesinasteppedapproach,gainingrecognitionwithinthelabourmarketofthetourismindustry.


• A�National�Framework�for�skills�and�work�experience�recognition:

Thecreationofa‘NationalSystemofQualifications’willcreateaframeworktocontinuouslyupdateandimproveworkforceskillsandtrainingprogramstomeetmarketrequirements.

Aimedatgeneratinganacceleratedsocialinclusionoflow-incomeworkers,theNationalSystemintendstodevelophumancapital,andenhancecapabilitiesandskillsthatallowworkerstoaccessjobsanddevelopcareerpathsthroughongoingtraining.

TheNationalSystemofQualificationsisbasedontherecognitionthatcompetenciesencompassknowledge,skills,attitudesandvaluesthatpeopledeveloptomeettheactivitiesthatmakeupaworkfunction.Therefore,thequalificationssystemwillregulateandpromotetheongoingtrainingofworkerssothattheyarecapableofrespondingeffectivelytochangesinmarketdemands.

Asessementandcertificationoflabourcompetenciesfacilitatestheformalrecognitionofthecompetenciesheldbyanindividual,regardlessofhowtheyhaveacquiredthem(i.e,throughformaleducationorbyexperience),promotingmobilityandemployabilityinthelabourmarketofworkerswithcertifiedcompetencies.

• National�Plan�for�Tourism�Quality:�

TheNationalTourismQualityPlanisoneofthekeyinstrumentsoftheNationalStrategicTourismPlan.TheobjectiveofthePlanistoincreasethequalityoftheproductsandservicesacrosstheindustryandimplementgoodtourismmanagementpractices(health,safety,environmental)foroperatorsanddestinations.Todeliverontheseoutcomes,theMINCETURprovides:

• RecognitionoftheprovidersoftourismthatsuccessfullyimplementeachphaseofbestpracticefromtheMINCETURbestpracticemanuals(MBP);

• Marketingsupporttotheprovidersoftouristservicesrecognisedasapplyingthesystemofbestpractices,showcasingtheminadirectory;

• TrainingintheuseoftheMBPforoperatorsandserviceproviders(accommodation,restaurant,travelagenciesandtourism,touristtransportaquaticandterrestrial);

• BusinesstrainingtosupportoperatorsandSMEstoimprovetheirmanagementsystemsandprovidingthemwithinformation,knowledge,toolsandstrategiesappropriateandrelevanttothesituationofthecompanythroughtheManagementSystemsImprovementProgramforTourismServicesCompanies;and

• Certificationofqualityintourism:appliedbythePerutourismqualityseal,basedoncompliancewiththestandardsestablishedbythePeruvianTechnicalStandardsintourism(NTP).TheseNTPareapprovedbytheTechnicalCommitteeforstandardizationintourism,whichdependsontheNationalInstituteofquality.

• International�Occupational�Standard�Linkages�and�Mobility:�

IntheframeworkoftheAPECTourismWorkingGroup,Peruisleadingthecreationofanoccupationalstandardsframework.ThepilotprojectseekstodevelopoccupationalstandardsforfivekeyoccupationsinthesectorwhichwillbevalidatedandrecognisedbytheeconomiesofAsiaandLatinAmericatoenableeffectivemobilityofthetourismlabourforceamongtheAPECeconomiesandtheimprovementoftheacademiccurricula.


• Programa�Beca�18:�

TheCentreforTourismTraining(CENFOTUR)hasprovided5,000annualscholarshipstohighschoolstudentsfromlowincomeareasoftheeconomywhohavedemonstratedacademicexcellence.Scholarshipsareavailablefortourismandhoteladministration,tourguideandchef.

• Ponte�en�Carrera:�

Anonlineportalwhichenablespeopletovisualisereturnoninvestmentofparticularcareerpaths,includingthoseinthetourismandhospitalitysector.Thisinitiativehasledtoadramaticincreaseintheuptakeoftourismcoursesandcontributedtotheformalisationofthesector.

• Lack�of�investment�in�human�capital

HumancapitalisresponsibleforthequalityoftheserviceandhencethesatisfactionoftouristsvisitingPeru.Withoutsuitabletraining,workersinthesectordonotreceiveinformationanddonotdeveloptheskillsneededtoimprovetheirproductivity.Withoutadequatetraining,companiesmayloseemployees,emphasisingthescarcityofworkersandstaffturnover.

• SMEs

TheperceivedbarriersthatinhibitPeruvianSMEstoinvestintraininganddevelopmentofstaffinclude:

• SMEsfindithardtoaddressad-hoctrainingneeds;

• Wherethereareasmallernumberofworkers,thecostoftrainingworkersrises;

• Inthepresenceofhighstaffturnover,thereisafearofinvestingintrainingworkerswhomaythenleavewithwhatyouhaveinvestedandwhattheyhavelearned.

Principallymanagedbylowerskilledworkers,manynewmicroenterprisesaremuchlesslikelytoinnovate,andthereforehavelowerqualityandvalueproducts.Largerenterprisesaremorelikelytobeintegratedintoglobalvaluechainsandarequickertoadoptnewtechnologiesandpractices.SMEstendtospendlessoninnovationactivitiesandthereseemstobelimitedspill-overstothesefirmsfromlargerenterprisesinPeru(OECD,2011).


3.4� Case�Study�—�People’s�Republic�of�ChinaThepublicperceptionoftourisminthePeople’sRepublicofChina(hereafterreferredtoas‘China’)identifiestheindustryasonewhichisemergingandonewhichcanpotentiallyplayamuchgreaterroleindrivingChina’seconomicgrowth.InwhatisChina’smodernsociety,tourismisbecomingdeeplyrootedinthemindsofmanyasanewformofleisureactivity.Theadoptionofmasstourismhashelpedtorevealnewopportunitiesformanydomestictravellers,reflectedinthehighdomesticvisitorspendingratiotointernationalvisitorspending(WTTC2016a).Allinall,thepeopleinChinathinkveryhighlyaboutthelong-termprospectsofthetourismsector.

Yet,withthisrapidinterestintourismwithintheeconomy,skillsshortageshavebeenrecognisedasastructuralproblem;onethatcouldpotentiallystayforalongtimetocome.Severalofthesechallengeshavebeenidentifiedas:

• Lackofoperationalskills:Someuniversitygraduates,althoughsolidinprofessionaltheories,lackoperationalskillsandpracticalexperience.

• Limitedlevelsofeducation:Sometourismandhospitalityserviceemployeesareexperiencedandcapable,butnothighlyeducated,especiallyinculturalandprofessionalknowledge.

• Lackofdomesticallyavailableseniormanagers:SeniormanagementprofessionalsareinshortsupplywithinChina,requiringemployerstosourceprofessionalsoutsidetheeconomy,especiallyinthefieldofhotelmanagement.

Otherchallengesrecognisedtoaffecttheindustry’sabilitytoretainitsstaffinChinainclude:

• Growingcompetitionamongdifferentindustries

• Anageingpopulation,resultingintheshrinkoflabourforcesandriseinlabourcosts

• Industrycharacteristicsmakeitpronetothelossofemployees.Characteristicsincludelongworkinghours,andlowsalaries.

Technologyisanotherareawhichischallengingthewaythetourismproductisoffered.Technologicalinnovationhaschangedtheways,meansandmethodsforcombiningproductiontools,andlabourforcesinlabouractivities.Ontheonehand,technologyhasenabledthelabourmarkettointegrateresourcesandfactorsmoreefficientlywiththeapplicationofdigitaltechnologies.Ontheotherhand,someofthetraditionalmodelsarenolongerfitforthedigitalage.Tourismprofessionalsarethereforerequiredtoupdatetheirknowledgeaboutinformationtechnologies,resultinginademandforhigh-qualityprofessionalswithamuchbroaderknowledge,includingforexampletourisminformationsoftwaredevelopmentandtourismnetworkmanagement.

China’stourismindustryisalsodealingwithcompetitionfromotherindustriesforitsmanagementprofessionals.Manyareoriginallyeducatedforothertourismdisciplinesandevenotherindustries.Ontheonehand,thisisbeneficialtotheindustrytohaveworkersabletoapplyarangeofskills.Ontheotherhand,overallsalariesinthetourismsectorarelowerthanthatofotheremergingindustries(e.g.internet,securities,finance,etc.)andcompetitivetraditionalindustries(etc.realestate,construction,transportation,etc.).Toencouragemoreprofessionalstotheindustry,thesalaryrangeneedstobecompetitive.Furthercareeropportunitiesarealsonecessarytomaketheindustrymoreattractive,whichformanycurrentlyremaintobeseen,makingitdifficulttoretainemployeesinthetourismsector.

Toaddressthesechallenges,thevariouslevelsofGovernmentwithinChinaarerollingoutpoliciesandstrategicmeasures.Someofthesestrategiesinclude:


1. Raisingtheoverallqualityoftourismprofessionals:TourismisamainpillarofthetertiaryindustryinChina.Inrecentyears,Chinahaspushedfortheintegrationoftourismeducationresourcestoassistinstrengtheningacademicdisciplines.Therehasbeenafocusonimprovingthedesignoftourismcurriculaandadeepreformoftourismteaching.

Professionalandvocationaleducationintourismmanagementhasbeenafocus,resultingintheinitiationofasoundprofessionalqualificationssystemforthesector.Thishasincludedastrengtheningoftheskillsverificationsystemtoassistincultivatingthemarketofseniormanagersandprofessionalsavailabledomestically.There-employmentofretiredindustryexpertsandteacherstomentorandtrainishelpingtoenhancethecapacityoftourismprofessionalsthroughmoreindustryrelevanttraining,including‘village’tourism,andculturalandheritagetourismtrainingprograms.

2. Financialsupporttostudents:Smallloansareofferedtouniversitygraduatestoassistwiththeirstudies.Theprocesstoapplyfortheloanshasalsobeenstreamlinedforstudents.

3. Financialsupportfornewbusinesses:Taxbreaksareavailabletothosewhosetupnewventuresinthetourismindustry.Trainingandevaluationforemployeesofnewlyestablishedbusinessesarealsoavailablefromthegovernment.

4. Agerelatedworkforceplanning:Inresponsetothechangingageprofileintheworkforce,tourismorganisationsinChinaaretakingeffortstocreateasuitableworkingenvironmentfordifferentagegroupswhiletheyengageincollaboration.Careerplansthattrytobalancelifeandworkareestablishedfordifferentagegroups.Exchangesandcommunicationareencouragedbetweendifferentagegroupstofosterastrongersenseofteamspirit.

Tofurtherimprovetheindustry,asurveyoftheeducationandtourismsectorshasbeenorganised,helpingtodevelopafullerunderstandingofthecollegeandvocationaltourismeducationofferingsinChina.Thesurveyincludesquestionsrelatedtothescale,structureandeffectofspecificprogramswhilealsoanalyzingthesituationofhumanresourcesdevelopmentandmanagementwithinthesector.

Itishopedtheuseofthesurveywillhelptoacceleratetheachievementofthestrategyto“energizethetourismsectorwithscienceandeducationandstrengtheningthetourismsectorwithtalents,”therebydeliveringateamofhighlycompetenttourismprofessionals.

Linking�businesses�and�educational�providers

Severalactionshavebeenimplementedtoassistthelinksbetweentourismbusinessesandeducationalproviders.Theseinclude:

• In-industryteachertraining:Educationproviderssendingtheirteacherstotourismbusinessesforinternshipprogramstostrengthentheirpracticalexperience;

• In-industrystudentexperience:Educationprovidersandtourismbusinessesarecollaborating,followingamodelof‘orderedtraining’,providingstudentswithpracticalexperiencewhilemeetingthedemandsoftourismbusinessesrelevanttoaccess,trainingandretainingemployees;and

• Trainingformanagement:Tourismbusinessesareencouragedtosendtheirmanagementstaffandbusinessoperatorstotheeducationprovidersforstudenttraining,helpingtoraisethecompetenceandpracticalexperienceofprofessionalsinthefieldsoftourismmanagement,touristsitemanagement,hoteloperationsandtourguidingservices.


SMEs�in�the�tourism�industry

Fromtheperspectiveofthegovernment,tourismSMEsinChinaarenotmakingenoughinvestmentinemployeetraining,whichismainlyduetothefollowingreasons:

1. SMEsdonotrecognizetheimportanceofemployeetraining,thustheylackeffectivetrainingplansandthenecessaryinvestment,particularlyforseniorpositions;

2. Inwhattrainingexists,thecontentsandmethodsoftrainingaresimplisticandconsideredunexciting;

3. Thereisalackofaneffectiveexaminationandevaluationsystem;4. Alackofvenuestooffertraining;5. Lackofprofessionaltraininginstitutions;and6. Afocusontheformalisedstructureoftraining,ratherthanthepracticalapplicationofthe

contents.

Thissaid,sometourismbusinessesareworkingwithtourismassociationsandotherstakeholderstodeveloptrainingprogramsforemployeesmainlyinthefollowingways:

1. Whenavailable,sendingemployeestoworkintourismorganisationsofahigherlevelforpracticalcareerexperience;

2. Workingwithuniversitiesandcollegestoenhancethetheoreticalbackgroundofemployeeswhileaskingthemtogatherpracticalexperiencefromtheirwork;

3. Utilisingthetrainingcoursesandlectureshostedbygovernmentagencies,tourismassociationsandotherstakeholders;

4. Arrangingstudytoursincollaborationwithtourismorganisations;and

5. Participatinginmulti-partytrainingprograms.

Women�and�Youth

Chinahasprotectedwomenandyouthfromdiscriminationintourismemploymentthroughtheimplementationofneweconomicpoliciesandlabourlawreform.Severalkeyaspectsofthesepoliciesinclude

1. Fosteringasoundexternalenvironmentforwomenandyouthintourismemployment;

2. Improvingtrainingforwomenandyouthintourismemploymenttohelppreparethemforemploymentandre-employment;

3. Promotingtheprofessionalqualificationssystemandemploymentaccesssystemtohelpworkersgainmoreskills,potentiallyaccessinghigherincomes;

4. Settingupaspecialdevelopmentfundandloanguaranteefacilityforwomenandyouthtostarttheirownbusinesswhileimprovingtheadministrationofthefacilitytoprovidenecessaryfinancialsupportforwomenandyouth;

5. Broadeningthechannelsofemploymentandcreatingmorejobsinthetourismsector;and

6. Establishinganeffectivesupervisionsystemforthelabourmarketandstrengtheningtheprotectionofwomenandyouthinemployment.

Insummary,thePeople’sRepublicofChinaisinvestinginthedevelopmentofitstourismindustry,throughimprovementstopolicy,education,andimplementationofmonitoringtoolstoaddressindustryworkforceneeds.AshiftinChina’sgrowthmodelseesChinafocusedonseveralkeyobjectiveswhichincludeboostingdomesticdemand,encouragingconsumption,increasingjobs,promotingindustrialtransformationandupgrading,andfacilitatingcoordinatedandsustainableregionaldevelopment.Theultimategoalistodriveeconomicgrowthintheindustry,andfortheeconomy.


CASE STUDY


3.5� Summary�of�chapter�recommendations• Encourage each APEC economy to establish an economy-appropriate

process of improving the collaboration between government, industry and training providers aimed at delivering more industry relevant and job-ready graduates, more industry-experienced teachers, and more well-equipped businesses to provide training and inductions to their staff.

• Involve employers, trade unions, and other key stakeholders in the development of occupational standards frameworks to assist in generating greater uptake in implementation.



• Government funding is essential to maintain sufficient volume and quality of travel and tourism related vocational training – including accredited apprenticeships. Funding can be paid directly to tourism educators or via industry as an incentive to accept a greater number of trainees for placement or provide on-the-job training opportunities.

• Monitor the effectiveness of SME support programs across APEC economies and encourage economies to share lessons from grant funding and support programs at APEC Tourism Working Group meetings.

78 Developing the Tourism Workforce of the Future in the APEC Region February 201778 Image credit: Simon_sees - Wikimedia Commons


4LabourMobility

Labourmobilityreferstochangesoflocationofworkersbothingeographyandacrosssectors.Forthepurposesofthisreport,labourmobilityreferstothechangeoflocationacrossgeography,beingeitherdomesticorinternationalchanges.Withthetourismindustryhavingsuchbroadparametersorchoiceofroles,mobilityacrosstheindustryisconsideredwithinsector.

ThischapterexamineslabourmobilityinAPECeconomies,includingtrendsandchallengestomobility,currentpoliciesandpracticestofacilitatelabourmobilityacrossgeographyandrelevantfindingsfromselectcasestudies.

4.1� Challenges4.1.1� Migration�Skilledmigrationisoftenthesolutionwhenthereareskilledlabourshortagesinaneconomy(ILO&ADB2014).Whilemigrationcansupportskilledlabourshortages,thereisalsoaneedtoconsiderthelong-termemployabilityofmigrantsinthereceivingeconomy,asshort–termadmissionpoliciescannegativelyimpacttheworkerandreceivingeconomy(ICMPD2005).

Migrantworkersarepropelledtomigratebyboth‘push’and‘pull’factorsthatinfluencetheirdecisiontorelocateforwork.Thesefactorsincludecultural,lifestylechoices,morelucrativepayoffers,availabilityofhealthcare,stabilityofpoliticalclimateinsendingand/orreceivingcountries,andaccesstoeducationalopportunities(Brooks,Posso&Adbullaev2015;ILO&ADB,2014).

Between2000and2015,Asiareceived26millioninternationalmigrants;thelargestinfluxofmigrantsintheworld(UNDESA2015b).ThiswasfollowedbyEuropewith20million,NorthernAmericawith14million,andLatinAmericaandtheCaribbeanandOceaniawith3millionmigrantseach(UNDESA2015b).EightofthetenmostcommonmigrationcorridorsgloballyincludeAPECeconomies:Mexico–theUnitedStates;theRussianFederation–Ukraine;Ukraine–RussianFederation;Kazakhstan–theRussianFederation;theRussianFederation–Kazakhstan;thePeople’sRepublicofChina–HongKong,China;thePeople’sRepublicofChina–theUnitedStates;andthePhilippines–theUnitedStates(WorldBank2011).

Withmigrationcomesthecirculationofeconomicbenefitthroughremittances.MigrantworkersindevelopingeconomiescirculateanestimateUSD432billionglobally(WorldBank2016).Ofthisfigure,thePeople’sRepublicofChinareceivedUSD64billion,thePhilippinesUSD28.5billion,andMexicoUSD24.8billion(seeFigure24).Infact,remittancessentbymigrantworkersrepresent

Key Findings

Differences exist across the APEC economies in the availability of labour (skilled and unskilled) to meet the future demands of the tourism sector. As shortages of labour become more prevalent, improved arrangements to facilitate labour mobility will be needed across the economies. This starts with a common approach to monitoring labour and skills needs, and could be enhanced by a shared approach to labour force migration through programs such as an extension of the APEC Business Travel Card or the introduction of an ‘APEC Worker’ visa.


agreaterfinancialinvestmentindevelopingeconomiesthanofficialdevelopmentaid(ODA)assistance.

Figure�24:�USD�billions�in�remittances�(2015)

Source: World Bank 2016 (data available for selected economies as represented).

Thecosttoworkerstosendmoneyhomevaries,however,thecosttosendUSD200usedasaguide,rangesfrombetween6%ofthetotalto8%.Thisinformationisusefultokeepinmind,asformanymigrants,akeydriverinundertakingworkoutsideoftheirhomeeconomyistogeneratefundstobenefittheirfamilyandcommunity.Identifyingmethodstoimprovetheprocessandreducethecostofremittancesfortourismmigrantworkersaretwoareasforfutureresearch,whilealsorecognisingthesendingandreceivingeconomychallengesandopportunities.

Ofthoseworkersparticipatinginglobalmigrationprograms,73%arelow-skilledorunskilledworkers(Orbeta2012).IntheAssociationofSouth-EastAsianNations(ASEAN)region(seeGlossary),unskilledworkerscomprise87%ofthemigratoryworkforce,withintra-regionalmigrationmostprevalent(ILO&ADB,2014;Orbeta2012Themajorityofthetourismindustryissupportedbylow-skilledworkers,whichistraditionallythelevelofworkersourcedthroughmigration(Cerna2010).Inrecentyears,however,thefocusforglobalmigrationhasswitchedtomigrantswhorepresentthehighlyskilledworkforce.Referenceismadetothefast-pacedgrowthinglobalisationandtechnology,whichoffershighlyskilledmigrantworkersfromdevelopedeconomiesopportunitiestosupportthechangeinskilldemandindevelopingeconomies(Cerna2010;Sumptionetal.2013).Forskilledworkers,thechallengeofobtainingmutualrecognitionofqualificationsandexperiencepromptsamuchgreaterdiscussion,whichrequiresintra-regionalandinternationalattention(Sugiyarto&Agunias2014).

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ThereareseveralissuesrestrictingAsia-Pacificeconomies’abilitiestointroducebestpracticesystems(Brooks,Posso&Adbullaev2015,Hugo2009,Orbeta2012)inrespecttolabourmobility,including:

1. Migrationpolicieswhichrestrictmigrationviaadministrationcostssuchasworkpermitlevies,regulatoryrequirementsandqualificationrecognition,andareinfluencedbylabourmarketconditions;

2. Visarestrictionsandrequirementsforunskilledandskilledworkersincludingtherequirementforsponsorshiportheuseofrecruitmentagencies;

3. Lackofrecognitionofskillsandqualificationsinreceivingeconomies;

4. Socialconditionsinreceivingeconomiesincludingcultural,religious,ethnicity,demographics,andlanguageandtheexistenceofemploymentprotectionsforworkersinreceivingeconomies;

5. AlackofcapacityindevelopmentandoperationalisationoflabourmigrationpolicyinsomeAsia-Pacificnations;

6. Cooperationbetweenauthoritiesforeffectivegovernanceinsendingandreceivingeconomies;and

7. Informationanddatacollectiononmigration.

Amajorbarriertomigrationthataffectsthesupportofpovertyreductionobjectivesisthedebtincurredbymigrantsandtheirfamiliestomeetthecostsofmigration.Thesecostsareoftenincreasedduetofeeschargedbyagents,sub-agents,middlemen,travelprovidersandofficialsthatareinvolvedintherecruitmentandpreparationprocesses(Brooksetal.2015).Insomeeconomies,suchasIndonesia,thetransactioncostsassociatedwithmigrationaresohighthatmanyworkerschoosetomigrateusingirregularchannels(Hugo,2009).Agencycostsalsoaffecttourismoperators,whicharegenerallySMEswithlimitedbudgets.Inturn,thesecostscanreducedemandformigrants,withbusinessesonlyusingthisformoflaboursupplyasalastresort(QTIC2013).Developingeconomybusinessrespondentstothestakeholdersurveyagreedthattheissueofcostbothtobusinessandtoemployeeswasthemajorbarrierfortherecruitmentofforeignworkers(seeFigure21).Whileindevelopedeconomies,theissuesrelatingtovisasweremostprominent(see4.1.1.1).

4.1.1.1.�Visa�requirements�and�restrictionsVisaissueswereidentifiedasamajorbarrierby21%ofbusinessrespondentstothestakeholdersurveyrepresentingbothdevelopinganddevelopedeconomies(seeFigure25).Workshopparticipantsidentifiedthattheprocessofimprovingvisafacilitationcurrentlylackspoliticalwill.ThisissupportedbyHugo(2009),whoidentifiestheneedforpoliticalcommitmentandwell-trainedofficialstoimproveinternationalrecruitmentprocesses.Workshopparticipantsalsoidentifiedculturaldifferencesincludinglanguageskills,asissuesaffectingthedevelopmentofpolicies,furtherchallengingvisaandmigrationissues.Participantssuggestedthatworkforceplanningcanassistinrecognisingtheneedsoftheindustryandthecontributionwhichanimportedworkforcecanprovidetoassistinthedeliveryofaneconomy’stourismproduct.


Figure�25:�Major�barriers�for�business�to�the�employment�of�foreign�workers

Source: World Bank 2016 (data available for selected economies as represented).

Visasformigrantsareregulatedonaneconomybyeconomybasisandareoftendependentoncurrentindustryneeds(Levush2013).Visascanhaverestrictiveemploymentconditionswhichmakeitdifficult,costlyandtime-consumingtorecruitforeignworkers.Thiscanreducetheadoptionofforeignworkersbysomebusinesses.Inaddition,manyvisasarenotconducivefortourism,eithernotaccountingfortourismrolesorsettinghighminimumwagesandlocalworkforcetrainingrequirements.SuchrequirementscanprovetobeachallengefortourismSMEstoafford(QTIC2013),meaningtourismbusinessescanstruggletocomplywithvisarequirements.Othervisarestrictionscanincludethelevelofskillofthemigrant,theprovisionofmedicalreports,insurancecoverageandpaymentsforlodgementofvisaapplications(Brooksetal.2015).

Oneofthepoliciesthatattemptstosupportmigrationwithintheregionisthetemporaryworkerscheme.Theseschemesareseentobeoneopportunitywhichalignswelltotheseasonalnatureofthetourismindustry.However,achallengefortemporaryworkersschemesisthat,withoutcarefuldesignandmanagement,theycancontributetolabourshortagesinthesendingeconomies,potentiallyincreasingtheriskofexploitationofvulnerableinwardmigrants(Ball,Beacroft&Lindley2011).TherearecasesofsevereexploitationofinwardmigrantworkersintothePacificwhere,forexample,ina2006Niuecase,Indianmigrantworkersweredeceivedandforcedtoworkforlowwagesforfiveyears(Lindley&Beacroft2011).Recognisingthepresenceofcaseswhereworkerscouldbefacedwith“severeworkerexploitation”(PoA2016.Recommendation22),theAustralianSenateStandingCommitteeonEducationandEmploymentidentifiedtheneedtoimprovetheapproachesastohowtheseworkersaresupportedbytheDepartmentofImmigrationandBorderProtection(PoA2016).InotherexamplesinthehorticulturalindustryinAustralia,thepush-backfromlocalcommunitiestotheemploymentoftemporaryforeignworkersoverlocalworkersraisesconcernsforemployersandforunions(CoA2016).Toassistinmanagingthesepotentialconcerns,thereisaneedforeconomiestoproperlymanagelabourdemandandforecastlikelysupplydeficits(Abella2006).

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Visasneedtobeadaptableandprovideallowancesfortemporaryworkerswhomayeventuallywishtoapplyforpermanentresidence.Thisisparticularlyrelevantincircumstancesconcerningmarriagetoalocalcitizenoranapplicationbyanemployerwhowishestocontinuetoemploythemigrantworkeronapermanentbasis(Junggeburt2004;Strietska-Ilina&Tessaring2005).Inaddition,visaapplicationprocesses,issuanceandcomplexitiesneedtobesimplifiedandstreamlined,asthisisoneofthekeyreasonswhyundocumentedmigrationisprevalent(Hugo2009).

4.1.1.2.� Industry�adaptationManyoftheexamplesofworkermigrationprogramsarenotspecificallydesignedfortourism.YetforNorthernAustralia,theAustralianSeasonalWorkerProgrammehasbeenadaptedtoincorporatetourismworkersinapilotprogramannouncedinMay2016(DoE2016).Suchprogramscouldprovideacost-effectivesolutiontotheseasonalnatureoftourism.However,whenaskedifbusinesseschoosetoadapttheiremployeenumbersbasedontheseasoninlinewithcustomerdemand,two-thirdsofstakeholdersurveyrespondentsindicatedtheychosetomaintainstaffinglevelsthroughouttheyear.ThecostofcontinuingtoemployworkersoutsideofthepeakseasonscouldbechallengingforSMEsparticularly;however,downtimescouldprovideopportunitiesforbusinessestocapitaliseonthroughtrainingandtheuseofotherworkforcedevelopmentstrategiesbeingundertakenduringslowerperiods.

Withsomemigrationprograms–particularlyshort-term,seasonalprograms–thereislimitedopportunitytodelivertraining,etc.Onerecommendedpieceoftrainingistheuseofformalisedinductionprograms.Workshopparticipantssuggesttheuseofinductionprovidesnotonlyawelcomingandinformedcommencementtoarolefortheworker,butalsoassistsinthedeliveryofastructuredrepresentationofworkplacepoliciesandpractices.Feedbackfromtheworkshophighlyrecommendstheuseofformalisedinductionprogramsforallworkers,presentingagreateropportunitytoensureastandardisedlevelofservicedeliverywithinbusinessandwithintheindustry.

4.1.2 Skills recognitionTheInternationalOrganizationforMigrationconsiderstheissueofinternationalrecognitionofqualificationsasthegreatestthreattolabourmobility(Brooks,Posso&Adbullaev2015).Toassistinaddressingtheissueofrecognition,theAPECBusinessAdvisoryCouncil(ABAC)hasproposedtheintroductionofanewmodelofmanagingregionallabourmobility.Theproposed‘Earn,Learn,Return’initiative(APECn.d.)suggestsfoursteps:

Recommendations

• Encourage APEC labour mobility through shared information on labour and skills needs and improved visa issuance and immigration control across the region.

• Identify methods to improve process and reduce costs of remittances for tourism workers and identify challenges and opportunities for sending and receiving economies through the appropriate APEC working groups.


1. Anindustry-basedregulatorystructurebuiltaroundanewcategorycalledan“APECWorker.”APECmemberscouldidentifyorcreatetheidealmultilateralorregionalorganisationthatwouldprovidethegovernancestructureforeachindustry.Forexample,theInternationalMaritimeOrganizationgovernsworkerstandardsintheshippingindustry;

2. AnAPEC-wideregulatoryconvergenceoftraining,assessmentandcertificationofskillsandqualificationsforeachpositionineachsector;

3. AnAPEC-widetransparent,regulatedandstandardprocessfortherecruitment,jobplacement,anddeploymentofworkers;and

4. AnextgenerationofAPEC-wideservicescateringexclusivelyfortheneedsofanAPECWorker.

Buildingonthiswork,theHRDWGhasalsocompletedabroaderskillsrecognitioninitiativeentitledthe‘APECIntegratedReferencingFrameworkforSkillsRecognitionandMobility’tocomparerelevance,levelandqualityofskillsheldbyworkers.IthasdrawntogethertheAPECOccupationalStandardsFramework,theEastAsiaSummitTVETQualityAssuranceFrameworkandtheASEANQualificationsReferencingFramework(AQRF)intoacohesivearchitecture.Thefinalreport(BatemanandColes2016)foundthat,withintheAPECregion,itisacceptedthatthereneedstobeimprovedstructurestosupportandmanagelabourflowsintheregiontoaddressskillshortagesand/ormismatches.Amongtheproblemstobesolvedare:

1. Thediversityorabsenceofoccupationalstandards;

2. Findingwaystoadaptdomesticandregionalpracticestoincreasinginternationalisation;

3. Limitedrecognitionofskillsandqualificationsasaresultofinconsistencyofprocessesandpoorqualityassurance;

4. Limitedincentivesforpeopletotraininnewareaswherethereisalackofvisibilityofnewandemergingskillsinoccupationalstandardsandthereforeintrainingprograms;and

5. Lowemployerconfidenceofforeignworkersbeing‘qualified’or‘skilled’intheareasthatareneeded.

Moreworkneedstobedonetoensureknowledgeandskillsinneededoccupationsaredescribedconsistentlyacrosstheregionbycoordinatingoccupationalstandards.ThisisbeingaddressedinpartbythecontinuingworkoftheHRDWG(andtheTWG)intheproject‘APECOccupationalStandardsFramework:TestintheTravel,TourismandHospitalityIndustry’.TheprojectisfocusedondevelopingoccupationalstandardstosupporttheindustryrelevanttrainingofworkersacrossAPEC.Itishopedthatthiswillleadtogreatertransparencyinrecognitionoftheskillsoftheseworkers.Byenablinggovernment,educationandindustrycollaboration,theprojectismorelikelytoproduceoutcomesthatmeettheneedsofthetourismindustry.

ASEANiscontinuingitsworkinthedevelopmentofmutualrecognitionarrangements(MRAs),whicharerecognisedasakeytooltoimproveskilledlabourmobilityacrosstheAsia-Pacificregion(ILO&ADB2014;APEC2014).ThedevelopmentoftourismMRAsintheASEANgroupisdesignedtofacilitatethemobilityofcertifiedASEANTourismProfessionals(ATPs)acrosstheASEANMemberStates.ThetourismMRAistheonlyindustryincludedintheASEANMRAsthatdoesnotrequireworkerstoholdaminimumnumberofyears’experience(ILO&ADB2014;Sugiyarto&Agunias2014).Thereare,however,threekeyresourceswhichunderpintheMRA-TP


frameworkrelatedtoqualifications.Oneoftheseisthe‘CommonASEANTourismCurriculum’(CATC)resourcethatrecognises52qualificationsacrossselectedhotelandtravelservices(ASEAN2016a).Withmuchoftheinformationavailableviatheinternet,workershavereadyaccesstothisinformation.ASEANrecognisesthereisstillworktobedonewiththefulladoptionoftheMRA-ATP;however,greatprogressisbeingmade(ASEAN2016b).

BilateralMRAshavealreadybeenadoptedwithintheAsia-Pacificregion,buttherehasbeennocoordinatedefforttoimplementthesesystematicallythroughouttheAPECregion.APECregionmulti-lateralMRAsontourismskillsandworkerclasseswouldbeanidealsolutionforskillsrecognition(APEC2014).

However,MRAsarenottobetakenasapanaceaforallskilledmigrationprograms.AstheDepartmentofEducationandTraininginAustraliaargues,multi-lateralbenchmarkingofoccupationalstandardsisthealternativesolutiontobuildunderstandingof,andconfidencein,theskillsandknowledgeofworkerstodoaspecificjobacrossbordersorlabourmarkets.

Whileskillsrecognitionthroughmulti-lateralMRAsorthroughbenchmarkingaretwopotentialsolutions,eitherpresentsanimmensegovernancechallenge.Thisisbecauseeconomiesoftenhaveanumberofgovernmentbodiesthatoverseetheapprovalofcurriculumandtheawardingofqualifications,aswellasnumerousprivatesectororganisationsthatprovideeducation,training,andemployment(Sumptionetal.2013).Thus,coordinationofalltheseplayerswouldbechallenging.

Despitethegovernancechallenges,thereareexamplesofsuccessfulcross-borderrecognitionofqualifications;forexample,withintheEuropeanUnion,andbetweenAustraliaandNewZealand,where‘automaticrecognition’isgrantedforcertainoccupations(Sumptionetal.2013).IntheAustraliaandNewZealandmodel,theonlyoccupationseligibleforsuchrecognitionwhichcouldbeconsideredtourismrelatedaregamingattendantsandpassengervehicledrivers,astheagreementfocusesonoccupationswhere“legislation-basedregistration,certification,licensing,approval,admissionorotherformofauthorisationisrequired”(CoA2006.p.13).Withlimitedregistrationorlicencingrequiredformanytourismoccupations,theadoptionofsucharrangementsmaynotbesoappropriateforthebroaderindustry.

4.1.3� Perceived�barriers�to�labour�mobilityInthestakeholdersurvey,comparingtheresponsesofnon-businessrespondentsversusbusinessrespondents,specificallyrelatingtointernationalworkers,thechallengesassociatedwithvisaissuesandthecosttothebusinessofhiringforeignworkersismorelikelytoberaisedbybusinessesthangovernment(seeFigure26).Fromabusinessowner’sperspective,visaissues,thecostofhiring,andimmigrationissuesmorebroadlyarethethreemostprevalentbarrierspreventingforeignworkerhire.Fromagovernmentperspective,immigrationandlanguagearethetwomostprevalentperceivedbarriers.


Figure�26:�Barriers�preventing�the�hiring�of�foreign�workers�(all�economies)

Tosupplyasteadyforeignworkerstream,manyfactorsneedtobeaddressed,withimmigrationandvisastronglyrepresentedinthesurvey.Languageandculturalawarenesswerealsoidentifiedbyworkshopparticipantsaslimitingtheopportunitiestoemployforeignworkers,aswasvisafacilitation,whichinsomecasesisseentolackpoliticalwill.

4.2� �Policies�and�practices4.2.1�Seasonal�migration�programsTheNewZealandRecognisedSeasonalEmployment(RSE)schemeandtheAustralianSeasonalWorkerProgramme(SWP)areconsideredleadingpracticeinlabourmigration(Gibson2008;Klapdor2008;Ramasamy2008;Gibbs2008).Therearemanyfactorsoftheseprogramswhicharehighlyregarded.Theseinclude:awhole-of-governmentapproachthroughoutallstagesoftheprogram;involvementofemployersandemployerorganisationsduringallstagesofthepolicydevelopmentandprogramoperationalisation;fixingtheminimumwagelevelstothesamelevelaslocalworkers;minimumnumberofworkdayseachweek;deductionsforhousingandothercosts;trainingofmigrantworkerstopreparethemforwork;adhocauditingofemployerstoensurecompliancewithpolicies;andevaluatingtheimpactoftheprograminthesendingandreceivingeconomy.

TheAustralianSWPrecentlyliftedthecaponthenumberofvisasavailableundertheprogramandinstigatedaTourismIndustryTrialinNorthernAustralia(DoE2016).TheNewZealandRSEschemehasarequirementthatthesendingeconomy(forexampleVanuatu)controlsthenumbersofworkersparticipatingintheprogramtoensurethesustainabilityoflocalvillages(NZDoL2010,p.48).Otheraspectsofthisschemeincluderecruitingthroughoutawholedistrict,ratherthanjustonevillage,andrequiringmigrantworkerstoplantcropspriortodeparture(NZDoL2010,p.53).

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Anotherelementofbestpracticeinthedevelopmentofmigrationpoliciesistoinvolveemployersandemployerorganisationsateachstageofthedevelopmentandoperationalisationofmigrationpoliciesandprograms.Forexample,inNewZealandthishasledtoemployersagreeingtopaypartoftheairfarestobringinworkersanddevelopingpastoralcareprogramstoassistwithworkeradjustment.

4.2.2�Temporary�Skilled�Labour�Migration�ProgramsTemporarySkilledLabourMigrationPrograms,suchastheAustralian457visaprogram,targetskilledtemporaryworkers.The457visaallowsaskilledworkertraveltoAustraliatoworkintheirnominatedoccupationfortheirapprovedsponsorforuptofouryears.TheAustraliangovernmentstatesthatonlymanagerial,professionalandsemi-professionalworkersareeligible,withsomespecialisttradeoccupationsbeinganexceptiontothisrule.Minimumsalariesapplyandmigrantworkersmustmeethealth,securityandotherstandardrequirements.However,thereisnocapsetonthenumberofadmissions,whicharegenerallyfacilitatedthroughagentsonbehalfofemployers.Afast-tracksystemisavailableforemployerswithagoodrecord(Khooetal.2007),whichissubjecttoanassessmentprocesstoensurethattheskillscannotbesoughtlocally,andtodeterminethebalancebetweenincomingandlocalworkersensuringlocalworkersarenotdisplaced.

Thisprogramisentirelynon-discriminatory,doesnothaveanindustryfocus,anddoesnotfavourapplicantsfromparticularsourceeconomies.Australia,asoneexample,doeshoweverhavefreetradeagreementswithseveraleconomiessuchasJapanwheremovementofworkersisspecificallyfacilitated,withanidentifiednumberofworkerspermittedinanyoneyear(DFAT2016).Regionally,visaapplicantsneedtomeettheprescribedeligibilitycriteriaforthepermanentortemporarymigrationvisaforwhichtheyhaveapplied,notingthesecriteriamayincludesponsorship,qualification,workexperience,Englishlanguageproficiencyand/oragecriteria.However,suchrequirementsarenotspecifictothetourismindustry.

ProgramsthatareknowntosupportthetourismindustryareadaptationsoftheSWPswhichoperateinAustralia;NewZealand;andCanada(Balletal.2011;Bailey2013;Levush2013).Forexample,Australia’sworkingholidayvisaprovidesshort-termworkersfortourismroleswhichmaynothavemuchappealtolocalworkers,oftenduetotheseasonalityoftheindustry,thehours,orlowratesofpay.However,theappealofrecruitingworkersusingstudentandworkingholidayvisas,canaddadministrationandcompliancecostsforbusinessesforwhatistypicallyonlyshortworkingperiods(QTIC2013).Itisalsoarguedthatcappingthenumberofvisasissuedforworkingholidaymakers,couldhelptosupportthedevelopmentofyoungworkerswishingtoentertheworkforce(Hunter2015);however,theremaybealimitedresidentcitizenworkforceavailableinsomeholidaylocationstosupportseasonalvisitorinflux.

Oncemigrantworkersareinthereceivingeconomy,governmentsneedtocontinuetoprovideprotectionforthemigrantworkers.Onemechanismfortheregulationofemployersofmigrantsistoadoptasystemoflabourinspectionsthatenablethegovernmenttothengrantspecialstatustoemployerswithahistoryofabidingbyregulationsanddealingfairlywithmigrants.Inaddition,thegovernmentwillalsobeabletobanemployerswhodonotmeetregulations.Thisisimportantformaintainingcredibilityandsupportforprograms.


4.2.2.1.�APEC-wide�Tourism�Worker�CardAkeyAPECachievementistheAPECBusinessTravelCard(ABTC),whichfacilitateshighlyskilledbusinesspeople’sfrequenttravelacrossbordersbyallowingvisa-freeentryfor19APECeconomies.Thecardenablescardholdersaccesstofast-trackimmigrationlanesatparticipatingairportsinall21APECeconomies.Thecardtargetsbusinessmanagersandentrepreneursacrossallsectors.

ConsiderationofasimilarinitiativespecificallyfortourismindustryworkerscouldassistinmobilisingtheseworkersacrosstheAPECregion.SuchaninitiativewouldneedthecollaborationoftheBusinessMobilityGroupandothersinasimilarwaytothedevelopmentoftheABTC.Thecallforsuchaninitiativewasstronglysupportedbyworkshopparticipantswhorecognisethebenefitstoimprovingtourismworkforcemobilityacrosstheregion.

4.2.3�Pre-migration�training�and�preparationPre-departuretrainingandpreparationcanimprovethechancesofworkers,especiallylow–skilledworkers,ofbeingsuccessfullyintegratedinthereceivingeconomy.SuchpreparationismandatoryinsomesystemsintheAsia-Pacificregion(e.g.Indonesia),butthequalityoftheprogramisoftenquestionable.Pre-departuretrainingneedstobecostandtimeeffective.Italsoneedstobetailoredtothemigrantworkers’particularworkandculturalsituation,withelementsofbestpracticeincluding:

• Specifictechnicalskillstraininge.g.,machineryoperation,pruning;

• Targetedculturalawarenesstrainingaboutthereceivingeconomy(suchaspoliticsandtheeconomy);

• Basiclanguageskillstraining;

• Explanationoftherightsandobligationsofmigrantworkersandemployers;

• Settingrealisticexpectationsofworkersabouttheirjobsandthereceivingeconomy;

• Organisationalculture,strategyandstructure;and

• Providingkeyinformationtomigrantworkers,suchasemploymentlaws,embassycontacts,useofmobilephones,emergencynumbers,howtonavigatethefinancialsysteminthereceivingeconomyandhowtocost-effectivelyandsecurelysendmoneyhome(Terry&Wilson2005;WorldBank2006).

Goodpracticeinpre-departurepreparationalsoincludestheuseofexperienceofreturnedmigrantstoeducatenewmigrants,havingareceivingeconomymentortoprovideadvice,andalsodrawsontheassistanceofmigrationNGOsduringthepre-departurepreparationphase.

Recommendations

• Consider the development and adoption of a similar program to the APEC Business Travel Card for use with tourism industry workers. Such a program could be developed through collaboration with the Business Mobility Group and others.


4.2.2.1.�APEC-wide�Tourism�Worker�CardAkeyAPECachievementistheAPECBusinessTravelCard(ABTC),whichfacilitateshighlyskilledbusinesspeople’sfrequenttravelacrossbordersbyallowingvisa-freeentryfor19APECeconomies.Thecardenablescardholdersaccesstofast-trackimmigrationlanesatparticipatingairportsinall21APECeconomies.Thecardtargetsbusinessmanagersandentrepreneursacrossallsectors.

ConsiderationofasimilarinitiativespecificallyfortourismindustryworkerscouldassistinmobilisingtheseworkersacrosstheAPECregion.SuchaninitiativewouldneedthecollaborationoftheBusinessMobilityGroupandothersinasimilarwaytothedevelopmentoftheABTC.Thecallforsuchaninitiativewasstronglysupportedbyworkshopparticipantswhorecognisethebenefitstoimprovingtourismworkforcemobilityacrosstheregion.

4.2.3�Pre-migration�training�and�preparationPre-departuretrainingandpreparationcanimprovethechancesofworkers,especiallylow–skilledworkers,ofbeingsuccessfullyintegratedinthereceivingeconomy.SuchpreparationismandatoryinsomesystemsintheAsia-Pacificregion(e.g.Indonesia),butthequalityoftheprogramisoftenquestionable.Pre-departuretrainingneedstobecostandtimeeffective.Italsoneedstobetailoredtothemigrantworkers’particularworkandculturalsituation,withelementsofbestpracticeincluding:

• Specifictechnicalskillstraininge.g.,machineryoperation,pruning;

• Targetedculturalawarenesstrainingaboutthereceivingeconomy(suchaspoliticsandtheeconomy);

• Basiclanguageskillstraining;

• Explanationoftherightsandobligationsofmigrantworkersandemployers;

• Settingrealisticexpectationsofworkersabouttheirjobsandthereceivingeconomy;

• Organisationalculture,strategyandstructure;and

• Providingkeyinformationtomigrantworkers,suchasemploymentlaws,embassycontacts,useofmobilephones,emergencynumbers,howtonavigatethefinancialsysteminthereceivingeconomyandhowtocost-effectivelyandsecurelysendmoneyhome(Terry&Wilson2005;WorldBank2006).

Goodpracticeinpre-departurepreparationalsoincludestheuseofexperienceofreturnedmigrantstoeducatenewmigrants,havingareceivingeconomymentortoprovideadvice,andalsodrawsontheassistanceofmigrationNGOsduringthepre-departurepreparationphase.

Recommendations


Transparencybetweenworkersandemployersthroughouttherecruitment,selectionandmigrationprocessisalsoconsideredbestpractice(Abella,2006).Providingsufficientinformationtopotentialmigrantworkers,particularlyregardingthecostsinvolvedwithmigration,iscritical.Somesendingeconomies(e.g.,thePhilippines)haveimplementedMigrantResourceCentres(MRCs),whichhavebeeneffectiveindeliveringinformationtomigrants,empoweringthemtoundertakethemigrationprocessandassistingthemtoadjustintheirneweconomy(Hugo2009).

Coveringthecostsofmigrationisanotherareaofopportunitytoimprovemigrationexperiencesforworkers.Insomeexamples,employersarerequiredtomeetthecostsofengagingtheworker,whichcanbeofbenefitfortheworkeryetcouldbeabarrierfortheemployer.Forexample,inthePhilippines,the‘Sea-BasedMigrantWorkerScheme’requirestheemployertomeetallthecostsofrecruitment(Hugo2009).Similarly,intheNewZealandRSE,employersmeethalftheairfarecostsofPacificseasonalagriculturalworkers.

Lastly,sendingandreceivingeconomiescanofferbridgingcoursesthatcanaddressskilldeficienciestoensurethemigrantworkerstrainingwillallowthemtoperformtheirnewroles.

4.2.4�Skills�Recognition�FrameworksTheASEANregionhasintroducedtheASEANQualificationReferencingFramework(AQRF),whichmeasureslevelsofeducationortrainingachievement(ASEAN2015;Sugiyarto&Agunias2014).TheAQRFestablishesarelationshipwiththeeightlevelsofreferenceontheAQRFwiththelevelsofreferenceonnationalqualificationsystems(ASEAN2015).TheAQRFisbasedonthesuccessfulimplementationoftheEuropeanQualificationsFramework(EQF)establishedin2008(Sugiyarto&Agunias2014).TheParticipationintheframeworkisvoluntary.ToolswhichcanbeusedwithintheAQRFaremutualrecognitionagreements(MRAs)thatincluderecognitionfortourismprofessionals(TPs),withanumberofresourcesavailableontheASEANweb-basedplatform,www.atprs.org.TheplatformprovidesaregistrationpageforTPs,matchingthemwithpotentialemployers(ASEAN2016a.).

MemorandaofUnderstanding(MOUs)alsoappeartobeeffectiveforcross-borderskillsrecognition.Forexample,thefreetradeagreementbetweenAustraliaandJapanagreestoexploretheformalrecognitionofqualificationsgainedinoneeconomy,foruseintheothereconomy(Brooksetal.2015).

Recommendations

• Migration programs need to be supported by national programs of cultural adaptation, establishment and enforcement of legal frameworks for migrant worker protection, and SME support for training and induction.

• Domestic policies to manage and control private sector recruiters, agents and officials involved in skilled and seasonal migration should be encouraged in all APEC economies.


Recommendations

• APEC and ASEAN economies should continue the implementation of referencing frameworks and recognition tools (such as those in European Union, Australia, Canada, and New Zealand) in accordance with domestic education systems and ensure the tourism industry is one of the recognised industries included in the program to establish an ‘APEC Tourism Pathway’.

• Support the work of the HRDWG (and TWG) in the development of the APEC Occupational Standards Framework: Test in the Travel, Tourism and Hospitality Industry�with a view to expand the number of occupations in the framework over time.


Recommendations


• Support the work of the HRDWG (and TWG) in the development of the APEC Occupational Standards Framework: Test in the Travel, Tourism and Hospitality Industry�with a view to expand the number of occupations in the framework over time.

4.3� Case�Study�—�The�Republic�of�the�PhilippinesTheRepublicofthePhilippines(hereafterreferredtoas‘thePhilippines’)isknowngloballyforitscultureofhospitalityandmotivatedstaffwithaproficiencyinEnglish.TheNationalTourismDevelopmentPlanidentifiesaboveglobalaveragegrowthininternationalvisitorsandgrowthofdomestictourismwithnewhotelsplannedtoopen.Thesewillcreatealocaldemandfortourismworkers,aswellasdemandfromneighboringandpartnercountriesforsemi-skilledworkerstomeetfuturedemand.

Inresponsetothesechallenges,thePhilippinesGovernmenthascommissionedtwoprojectstobetterunderstandwhereemployersareexperiencingdifficultyinrecruitingstaff.ThefirstistheTourismEnterpriseSkillSurvey(August2014)whichincludedinterviewswithover1,000employersandstaffinvolvedintourismenterpriseswithbusinessoperationsinCebu,Bohol,Davao,andPalawan,togetherwithselectedtourismeducationandtrainingprovidersofferingtourismrelatedcourses.

ThesecondisthePhilippinesTourismHumanResourceStrategyandActionPlan2015-2020,apartnershipwiththeAsianDevelopmentBank,theGovernmentofCanada,andthePhilippinesDepartmentofTourismwhichhighlightsthestrategicactionsneededtoupgradethecapacityofhumanresourcestomeettheprojectedemploymentneedsofthesectorto2020.

ThesehavesupportedsomeoutstandingPhilippinessuccessstories:

• ThePhilippinesImprovingCompetitivenessinTourismProject,includesaraftofprogramsandprioritiesaimedatdrivingchangeinthelabourandskillssituationincluding:

• Engagementofacademia,industryandgovernmentthroughanadvisorygroup;

• Reviewofregulationspertainingtobusinessoperations,

• Teacherdevelopmentprogramwherefacultymembersembarkonanimmersionprogramtogainthereal-lifeskillsfromtourismestablishmentstodelivermorepracticalandapplicablelearningoutcomesforstudents;

• Qualityassuranceandaccreditation;and

• Tourismskillsdevelopmentprogramwithtraininggrantsavailableatanationallevel.

“With this program, there will be clearer picture for the academe about the competencies and skills that are needed in the industry. This will enable the education sector to aptly prepare focused activities to serve the tourism requirements,”Dr.IgnacioCordova,Jr.,AssociationofAdministratorsintheHospitality,HotelandRestaurantManagementEducationalInstitutions.

• Startingwithagoodtrackrecordongenderequality(rankedninthoutof142countriesongenderequalityintheWorldEconomicForumGlobalGenderGapReport2014),tourismisincreasinglyseenasacareeroptionforwomenandyouth.Entryintothetourismworkforcebywomenandyouthisbeingencouragedbychangestolabourlawsandrecruitmentpractices.

• Reportsandsurveysindicatedpoorhostingskillsandtourismknowledgeoffront-linestaffatports,transportproviders,andothertourismservices.ThishasbeenrecognisedbytheDepartmentofTourism(DOT)whohavebeenprovidingarangeoftraininganddevelopmentinterventionstoaddresstheissue.


DespitetheseadvancestherearesomechallengesthePhilippinesstillfaces:

• Thelossofskilledworkersfromthetourismworkforce,affectsservicequalityandtheimageoftourisminthePhilippines.TheTourismEnterpriseSkillsSurveyfoundthathard-to-filljobs19werenotwidespread,theyweremostcommonlyreportedinfoodserviceoccupationssuchascooksandchefsandwaitingstaff.

• TheTourismEnterpriseskillssurveyfoundonly36percentofenterpriseswerewillingtocontributetothecostoftrainingstaff(accountingforjustoverhalf,or53%ofallpersonsemployedinthesector)andfewhaveacompanypolicyoutliningwhattrainingitwillprovideandtowhom.

• AlthoughtheHigherEducationalInstitutesproduced52,118graduatesin2013andTESDA331,615in201320,thereisaleakageofgraduatesfromthecollegesandalossofskilledworkerstoothersectorsandinternationally21.Asthetourismindustrygrows,andasmoreaccommodationisplannedandbuilt,theremaybeacontinuedshortageofskilledworkersjoiningtheindustry.Otherfactorsthataffecttourismemploymentincludepoorwagesandunsecuredemploymentarrangements.

• SomeissuesareparticularlychallenginginthePhilippinesincluding:

• Unregulatedandunsocialhours,familyunfriendlyshiftpatterns(monitoringandevaluationrevealsthat50,60andeven70hourworkingweeksarecommonwithoutanyextraremuneration,particularlyintheregionsoutsidethemaincities)andunregulatedpoorworkingconditions;

• ThosewithEnglishskills,particularlyyoungpeople,areattractedtoothersectorsthatpaymuchhighersalariessuchascallcenterswheretheonlyskillrequiredisgoodEnglishlanguageskills.

• The‘braindrain’oftrainedtourismprofessionalsoverseashasbecomemorecriticalsincetheASEANMRAcameintoforcein2015andtourismprofessionalsareabletoapplyforbetterpaidworkinothercountries.

• Alargenumberofpeopleemployedinthesectorareunskilledorsemi-skilledwithnorealopportunitytoimprovetheirsituationsoformanyemployeesinthesector,particularlyinhospitality,theyhaveajobnotacareer.

• Internshipsoron-the-jobtrainingareoftenpoorlymanagedbytheinstitutionsandtheplacementproviders.Thereisoftenalackofdirection,vagueoutcomes,mundanemanualworkandinadequatetrainingormentoringfromthecompanyinwhichtheyundertakeinternship.

• TheopeningofK-12tourismcoursesinschoolshasledtoclosureoftourismandhospitalitycoursesandareductioninstudentnumbers;and

• Thehousingoftourismcoursesunderhomeeconomicscouldrenderthecoursesasbeingperceivedas“feminine”.

19 TheDepartmentofLaborandEmploymentdistinguishes‘hard-to-fill’occupationsasjobvacanciesforwhichanestablishmenthasencountereddifficultiesintherecruitmentprocess.Reasonsmayincludenoapplicants,applicant’slackofexperience,skillorlicense,preferenceforworkingabroad,seekinghighersalaryorproblemwithlocationandotherreasons.

20 Source:TESDA(2014)http://tesdacourse.com/

21 CHED(2014)EnrolmentandgraduationdataforHigherEducationInstitutions:AY2003/04–AY2012/13


A�Leading�Example�–�Training�Grants�SchemeAkeyoutcomeofthe“PhilippinesImprovingCompetitivenessinTourism’istheTrainingGrantsSchemeoperatedundertheDepartmentofTourism.Itprovidesanindustryresponsivefundingmechanism(basedonturnover)tosupportthetraininganddevelopmentneedsoftheexistingtourismworkforce.TheGrantSchemesupportedtheup-skillingoftheworkforcebasedonindustryneedsandprovidedfinancialgrantstoallowemployerstoimplementtrainingbestpracticeswithintheirbusinesses.Thegrantswereallocatedonacompetitivebasisthroughanapplicationprocess

ApplicationswerereviewedagainststrictcriteriaatregionallevelandfinalassessmentandgrantawardsweremadeatNationalLevelthroughaSkillsCommitteemadeupofindustrystakeholdersunderthechairmanshipofDOT.

ThePilotSchemewasintroducedinfourregions(Cebu,Bohol,DavaoandPalawan)overtwoandahalfyears.Forty-eightgranteesweresuccessfulandreceivedgrantstotaling$1,243,000Pesoresultingin7,550trainedpersonnel.Grantsawardedrangedfromaminimumof$10,000toamaximumof$100,000.Thenatureofthetrainingprogramstendedtobeshortonthejobskillsbasedtrainingforcurrentemployees.Participationbystudentsandteachersfromlocaleducationinstituteswasafeatureofthescheme.

ArequirementoftheSchemewasthattrainingprogramshouldleadtocertification.

The�way�forward�–�what�we�found�from�the�Case�Studies

Theabilitytoattractskilledemployeesiscriticaltotheindustry’sgrowth.Thereisaneedtopromotethewiderangeoflong-termcareeropportunitiesandprospectsthattourismoffers,particularlyintheoperationandmanagementranks,aswellasgeneralhospitality.Itwillbecomeincreasinglyimportanttoenhancethequalityofjobsinthetourismindustryandtofacilitatetheentryofthosewhoareunder-representedinthelaborforce.

Thereisacriticalneedtoencourageincreasedparticipationofstudentsinthetourismandhospitalityindustrybydevelopingandimplementingtargetedmarketingcampaignsaimedathigh-schoolstudents,theirparentsandteachers.

Inadditiontoaddressinganyculturalstigmathatmayexist,thecampaignsshouldalsofocuson:

Theroleofgovernment:Policyconditionsthatleadtobetterperceptionsofacareerinthetourismindustry:

• Establishedandenforcedminimumwageconditions(atorabovea‘livingwage’)

• EnforcedEqualOpportunityEmploymentandanti-discriminationlegislation;

• Monitoringandprosecutionofsexualharassmentandexploitationofworkersrights;

• Enforcementofhealthandsafetyregulations;and

• StandardisingtheskillsrequirementsofrolesleadstoimprovingthequalityoftheirserviceincludingembracingtheASEANMRAandofferingmutuallyrecognisedqualifications.

TheroleofIndustry:Employmentconditionsthatleadtobettercareersinthetourismindustry;

• Contributionstotraininganddevelopmentofstaff;

• Discussionsaboutcareerpathsandopportunitiesforadvancement;

• Accesstobothprofessionaldevelopment(academicqualificationsandsoftskills)andskilldevelopment(practicalcoursesforcoreskills)forthetourismsector;


• Clearmonetarybenefitsthroughcompetitivewages(recognisingthecostofretraining),compensationforlonger-hours,benefitsandincentives.

• Non-monetarybenefitssuchasvariedworkenvironments,opportunitiestosocializeandtravel;

• Recognitionoftransferableskillsthatcanbeacquiredthroughemploymentinthesector,forexample,communicationskills,customerserviceskills;

• Aprofessionalapproachtohumanresourcepracticesandrecruitment;

• Workwithtrainingandacademicinstitutionstoensurethecurriculummeetsyourneeds,butalsorecognisethattraininginspecificskillsisyourresponsibility.


4.4� Case�Study�—�Chinese�TaipeiGovernment�Middle�Management�Training�InitiativeTheTourismBureauinChineseTaipeihasdevelopedaseniormanagementtrainingcoursedesignedtoupskilltrainersindeliveringcoursestoindustrypractitionersandthirdpartytrainingoperators.Conductedannuallysince2010,theTourismBureautargetsmiddletoseniorsupervisors.Throughasystematictrainingcourse,whichincludesaninternationalexchangeprogram,theaimistodeepentheexpertiseandmanagementskillsofindustryprofessionalsandapplythelearntmanagementskillswithintheirworkplace.

Thetargetgroupforthisprogramismiddletoseniorexecutiveswithinthehotel,travelandamusementrecreationindustriesastheyhavetheopportunitytoconnectfromtopmanagementtobottomfrontlinestaff.Thisgroupwillalsohavethecapacitytoinfluencechangesthroughouttheorganisation.Thetrainingreceivesgoodsubscriptionsofparticipants,whereforexample,in2015,thetrainingprogramupskilled1314personnelfrommiddletoseniormanagementwithinthetourismindustry.Ofthese,69personnelwereselectedtoparticipateinfurtherexperiencedevelopmentabroadthroughanexchangeopportunitywithleadingorganisationsintheindustry.Participantsarerequiredtocomplete200hoursoftrainingtocompletethecourse.Thegovernmentisencouragingofacertificationsystemwhichwillassistinthegradualincreaseoftheproportionofworkersintheindustryobtainingprofessionallicensesthroughadministrativemeasures.

Theobjectivesoftheseniormanagementtrainingprogramare:

• Tostimulateachangeinunderstandingoftraineesinthebroaderconceptsoftourism;

• Todevelopprofessionalknowledge;

• Tobroadentheviewontheindustry’sfutureglobally;and

• Toprovideopportunitiesforprofessionaltrainingcoursesandexperienceexchangeabroad.

Thetraininghassetthebenchmarkforcustomerserviceintheaccommodationsector.Thereareongoingtrainingprogramsplannedfor2015-2018withspecificthemesforeachyear,targetingdifferentgroupsofparticipantswithintheindustryworkforce.Forexample,thethemefor2015was‘QualityofService’,followedby“MarketingManagement”in2016.For2017,thethemechangesto‘HumanResourceManagement’and‘FinancialManagementin2018.Therewillbeaselectionprocessforprofessionalsinrelatedfieldsandoccupationstoparticipateinthetrainingcourses.

Thebenefitsofoperatingthetraining,inbothlocalandinternationalsettings,arerealisedbothdirectlyandindirectly:

• Directbenefits:Thekeydirectbenefitistheincreaseintheparticipant’sprofessionalabilityandthequalityofservicewhichisdelivered.

• Indirectbenefits:Indirectly,thetrainedparticipantbecomesatrainer/facilitatorinimprovingthemanagementconceptintheindustry.Participantsmayalsoenrichtheteachingphilosophybycontributingtoanimprovementincurriculum,indevelopingcasestudies,andinpublishingtrainingpapers.Disseminatingtheknowledgethroughthesechannelsenablesmoreprofessionalsandstudentstobenefitfromtheprogramthusboostingtheoverallservicestandardinthetourismindustry.


Industry�workforce�planningToensureitstrainingisalignedtomarketneeds,theTourismBureauinChineseTaipeiregularlytakesinventoryofcurrentworkforces,andsubmitstheresultstotheMinistryofEducationandtheNationalDevelopmentCommitteeforreference.Theinventoryisconductedeverytwoyearsusingasurveytounderstandsupplyanddemandofthetourismworkforce.Atpresent(2016),thesupplyanddemandsurveyisbeingconductedtoreflectthelabourforecastforthenextthreeyears(2017-2019).

Theinventorysurveyisdesignedincollaborationwithleadingtourismorganisationsthenumberofwhichisproportionatetothescaleoftheindustry.ThesurveyusesaPESTLEanalysistothesurveydesign,toanalysetourismindustrytrendsandinitialanalysisonthegrowthofinboundandoutboundtravelfiguresasabasisindesigningthequestionnaire.ThePESTLEanalysisusesasetofessentialinfluentialfactorssuggestedbyindustryexpertsandscholars.

Thequestionnaireisdistributedtoalltourismoperatorsforcompletion.Operatorsprovidetheirperspectiveoftourismindustryforecastswhichmayaffectthetraveltrendsforthefollowing3years,includinganypotentialnewskillsetsorpositions.ByusingthePESTLEanalysisinsurveydesign,theindustryisabletoprovideabalancedviewonthefuturegrowthofvisitorarrivals,whilealsoindicatingtheproportionofeachoccupationandtheirturnoverandrecruitmentrates.Thedemandfortalentedindustryprofessionalsisbrokendownbyskillcategory(forexample:maintenanceandlabour,customerserviceandsales,

Thedemandfortalentedindustryprofessionalsisbrokendownbyskillcategory(forexample:maintenanceandlabour,customerserviceandsales,businesssupport,professionalandtechnical,managementandmanagerialstaff,etc.).Thesurveyasksrespondentstoindicateneedsforprofessionaldevelopmentinadditiontoanyrequirednewjobsskills.Thiswillinformthegovernment’splantoprovidetailorededucationaltrainingcoursesfortourisminthefuture.

Evaluationofthesurveyresultsiscompletedatcommencement,mid-termandendoftheinventoryperiod.AllrelatedinformationisthenprovidedtotheMinistryofEducationandrelevantindustrygroupsforreference.

TheTourismBureaudoesrecognise,however,therearechallengesinbeingabletoadapttorapidchangesintheindustryandthatthesurvey,althoughuseful,maynotbeabletocaterefficientlyenough.TheBureauseesthecreationofhigherpayingjobcategorieswithintheindustrywhichrecognisesabroadrangeoftransferablecompetenciescouldbehelpfulinattractingandretainingworkersfromothersectors.

TheBureauseeseducationasamajoropportunityinimprovingtheworkforceforthefuture.Onerecognisedbarrieristhelackofpracticaltrainingandexperienceinsecondaryschoolbasedlearning,resultinginaskillsshortageofyoungworkers.TheBureaudoesacknowledge,however,theneedfortheeducationsectortocommunicatemorewiththeindustrytounderstandthepracticalneedsandprovidemoreappropriatecoursestohelpdeliveratrainedworkforce.


CASE STUDY

4.5� Summary�of�chapter�recommendations• Encourage APEC labour mobility through shared information on labour and

skills needs and improved visa issuance and processes and immigration control across the region.

• Work with the Business Mobility Group and the HRDWG to identify methods to improve process and reduce costs of remittances for tourism workers and identify challenges and opportunities for sending and receiving economies.


• Migration programs need to be supported by domestic programs of cultural adaptation, establishment and enforcement of legal frameworks for migrant worker protection, and SME support for training and induction

• Domestic policies to manage and control private sector recruiters, agents and officials involved in skilled and seasonal migration should be encouraged in all APEC economies.


• Support the work of the HRDWG (and TWG) in the development of the APEC Occupational Standards Framework: Test in the Travel, Tourism and Hospitality Industry to achieve effective and efficient labour mobility across the APEC economies

98 Image credit: Wong Sze Fei - Fotolia.com


5Women

TheUNWTOhighlightsthat‘tourismcanhelppoorwomenbreakthepovertycyclethroughformalandinformalemployment,entrepreneurship,trainingandcommunitybetterment’(citedinBaum2013,p.32).Indeed,Genderpaygapsandwomen’spromotionprospectshaveimprovedmarkedlyinmanyeconomies.Particularlyindevelopingeconomies,governmentshaveplacedconcertedfocusoninvestinginwomen’seducationandprovidingtargeteddevelopmentinitiativesforwomen.However,someindustriesandsectorscontinuetohavepersistentandpervasivegendersegregation.Tourismisonesuchindustry.

Gendergapsarerelevantacrossworkforceplanning(Chapter2),training(Chapter3)andlabourmobility(Chapter4).Thischapterbringstogethertheanalysisofwomeninrelationtothetourismworkforceandconcludeswithrecommendationstoaddressgendergaps,workingtoaddressSDGFive.

5.1� Challenges5.1.1� Gender�gap�in�employmentTourismisahighlylabour-intensiveindustryandoffersasignificantsourceofemploymentforwomenaswellasyouthandmigrantworkers(Baum2013).Theindustryoffersarangeofpositionsrequiringlowereducationlevelsthansomeotherprofessionalindustries,providingeaseofentryintotheworkforce.Womencompriseupto79%ofthelabourforceinthetourismindustry(Baum2013;Ladkin2011,citedinAlonso-Almeida2013)(seealsoAppendixFfortheBenchmarkPerformanceTable),andareemployedinavastrangeofroleswhichrunthespectrumfromlow-skilledcleaningstaff,tomiddle-managementsupervisors,andseniorexecutivesinhotelsandleisure/recreationorganisations.However,womenoftenworkinlowskilled,vulnerablejobsandarelikelytoexperiencepoorworkingconditions,inequalityofopportunityandunderrepresentationinhigherpaidandmanagerialroles,withoccupationalviolenceandsexualharassmentalsoaffectingwomeninsomeareas(Baum2013;seealsoSantero-Sanchezetal.2015).

Key Findings

The role of women in the tourism workforce is identified as both a challenge and an opportunity across all of the themes of this report. Within tourism, a gender divide still exists in that in many economies women generally fill tourism jobs that are lower paid and have poorer working conditions. Personal, cultural and religious factors can influence women’s participation in the tourism labour force and this can vary greatly across and within the developed and developing APEC economies. The opportunity is for the tourism sector to be a leader and innovator in providing flexibility for women with caring responsibilities, taking a proactive approach to women in leadership and offering a pathway to women entrepreneurs to operate their own businesses, helping to address SDG Five.


Evidencedfromthestakeholdersurvey,therespondentsfromdevelopedeconomiesindicatedthemajorityofthetourismworkforceisfemale,whereasthoserespondentsfromdevelopingeconomiesindicated51%ofthetourismworkforceismen(seeFigure27).Ofthoseindicatingthehigherpercentageofwomen,therewerecorrespondinglylowwagesanddifficultworkingconditionsidentified.

Figure�27:�Percentage�of�tourism�workforce�by�gender

Theworkthatmenandwomendoundertakeisgendersegregated.InaUNWTOstudy(2010),menwerefoundtobemorelikelytoattainprofessional-levelemploymentthanwomeninthehotelandrestaurantsub-sectors;womenweremorelikelytobefoundinclericalroles.Otherroleswherewomenarefoundtobeemployedinthebroaderindustryincludecleaners,servers,travelagencysalespersonnelandtourguides.Menareemployedinrolessuchasbartenders,porters,gardeners,andmaintenanceandconstructionworkersaswellasinengineeringandsecuritywork.Intourismwork,“traditionallywomenareemployedinrolesthatareconsideredrepresentativeoftheirdomesticroles,usingthesameskillsbase”–whichwillalsoreflectculturalmores(Harrisetal.citedinBaum,2013,p.20).Evenwhendoingjobsrequiringsimilarskills,qualificationsorexperience,thejobsarepoorlypaidandundervaluedwhentheyaredominatedbywomenratherthanmen(EuropeanCommission;citedinBaum2013).Mentendtohavebetterpaidandholdmoreprestigiousroleswhentheyworkinfemale-dominatedindustries(UNWTO2010).

Wherethegapbetweentheparticipationofwomenandmenishighintourismemployment,thereasonisoftenculturalandreligiousfactors(Baum2013).Socio-culturalfactorscanalsocontributetothegendereddivisionofwork,limitedpromotionofwomenintoseniorroles,andwomen’soverrepresentationinprecariouswork(suchaspart-time,temporary/seasonalandtheinformaleconomy)inthetourismindustry.Eventhoughthetourismindustryencompassesaveryglobally-mobileworkforce,socio-culturalfactorsmayconstraintheextenttowhichwomenareabletorelocateinternationallyandthisreinforcestheiroverrepresentationinlowerlevelpositionsinorganisations.

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

FemaleMale

Developing

Developed


Insummary,severalsocio-culturalfactorsmayimpactonwomen’semploymentinthetourismindustry,namely:

• Acrossmanyculturesinternationallywomen’sprimaryroleisviewedasbeingtocareforfamilywithpaidworkseenassecondary.Theoftennon-standardworkhoursoftheindustryconflictwithwomen’scommitmentstofamilycare,andculturalvaluesmayemphasisethatwomenshouldnotworkatnight.

• Womenareover-representedintheinformalsector,whichmayreflectlimitationsonopportunitiesthatmaybeavailableintheformalsector,butalsobecausetheinformalsectoroffersmorecapacitytobalanceworkandfamilycommitments.

• Womenareover-representedinpart-timeandtemporary/seasonalwork,whichgenerallyoffersfeweropportunitiesforcareerprogression.Thisworkmaybeviewedasmostsuitableforwomenwhoseworkisseenasperipheraltotheirprimaryrolesaswives/mothers/carersforotherfamilymembers,withfull-time/permanent/stableworkbeingofferedtomenwhoseworkisseenascoretotheiridentityandroleasfamilybreadwinners.

• Culturalvaluesthatwomenshouldnottravelalonewithoutamaleescortleadtowomennothavingthesameflexibilityasmentorelocatetoothereconomiestowork.Therearealsoperceptionsthatsomeoverseaslocationsmaybelesssafeforwomenandthatbytravellingwomenareseenasnotmaintainingresponsibilitiestofamily.

• Theintersectionofclassandgender(andalsoethnicityinsomesocieties),particularlyinsomedevelopingeconomies,canheavilydeterminewomen’seducationalopportunities.Moreover,manyfemaleworkershavetheburdenofmaintainingrolesasemployee/businessownersandmanagementofcaring/householdresponsibilities.

APEChasdevelopeda‘WomenandtheEconomyDashboard’(APEC2015b),whichincludes80indicatorsofwomen’slegal,political,educational,financial,andtechnology–accessstatuswithreportcardsforeachindividualeconomyandfortheAPECregionoverall.TheDashboardhighlightsthatadvanceshavebeenmadeacrosstheAPECeconomies.ItalsohighlightsthePhilippinesastheleaderinclosingthegendergapinAsia.However,itisnotedthatmenandwomengenerallydonothaveequalaccesstolabourmarketsandtheDashboardisimportantforidentifyingspecificinadequacies.

5.1.2� Gender�gap�in�payGendergappaydifferentialsresultwhenwomenarepaidlessthanmensimplyforbeingfemale(EuropeanCommission2016).Importantlythough,Sinclair(1997)highlightedthatwhileinsomedevelopingeconomieswomenmaysufferpaydifferentials,theearningstheydohaveallowthemtoasserttheirindependencefrommen.

Santero-Sanchezetal.(2015)highlightedthatthereareseveralstudiesthatconfirmwagediscriminationagainstwomenintourismandthatwomenarealsounder-representedinthetypeoftouristbusinesseswhereremunerationishighest.Theyfurthernotethatthisisexacerbatedbygendersegregationwhichoccursbothhorizontallyandverticallywithhorizontalsegregationentailingworkbeingdividedintofeminisedormasculinisedactivitiesandverticalsegregationbeingindicatedbywomen’sscantpresenceinhigher-rankingpositions.


TheEuropeanCommission(2016),reportingongenderpayinequity,highlightedseveralfactorswhichimpactonwomen’slowerpayrelativetomen,including:

• Directdiscrimination;

• Undervaluingofwomen’swork;

• Segregationinthelabourmarket;

• Traditionsandstereotypes;and

• Thegreaterdifficultieswhichconfrontwomencomparedtomeninbalancingworkandprivatelife.

Suchissuesarestronglyreflectedintheexperiencesofwomeninthetourismindustry.

5.1.3� Under-representation�of�women�in�managementTheincreasingnumberofwomenenrollinginhighereducationtourismcourses(includingsignificantnumbersofwomenfromdevelopingeconomiesstudyingindevelopedeconomyuniversities)hasbeensaidtoenhancewomen’smanagerialpositionsinthetourismindustry(seeAlonso-Almeida2013).Yet,theystillremainunderrepresentedcomparedtotheirmalecounterparts.Insomedevelopedeconomies,whilelinemanagersareevenlysplitongenderlines,thereisstillwidedisparitybetweenwomenandmeninmanagerialpositions(Davidsonetal.,citedinBaum2013).

Researchsuggeststhatinthehotelindustryinparticular,womenareunderrepresentedinmanagementpartlybecausetheyarestereotypedasbeinglesscommittedtotherole,lessfocusedonlong-termcareersandunabletofullycommittolongworkdays,splitshiftsandweekendandeveningworkowingtocommitmentstochildrearing.Theymayalsobeperceivedaslesscapableofwithstandingthepressuresofleadership,lessdrivenbyextrinsicrewards,andlessfocusedonorganisationalprofitability(seeMarco2012).

Thechallengesofbalancingfamilycommitmentswithnon-standardworkhoursoftenrequiredintheindustrymaybebettermanagedindevelopedeconomieswherethereisgovernment-fundedchildcareororganisationally-providedon-sitecare,orgovernmentfinancialassistanceforcaringforotherfamilymembers.Insomedevelopingeconomies,lowlabourcostsandclassdifferentials(whichmayalsointersectwithethnicity)meanthatwomeninpaidwork(especiallythosewhodoprogressthroughtheglassceilingtomanagerialroles)canemploynannies(whomaybefemalemigrant/temporaryworkersfromothereconomiesintheAPECregion).Whilethisimprovesprospectsforsomewomen,itmayexacerbateclassandgenderdivisions.Also,somewomenindevelopingeconomiesmaybeassistedbyextendedfamily(particularlygrandparents)supportwithchildcaringwhichisfacilitatedbyearlierretirementagesintheeconomies.

Theexperiencefromthestakeholdersurveyrespondentsindicatesitismoreuncommontofindwomeninmanagement,thaninclerical/administrationorcustomerserviceroles.Indevelopedeconomies,19%oftherespondents(17%ofthoseindevelopingeconomies)indicateditwasuncommontofindwomeninmanagement.Ontheotherhand,only1%ofrespondentsindicateditwasuncommontofindwomeninclerical/administrationorcustomerserviceroles.ThesefiguresagreewithMarco(2012),indicatinganunderrepresentationofwomenintheAPECregioninmanagementintheindustry,andagreaterrepresentationinroleswhichcouldsupportwomen’smoretraditionalroles,permittinggreaterflexibilityinemploymentconditions.


5.1.4� Women�entrepreneurs�and�self-employmentWomenindevelopingeconomiesmaychooseentrepreneurialandself-employmentactivitiesthatareseenasanextensionoftheirrolesaswives,asthisallowsthemtoworkwhileavoidingculturalperceptionsofunsuitabilityofsometypesofpaid,formalsectorwork(seeAlonso-Almeida2012).Suchworkmightreplicateworkdoneinthehomesandinvolveactivitieslikemakingfoodandtraditionalhandicraftsthatarethensoldtotouristse.g.inPacificIslandeconomies(seeAndersen2015).

Thisformofworkisconsideredsuitableworkineconomieswherewomenhavefewemploymentoptionsduetoculturalbeliefswhichdonotfavourwomenworkingoutsidethehome(Alonso-Almeida2012).Forinstance,SriLankanwomenwidowedduringthecivilwarhavesoughtself-employmentthatreplicatesworkdoneathome(Hutchingsetal.2015).Whilethesewomencontributetodomesticeconomicgrowth,theyalsorequiregovernmentandnon-governmentagencysupportinordertodeveloptheirentrepreneurialcapabilitiesanddoingsohasallowedthemtoalsoexpandtheirbusinessestoprovideemploymentandincomeforotherwomenintheircommunities(Ayadurai2006).

Theexperienceoftherespondentsinthestakeholdersurveyhighlightsthestrongpresenceofwomeninself-employmentroles.Respondentsidentifieditwasmorecommon(78%ofrespondents)tofindwomeninself-employmentrolesindevelopingeconomies,thanindevelopedeconomies(63%ofrespondents).Furthermore,ahighernumberofrespondentsfromdevelopingeconomies(73%ofrespondents)reportedtheavailabilityofgovernmentgrantsforwomenentrepreneurs/womeninsmallbusinessindevelopedeconomies(27%ofrespondents).

Women’sself-employmentcancontributetothembeingagentsofchangeintheircommunities,whereitissupportedbychangingsocialvalues,government,communityrepresentativesandinternationalagencies(Alonso-Almeida2012).Moreover,researchinsomeLatinAmericaneconomieshassuggestedthatindigenouswomenhavehadprominentrolestoplayintourismthroughadvancingculturalpursuits(Babb2012).

However,someself-employmentfallsintotheinformalsectorwhichisunregulated.Muchoftheincreaseinwomen’sparticipationinthelabourforceindevelopingeconomieshasbeenintheinformalsector(Moghadam1999).Thisincludessubcontractingthroughhome-basedwork.Suchworkallowswomentocontinuetoundertakedomesticresponsibilities/childcaringandmeetculturalexpectationsoftheirgenderroleasbeingprimarilyacarerwhilstgaininganincome.However,itispoorlypaidandinsecureworkwithpotentialsafetyissuesandlessprotectionthanorganisationalemployment(Moghadam1999;Rogerson2014).

Anotherwaytoovercomewomen’saccesstoentrepreneurialfinancingisbyofferingtrainingprogramstoassistwomentogaintheskillsrequiredtobetterdesignandpresenttheirfinancingplans,andtoimprovetheirsuccessinobtainingthefundsrequiredtogrowtheirbusiness.Thesetrainingprogramscouldbeintegratedintomicroandsmallcreditprograms.Inaddition,governmentscansupportthedevelopmentofnewscreeningtoolsandprocessestoassessloanapplicantsandtoimprovethedesignandcoverageofpublicandprivatecreditregistries.Otherkeybestpracticesinclude:

• Integratingthegenderdimensionintoexistingandproposedframeworks;

• Ensuringthatgenderbiasisnotintroducedintoentrepreneurialfinancing;


• Increasingtheconfidenceofwomenentrepreneurstoseekfinancing;and

• Providingon-goingfinancialdevelopmentandsupportofprivatecreditinstitutionsandnot-for-profitlendinginstitutionsindevelopingeconomies(OECD2012).

5.1.5� Women�and�international�workWomenrepresent42%ofinternationalmigrantstoAsia,andjustover52%inEurope.InNorthAmerica,womenrepresent51%ofinternationalmigrants,whileinOceaniathenumberofmaleandfemalemigrantsareessentiallyequal(UNDESA2015b).Women,however,remainveryunderrepresentedamongstthoserelocatinginternationallyforafixedduration,withalarge-scalesurveyin2015findingthatwomencompriseonly19%ofinternationalassignees(BGRS,2015).

Giventheglobalemploymentmobilityofthetourismindustry,itiscriticaltounderstandnotjustwhataffectswomen’sinvolvementinthetourismindustryintheirowneconomiesbutalsotheextenttowhichdomesticsocio-culturalfactorsmayalsofacilitateorrestricttheirinternationalemployment.

Abodyofresearchsincetheearly1980shasexaminedorganisational,government,foreigncountry,individual,andmorerecently,domesticculturalconstraintsonwomen’sopportunitiestorelocateintointernationalcareers.Thisresearchhassuggestedthatorganisationalsupport,spouse/familysupport,educationandwomen’sowninterestmaybedriversandfacilitatorsofwomen’sengagementwithinternationalworkincludinglong-termpostingstoothercountries,short-termprojectwork,orfrequentflyer/commuterroles(seeSalamin&Hanappi2014;Shortland2014).

However,theresearchalsosuggeststhatorganisationalreluctancetoselectwomen,organisationalperceptionsofprejudiceexpectedtobeexperiencedinforeignlocationsandwomen’sowncommitmentstofamilyandcaringresponsibilitiesarebarrierstowomen’sfixedterminternationalwork(Salamin&Hanappi2014;Shortland2014).Muchofthisresearchhasfocusedontheexperiencesofwomenin/fromdevelopedeconomiesandinprofessional/managerialrolesandtherehasbeenlimiteddiscussionofthebarriersforwomenin/fromdevelopingeconomies.Thediscourseonwomeninthedevelopingworldhastendedtofocusontheirinternationalrelocationinunskilled/lowskilledworkinrolesashouseholdhelp(foracriticalreviewoftheliteratureonfemaleexpatriation,seeHutchings&Michailova2016).

Socio-culturalfactorsindevelopingeconomiesmayalsoconstrainwomen’sopportunitiestotransferforfixedperiodsforinternationalwork.Thisincludes:

• Societalexpectationsofprimarycommitmentashomemakerswhichmaylimitevendomesticworkopportunities(seeMetcalfe2008);

Recommendations

• The APEC Women and Youth Advisory Group to work with a leading education and training partner to review leading programs supporting women entrepreneurs and managers in the tourism sector.


• Societalexpectationsofcommitmentnotjusttohusbands/childrenbutalsocareofelderlyparentsandotherfamilymembers(Hutchingsetal.2015);

• Societalviewsthat,forsafetyandmoralprotection,singlewomenshouldnottraveloutsidetheirowncountry(Hutchingsetal.2015);

• Women’sownperceptionsthattheywouldbe‘visible’outsideoftheirowncountryduetoethnicityandnegativelystereotypedasonlybeingemployableinlow-skilledroles(Hutchingsetal.2015);and

• Domesticorganisationalgenderdiscriminationwhichtranslatesintolackofopportunitiesinternationally(Hutchings,Metcalfe&Cooper2010).

AstudyofworkinthetourismindustryintheCaribbeanhighlightedthatmigrantsortemporaryemployeesfromNorthAmericanandNorthern/SouthernEuropeaneconomiestendtohavemoreofthe‘frontstage’jobsinreception/sales/waitingortourroles,whichoffermorecomfortableworkconditions(Vandegrift2008).ThiscontraststoCentralAmericanwomenwhomaremorelikelytobeincookingandcaringroles,andthatforeignbusinessownersinthosestateswillnotinvestintraininglocalworkers(Vandegrift2008).Otherresearchfoundthatinsomecontextsmigrantsgenerallyearnlessthanlocalworkersintourismbutthatthedifferenceisstatisticallysignificantonlyforwomen(Mon-z-Bullon,citedinBaum2013).

Asia-Pacificsendingeconomieshaveperiodicallyappliedbansonrecruitmentofwomenworkersfordeploymentasmigrantworkersinothereconomies.Researchhassuggestedthatsuchbansshouldbeavoided,ratherthatsafeandfairchannelsformigrationshouldbeprovided(Hugo2009).Withahighpercentageofwomenmigrantworkers(around80%offlowsbetween2006and2009),theIndonesiangovernmenthaschosentotakeamoreformalroleinthenegotiationofworkerrights.Amoratoriumwasimplementedin2009topreventmigrantworkersfrombeingsentabroadwithoutawrittencontractinadditiontootherprotectiveregulations(Hugo2009).

Recommendations

• Undertake a comprehensive review of the benefits of labour migration programs that include women and share the information across all APEC economies.


5.2� Employment�PracticesIncreasingemploymentopportunitiesandtheconditionsunderwhichwomenworkintheindustrycanhavefarreachingsocietalimpacts.AfigureadaptedfromtheWorldBankincludedintheUNWTO2010report(Figure28)presentssomeofthesesocietalbenefitsandtheircontributiontoalleviatingpovertythroughgenderequality(UNWTO2010,p.1).

Figure�28:�The�relationship�between�increased�gender�equality�and�poverty�reduction

Source: UNWTO (2010)

ToenhanceopportunitiesforwomenintourismintheAPECregionseveralissuesneedtobeaddressed.Onekeyissueishowtocreatelong-termcareerpathwaysforwomen–eitherasemployeesorasentrepreneurs–toensuresustainableandinclusivegrowthinthetravelandtourismindustry,byencouragingsocially,culturallyandresponsibletourism.Table11presentssomebestpracticesfromselectedAPECeconomiesinrelationtowomen’semployment.

Increase gender in households, markets and societies

Women have bettereducation and health

Differential savings rate

Improved well-being for children

Mothers have greatercontrol over decision-making

in households

Future proverty reductionand economic growth

Better health and educationalattainment and greater productivity as adults

Increase labour forceparticipation by women,

productivity and earnings

Women have betteraccess to markets

Current poverty reductionand economic growth

Income/consumptionexpenditure


Table�11:�Best�practices�relating�to�gender

Strategy Examples

LabourResourcesGuide

Singapore:TheManpowerResourcesGuidedevelopedbytheMinistryofManpowerhighlightsalternateviablesourcesofmanpower(e.g.,olderworkersandreturn-to-workwomen),whichisespeciallyimportantinSingapore’stightlabourmarket.

TheConsumerFinancialProtectionAgency(CFPA)

UnitedStates:TheCFPArecentlycreatedintheUnitedStatesisinchargeofenforcingfairlendinglawstoensurethatcreditisprovidedfairlytosmallbusinessownersofdifferentgender,raceandethnicity.TheCFPAalsocollectsdataonsmallbusinesscreditavailabilitybygender,race,andethnicity.(OECD2012)

Psychometricscreeningtools

UnitedStates:TheEntrepreneurialFinanceLab(EFL)inHarvardispioneeringtheuseofpsychometricscreeningtoolsofentrepreneurialabilityandhonestytounlocklarge-scalebankfinanceforSMEs.Theapplicationofthistoolisexpectedtoimprovetheperformanceofcreditinstitutions,aswomenandmenwillbebothevaluatedonthebasisoftheirentrepreneurialtalent.(OECD2012)

Creditmediatorschemes

OECDcountries:Providesentrepreneursaccesstocreditatsustainableinterestrates.CreditmediatorschemeseasetheflowofcredittoSMEsorbindingcodesofconductforSMElending(OECD,2009).Thesepoliciesarelikelytohavearelativelylargereffectonsmallandcredit-constrainedwomenentrepreneurs.(OECD,2012)

Feedbackfromtheworkshopparticipantsidentifiedfurtheropportunitiesforwomeninthetourismindustrythroughtheuseofthefollowing:

• Developeducationandtrainingprogramsthatempowerwomenintheindustrysupportedbymentoringprogramsofferedbysuccessfulwomen;

• Workplacepoliciesincludingorganisation-fundedmaternityleaveandsupportedjob-sharing;

• Reducingwagegendergaps;

• Promotionofthevalueofwomentotourismbyraisingawareness,includingtheuseofoccupationalprofiles;and

• Promotionofequalemploymentopportunitiesasnotjustamoralimperativeforemployersbutalsogoodforbusinessprofitabilityasaninvestmentinworkforce.


5.2.1�Gender�Equality�Seal�Certification�Program�for��Public�and�Private�Enterprises

Recognisingtheprevalenceofwomeninthetourismworkforceandthecallforanumberofpoliciesandprograms,onemechanismtoincreasegenderqualityacrossarangeofworkplacesystemscouldbetheadoptionoftheUnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme(UNDP)GenderEqualitySeal(GES)CertificationProgramme(UNDP2016a).LaunchedinLatinAmericain2009,theprogrammehasover1400participantsin11countries,representingbothpublicandprivatesectororganisations(UNDP2016a).

APECeconomiesincludedinthepilotprogramareChileandMexico.TheestablishmentoftheprograminMexicoledtothepassingoftheMexicanstandard‘TheMexicanNormonGenderEqualityandNon-Discrimination’in2015.Thepolicyaddressesgender

mainstreamingandnon-discriminationinrecruitment,selection,training,andmobility;equalpay;work-lifebalance;andaddressingworkplaceviolence(UNDP2016a).Basedonthesuccessoftheprogramtodate,theUNDPintendstorolltheinitiativeoutinternationally.

Thedesignoftheprogramisadaptedtolocalcontextswhichcommenceswithsecuringsupportfromthehighestlevelsofgovernment.Oncethisisagreedupon,therelevantagenciescompleteanassessmentofthelocallegalandsocialenvironments.Withtheassessmentinhand,governmentscanthensetaboutdevelopinganappropriatenationalmodelincollaborationwithprivatesectorgroups,civilsocietyandunions.Aframeworkisdevelopedwhichidentifiesthecriteriaforcertification,includingthe10stepstocertification.GovernmentsandprivatesectororganisationsaresupportedthroughtheprocessbytheUNDPwhichprovidessupportintheformoftoolsandguidance(UNDP2016b).

Theprogramisnota‘quick-fix’.Theexperienceofthedevelopmenttodateprovidesexperienceforeconomieswishingtopursuesuchaninitiative.Inthoseexperiences,economiesidentifyaprocessofsometwoyearstoestablishthecertificationprogram.Onceinitiated,theexpectationisforgovernmentsandprivatesectortocommittoongoingreviewsandimprovementsoftheprogramanditscriteria.

ThereareopportunitiesforeconomiestoexploretheadoptionoftheGEStosupportthehighpercentageofwomeninthetourismworkforce.NotonlydoestheGESsupporttheachievementofGoal5oftheSDGs–GenderEquality–(amongothers),theimplementationoftheprogramalsoprovidesbenefitsinthegenerationofmuchneededdata,requiredtoassesscertification.TheGESalsoprovidesbenefitsforgovernmentinachievingtheirgoalsregardinggenderequalityandsocialbenefitsfororganisationsthatchoosetoparticipate(UNDP2016a).


5.3� Case�Study�—�Papua�New�GuineaPapuaNewGuinea(hereafterreferredtoas‘PNG’),locatedinthePacific,drawsmostofitsgrowinginternationalvisitormarketfromAustralia(manyofwhomcometotrek),withanemergingcruisesector.ThetourismindustryisdevelopinginPNGwiththeplanningandconstructionofnewhotels,restaurantsandattractionsthuscreatingemploymentopportunitiesforPapuaNewGuineans.

The2009PNGTourismTrainingNeedsAnalysisReportidentifiedthekeyskillsgapsincustomerservicesskills,ruralguesthousemanagementskills,attractionsitedevelopment,firstaidandsafetymanagement,informationandcomputerskills,marketingandofficeprocedures,chefandfoodpreparationskills,tourguidingandleadershipskills,communicationskillsandforeignlanguagetranslation.

Withimprovementsineducation,coupledwithpopulationgrowth,thereisapositiveoutlookforlaboursupplyinlower-skilledrolessuchasdrivers,securityguards,housekeeping,waiters,kitchenwork,andtrekkingassistants.TheforecastofskillshortagesidentifiedinPNGaremiddleandseniormanagementpositionswithintourismcompaniessuchashotels,airlines,touroperatorsandsoforth.ThisskillsshortageexperiencedbyPapuaNewGuineanshasresultedinthemajorityofmanagerialpositionsbeingoccupiedbyexpatriates.

ThesuccessstoriesinPNGinclude:

• ThePapuaNewGuineaTourismMasterPlan2007–2017identifiedHumanResourceDevelopmentasoneofitsfivekeypillars,leadingto:

• ThedevelopmentofthePNGTourismTrainingNeedsAnalysisReport(2009)andanongoinglaboursurveytomonitoremploymentinthesector;

• EstablishmentofanIndustryAdvisoryCommitteetoassistincurriculumandpolicydevelopment;and

• Designandimplementationofshortcoursesforthoseworkingintheindustryincludingdistanceeducation.

• AkeyfocusforPNGisthedevelopmentofmicroenterprisestosupportgrowingsectorsuchascruise,trekkingandadventuretourism.Toensurethisgrowthisbothequitableandsustainabletwoinitiativesarerunningconcurrently:

• TheDivineWordUniversityhasafocusonpreparingstudentstobeentrepreneurialandreadytoworkintheirownsmallenterpriseaswellasbeingjobreadyforcorporatetourismenterprises;and

• GrantfundedprogramssuchastheAusAidMarketDevelopmentFundhavequotasthatrequireatleast50%fundingtoprojectsthatdeliveremploymentforwomenentrepreneurs.

Theareasstillrequiringworkinclude:

• Thereisashortageinqualifiedandexperiencedteachersandtrainersinthetourismindustrytoconductadequatetrainingfortheworkforcetoaddresstheskillsshortagesandinadequatefacilitiesandresourcestoconducteffectivetraining.

• Theuniversitycoursesoffertheoreticalcoursework;manyemployersareseekingmorepracticalskills.Mostofthepracticalskillsofferedintechnicalinstitutionsarefocusedontheexistingtourismventuressuchashotels,restaurantsandairlines.Thereislackofnewtraining


CASE STUDY

andcoursessuchasdivingandtrekkingskills,touroperatingandculturaltourismtrainings.

• ThereareshortagesofavailabletrainingopportunitiesforruralpeoplewhoareoptimisticaboutdevelopingtourisminthelocalareaandwheremostofPNGtourismproductsarelocated.

• Ahighturnoverrate(around20%in2009)withlowlevelsofnewentrantsintotheworkforcebecauseofthelowerpayratesandtheperceptionthattourismismostly‘women’swork’.Almost75%oftheformaltrainingenrolmentsarewomen,withanunequalgenderbalanceinemployment.

• Thereisnoformalnetworklinkingtrainingprovidersandthetourismindustry;increasinglythetechnicalinstitutionsanduniversitieshaveinformalarrangementswiththetourismbusinessesforstudentstoconducttheirpracticum.

5.4� Summary�of�chapter�recommendations• The APEC Women and Youth Advisory Group to work with a leading

education and training partner to review leading programs supporting women entrepreneurs and managers in the tourism sector.

• Undertake a review of the benefits of labour migration programs that include women and share the information with all APEC economies.

• Increase women’s career pathways and managerial prospects through gender awareness and advocating EEO, mentoring by other successful women.

111Image credit: macronix - Wikimedia Commons


6Youth

Youthprovideasignificantcontributiontothetourismworkforceandincludesignificantnumbersofemployeesthatarenotseekingfull-timeemploymentandwhosuittheindustry’sflexibleandglobalnature.Thischapterofthereportpresentsananalysisofyouthemployment,workingconditions,opportunitiesforentrepreneurshipandlabourmobilityrelevanttotheAPECeconomies.

6.1� Challenges6.1.1� Youth�and�tourism�careersAsthe‘frontline’ormostvisibleelementofthetourismworkforceisrelativelyyoung,tourismisoftenviewedasagap-fillerrolewhilestudyingortravellingpriortotakingona‘real’career.ThisunderplaystheimportantrolesplayedbythoseyoungeremployeesworkinginSMEsandentrepreneurialtourismbusinesses,whichaccountforupto80%oftheworkforce,andthosewhoseektoundertakelong-termcareersintheindustry(seeChapter2).

Duetothedispersednatureofemployment,manyemployersintourismdonottaketheopportunitytomaporshowcasethepossiblecareerpathsavailabletoemployeeswithinoracrossworklocations,withsomeemployeesbelievingtheyneedtoleavethetourismindustryinordertoprogressinpayorcareer.Toretainstaff,businessesneedtoprovidestaffwithasenseofbelonging,self-esteemandrespect,andwithlearninganddevelopmentopportunities.Managersandsupervisorsmustbeawarethat,asthepeopleclosesttothestaff,theyareresponsiblefortheimplementationofbestpracticeHRMandultimatelyemployeemotivationandretention.

AshighlightedbyarecentreportonTourismHospitalityCareerinAustralia(ColmarBrunton2016),youngpeopledoappeartohaveareasonablypositiveattitudetowardslong-termcareersintourism,withwordssuchas“dynamic”,“fun”,and“sociable”usedtodescribeopportunitiesintheindustry.Atthesametime,therearenumberofchallengesfacingyouthinthetourismindustryandreasonswhyyoungpeopledonotconsiderenteringintoorstayingtopursueacareerintourism.Theseinclude:

• Beingover-representedamongstemployeesdoingcontingentworkintheformofirregularandunpredictablehours,split-shifts,non-tenurablecontractandseasonalroles,andworkinremotelocations(althoughoftenbychoiceinrespecttosports/lifestyleareasoftourism);

• Beingheavilyinvolvedintheinformalsector(particularlyinthedevelopingeconomies)whichhaslessprotectionagainstdiscriminationandsub-standardworkconditionsbutwhichmayalsoprovideopportunitiesforengaginginself-employment/entrepreneurship;

• Perceivedlimitedopportunitiesforcareerprogressionorentrytomanagementroles–and

Key Findings

With the emergence of the ‘millennial’ generation seeking more flexible working arrangements, global travel, entrepreneurial opportunities and experiences, the tourism sector should be growing its share of youth employment globally. Greater use of the internet – both for recruitment and as a focus of training – will assist in providing employment opportunities for the youth sector. Development of APEC-wide career pathway frameworks will improve career perceptions of the industry by youth.


6Youth

Youthprovideasignificantcontributiontothetourismworkforceandincludesignificantnumbersofemployeesthatarenotseekingfull-timeemploymentandwhosuittheindustry’sflexibleandglobalnature.Thischapterofthereportpresentsananalysisofyouthemployment,workingconditions,opportunitiesforentrepreneurshipandlabourmobilityrelevanttotheAPECeconomies.

6.1� Challenges6.1.1� Youth�and�tourism�careersAsthe‘frontline’ormostvisibleelementofthetourismworkforceisrelativelyyoung,tourismisoftenviewedasagap-fillerrolewhilestudyingortravellingpriortotakingona‘real’career.ThisunderplaystheimportantrolesplayedbythoseyoungeremployeesworkinginSMEsandentrepreneurialtourismbusinesses,whichaccountforupto80%oftheworkforce,andthosewhoseektoundertakelong-termcareersintheindustry(seeChapter2).

Duetothedispersednatureofemployment,manyemployersintourismdonottaketheopportunitytomaporshowcasethepossiblecareerpathsavailabletoemployeeswithinoracrossworklocations,withsomeemployeesbelievingtheyneedtoleavethetourismindustryinordertoprogressinpayorcareer.Toretainstaff,businessesneedtoprovidestaffwithasenseofbelonging,self-esteemandrespect,andwithlearninganddevelopmentopportunities.Managersandsupervisorsmustbeawarethat,asthepeopleclosesttothestaff,theyareresponsiblefortheimplementationofbestpracticeHRMandultimatelyemployeemotivationandretention.

AshighlightedbyarecentreportonTourismHospitalityCareerinAustralia(ColmarBrunton2016),youngpeopledoappeartohaveareasonablypositiveattitudetowardslong-termcareersintourism,withwordssuchas“dynamic”,“fun”,and“sociable”usedtodescribeopportunitiesintheindustry.Atthesametime,therearenumberofchallengesfacingyouthinthetourismindustryandreasonswhyyoungpeopledonotconsiderenteringintoorstayingtopursueacareerintourism.Theseinclude:

• Beingover-representedamongstemployeesdoingcontingentworkintheformofirregularandunpredictablehours,split-shifts,non-tenurablecontractandseasonalroles,andworkinremotelocations(althoughoftenbychoiceinrespecttosports/lifestyleareasoftourism);

• Beingheavilyinvolvedintheinformalsector(particularlyinthedevelopingeconomies)whichhaslessprotectionagainstdiscriminationandsub-standardworkconditionsbutwhichmayalsoprovideopportunitiesforengaginginself-employment/entrepreneurship;

• Perceivedlimitedopportunitiesforcareerprogressionorentrytomanagementroles–and

Key Findings

With the emergence of the ‘millennial’ generation seeking more flexible working arrangements, global travel, entrepreneurial opportunities and experiences, the tourism sector should be growing its share of youth employment globally. Greater use of the internet – both for recruitment and as a focus of training – will assist in providing employment opportunities for the youth sector. Development of APEC-wide career pathway frameworks will improve career perceptions of the industry by youth.

associatedwiththisisthat,astheyage,familycommitmentsmaymakecontinuedworkincontingentrolesintheindustryprohibitive,particularlyinculturesinwhichwork-lifebalanceishighlyvaluedandyoungwomenespeciallyareencouragedtoprioritisefamilyovercareer.Thesefactorsresultinyouthneedingtoseekoutworkinothersectorsforcareeradvancementandlong-termworkstability;and

• Workplaceviolence,bullying,andharassmentbeingmorecommonforyoungpeoplethanforoldercolleagues,especiallyforyoungwomenofsomeethnicgroups,andinculturesinwhichageandauthorityishighlyvalued,youngpeoplemaybereticenttocomplainaboutbullyingordiscriminationfrommanagementorcustomers.

Manyyoungpeopleseetheirworkinthetourismindustryastemporaryuntilcommencingotherwork,butevensomeofthegraduatesofeducationfromthetourismandhospitalityindustryhavenointentionofenteringtheindustryupongraduation(King,McKercher&Waryszak2003citedinNzonso&Chipfuva2013).Researchhasalsofoundthoughthatdespitelowerpaycomparedtoothersectors,studentsaremorelikelytoworkintheindustryoncegraduatediftheyhaddonesowhilestudying(Wan,Wong&Kong2014).Promotingtheopportunitiesforlong-termemploymentwithyouththroughschoolsandthetertiaryeducationsectorcanhelptoencourageyouthtoconsidertheindustryasacareer.

Mendozaetal.(2013)suggestthatindevelopingeconomiesthereiscurrentlyorwillsoonbea‘youthbulge’.Theyindicatealargenumberofyoungpeopleindomesticpopulations,whichtheysuggestinvolves71countriesgloballyand11inAsia.Assuch,theseeconomieswillfacegreateremploymentandhumancapitalinvestmentchallengesasaresultoftheongoingeffectsoftheglobaleconomiccrisisanditsmedium-termramifications,withriskslikelytobegreaterforfemaleyouthduetogenderinequalities(Mendozaetal.2013).Itwouldbeexpectedthatsuchsocialchangeswillhavesignificantimpactinthetourismindustry,whichhastraditionallybeenalargeemployerofyouth.

6.1.2� Youth�employment�and�working�conditionsYouthgenerallysuffergreaterlevelsofunemploymentinthetourismindustrythantheiroldercounterpartswhohavemoreyearsofexperienceandoftenoccupymoresenior,secureroles.Thisproblemislikelytobeexacerbatedincomingyears,especiallyindevelopingeconomies.Incontrast,theageingpopulationandincreasedretirementagesinmanyeconomiespotentiallyreducesopportunitiesforyouthtoenterthelabourmarketandprogressbeyondentry-ormid-levelpositions.Thisislikelytobeaparticularprobleminthetourismindustry,pushingmoreyouthintocontingentworkintheformofpart-time,split-shift,andremotelocationworkinwhichtheyarealreadyover-represented.Increasingworkforcegenerationaldiversitysuggeststhatorganisationsneedtothinkmorestrategicallyabouthowtoleveragetheiryouthandolderemployees’expertiseandcompetenciesandmaximisetheireffectivenessinworkingtogether(McGuireetal.2007).

Insomedevelopingeconomies,suchasinAfrica,workinsomepartsofthetourismindustry,suchashotels,maybeviewedveryfavourably.Thistypeworkprovidesyouthwithfoodsuppliedonthepremisesinadditiontopay,meaningtheycansavemoreoftheirincomeandpotentiallyinvestintohousingorestablishabasisfromwhichtofundself-employmentforlonger-termwork(Dawa&Jeppesen2016).

Socialchanges,involvinganageingpopulationandthedeclineofgovernmentprovidedpensions/


socialsupportinmanydevelopedeconomies,meansmanyolderpeopleareworkinglongertosustainthemselves(Bloometal.2015).Itmightalsobeexpectedthat,inculturesinsomeeconomiesinwhichageisreveredandrespectforauthority/seniorityisemphasised,youngpeoplewouldbereluctanttomakecomplaintsaboutseniorcolleagues/managersorcustomers/clientswhohadbeenviolentordiscriminatorytowardsthem.Further,asithasbeensuggestedthatthelimitedexperienceofyouthcontributestothemhavingpoorlydevelopedmechanismsforcopingwithstressphenomenaandviolence(Hoel&Einarsen2003),itmeansthatorganisationsneedtoseriouslycommittoprotectingtheirmostvulnerableemployeesbyhavingunambiguousandenforcedpoliciesandpracticeforhealthyandsafeworkplaces.

6.1.3� Youth�entrepreneurshipThetourismindustryprovidessignificantentrepreneurialopportunitiesforyouth.Nasseretal.(2003)suggestedthatincountries,likeSouthAfrica,whichhavewitnessedconsiderablepoliticalchangeandthedismantlingoftradeborders,youngpeople’sopportunitiestoworkintraditionalindustrieshavediminishedandhavebroughtaboutincreasingyouthenterpriseandself-dependence.Suchtrendsarealsolikelytohaveoccurredinmanydevelopingeconomiesinwhichthetourismindustryanditsservicesectorshavegrowndramaticallywhiletraditionalagriculturehasdeclined.Whileitisacknowledgedthatyouthmaynotbeabletoaccessstart-upfundsasreadilyasolderpeoplewithestablishedemploymentandfinancialrecords,youthmaybeabletoestablishsmallbusinesses,particularlyindevelopingeconomies,whichsupplyfood,beverages,equipment,cleaning,information/technologyservices(Dawa&Jeppesen2016)ortransport,suchaspedi-cabdrivers(Dahles&SusilowatiPrabawa2013).

Ithasbeenarguedthatitmightbeexpectedthatyouthwouldbeattractedtotourismlifestyleentrepreneurshipwhichhighlightsbusinessreciprocityandqualityoflifeoverprogressinandofitself(seeShaw&Williams2004)andallowsthemtocombineworkandleisurepursuits(Atelievic&Doorne2000).Examplesoflifestyleentrepreneurshiparefoundintherecentboomin‘gigwork’(seeChapter1.6.3),whereservicessuchasUberprovidetransportforlocalsandvisitorsalikewhileofferingtheflexibilityyouthareseeking.

CurrentworkinthissphereisbeingundertakenbytheRepublicofKoreaviathedevelopmentofanAPECYouthEmploymentandEntrepreneurshipFrameworkaspartoftheAPECHumanResourcesDevelopmentWorkingGroup.

Recommendations

• Through its industry partnerships, the APEC Tourism Working Group should develop a series of case studies on Employers of Choice for young people showcasing businesses that provide career pathways.

• In accordance with domestic education systems, working with schools and the tertiary education sector to market the sector as a long-term employer.


6.1.4� Youth�and�labour�mobilityWhileyoungpeopleunder20yearsrepresent34%ofallglobalinternationalimmigrants(UNDESA2015b),broadeningtheexternaltalentpoolthroughinternationalrecruitmentasakeystrategyutilisedbyemployershasaconsequentialissueknownas‘braindrain’.Thisisparticularlysoforyoungpeoplefromdevelopingeconomies,whoseprimarypurposeforimmigrationisforstudybutwhoundertakeworkinthetourismindustrywhilecompletingtheirstudies;braindrainoccurswhenthestudentsproceedtoapplyforandattainpermanentresidency/citizenship,notreturningtotheircountryoforigin,drainingthesendingeconomyofthisnewknowledgeandskill.

Althoughtourismcanprovideamyriadofopportunitiesforinternationalworkmobility,workundertakeninternationallybynon-migrantyoungpeopleisgenerallytransitoryorseasonal.Oftenthisformofworkappealstothoseseekingto‘seetheworld’andearnanincomewhiletravelling.Thismayreinforceaperceptionthatworkintourismisa‘stopgap’beforemovingontoa‘real’long-termcareer.Indeed,InksonandMyers(2003)highlightedthatself-initiated,self-directedtravelisaninternationalphenomenonofyoungpeople.Moreover,theremaybeadditionalbenefitswheretheworkiscombinedwithyoungpeople’sownengagementintourismwhichhasbeenfoundtocontributetoself-knowledge/awareness,self-confidence,betterunderstandingoftheirownandothers’culture/s,andstrongerpersonalvaluesandethics(Richards,citedinEusebio&Carneiro2014).

Theperceivedshort-termnatureoftourismworkis,however,viewedasofferingworkflexibilityforyouth.Suchworkmayappealtotheaffluentdevelopedanddevelopingworldyouth—the‘newwealthy’seekingnewexperiences(Colmar-Brunton2016,Dwyer2015)—whotakeagapyearbeforesettlingintohighereducationorlong-termcareersinotherindustries/sectors.Theworkmayalsoappealtopoorer,youngcitizensofdevelopingeconomieswhofindworkindevelopedorotherdevelopingeconomiesonamoremedium-termbasisinordertoprovideincometosendhometofamily.

Recommendations

• APEC economies should be encouraged to develop ‘youth entrepreneur’ and start-up support programs specifically targeting the tourism sector.


6.2� Employment�practicesAkeyissuerelatingtoyoungpeople’semploymentintourismintheAPECregionishowtocreatelong-termcareerpathways.Perhapsthemosteffectivewayofcreatinglong-termcareerpathwaysisthroughwork-basedlearning,suchasapprenticeships.AppendixHidentifiessomebestpracticesinrelationtoapprenticeshipsinselectedAPECeconomies.

Feedbackfromtheworkshopparticipantsidentifiedanumberofotherapproachestosupportthedevelopmentofyouthemploymentwithintheindustry.Thesepracticesinclude:

• Mentoringprogramsofyouthbyolder,moreexperiencedworkers;

• Promotionof‘gap-years’foruniversitystudentstoenableworkintourism,eitherinmentoringprogramsorasa‘taster’fortheindustry;

• Engagingwithsecondaryschoolstoencouragestudentstounderstandthelengthandbreadthofopportunitiesthatexistwithinthebroader‘tourismindustry’;

• Useofsocialmediatopromoteopportunities,particularlyforyoungpeople;

• Usemediacampaignstodevelopasenseofprideorprivilegewithinlocalslivingintourismdestinationstoencouragecontributionstotheindustrythroughemployment;and

• Government-supportedtourismcareerfairs,linkingwithindustrypartnerssuchasPATA.

6.3� Summary�of�chapter�recommendations• Through its industry partnerships, the APEC Tourism Working Group

should develop a series of case studies on Employers of Choice for young people showcasing businesses that provide career pathways.

• APEC economies should be encouraged to develop ‘youth entrepreneur’ and start-up support programs specifically targeting the tourism sector.

• In accordance with domestic education systems, working with schools and the tertiary education sector to market the sector as a long-term employer.

117Image credit: Joanna Boj/Unsplash.com


7Conclusion

7.1� The�challenges• A�growing�need�for�labour�and�skills:Growthinvisitationismorerapidthangrowth

inpopulation(especiallyyoungpeople)acrossmostoftheAPECeconomies.SomeAPECeconomieshavelatentlaboursupply,buttheylacktheskillsrequiredinthoseeconomieswithalabourshortage,potentiallyaffectingtheabilitytoservicetheindustryintothefuture.Acrossalleconomiesthereisanidentifiedskillsshortagein‘softskills’suchascustomerserviceandmanagementskills,aswellassomeidentified‘hardskills’suchastechnicalandmanagementskills.

• Participation�by�women�and�young�people�needs�to�be�a�focus:Womenandyoungpeoplegenerallyfilltourismjobsthatarelowerpaid.Womenandyouthtendtoexperiencepoorerworkingconditions.Tourismcanprovideflexibilityforworkingmothersandstudentsandcouldofferapathtooperatingtheirownbusiness,whileatthesametimeaddressingSDGsfive,eightandten(amongothers).

• Participation�requires�a�shift�in�perceptions�to�address�some�realities�of�the�industry:Theattractivenessoftheindustrytoworkersispoorduetolowwagesanddifficultworkingconditionsinjuniorpositions.Inaddition,thelackofgenderequality,lessappealingworkingconditions(casualemployment,discrimination,limitedentitlements,etc)andunclearcareerpathsareahindrancetoattractingandretainingthebestpeople.

• Micro,�Small�and�Medium�Enterprises�(MSMEs)�have�the�greatest�need:In-housetrainingcapacityisessentialbutgenerallyscarceamongtourismSMEs.Firmsrespondtoskillsshortagesbyinvestingmoreinrecruitmentratherthanaimingtoimproveinternalcapacitybuildingthroughtraining.Somebusinessesarenotwellinformedorlackthecapacitytotakeadvantageofexistingapprenticeshipprograms.

7.2� The�opportunities• TheAPECTourismWorkingGroupprovidesanidealforumforthedevelopmentofshared

approachestocommonchallenges,researchprojects,andinformationsharing.Economy-specificchallengessuchascurriculumdevelopment,labourmigrationpolicy,careerpathandindustrydevelopmentprogramsandpartnershipsarebestmanagedbytheeconomiesthemselves.TheopportunitiesidentifiedthatcanbeprogressedthroughtheAPECpartnershipareoutlinedbelow:

• APECEconomiesneedtoadopta�standard�approach�to�collecting�and�sharing�workforce�data,includingacommonapproachtoskillsneedsidentification.

• Governmentswouldbenefitfromsystematicallyengaging�with�employers,�trade�unions�and�education�providerstodevelopandimplementqualificationframeworksforin-housetraining,andcloseralignmentofVETprogramstomeetindustryneeds,supportedbyfundingprogramsforSMEs.

• AnAPEC�approach�to�labour�mobilityiscriticalforaddressingskilledlabourgaps;however,thecurrentarrangementspresentanumberofchallenges.Thesecanbeaddressedbyimprovingtransparency,streamliningvisaprocesses,andmulti-lateralskillsrecognition.


• ThetourismindustrywithinAPECeconomiescanbea�leader�in�meeting�the�global�key�challenges�for�the�future�of�human�capital�development.Theindustrycould,andshould,becomean‘IndustryofChoice’,withaproactiveapproachtogenderequality,workers’rightsandsustainability.TheadoptionofsustainableworkpracticescanenhancebothworklifequalityandpersonalwellbeingwhileaddressingSDGThree.

• ThroughtheAPECTourismWorkingGroup,a�proactive�approach�to�the�issues�facing�women�and�youthcouldbeadopted.ThiswouldincludeinformationsharingonprogramsandapproachesusedinAPECeconomiessuchasmigrationprogramsthatsupportwomenandyouth,entrepreneurshipprogramsandcareerpathwayssupport.

7.3� RecommendationsDrawingonboththeprimaryresearchconductedwithAPECeconomies(includingthesurvey,workshopandcasestudies)andtheliteraturereview,thekeyrecommendationsaregroupedinthreekeyareas:

1. TheimportanceoftheTourismWorkingGroupasaclearinghouseforinformationandknowledgetransferandleadershiproleinhumancapitaldevelopment:

c. a.EstablishingaWomenandYouthAdvisoryGrouptoshareknowledge;

d. b.DevelopinganIndustryofChoicecharter;

e. c.UndertakingapilotprojectonreportingofcomparableworkforceandskillsneedsdataacrossAPECeconomies;and

f. d. Sharing experience on alignment of government, industry and education and thebenefitsoftourismawarenesscampaigns;

2. AcommonandsystematicapproachtoworkforcechallengesacrossAPEC:

a. Developingaframeworkfor‘LabourandSkillsNeedsAnalysis’andacommonapproachtolabourandmigrationdatacollection;

b. Labourmobilityprogramssuchasalignmentofvisaprocessing;and

c. CollaboratingthroughtheHRDWGtoworktowardscommonoccupationalstandardsinthepilotingoftheAPECproject:‘APECOccupationalStandardsFramework:TestintheTravel,TourismandHospitalityIndustry’.

3. TheneedforfurtherresearchtobesharedacrossAPECeconomies:

a. Partnering with universities and industry associations to monitor trends such asdigitisationofwork,emergingcareerpathsandentrepreneursupportprograms;and

b. StudythebenefitsofSMEfundingprograms,seasonalworkerprogramsand labourmigrationprogramsthatincludewomenandprovidepathwaysforyouth.

7.4� Some�caveatsIntermsofprioritisingtheskillsshortagesanddevelopingsuitablemeasuretofosterthefuturegrowthofthetourismindustryacrosstheAPECregion,itisimportanttorecognisethat:

• Someshortagesmaybetemporary.Aneconomycanadjusttothepresenceofskillshortages


viaincreasingwagesincertainoccupations.Indeed,forsomeoccupations,suchaschefs,wagesmayattractmoreworkers.Inthissense,combatingallobservedskillshortageswouldbedetrimentaltothelongtermgrowthofwagesinthetourismindustry.Itisimportanttoprioritisecertainfactorsthatinhibittheadjustmentprocess.Forexample,informationasymmetriesandalackoftrainingcapacityrepresentpermanentfactorsthatinhibitlabourforceadjustment.Culturalnormsmayalsoinhibitskillsdevelopmentandopportunitiesforwomen.

• Donotignorelocalcontext.ThroughouttheAPECregion,thereexistsadiverserangeofdevelopinganddeveloped,senderandreceivereconomiesthatareendowedwithdifferentcomparativeadvantages.Careshouldbetakentoensurethatbestpracticesidentifiedsuitthelocalcontext.Forexample,encouraginggreaterskilledmigrationmayimprovetheskillsshortageinreceivingeconomiesbutmayworsenskillshortagesinsendereconomies.

• Itisallrelative.Theultimatesuccessofpoliciesincombatingskillsshortagesshouldnotignoresimilareffortunderwayinothersectorsoftheeconomythatarealsodesignedtoattractskilledworkers.Ultimately,theimplementationofarangeof‘bestpractices’forcombatingtheskillsshortageisnoguaranteeforsuccess.Ultimately,theonlywayforthetourismindustrytogrowthenumberofskilledemployeesistoevaluatetherelativeattractivenessofwagesandworkingconditionsintheindustryagainstthoseavailableinothersectorsoftheeconomy.

121Image credit: www.istockphoto.com


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130 Image credit: negativespace.co – Pexels.com


AppendixA:APECTourismLabourForceSurvey

This research is being undertaken by EarthCheck and Griffith University on behalf of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) Secretariat. The project seeks to identify and benchmark key skills shortages that constrain the tourism sector’s future growth across the APEC region. The survey will take approximately 20 minutes to complete and your contribution is voluntary and anonymous (unless you choose to provide your contact details). There are no foreseeable risks associated with your participation in this research. You are able to withdraw from the survey at any time. The data will be stored at Griffith University in a secure location for 5 years before being destroyed. The information collected is confidential and will not be disclosed to third parties, except to meet government, legal or other regulatory authority requirements. For further information, consult Griffith University’s Privacy Plan or telephone +61 7 3735 4375. If you have any further questions or would like a summary of the results of this study, please contact Dr Andreas Chai (email [email protected]). If you have any concerns or complaints about the ethical conduct of the research project (GU Ref No: 2016/358), please contact the Manager, Research Ethics on +61 7 3735 4375 or [email protected]. Griffith University conducts research in accordance with the National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research. By clicking 'Next' you agree to participate in this research, but understand that your participation is voluntary and that you can exit the survey at any time without explanation or penalty.

Q1. Where do you reside? Drop Down Box Australia (1) Brunei Darussalam (2) Canada (3) Chile (4) People's Republic of China (5) Hong Kong, China (6) Indonesia (7) Japan (8) Republic of Korea (9) Malaysia (10) Mexico (11) New Zealand (12) Papua New Guinea (13) Peru (14) The Republic of the Philippines (15) Russia (16) Singapore (17) Chinese Taipei (18) Thailand (19) United States (20) Viet Nam (21) Q2 Which of the following respondent type do you identify with and wish to respond as? Government Respondent (1) Go to Q29 Business Owner (may also be managing)

(2) Go to Q3 Business Manager (not owner) (4) Go

to Q3 Business Employee (not management) (5) Go to Q3

Non-Governmental Organisation (NGO) (6) Go to Q29

Academic (7) Go to Q29 Other (please specify) (3)

____________________ Go to Q26 Q3 TO Q28 TOURISM BUSINESSES ONLY Q3. What is the primary service and/or product that your business provides? Accommodation (1) Food and Beverage (2) Transport (3) Travel Agency or Tour Operator (4) Entertainment or Attractions (5) Other (please specify) (6)


Q4. How many paid employees does your business have? Note: If your business has multiple branches or operations, please report on the entire company. Please report on head count, not full-time equivalent employees. Non-employing (1) 1-4 (2) 5-19 (3) 20-100 (4) 101-200 (5) 201+ (6) Q5. How long has your business been operating? Less than 2 years (1) 2 to 5 years (2) 6 to 10 years (3) More than 10 years (4) Don't know (5) Q6. Are you a seasonal business, that is, does your business choose to increase and decrease employee numbers during the year in line with customer demand? Yes (1) No (2) IF Q6 = 1 THEN ASK Q7, OTHERWISE ASK Q8 Q7. Please select which months are your business’s high season: January (1) February (2) March (3) April (4) May (5) June (6) July (7) August (8) September (9) October (10) November (11) December (12)

Q8. Approximately what is your business’s annual staff turnover rate? 0% (1) 10% (2) 20% (3) 30% (4) 40% (5) 50% (6) 60% (7) 70% (8) 80% (9) 90% (10) 100% (11) Q9. Have any of the following caused problems for your business in recruiting or retaining staff over the past 12 months? Select all that apply

Recruiting (1)

Retaining (2)

Location (1) Lack of applicants (2) Lack of experienced applicants (3)

Lack of formal training (4)

Lack of required skills (5)

Staff not motivated to work (6)

Competition from other tourism businesses (7)

Competition from other industries (8)

Other, please specify (9)______________

No Problems Experienced (10)

IF Q9 = 5 FOR EITHER RECRUITING OR RETAINING THEN ASK Q10 OTHERWISE GO TO Q11


Q10. What skills have caused problems for your business with recruiting and/or retaining staff over the past 12 months? Select all that apply Hard Skills (e.g. job specific, teachable

abilities such as cooking, cleaning or machine operation) (1)

Digital and IT Skills (2) Soft Skills (e.g. languages, customer

service, personal hygiene) (3) Managerial / Business Skills (e.g. planning

and organisation) (4) Other (please specify) (5)

____________________ Don’t Know (6) Q11. Do you believe the following graduates entering employment with your business are job ready? Response Options: 1 = Yes, Job Ready; 2 = No, Lack Skills; 3 = No, Lack the right attitude; 4 = Don’t Know; 5 = Not Applicable University graduates (1) Vocational Education and Training (VET) graduates (2) Completed / Certified Apprentices or Trainees (3) IF Q11 = 2 FOR UNIVERSITY GRADUATES ASK Q12, OTHERWISE GO TO Q13 Q12. What skills are University graduates lacking that your business needs? Select all that apply Hard Skills (e.g. job specific, teachable





____________________ Don’t Know (6) IF Q11 = 2 FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING GRADUATES ASK Q13, OTHERWISE GO TO Q14

Q13. What skills are Vocational Education and Training (VET) graduates lacking that your business needs? Select all that apply Hard Skills (e.g. job specific, teachable





____________________ Don’t Know (6) IF Q11 = 2 FOR COMPLETED/CERTIFIED APPRENTICES OR TRAINEES ASK Q14, OTHERWISE GO TO Q15 Q14. What skills are Completed / Certified Apprentices or Trainees lacking that your business needs? Select all that apply Hard Skills (e.g. job specific, teachable





____________________ Don’t Know (6) Q15. How long does it normally take your business to fill a job vacancy once active recruitment has started? Less than 1 week (1) Less than 1 month (2) 1 to 3 months (3) 3 to 6 months (4) More than 6 months (5) Don't know (6) Q16. In the past 5 years, have there been any advertised job vacancies that have taken much longer than it would normally take your business (e.g. <INSERT CHOICE SELECTED FROM Q15>) to fill? Yes, please specify the job type(s) (1)

____________________ No (2) Don't Know (3)


Q17. At which level does your business have the most difficulty finding the right skills? Senior Management (1) Mid-management (2) Front-line Managers / Supervisors (3) Skilled Operational /Technical Staff (4) Unskilled Operational Staff (5) Apprentices / Trainees / Graduates (6) Don't Know (7) Q18. How does your business currently recruit staff? Select all that apply Word-of-mouth (1) Referrals from current employees (2) Newspaper advertising (3) Company websites (4) Social media (5) Online recruitment (6) Relationships with educational providers

(7) Targeting mature aged workers (8) Targeting foreign workers (9) Selection surveys and probation periods

(10) Recruitment agencies (11) Q19. Does your business access any specific government funded education, training, scholarship or apprenticeship programs/schemes available in <OPTION SELECTED IN Q1>? Yes (1) No, did not access any

program(s)/scheme(s) (2) No, not aware of any

program(s)/scheme(s) (4) Don't Know (3) Not Applicable (5) IF Q19 = 1 (YES) THEN ASK Q20, OTHERWISE GO TO Q21 Q20. Please specify the government funded education, training, scholarship or apprenticeship programs/schemes that your business has access to: __________________________________________________________________

Q21. Thinking about your business, to what extent do you agree with the following statements? Response Options: 1 = Strongly Disagree; 2 = Disagree; 3 = Neutral; 4 = Agree; 5 = Strongly Agree; 6 = Don’t Know; 7 = Not Applicable. Employees are paid above the award wage rate (1) All employees can apply for promotion (2) Eligible employees are personally notified of management vacancies (3) Pay is based on experience, qualifications and performance (4) All employees have equal access to ‘perks’ of the job (e.g. tips, rewards, overtime pay, employee meals, incentive travel etc.) (5) The number of males and females in management positions is recorded (6) Q22. Do employees in your business have access to any of the following programs? Response Options: 1 = Yes; 2 = No; 3 = Don’t Know; 4 = Not Applicable. Paid maternity leave (1) Paid paternity leave (2) Pension or Superannuation programs (3) Education / training break (4) Workplace childcare or childcare allowances (5) Career break programs (6) Carer's leave (7) Flexible working arrangements (e.g. flexible hours, can work from home) (8) Health related programs or subsidies (9) Relocation assistance or subsidised transport to work sites (10) Q23. Does your business have any of the following? Response Options: 1 = Yes; 2 = No; 3 = Don’t Know; 4 = Not Applicable. An Occupational Health and Safety Policy (1) A Sexual Harassment Policy (2) A Workplace Bullying policy (3) An Equal Employment Opportunity policy (4) Consequences for not following the Sexual Harassment policy (5) Consequences for not following the Workplace Bullying policy (6) Consequences for not following the Equal Employment Opportunity policy (7) A designated person on staff responsible for equal employment opportunity issues (8) An external Equal Employment Opportunity expert who can be consulted about organisational employment practices (9)


Q24. For which of the following worker groups does your business provide diversity and inclusion programs in recruitment OR training and career development to improve their participation in the workforce? Select all that apply

Recruitment (1)

Training & career development (2)

Women (1) Low-skilled labour (2)

Older workers (50 years or more) (3)

Younger workers (< 25 years) (4)

People with disabilities (5)

Racial or ethnic minorities (6)

Women returning to the workforce (7)

Q25. To what extent does your business use the following methods for career development specifically for women? Response Options: 1 = Not at all; 2 = Very Little; 3 = Somewhat; 4 = To a moderate extent; 5 = To a very great extent; 6 = Don’t Know; 7 = Not Applicable. Training on the job (1) Project team work (2) Coaching or mentoring (3) Special tasks or projects (4) Identification of formal career paths (5) High-potential programs (e.g. women leadership programs / workshops) (6) International work assignments (7) Formal networking programs (8) Job rotation or secondment (9)

Q26. To what extent does your business use the following methods for career development specifically for young people (<25 years)? Response Options: 1 = Not at all; 2 = Very Little; 3 = Somewhat; 4 = To a moderate extent; 5 = To a very great extent; 6 = Don’t Know; 7 = Not Applicable. Training on the job (1) Project team work (2) Coaching or mentoring (3) Special tasks or projects (4) Formal career paths (5) High-potential programs (6) International work assignments (7) Formal networking programs (8) Job rotation or secondment (9) Numeracy, literacy or computer skills training (10) Q27. Are there any barriers preventing your business from hiring foreign workers? Immigration Issues (1) Visa Issues (2) Cost to businesses (3) Cost to employees (4) Labour regulation (5) Language barriers (6) A good supply of local workers (7) Political or societal opposition (8) Other (please specify) (9)

____________________ No barriers (10) Q28. Are there any barriers preventing your business from raising wages to attract employees in <OPTION SELECTED IN Q1>? Select all that apply There is a ready supply of cheap labour

(1) Lack of business profitability (2) Ineffective in attracting more workers (3) Collective wage agreements (4) Other (please specify) (5)_____________ No barriers (6)


ASK ALL Q29 Q29. Which of these best describe the majority of the tourism labour force in <OPTION SELECTED IN Q1>?

Midpoint = Neither

Male Female

Young workers Mature age workers

Unskilled workers Skilled workers

Temporary, part-time, casual or

seasonal positions

Full-time permanent positions

Small / medium sized businesses Large businesses

Difficult or uncomfortable

working conditions Excellent working

conditions

Low wages or inadequate pay High wages or

excessive pay rates Excessive or

inconvenient working hours

Appropriate and flexible working hours

Hazardous working environment Safe working

environment

Low labour mobility High labour mobility

Lack of career path Clear career pathways

Lack of on-the-job training Significant on-

the-job training

Limited / outdated human resource

management practices

Cutting edge human resource management practices

ASK Q30 TO Q41 ONLY IF Q2 =1 (GOVERNMENT) OR 3 (OTHER)

Q30. Are you aware of any shortages in the following four core skill areas when recruiting tourism employees in <OPTION SELECTED IN Q1>? Response Options: 1 = No Shortages; 2 = Some Shortages; 3 = Moderate Shortages; 4 = Major Shortages; 5 = Don’t Know; 6 = Not Applicable. Hard Skills (e.g. specific, teachable abilities such as cooking, cleaning or machine operation) (1) Digital and IT Skills (2) Soft Skills (e.g. languages, customer service, personal hygiene) (3) Managerial / Business Skills (e.g. planning and organisation) (4) Q31. Do you believe that tourism organisations in <OPTION SELECTED IN Q1> invest enough in staff training and development? Yes (1) Go to Q32 No (2) Go to Q33 Don’t Know (3) Go to Q34 Q32. What do you think are the main reasons tourism organisations in <OPTION SELECTED IN Q1> invest in training and development? Select all that apply To retain skilled staff (1) To remain competitive (2) Staff training programs subsidised by

government (3) Highly skilled staff passing on skills (4) Other (please specify) (5)

____________________ Q33. What do you think are the main barriers that inhibit tourism organisations in <OPTION SELECTED IN Q1> from investing more in staff training and development? Select all that apply Cost (1) High turnover of staff (2) Loss of skilled staff to competitors (3) Lack of commitment to training (4) Lack of resources for training (5) Lack of internal skills for training (6) Lack of access to external training

providers (9) Staff lack numeracy or writing skills (7) Other (please specify) (8)

____________________


Q34. Do you believe the following graduates entering the tourism sector in <OPTION SELECTED IN Q1> are job ready? Response Options: 1 = Yes, Job Ready; 2 = No, Lack Skills; 3 = No, Lack the right attitude; 4 = Don’t Know; 5 = Not Applicable University graduates (1) Vocational Education and Training (VET) graduates (2) Completed / Certified Apprentices or Trainees (3) IF Q34 = 2 FOR UNIVERSITY GRADUATES ASK Q35, OTHERWISE GO TO Q36 Q35. What skills are University graduates lacking that tourism businesses need? Select all that apply Hard Skills (e.g. job specific, teachable





____________________ Don’t Know (6) IF Q34 = 2 FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING GRADUATES ASK Q36, OTHERWISE GO TO Q37 Q36. What skills are Vocational Education and Training (VET) graduates lacking that tourism businesses need? Select all that apply Hard Skills (e.g. job specific, teachable





____________________ Don’t Know (6) IF Q34 = 3 FOR COMPLETED/CERTIFIED APPRENTICES OR TRAINEES ASK Q37, OTHERWISE GO TO Q38

Q37. What skills are Completed / Certified Apprentices or Trainees lacking that tourism businesses need? Select all that apply Hard Skills (e.g. job specific, teachable





____________________ Don’t Know (6) Q38. How does the tourism sector in <OPTION SELECTED IN Q1> currently recruit staff? Select all that apply Word-of-mouth (1) Referrals from current employees (11) Newspaper advertising (2) Company websites (3) Social media (4) Online recruitment (5) Relationships with educational providers

(6) Targeting mature aged workers (7) Targeting foreign workers (8) Selection surveys and probation periods

(9) Recruitment agencies (10) Q39. Are there any barriers preventing tourism organisations from hiring foreign workers? Immigration Issues (1) Visa Issues (2) Cost to businesses (3) Cost to employees (4) Labour regulation (5) Language barriers (6) A good supply of local workers (8) Political or societal opposition (9) Other (please specify) (7)

____________________ No Barriers (10)


Q40. Are there any barriers preventing tourism organisations from raising wages to attract employees in <OPTION SELECTED IN Q1>? Select all that apply Ready supply of cheap labour (1) Lack of business profitability (2) Perception that raising wages is ineffective

in attracting more workers (3) Collective wage agreements (4) Other (please specify) (5)

________________ No Barriers (6) Q41. Are you aware whether the government in <OPTION SELECTED IN Q1> provides any of the following for tourism employees? Select all that apply Scholarships for young people (<25 years)

(1) Scholarships for women(2) Government grants for women

entrepreneurs / women in small businesses (3)

Government grants for young people (<25 years) in small businesses (4)

Apprenticeship schemes (5) A website / brochure about tourism

training and employment (e.g. listing wages, duration of training, entry requirements, career prospects) (6)

ASK ALL FROM Q42 Q42. Do you consider it to be common or uncommon to find women working in the following jobs in tourism in <OPTION SELECTED IN Q1>?

Common (1)

Uncommon (2)

Management (1) Clerical / administration (2)

Customer service (3) Back-of-house (e.g. cleaning) (4)

Full-time work (5) Part-time work (6) Permanent work (7) Contract work (8) Seasonal employment (9)

Self-employment (10)

Q43. Are there any cultural barriers or business practices that impact women's employment, participation or career progression in tourism in <OPTION SELECTED IN Q1>? Please explain your response. __________________________________________________________________ Q44. Do you consider it to be common or uncommon to find young people (<25 years) working in the following jobs in tourism in <OPTION SELECTED IN Q1>.

Common (1)

Uncommon (2)

Management (1) Clerical / administration (2)

Customer service (3) Back-of-house (e.g. cleaning) (4)

Full-time work (5) Part-time work (6) Permanent work (7) Contract work (8) Seasonal employment (9)

Self-employment (10) Q45. What is your gender?

Male (1) Female (2) Q46. Which age group do you fall within?

Under 18 years (1) 18-19 years (2) 20-24 years (3) 25-29 years (4) 30-34 years (5) 35-39 years (6) 40-44 years (7) 45-49 years (8) 50-54 years (9) 55-59 years (10) 60-64 years (11) 65 years or more (12)


Q47. Are there any key documents / data sources / reports or examples of best practice relating to tourism labour in <OPTION SELECTED IN Q1> that we should be aware of? Yes (please specify) (1)

____________________ No (2) Don’t Know (3) Q48. Would you be willing to contribute information or answer some additional questions in a follow up telephone interview so that the project team can write a best practice case study? Yes (1) No (2) IF Q46 ==1 (YES) ASK Q47, OTHERWISE GO TO Q48

Q49. Thank you for agreeing to contribute to the development of a best practice case study. Please provide your contact information so that a member of our project team can contact you. Name (1)___________________________ Organisation (2)______________________ APEC Economy (if unsure, please specify your Country) (3)____________ Email Address (4)_____________________ Phone Number (5)____________________ Preferred contact method (6)___________ Q50. Are you able to identify any other key people (e.g. government agencies, business owners/managers, employees, women or youth advocates etc.) we should speak to about tourism labour issues in the APEC region? Name (1)___________________________ Organisation: (3)______________________ Email Address (2)_____________________ Q51. Do you have any other final comments about this survey or the tourism labour market in the APEC region? __________________________________________________________________ THANK YOU FOR PARTICIPATING IN OUR SURVEY!


AppendixB:SurveyRespondentOverview

Composite:�Q1:�Economy;�and�Q2:�Respondent�type

Gov

ernm

ent

Bus

ines

sO

wne

r

Bus

ines

sM

anag

er

Bus

ines

sE

mpl

oyee

NG

O

Aca

dem

ic

Oth

er

Tota

l

Australia 12 14 19 8 9 4 7 73

BruneiDarussalam 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1

Canada 0 0 2 0 5 1 1 9

Chile 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 3

People’sRepublicofChina 0 1 8 6 0 0 1 16

HongKong,China 0 0 7 1 0 2 0 10

Indonesia 14 3 4 5 4 7 5 42

Japan 5 1 0 2 0 1 1 10

RepublicofKorea 1 0 1 1 1 2 0 6

Malaysia 4 0 1 2 1 1 1 10

Mexico 3 2 6 8 2 1 4 26

NewZealand 2 0 2 3 0 2 1 10

PapuaNewGuinea 1 5 5 3 0 2 0 16

Peru 10 0 2 0 1 5 0 18

Philippines 2 0 6 1 3 2 2 16

Russia 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 2

Singapore 0 1 2 0 0 0 1 4

ChineseTaipei 4 5 9 2 1 1 0 22

Thailand 1 1 7 4 2 1 5 21

UnitedStates 2 1 3 2 0 4 1 13

VietNam 0 0 0 0 0 3 4 7

Total 62 35 85 49 29 41 34 335


Q1.:�Percentage�of�developing�and�developed�economies

Q2:�All�respondents�–�Type�of�respondent

Developing53%

Developed47%

Other10%

Academic12%

NGO9%

Business Employee

15%

Business Manager25%

Business Owner 10%

Govenment Respondent19%


Q45:�What�is�your�gender?1�

Q46:�Which�age�group�do�you�fall�within?2�

1 154outofapossible335respondentsansweredthisquestion.

2 156outofapossible335respondentsansweredthisquestion.Therewerenorespondentswhoindicatedtheagerange‘Under18years’.

Female48%

Male52%

0

5

10

15

20

65 years or more

60-6455-5950-5445-4940-4435-3930-3425-2920-25618-19

% o

f re

spon

dent

s to

thi

s qu

estio

n


Q3:�Business�Respondents�Only�–�What�is�the�primary�product�or�service�your�business�provides?

Q4:�Business�Respondents�Only�–�How�many�paid�employees�does�your�business�have?

Other19%

Entertainment or Attractions

2%

Travel Agency / Tour Operator

14%

Transport6%

F&B3%

Accommodation56%

201+46%

101-20012%

20-10023%

5-1911%

1-47%

Non-Employing1%


Q5:�Business�Respondents�Only�–�How�long�has�your�business�been�operating?

Q6:�Business�Respondents�Only�–�Does�your�business�choose�to�adjust�employee�numbers�during�the�year�in�line�with�seasonal�demand?

Don’t know0%

More than 10 years63%

6 to 10 years18%

2 to 5 years14%

Less than 2 years5%

No66%

Yes34%


AppendixC:WorkshopParticipantsName Position

MsMadeleineBurns NationalDirectorofCENFOTUR,TourismEducationCentre,MinistryofForeignTradeandTourism(MINCETUR),Peru

DrAndreasChai SeniorLecturer,GriffithUniversity,Australia

MsTaraCollins SecondSecretary(Economic),AustralianHighCommissionPortMoresby,PapuaNewGuinea

MsMelanieCrosswell DirectorServices&TourismExports,AustralianDepartmentofForeignAffairsandTrade,Australia

MsGraceCruz-Fabella Director(Program),APECSecretariat,Singapore

MrRashidiHasbullah DeputySecretaryGeneral(Tourism),MinistryofTourismandCulture,Malaysia

ProfKateHutchings ProfessorofHumanResourceManagement,GriffithUniversity,Australia

MsYasminKing ChiefExecutiveOfficer,SkillsIQLimited,Australia

DrKangwookLee SeniorResearchFellow,KoreaCultureandTourismInstitute,RepublicofKorea

MsHelenMarano SeniorVicePresidentofGovernmentandIndustryAffairsWTTC,UnitedKingdom

MsJodieMcAlister Counsellor(EconomicGovernance)AustralianHighCommissionPortMoresby,PapuaNewGuinea

DrCeciliaNembou President,DivineWordUniversity,PapuaNewGuinea

MrMarkOlsen GeneralManager,EarthCheckConsulting,Australia

MsDeborahDongeunPark ExternalRelationsCoordinator,InternationalTourismPlanningDivision,MinistryofCulture,SportsandTourism,RepublicofKorea

MrTranPhuCuong DeputyDirectorGeneralInternationalCooperationDepartmentDirectorofVietNamTourismCertificationBoard,VietNamNationalAdministrationofTourism,MinistryofCulture,SportsandTourism,VietNam

MrsTranThiPhuongNhung PrincipalOfficialofInternationalCooperationDepartmentOfficialofVietNamTourismCertificationBoard,VietNamNationalAdministrationofTourism,MinistryofCulture,SportsandTourism,VietNam

MrSimonYaukah DirectorBMG,PNGAPECSecretariat,PapuaNewGuinea

MrCharlieWayar PolicyOfficer,PNGAPECSecretariat,PapuaNewGuinea

MsArleteWolly PolicyOfficer,DepartmentofForeignAffairs,PapuaNewGuinea

MrJacksonZabala (1)Boardmember,PNGTourismPromotionBoard(2)CommercialManager-ProjectsLamanaGroup,PapuaNewGuinea

MrMuhammadAimanZakaria AssistantSecretary,TourismPolicyandInternationalAffairsDivisionMinistryofTourismandCulture,Malaysia

MrStewartMoore ExecutiveDirector,APECInternationalCentreforSustainableTourism(AICST),Australia

MrChrisFlynn RegionalDirector-Pacific,PacificAsiaTravelAssociation(PATA),Australia

MsGabrieleRuizDuran DirectorofInternationalAffairs,MinistryofTourism,Mexico

MrEmmanuelSanAndres Analyst,APECSecretariat,Singapore

ZeongUhHanColdy OfficerofMacaoEconomicServices,Macao,China


AppendixD:WorkshopSummary

One�day�stakeholder�workshop�to�support�APEC�project:

TWG�02�2015

‘Developing�the�tourism�workforce�of�the�future�through�labour�and�skills�development,�certification�and�mobility�in�the�APEC�Region’

Workshop�Summary

Tuesday,�30�August�2016

Gazelle�International�Hotel,�Kokopo,

East�New�Britain,�Papua�New�Guinea

AworkshopwasheldfortheTWGinKokopo,PapuaNewGuineaonTuesday30August2016.ThelistofattendeesisprovidedinAppendixA,inclusiveofrepresentativesfromtheTourismWorkingGroup(TWG),TWGinvitedguests,andspeciallyinvitedpresenters,includingtheTWG022015ProjectTeam.Theworkshopincludedkeynoteaddresses,panelsessions,andsmallgroupdiscussions.TheeventhighlightedthatworkforcechallengesintourismarecommonacrossallAPECeconomies.Thesechallengesaresettogrowwith1in10jobsgloballytobesupportedbytravelandtourismoverthenexttenyears(WTTC2016).

Severaloverarchingissueswerediscussedincludingwomenandyouth,trainingandskillscertification,labourmobilityandmigration,andstaffrecruitmentandretentioninSMEs.Onekeychallengeistheneedforgovernmentstorecognisethevalueofthetourismindustryasoneofitskeystrategicpriorities.

Relevanttowomenandyouth,anover-representationinlowerpaidpositionsandpoorworkconditions,combinedwithaperceptionofnolong-termcareerpathwaysintheindustrywerenoted.Regardingtrainingandscholarships,attendeesrecognisedtherearelimitstowhatcanbetaughtinuniversitiesandcollegesregardingtourism,withmanyskillshighlycustomised.Furthermore,therearedisconnectionsbetweenindustrystakeholders,learninginstitutionsandgovernment,wherelimitedindustryengagementinthedesignofcurriculum,andfundingsupportbygovernments,resultsinlimitedscholarshipsandon-the-joblearningopportunities.ThisisparticularlyrelevantinSMEswherethereislimitedsupportfortrainingprogramswithintheindustry.Challengesregardinglabourmobilityandmigrationwereidentifiedwhereontheonehandvisafacilitationwasrecognisedaspotentiallyimprovingtheissue,butlackspoliticalwill.Ontheotherhand,attendeesrecognisedthepotentialthreatfeltbylocalpeopleofforeignworkersfillingjobs,whetherthelocalshavetheskillsforthejobsornot.Culturaldifferences,includinglanguageanddifferingsocialstructures,arefurtherchallengestobeaddressedthroughinternationalmigrationpolicies.

Thegrouprecognisedmanyopportunitiestoaddressthechallenges.Thegroupacknowledgedthepotentialoftourismtocontributetoconsiderableeconomicdevelopmentintheregion;apointgovernmentsneedtoplacegreateremphasisuponthroughpoliciesandinvestment,particularlyregardinglabour,skills,womenandyouth.Fromanindustryperspective,mentoringprogramsforwomenandyouth,implementedbysuccessfulwomenand/orbyolder,experiencedworkerscouldassistindevelopingskillswhilealsodevelopingachangeinperceptionofthepotentialforlongtermcareerpathwaysforemployees.Developingeducationandtrainingprogramsspecificallydesignedtoempowerwomenwerepromotedasworkforcebuildingopportunities.Whileforyouth,tourismrelatededucationandtrainingdeliveredaspartofsecondaryschool


curriculumwasseentoencouragestudentsastothelengthandbreadthofopportunitiesavailableintheindustry.School-basedlearningwasrecognisedasalsoprovidingopportunitiesforengagingwithparentswhomayhaveconcernsaboutlong-termoptionsforcareerswithintheindustrywhichattendeessuggestedwasaconcern.Theuseofsocialmedia,andtelevisionmedia,topromoteopportunitiesforcareeroptionswithintheindustrywasrecognisedasavaluabletool,particularlyforyoungpeople.Forbothwomenandyouth,wageswerediscussed,withacallforareductioninthegendergapinwagesforwomenandaminimumwageforyouthtobeadoptedbygovernments.

Opportunitiesinworkplacetrainingwereidentifiedincludingintegrationbetweenindustryandtrainingprovidersandacademia.Thiswasrecognisedasthekeytodeliveringindustryappropriatecurriculum,therebyimprovingemployabilityofgraduates.Theneedforgreateremphasisonsoftskillssuchaslanguageskills,personalpresentation,andwhatconstitutesqualitycustomerservicewasdiscussed,whichcouldallbereinforcedthroughtheadoptionofstandardisedinductionprograms.Inductionprogramswerehighlyrecommendedtoimproveskillsandcapacityofemployeeswhilealsoprovidingemployerswithanopportunitytoinvestindevelopingandsupportingtheirworkforce.In-housetrainingreceivedmixedattentionfromtheattendees,whereintheAustralianeconomy,employersaremovingtowardsprivatecollegesandeducationalinstitutionstodelivertraining.Inothereconomies,suchasThailand,industrystakeholdersquitestronglysupportin-housetrainingprograms.

Labourmobilityandmigrationopportunitiesincludedimprovedvisafacilitation,culturaladaptationprograms,andthepotentialforanewsub-categoryoftourismrelatedworkersfortheAPECBusinessTravelCard.LinkingvariousmutualrecognitionframeworkssuchaswhatispresentedintheASEANmodel,theAustralianQualificationsFramework,andothernationalandregionalbenchmarksandstandardstomigrationvisaswerealsorecognisedtopotentiallyimprovemobilityacrosstheregionwhilealsoprovidingcross-borderskillsrecognition.Circularlabourexchangesthroughan‘APECPathway’andseasonalemploymentprogramswereothersuggestionsofimprovingregionalworkermobility.AttendeesalsorecognisedaneedtocollaboratewiththeAPECHumanResourceDevelopmentWorkingGrouptoimprovelabourmobility.

OpportunitiesforstaffrecruitmentandretentioninSMEsincludedinternationalrecruitmentthroughimmigrationsupportandcross-borderincentives.GovernmentapprovedcompanyincentivesforperformanceinSMEsthatretainworkerssuchastaxrebateswerealsosuggested.Theactualcostofstaffturnoverwasidentifiedasoneareaoffurtherresearch,thefindingsofwhichneedtobepromotedamongstSMEs.Lastly,theattendeessuggestedlargecompaniescouldprovidementoringorjob-shadowingforemployeesinSMEsthroughasharingofskillsets.


AppendixE:CaseStudyQuestions

QuestionsforconsiderationbyTWGmembersinthedevelopmentofCaseStudies

Topic�1:�Evolving�skills�challenges�for�the�tourism�workforce1. Whatarethekeyskillshortagesexperiencedintourisminyoureconomy?

2. Aretherebarrierspresentinyoureconomythatresultinpersistentskillshortages?

3. Whatpolicies/solutions/prioritieshavebeenidentifiedtotackletheseskillshortages?

4. Howisdigitisationaffectingworkforcedemandsinthetourismsectorinyoureconomy?

Topic�2:�Industry�perceptions�among�employees�and�career�pathways1. 1.Whatistheperceptionofthetourismsectortoofferlongtermcareersinyoureconomy?

2. Whatbarrierscanyouidentifyinattractingnewemployees?

3. Whatpolicies/solutions/prioritieshavebeenidentifiedtoattractnewemployees?

4. Whatpolicies/solutions/prioritieshavebeenidentifiedtopromotecareerpathwayoptions?

5. Whatarethekeyissuesinretainingemployees(particularlyyouth)inyoureconomy?

Topic�3:�Encouraging�tourism�SMEs�to�invest�in�training1. TowhatextentaretourismSMEsinvestingintraininginyoureconomy?

2. AretherebarriersinyoureconomythatinhibittourismSMEsfrominvestinginworkforcetraininganddevelopment?

3. Whatpolicies/solutions/prioritieshavebeenidentifiedtoencouragetraininginvestmentbySMEs?

4. Towhatextentdotourismbusinessesworkwithtourismassociationsandotherstakeholdersinyoureconomytodeveloptrainingprogramsforemployees?


Topic�4:�Strengthening�the�links�between�education�and�tourism�sectors1. Isthereeffectivecoordinationandplanningoccurringbetweentheeducationandtourism

sectorsinyoureconomy?

2. Aretherebarriersinyoureconomythathindercooperationbetweentheeducationandtourismsectors?

3. Whatpolicies/solutions/prioritieshavebeenidentifiedtoencouragegreatercooperationandcoordinationbetweentourismbusinessesandeducationalproviders?

Topic�5:�Migration�and�skills�recognition1. Howdifficultisitforthetourismsectortoaccessskilledmigrantsinyoureconomy?

2. Aretherebarriersinyoureconomythatinhibitaccesstoskilledmigrants?

3. Whatpolicies/solutions/prioritieshavebeenidentifiedtoencourageskillsrecognitionandskilledmigrationinyoureconomy?

Topic�6:�Issues�for�women�and�youth�in�tourism1. Howcantourismorganisationsinyoureconomyrespondtothechangingageprofileinthe

workforceandensurethatdiverseagegroupsareworkingtogethereffectively?

2. Whatarethebarriersforwomenintourismemploymentinyoureconomy?

3. WhatarethechallengesfacedbytourismSMEsindevelopingfemaleandyouthemployees?

4. Whathavetourismbusinessesinyoureconomydonetoimprovetheretentionofwomenandtheirpromotionandmanagerialprospects?

5. Whatpoliciesandprioritieshasyoureconomyestablishedtoaddressdiscriminationagainstwomenandyouthintourismemployment?


AppendixF:BenchmarkPerformanceTable

Note:ThereisnoconsistentdatacollectiononthesevariablesfortheAPECeconomies.Assuch,thedataintheBenchmarkingPerformanceTableisfromavarietyofdifferentsourcesandrepresentsindicativetrendsonly.Aprogramofconsistentdatacollectionisrequiredtoestablishabaselineforbenchmarkingperformanceforeacheconomy.

BenchmarkPerformanceTable Australia BruneiDarussalam Canada Chile China

Genderequality

(womenas%oftotalworkforce)

55.4%i … 58.8%i 60.5%i 50.4%ii

Wageconditions

(%ofaverageeconomywage/narrative)

… … 47%i 91%i Lowsalaryandwagesintourismindustryiii

Workingconditions Lowerhoursperweek(27.4)thaneconomyaverage(33.9)i

Relativelylowproportionoffulltimeworkersinthesector,ataround35%

Coveredbyanenterpriseagreement–hoursofwork,breaks,overtimeshiftworkandweekendworkiii

… Lowerhoursperweek(27.9)thaneconomyaverage(32.8)i

Labourlawsrelatedtotheminimumageofworkers,hoursworked,andseasonalandpart-timejobsiv

Tourismconsideredunstable,lowercategoryemploymentwithlowsalariesv

However,86%ofpeopleemployedintourismhavepermanentjobs-muchhigherthanthenationalaverage(64%)v

Higherworkinghoursperweek(52.1)thanotherindustries(45.5)ii

Skilllevelandtraining

Businesssurveyoftourismworkforce–69%ofbusinessesidentifiedskillsdeficienciesintheirworkforcevi

However,noprojectedtalentdeficiencyvii

… -0.5%talentdeficiencyvii

42%oftourismemployeeshavesomelevelofpost-secondaryeducationiv

-0.6%talentdeficiencyvii



BenchmarkPerformanceTable HongKong,China Indonesia Japan Korea Malaysia

Genderequality(womenas%oftotalworkforce)

… Womenemployedintourism=55.8%ii

Morethanhalfoftourismbusinessesarerunbywomenviii

Women=62.2%oftourismemploymenti


Women=48.5%oftourismemploymentii


Wageconditions(%ofaverageeconomywage/narrative)

… Lowwagesiii Tourismisalowwageemploymentoptioniii

Lowsalariesincomparedtootherindustriesiii

Lowandun-standardizedwageratesiii

Workingconditions Slightlyhigherhours(47.1)thaneconomyaverage(46.6)ii

Unfavourableworkingconditionsiii

Lowerhoursperweek(34.9)thaneconomyaverage(39.5)i

Increasedtendencytoemploytemporaryworkersiii

Slightlyhigherhours(48.7)thaneconomyaverage(47.3)ii


… -0.3%talentdeficiencyvii



-0.9%talentdeficiency

Strongenablingenvironmentfordevelopmentandgrowthoftalentviii;ix

BenchmarkPerformanceTable Mexico NewZealand PapuaNewGuinea Peru Philippines

Genderequality(womenas%oftotalworkforce)



… Women=76.3%oftourismemploymentii

Women=54.4%oftourismemploymentii


Wageconditions(%ofaverageeconomywage/narrative)

… 49%i … … Significantlylowerwagesinhotelsandrestaurantsectorthaneconomyaverage(-41.8%)ix

Workingconditions Hourssimilarbetweentourism(41.4)andaverageeconomy(42.4)i

Generallawonemploymenthassomearticlesdealingwiththeparticularitiesoftourismsub-sectoriii

Lowerhoursperweek(30)thaneconomyaverage(34).

… … Higherworkinghoursinhotelsandrestaurants(48.5)thantheeconomyaverage(40.6)–19.5%higherhoursofworkinthehotelsandrestaurantsectorix



… … -1.6%talentdeficiencyvii

Talentsurplus(0.3%)vii


Ben

chm

ark

Per

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ance

Tab

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inga

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Chi

nese

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Uni

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qual

ity

(wom

ena

s%

of

tota

lwor

kfor

ce)

Wom

en=

79

.1%

of

tour

ism

em

ploy

men

tii

Wom

en=

55

.3%

of

tour

ism

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ploy

men

tii

…W

omen

=6

5%o

fto

uris

me

mpl

oym

entii

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eth

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mb

usin

esse

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nby

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en=

53

.1%

of

tour

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em

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Wom

en=

70

%o

fto

uris

me

mpl

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entii

Wag

eco

nditi

ons

(%

ofa

vera

gee

cono

my

wag

e/na

rrat

ive)

Sal

ary

islo

wer

than

th

eav

erag

e.x

Per

ceiv

eda

san

in

dust

ryw

ithlo

wer

st

artin

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mun

erat

ion

asc

ompa

red

othe

rin

dust

riesxi

…P

erce

ived

as

low

w

age

indu

stry

iii

……

Wor

king

con

ditio

ns…

Per

ceiv

eda

san

in

dust

ryw

ithlo

ng

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king

hou

rs,s

hift

w

ork

and

deal

ing

with

unp

redi

ctab

le

circ

umst

ance

sin

the

job

envi

ronm

entxi

…P

erce

ived

as

havi

ng

poor

wor

king

co

nditi

onsiii

……

Ski

llle

vela

nd

trai

ning

-2.3

%ta

lent

de

ficie

ncy.

Poo

rena

blin

gen

viro

nmen

tfor

de

velo

pmen

tand

gr

owth

oft

alen

tvii

-1.6

%ta

lent

de

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ong

enab

ling

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ronm

entf

or

deve

lopm

enta

nd

grow

tho

ftal

entvi

i

…-3

.7%

tale

nt

defic

ienc

yvii

-0.5

%ta

lent

de

ficie

ncyvi

i

…


iStacey,J.(2015),“SupportingQualityJobsinTourism”,OECDTourismPapers,2015/02,OECDPublishing,Paris.At:http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5js4rv0g7szr-en

iiBaum,T.(2013)Internationalperspectivesonwomenandworkinhotels,cateringandtourism(WorkingPaperNo.1/2013)(pp.1–77)Geneva,Switzerland:InternationalLabourOrganisation.At:http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---gender/documents/publication/wcms_209867.pdf

iiiRuhanen,L.(2009).TheTourismLabourMarketintheAsiaPacificRegion,FifthUNWTOInternationalConferenceofTourismStatistics,Bali,Indonesia

ivUNWTO(2010).QuestionnaireonTourismandEmployment:OverviewofResults.UNWTOStatisticsandTourismSatelliteAccountProgramme.At:http://t20.unwto.org/sites/all/files/docpdf/unwtoemployment.pdf

vBlanco,H.,Ruiz-Dana,A.,marin,A.,Alonso,V.,PazSilva,C.andLucidi,S.(2007).PreliminaryAssessmentoftheSustainabilityofTourisminChileintheContextofCurrentTradeLiberalization.InternationalInstituteforSustainableDevelopment,Winnipeg,Manitoba.At:https://www.iisd.org/sites/default/files/publications/trade_tourism_chile.pdf

viDeloitteAccessEconomics(2015).AustralianTourismLabourForceReport:2015-2020.AustralianTradeCommission,Austrade.At:https://www.tra.gov.au/documents/Australian_Tourism_Labour_Force_FINAL.PDF

viiOxfordEconomics(2015).GlobalTalentTrendsandIssuesfortheTravel&TourismSector.WorldTravel&TourismCouncil.At:http://www.wttc.org/-/media/382bb1e90c374262bc951226a6618201.ashx

viiiWorldTourismOrganizationandtheUnitedNationsEntityforGenderEqualityandtheEmploymentofWomen(2011).GlobalReportonWomeninTourism2010:PreliminaryFindings.At:http://www2.unwto.org/sites/all/files/pdf/folleto_globarl_report.pdf

ix InternationalLabourOrganisation(2012).Employmentinthetourismsector(hotels&restaurantsasaproxy).At:http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_dialogue/---sector/documents/publication/wcms_235636.pdf

xDzhandzhugazova,E.A.,Zaitseva,N.A.,Larionova,A.A.,Petrovskaya,M.V.,Chaplyuk,V.Z.(2015).TheRussianhotelmarket:Conditionanddevelopmentunderthecrisis.MediterraneanJournalofSocialSciences,6(3S5),289-296.

xiPang,J.M.(2010).PerceptionsofthetourismandhospitalityindustrybySingaporepolytechnichospitalitystudents:Anexploratorystudy.UNLVTheses,Dissertations,ProfessionalPapers,andCapstones.At:http://digitalscholarship.unlv.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1701&context=thesesdissertations


AppendixG:MethodologicalNotes

Best Practice

Theaimofidentifyingcurrentbestpracticeistoassisteconomiesinthedevelopmentofpracticalmeasuresthatfacilitatelabourmobility,staffrecruitment,careerpathways,training,skillsdevelopment,retentionandworkforceplanninginthetourismsector.Bestpracticemeasuresmightbeconsideredbybusinesses,theVETsectorandgovernment,orothers.Afocusisalsoplacedonbestpracticeexamplesforkeytargetareas,suchasgenderandyouth.

Thecriteriaforevaluatingbestpracticesinclude,butarenotlimitedto:

• Theirpotentialtoreducemismatchbetweenorganisationallabourneedsandtrainingsystemoutputsbyimprovingtheaccesstoadequateinformationtoassistindividuals,firmsandgovernmentininvestmentdecisions;

• Improvingaccesstoeducationsystemsandonthejobtrainingopportunities;

• ThepotentialtoreducegeographicimmobilityofskilledworkerswithintheAPECregionbyfosteringinternationalskillstransfer;

• Theopportunitytocreatesustainableemploymentopportunitiesandwork-lifebalance,particularlyforsociallydisadvantagedgroups;

• Whetherincentivestoorganisationstoinvestintrainingtheirworkforceareprovided;and

• Theirimpactonworkingconditionsandpaylevelsandtheirabilitytoreducediscriminationagainstwomenandyoungpeople.

Best practices versus lessons learned

‘Bestpractices’canbedistinguishedfrom‘lessonslearned’and‘Benchmarks’.Bestpracticeisanactivitythatworksandisprovenandreplicable,whilealessonlearnedisarecommendation.Bestpracticeshoulddescribethedetailsofhow,when,andwhereitwasused,inordertobereplicable;incontrastalessonlearnedisframedasageneralrecommendationorconclusiontobetakenintoaccount,butdoesnotdescribeaparticularactivity.Benchmarksarenotbestpractice,insteadtheyareindicatorsbasedonreasonableexpectationsofpastperformanceunderstandardworkingconditionsandoperatingprocedures.

ReferringtotheexperienceoftheQueenslandTourismIndustryCouncil(2013),althoughalonglistofcurrentpoliciesandprogramsexists,manyoftheexistingprogramsareeitherinpilotphaseorhavebeenoperationalonlyforashortperiod,makingitdifficulttodeterminetheirsuccessandbeconsidered‘bestpractice’.Oftheprogramsthathavebeenimplementedforasubstantiallengthoftime,itisstilldifficulttogaugetheirsuccessbecause:1)littletonoinvestigationiscompletedintothedirectoutcomesoftheprograms;2)duetothenumberofprograms,combinedwithexternalfactors,itisextremelydifficulttocategoricallyclaimorprovethatachangeineventsisduesolelytotheinfluenceofoneparticularprogram;and3)oftheinitiativesthathavereportedanoutcomeorsuccess,generallythejudgementsaremadebytheinstigatoroftheprogram,whichunderminesthecredibilityofthesuccessoftheprogram.


AppendixH:OverviewofAPECBestPractice–VETPrograms3

Eco

no

my

Opportunities Boost Barriers

Bru

nei

�Dar

uss

alam

• English�Teaching�Apprenticeship�Program:

• TVET:basedonaneconomy’srequirementsinmanpowerneeds,collaborationwithindustries

oensurethatcoursesmeettheneeds

• Internships�programsSIP:practicallearning

• Mobility:linkageAU-BDfortertiarycourses,universitystudies,internshipstostrengthenpeople-to-peoplelinks

• Goal5–GenderParityandEqualityinEducationby2015,focusonensuringgirls’fullandequalaccesstoandachievementinbasiceducationofgoodquality

• Long-term�development�plan�WAWASAN�BRUNEI�2035:incentivesandassistance=trainingtolocalenterprisesandSMEs,fundsfortrainingprograms

• AITI�program:offerssubsidisedtrainingcoursestotrainlocalcitizensinICTskillsandknowledge

o upgradeemployeesqualificationswithICTcertifications

• JPKE:helpscompaniesdefraytrainingcostsofemployeeswithlimitedskills

• Available�scholarships�for�students:butlackofinterestinstudying

onumberofgraduatedstudentsdecreasedandavailablegrantsmostlyforASEANandOICmembers

• MostofthescholarshipsareawardedtostudentsfromIslamiceconomies

• Thetotalnumberofgraduatesfromacademicandtechnicalinstitutionsisstillfarbelowtheeconomy’slabourneeds.BruneiDarussalamthereforecontinuestorelyonforeignlabourtosustainitseconomyanddevelopment.http://www.iom.int/jahia/webdav/shared/shared/mainsite/published_docs/brochures_and_info_sheets/iom_situation_report.pdf

3 This table reflects selected available data. Data was not located for all economies.


Eco

no

my


Can

ada • Training:Foraboriginal,

programinMuseumPractices

• TVET:programsalignedtothelabourmarketneeds

• Internships:international,governments,foraboriginalyouth,forpeoplewithdisabilities,non-governmentsprograms.

• Canada�Job�Grant:Throughthiscost-sharedprogram,businessesandemployerorganizationscanapplytotheirrespectiveprovinceorterritoryforgrantsofupto$10,000tocover2/3ofthecostoftrainingneworexistingemployeesingovernment,cost-sharedwithemployers,tosupportthedirectcostsoftraining.

• Scholarships:financialassistancetoencouragetrainingandapprenticeship

• Asuiteofproductsandservicesprovidingqualificationassessmentandskillsupgradingresourcesforskilledimmigrantsinhighdemandjobsintourism

• Genderinequality/discriminationLowpercentageofwomenparticipationinapprenticeship

• Alackofcareerawarenessandinsufficientpreparationforskilledtradescareers

• Limitedemployerparticipationinapprenticeship

• Mobilityforapprentices(differentrequirementsandregionaleconomies,lackofawareness,cost)


Eco

no

my


Ch

ile • Agency�of�International�Cooperation�for�the�Development�of�Chile:offerstrainingandscholarshipsanddifferentprogramsoffinancinghighleveltraining

• TVET:humancapitalisimportantifChilewantstofaceglobaleconomicslowdownandcontinuegrowing

• Program�of�the�United�Nations�for�the�Development�PNUD:offersinternshipprogram

• Government:offers300practicesopportunitiesforstudentsinpublicservices+agreementswithuniversitiesabroad

• EducarChileapprenticeshipsprograms:learnandputintopracticeinreallabourcontexts

• BECAS�Chile�scholarship�program:dependentontheMinisterofEducation

• MostexchangeprogramsoryouthopportunitiesofinternshipareinLatinAmerica


Eco

no

my


Peo

ple

’s�R

ep

ub

lic�o

f�C

hin

a • PartnershipAU-CNuniversitiesforspecificprograms

• Training:Practicalskillstraining,oralEnglish,managerial,business-relatedsoftskillstrainingobecomemorevaluableinthelabourmarket,immensedemandfromcompaniesseekingqualifiedandskilledmanagers(moreinvestmentfromChineseparentsineducationandtrainingobetterfuture)

• Continuous�training:UKtrainingprogramforteachers

• TVET:Australianproject(ACCVETP)toassistsChinatoreformlocalvocationaleducationandtrainingtomeetindustrytrainingrequirements

• Internships:opportunitiesforinternationalstudentswithsomeprograms,InternshipsChinaplacesuniversitystudentsatinternshippositionsinShanghaiorBeijing

• Apprenticeships:Hasexistedforyears,andnowadaysespeciallyintraditionaltradessuchaslocalopera,martialarts,medicine.

• Chinese�University�Program:fullscholarshipforinternationalstudentstostudyinChina.

• Chinese�Government�Scholarship:Inordertopromotethemutualunderstanding,cooperationandexchangesinvariousfieldsbetweenChinaandothercountries,theChinesegovernmenthassetupaseriesofscholarshipprogramstosponsorinternationalstudents,teachersandscholarstostudyandconductresearchinChineseuniversities.

• Lackofincentivesonthesideofindustry/business

• Lackoflegislationcorrespondingtoapprenticeship;Issueofstudentidentity;labourcontract

• Lackoflinkagesbetweenindustryandeducationsectors

• Overthepastdecade,Chinahasbeenanattractivedestinationforglobalcorporationsduetoitslowwageratesandlabourlawsthatdisallowindependenttradeunionsandlimittherighttostrike.

159

Eco

no

my


Ho

ng

�Ko

ng

,�Ch

ina • Policy�support:TheTask

ForceonPromotionofVocationalEducationsetupbytheHKSARGovernmentsubmitteditsreportinJuly2015torecommendathree-prongedstrategytofurtherpromotevocationaleducationandtraining(VET)inHongKong,China.TheGovernmenthasacceptedallrecommendationsmadebytheTaskForce.Sincethen,theHKSARGovernmenthasrebrandedVETinHongKong,Chinatovocationalandprofessionaleducationandtraining(VPET),andisimplementingotherrecommendationsonstrengtheningthepromotionofVPETandsustainingefforts

• VPET�providers:awidearrayofVPETproviders,includingtheVocationalTrainingCouncil(VTC)(thelargestVPETproviderinHongKong,China),offeravarietyofpre-serviceandin-serviceeducationandtrainingprograms.

• Apprenticeships:apprenticessponsoredbytheemployerstoattendrelevanttrainingcourses.

• Financial�assistance�for�students:financialassistanceschemesareinplacetoensureneedystudentswillnotbedeniedaccesstopost-secondaryeducation(includingVPET)becauseoflackofmeans

• Scholarships:TheGovernmentScholarshipFundandSelf-financingPost-secondaryEducationFundofferalargenumberofscholarshipstopost-secondarystudents(includingthosepursuingVPET)everyyear.

• Financial�Support�by�the�Government:VarioussubsidyschemesareinplacetosupportthedevelopmentofVPET,suchasthePilotTrainingandSupportScheme,StudySubsidySchemeforDesignatedProfessions/SectorsandthePilotSubsidySchemeforStudentsofProfessionalPart-timeProgrammes

• Industrial�attachment�(IA):recurrentsubventionisprovidedtoVTCtoenhanceIAforitsstudents;theSelf-financingPost-secondaryEducationFundsupportsIAprojectsofself-financingpost-secondaryinstitutionsincludingthosewhichofferVPETprograms

• Hong�Kong,�China��Qualifications�Framework:supportsthedevelopmentandpromotionofVPETbyprovidingarticulationpathways

• Community’sentrenchedperceptionofvocationaleducationasbeingasecondchoicetotraditionalacademicpursuits.


Eco

no

my


Ind

on

esi

a • DTVE:VocationalEducationisaninvestmentwhichprovideseducationandskilledlabourforthelabourmarketsinordertosatisfyindustry’sneed.FurthermorethisstandardwillbenegotiatedtobecomeASEANstandardandpromotedtobeInternationalCompetencyStandard

• Vocational�schools:plannedtobebuiltocrucialtocompeteintheASEAN

• Apprenticeships:youthemploymentishighpriorityforgovernment,employersandworkers.=sourceofskilledlabouraneconomicgrowth

• Booklet�with�guidelines:foremployersonhowtostartandimplementapprenticeshipprogram

• Internships:companiesarrangeinternshipprograms,tocontributeresponsiblytolocaleconomies,connectpeopleetc.

• ScholarshipsforIndonesianstudents

• Guidelinesbooklethelpsindustriestointegrateapprenticeshipsintheirbusiness.

• Skillsgaps


Eco

no

my


Jap

an • Apprenticeships:lesscommonthaninEurope.Existingprogramiscertifiedthroughasystemofnationallyrecognisedqualificationsandcompetencies

• The�Job�Cardisadocumentthatrecordstheindividual’seducation,trainingandemploymenthistory,andcanbeusedforfurthertrainingandjobsearch.

• Apprenticeshipsarenotcommon


Eco

no

my


Rep

ub

lic�o

f�K

ore

a • Work-studyprogramsinschoolsanduniversities

• Choicebetweenvocationaleducationorhighschools

• TVET:hasplayedanimportantroleindevelopingaskilledlabourforceduringKorea’seconomicdevelopment

• Apprenticeships:moreandmoreconsideredbythegovernment,onewayofovercomingyouthunemploymentandeffectivelylinkingtheskillsdevelopmentandskillsutilization

• Work-Study�Dual�System:work-basedlearningadaptedtorealitiesofKorea

• National�Competency�Standards�(NCS)

• Promotingwork-basedlearninginschool

• Boostvocationaleducationandtraining

• Broadentheaccesstotrainingopportunitiesfornon-regularworkers

• Facilitatetheschool-to-worktransitionforyouth

• Establishpoliciesandin-depthstudiesonthecurrentstatusofeducation,theeducationaleffect,andlinkagesbetweeneducationandlabourmarket

• Life-long�Learning�Account�System:Onlinecareermanagementsystemthatwillrecordeachworker’svariouslearningexperiences,providinginformationforemployersbasedonuniformstandards.ThereisalreadyasimilarCreditBanksysteminplace

• The�Korean�Government�Scholarship�Program:supportsthefuturegloballeadersandpromotesinternationalcooperationineducationbyinvitingtalentedinternationalstudentstoKoreaforanopportunitytoconductadvancedstudiesathighereducationalinstitutionsinKorea.

• Keyareasofintervention:toreducelabourmarketmismatchesinclude:(i)improvingsocialdialoguetoidentifythegapsbetweenschoolcurriculaandbusinessneeds;(ii)enhancingtechnicalvocationaleducationandtraining,includingapprenticeships;(iii)introducingmechanismsforearlyidentificationofpotentiallaborforceleaverstoencouragethemtoaccessotheremployment,educationortrainingopportunities;(iv)includingjob-searchtechniquesinschoolcurricula;and(v)improvingyoungpeople’saccesstoinformationoncareeropportunities.

• Therewasalsoanoversupplyofskilledworkersinparticularareas,asupplyanddemandmismatchcausedbyshortagesofskilledworkersinnewlyemergingareas,andpooroutcomesfortrainingunemployedworkersfollowingtheeconomiccrisis.

• Government:Improvingthecoordinationandcollaborationacrosslevelsofgovernmenttoimproveskillsoutcome


Eco

no

my


Mal

aysi

a • TVETprogramsatthesecondaryschoollevel

• National�Dual�Training�System�(NDTS):from2005,500trainees

• Internships:TheIndustrySkillsCommittee(ISC),Thenewcurriculumdesignwillincludeapprenticeships,internships,practicumplacements,andwork-basedlearningprogram

• Apprenticeships:Theministrybelievesthatoneofthebestwaysofworkersandpotentialworkersobtainingthesecompetenciesisthroughapprenticeshipswhich,bydefinition,shouldcombineallthreeskillsets.

• The�Malaysia�Qualification�Frameworkreferstothepolicyframeworkthatsatisfiesboththenationalandinternationalrecognisedqualifications.

• Financial�aid:lecturerscanpursueeducationatoverseasinstitutions

• LackofinvolvementinNDTSfromindustries

• Afterfinancialcrisislessmoneyforscholarships

• Gapsineducation(lessinpost-secondaryandtertiary)

• Demand-supplygap

• Institutingaminimumwage

• Alawinstitutinganationalminimumwagewaspassedforthefirsttime.TheBanklednationwideconsultationswithstakeholdersfromallsectorsoftheMalaysianeconomyandpreparedareportthatassessedthepotentialimpactsandproposedaninstitutionalframeworkfortheimplementationofanappropriateminimumwagefortheeconomy


AppendixI:OverviewofBestPractice–Training4

Strategy Examples

PortableSkillsTrainingProgram

Singapore:Toenlargethepoolofworkerswithserviceskillsfortourismjobs,theWorkforceDevelopmentAgencydevelopedtheCertifiedServiceProfessionalprogram(CSP),whichextendsportableskillstraininginserviceexcellencetoworkerswhowanttojointhetourismsector.

EarnandLearnPrograms

Hong�Kong,�China:ThePilotTrainingandSupportScheme(PTSS)aimstoattractandretaintalentforspecificindustrieswithakeendemandforlabour,byintegratingstructuredapprenticeshiptrainingprogramsandclearcareerprogressionpathways.Apprenticeshiptrainingfortargetedindustrieswillbeprovidedtostudentsalongsideaguaranteedlevelofsalaryandincentiveallowance.Duringthetrainingperiodwhichusuallylastsforfouryears,anapprenticewillreceivesubsidy(ontopofmonthlysalary)fromtheemployer.Attheensuingemploymentperiod,theapprenticewillreceiveamonthlysalary,toppedbyanadditionalaveragemonthlyallowancefromtheGovernment.Uponcompletionoftraining,anapprenticewhostaysinemploymentwillreceiveamonthlysalaryataguaranteedlevel.AsatSeptember2016,theelectrical&mechanical(E&M)tradesoftheconstructionindustry,printing,watch&clock,automobile,testing&certificationandmedicalcentreoperationsindustrieshavejoinedthePTSS.

TraininginAttitudes,SkillsandKnowledge

Australia:Industryareencouragedandassistedtointroduceasystematicandstructuredapproachtotrainingknownas“TraininginAttitudes,Skills,andKnowledge”(TASK).TodelivertheTASKmaterialsinaconsistentmanner,specialworkshopsqualifyanumberofcertifieddepartmentaltrainers,developcertifiedtrainerinstructors,andcertifytrainingmanagers.Twoprogramspreparepeopleforpromotion,combiningplannedon-the-jobexperiencewithlearningoff-the-jobwithdifferentversionstailoredfornewcomersandexistingstaff.Theinterventionsareintendedtobecapableofbeingaccreditedandcertifiedaspartofanationalqualificationsframework(QTIC,2013).

SkillsStandards Philippines:TourismOccupationalSkillsStandardisaninitiativetoharmonizestandardsfortourismprofessionalsintheaccommodation,travelandtour,andguideservices.(APEC2014).

Apprenticeshipprograms

Brunei�Darussalam:TheBrunei-U.S.TeachingApprenticeshipProgramaimstoimprovethemarketabilityofitsASEANparticipantsanddevelopbetterskillsandattitudesforemployability.TheEnglishTeachingApprenticeshipProgramdevelopedoutofthegrowingrelationshipbetweenUniversitiBruneiDarusalam(UBD)andtheEast-WestCenter(EWC)andisanoff-shootoftheBrunei-U.S.EnglishLanguageProjectforASEAN.TheEnglishTeachingApprenticeshipProgramoffersauniqueopportunityforUniversitygraduatesfromanarrayofbackgroundstobecomeEnglishteachingapprenticeswheretheydevelopandenhancetheirpreparationasteachersofEnglish.Byparticipatinginlectures,seminars,andworkshopsledbyexperiencededucatorsandtrainersfromUniversitiBruneiDarussalamandtheEast-WestCenterandapplyingskillstocompletespecifictaskssuchascurriculumdevelopment,theApprenticeshaveachancetoengagewithandreflectontheroleoftheteacherintoday’sclassroom

http://bruneiusprogram.org/the-english-teaching-apprenticeship-eta-program/

TheWorkforceDevelopmentAgency(WDA)

Singapore:TheWDAapprovestrainingprovidersandorganisationsaccordingtoworkforceskillsqualificationsbasedoninternationalbestpracticesandvalidatestrainingprovisionswithindustryandemployers.Theagency’strainingsystemisbasedonfourfundamentalprinciples:authority,accessibility,relevance,andprogression(TheGeorgeWashingtonUniversity,2008)

4 Thistablereflectsselectedavailabledata.Datawasnotlocatedforalleconomies.


Strategy Examples

QualificationFrameworks

Australia:TheAustralianQualificationFramework(AQF)isasinglesystemforqualifyingelementaryeducation,vocationaltraining,secondaryeducation,anduniversities.TheAQFisthenationalpolicyforregulatedqualificationsinAustralianeducationandtraining.Itincorporatesthequalificationsfromeacheducationandtrainingsectorintoasinglecomprehensivenationalqualificationsframework.TheAQFwasfirstintroducedin1995tounderpinthenationalsystemofqualificationsinAustraliaencompassinghighereducation,vocationaleducationandtrainingandschools.TheAustralianQualityTrainingFrameworkprovidesthestandardsnecessarytoguaranteeconsistentstandardsofworkforcetraining,providestandardstotrainers,andprovidequalificationsatthenationallevel(City&Guilds,2008).(TheGeorgeWashingtonUniversity,2008)

MostcoursesandtrainingundertakenbyinternationalstudentsinAustraliaonastudentvisaarecoveredbytheAustralianQualificationsFramework(AQF).TheAQFisanationalsystemoflearningpathwayswhichisendorsedbytheAustralianGovernmentandrecognisedthroughoutAustraliaandbyothercountries.

http://www.aqf.edu.au/

Hong�Kong,�China:Launchedin2008,theHongKongQualificationsFramework(HKQF)isaplatformtoencourageandfacilitatelifelonglearning,withaviewtoenhancingthecapabilityandcompetitivenessoftheworkforceinHongKong.HKQFisaseven-levelhierarchythatordersandsupportsdifferentqualifications,therebyfacilitatingarticulationamongacademic,vocationalandcontinuingeducationbyprovidingacomprehensivenetworkoflearningpathways.HKQFisunderpinnedbyarobustqualityassurancemechanismtoensureallHKQF-recognisedqualificationsareofgoodqualityandstandard.

UndertheAccreditationofAcademicandVocationalQualificationsOrdinance(Cap.592),theHongKongCouncilforAccreditationofAcademicandVocationalQualifications(HKCAAVQ)isspecifiedastheAccreditationAuthorityandtheQualificationsRegister(QR)Authority.ItistaskedwiththeresponsibilityofassuringthequalityofqualificationsrecognisedunderHKQF(exceptthosequalificationsawardedbyself-accreditinginstitutions)andtheadministrationoftheQR.

https://www.hkqf.gov.hk/en/home/index.html

Malaysia:TheMalaysiaQualificationFrameworkreferstothepolicyframeworkthatsatisfiesboththenationalandinternationalrecognisedqualifications.Itcomprisesoftitlesandguidelines,togetherwithprinciplesandprotocolscoveringarticulationandissuanceofqualificationsandstatementsofattainment.Elementsofqualificationframeworkindicatetheachievementforeachqualificationtitles.Itwillalsoprovideprogressionroutesforallthegraduatesintherespectiveoccupationalfields.Inadditiontheframeworksetsthebenchmarkforalloccupationalprograms.Itenablesinternationalrecognitionandstudent/graduatemobilityespeciallywiththeadventoftheWashington,DublinandSydneyAccords.

http://www.unevoc.unesco.org/tvetipedia.0.html?tx_drwiki_pi1%5Bkeyword%5D=Malaysia


Strategy Examples

TVET Republic�of�Korea:TheKoreanmodelofferskeylessons.First,thegovernmenttookasequencedapproachtoeducation.Moneydidn’tstartflowingintoTVETuntiltheeconomynearlyachieveduniversalprimaryeducation.Bydesignoraccident,majorinvestmentbeganintheearly1980s,justaslabourshortagesstartedtopinchtheeconomy.Tomakethe“bigpush”intoexport-orientedmanufacturing,constructionandservice-orientedsectors,theeconomyneededanewstreamofskilledworkers.Atthesametime,policy-makersintheRepublicofKoreawerebeginningtobealarmedbyagrowingappetiteforhighereducation.Peoplewouldbecome“over-educated”,expectingwhitecollarjobsinaneconomythirstingfornewsourcesofskilledlabour.ByexpandingTVET,thegovernmentplannedtosatisfyitsforecastedlabourneedswhilereducingpressureonuniversitiestoenrolmorestudents.Today,about40percentofsecondarystudentsareenrolledinTVET.Yetitisstillperceivedasasecond-classeducation.Sothegovernmentistryingtoopenpathwaystohighereducation.First,TVETstudentsarenowgettingahealthydoseofacademicsubjectssothattheycanapplytouniversity.Insomeschools,academicandvocationalstudentsshareasmuchas75percentofacommoncurriculum.Thegovernmentisalsochannellingpublicandprivateinvestmentintonewpost-secondarytraininginstitutestokillthemyththatTVETisanacademic‘dead-end’.Theultimatechallengeliesinkeepingabreastwithtechnologicalchange.Tokeepcurricularelevant,theplanistotightenlinkstotheprivatesector.Forexample,theRepublicofKoreaisnowexperimentingwiththeirownversionofGermany’sfamous“dualsystem”,whichtracesitsrootsbacktopost-warreconstruction.Itisoptingfora“2+1”program,combiningtwoyearsofclassroomstudieswithayearofapprenticeship.

http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0013/001394/139459e.pdf

People’s�Republic�of�China:SimilarreformsaretakingplaceinChina,whereathirdofallsecondarystudentsareenrolledinvocationalschools,accordingtotheUNESCOInstituteforStatistics(seeboxp.7).However,itisdifficulttodrawparallelsbetweenthetwoeconomies.WhereasalabourshortageshapedtheRepublicofKorea’spolicyreform,Chinaisgrapplingwithalaboursurplus,withjobcreationlaggingbehindthegrowingeconomy.AndwhiletheRepublicofKoreahadtheluxuryoftailoringanewsystemtoforecastneeds,Chinamustoverhaulanantiquatedmachine.

http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0013/001394/139459e.pdf

Canada:TheGovernmentofCanadaconsidersTVETessentialforallresidentstoactivelyengageintheeconomy’sknowledge-basedeconomy.ThemissionofTVETalongwiththewholeCanadianeducationsystemistoprovidestudentswithhigh-qualitylearningopportunitiesandtherequiredskillstoenterthelabourmarket.TVETprogramsarethereforealignedtotheneedsofthelabourmarketforthedifferentpopulationsandagegroups.

http://www.unevoc.unesco.org/go.php?q=World+TVET+Database&ct=CAN

Chile:AnexternalcommissionorganisedbytheMinistryofEducationin2009toanalysethepreviousdevelopmentsinandtoformulateproposalstostrengthenandcoordinateitwiththecurrentneedsofChileansocietyandeconomy.ThisismotivatedbytheimportantrolethatmobilisingwillhaveifChilewantstofacetheglobaleconomicslowdownandcontinuegrowingandovercomepoorworkingconditions,toincludethefemalelabourforceandabsorbthefast-increasingparticipationofstudentsaftercompulsoryeducation.

People’s�Republic�of�China:AnAustralianfundedprojectassistedChinatoreformlocalVocationalEducationandTrainingarrangementstomeetindustrytrainingrequirementsandcontributetoChina’seconomicdevelopment.Theprojectinvolved30secondaryVETcollegesandarangeofotherinstitutionsincludingChongqingNormalUniversity,theChongqingUniversityofArtsandSciencesandtheChongqingResearchInstitute.TheprojectpilotedreforminVETacrossfiveindustriesinChongqingandhelpedtodevelopaVETmodelthatcanbereplicatedonanationalbasisinthePeople’sRepublicofChina(PRC).TheAustralianChinese(Chongqing)VocationalEducationandTrainingProject(ACCVETP)wasafiveyearprojectfundedbyAusAidandinvolvedTAFEinstitutesacrossAustralia,includingIllawarraInstitute.

http://lrrpublic.cli.det.nsw.edu.au/lrrSecure/Sites/Web/13289/ezine/year_2006/jul_aug/international_chinese.htm

VocationalEducationandTraininginChinaStrengths,ChallengesandPolicyOptions

http://www.oecd.org/education/skills-beyond-school/45494135.pdf


Strategy Examples

Hong�Kong,�China:TVET@AsiaisanindependentopencontentonlinejournalforscientistsandpractitionersinthefieldofTechnicalandVocationalEducationandTraining(TVET)andVocationalTeacherEducation(VTE)intheEastandSoutheast-Asianregion.

ItsmainpurposeistoprovideaccesstopeerreviewedpapersandthustoenhancethedisseminationofrelevantcontentandtheinitiationofopendiscussionswithintheTVETcommunity

http://www.tvet-online.asia/

Indonesia:Vocationaleducationisaninvestmentwhichprovideseducationandskilledlabourforthelabourmarketsinordertosatisfyindustry’sneeds.DTVEhassentanumberofstudentsaswellasgraduatedstudentstoMalaysia,Germany,Singapore,Japan,Korea,ChineseTaipeietc.andtosomeotheroverseasarestillinprocessing.FurthermorethisstandardwillbenegotiatedtobecomeASEANstandardandpromotedbeInternationalCompetencyStandard.

http://www.voced.edu.au/content/ngv%3A18101

Republic�of�Korea:Enhancingtechnicalvocationaleducationandtraining,includingapprenticeships;

https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2014/wp14137.pdf

Toeffectivelyperformtasksrelatedtoskillsdevelopment,therebycontributingtovitalisationofvocationaleducationandtrainingandenhancementofthepublic’svocationalcompetencies

• EvaluateTVETinstitutesandtheirprogramsuponrequestfromthegovernment

• PromoteinternationalexchangeofinformationonTVET

http://eng.krivet.re.kr/eu/ea/prg_euABADs.jsp

VEThasplayedanimportantroleindevelopingaskilledlabourforceduringKorea’seconomicdevelopment.However,withtheincreasingimportanceofhighereducationandgeneraleducation,thestatusofVETintheeconomyisdeclining.

http://siteresources.worldbank.org/SOCIALPROTECTION/Resources/SP-Discussion-papers/Labor-Market-DP/0921.pdf

Malaysia:TVETprogramsatthesecondaryschoollevelhavetakenabroad-basedandnon-terminalapproach.ThedeliverysystemallowstheopportunityforstudentstoprogresstotertiaryeducationlevelandacquireaCertificate,DiplomaoraBachelor’sdegreequalification.Atpresent,theministryisstrengtheningtheTVETwithintheschoolingsystembyintroducingTVETskillsstreamatallnationalsecondaryschoolsunderthe10thMalaysiaPlan(10MP)Earlier,theministryhasintroduced22vocationalsubjectstonationalsecondaryschoolstoallowthestudentstoobtainSKM.Otherstrategiesincludeboostingenrolmentinthevocationalandskillsstreamattechnicalsecondaryschools,strengtheningthetechnicalandvocationaleducationcurriculumandenhancingtieswiththeindustry,professionalbodiesandhighereducationinstitutesbothlocalandoverseas.Thegovernmentisalsocurrentlyreviewingthecurriculumtointroducevocationalsubjectsthatcanbestudiedasearlyastheupper-primaryandlowersecondarylevels.TheNationalDualTrainingSystem(NDTS)wasintroducedin2005withaninitialbatchof500trainees,inresponsetorecommendationsmadebyGermanconsultantsina1999report.Thesystemstressesthecombinationandinterrelationofhands-ontrainingattheindustryworkplacewithclassroomtraininginspecialisedtraininginstitutionsestablishedbytheGovernment.Trainingistwoyearsinduration,withtraineesspending70-80%oftheirtimeinworkplacesandtheremaining20-30%inselectedtraininginstitutions.Thestrengthofthe‘DualSystem’isthatithasbeendesignedtotapthebesttrainingpotentialofbothdomains.AveryimportantaspectistheneedforclosecooperationbetweentheGovernmentandprivateindustryinwhichthelattermustbeencouragedandconvincedabouttheimportanceofinvestingintrainingoftheyoungtoensurecontinuedindustrialdevelopmentoftheeconomy.


Strategy Examples

Philippines:AsiaPacificNationalSystemofTechnicalVocationalEducationandTraining(NSTVET)hastheabilitytoincreasetheproductivityandincomeoflowincomeandunemployedpeople,byenhancingtheiremployabilityandre-trainingthemfornewoccupations(Orbeta&Esguerra,2016).TheThirdInternationalCongressonTVEThighlightedthatTVETneedstobroadenitsscopefromskillrequirementsforworktolifelonglearning,aswellasincreaseitsfocusonlearning,adaptabilityandsocialskillstopreparestudentsforanincreasinglyfastchanging,unpredictableandmulti-culturalworld(UNESCO,2015).TVETshouldbeaccessibleandaddresstheneedsoftheunemployed,aswellastheemployedwhowanttoimprovetheirincomeorre-traininadifferentfield.Consequently,TVETneedstoaccommodationdifferenttimesandavailabilityoftraininganddifferentfinancingoptionsthatavoiddiscriminationagainstwomen,youth,thepoor,uneducatedanddisabled.AdesirablecharacteristicofNSTVETisaccessibilityparticularlytoSMEs.WhenTVETisprovidedbytheprivatesector,thereisaneedforthegovernmenttoplayarolebyensuringthatthereareeffectivequalitycontrolmechanisms.Generallyitisacceptedthatthegovernment’sprimaryroleinTVETistoprovideeffectiveregulatoryservicesandinformationontheTVETsystem.However,thegovernmentmightintervenebeyondtheserolesifthereareissuessurroundingequityandefficiency.Thegovernmentwillinterveneforequityreasonswhenthereisaneedtoimprovetheemployabilityandincomesofdisadvantagedgroupsandforefficiencyreasonswhenthereisaneedtofinancetrainingincutting-edgebutexpensivetrainingincertaintechnologiesthatwillsignificantlyimproveproductivity.

ThedemandforTVETservicesisexpandinganditisimportanttomaximisetheuseofresources,suchasbyofferingonlinetrainingoptions(UNESCO,2015).TVETcanbedeliveredthroughthreemajormodes:institution-based(e.g.directdeliveryorprovisionofTVETprogramsbypublicorprivateschoolsorcentres),enterprise-based(e.g.implementedwithinbusinessessuchasapprenticeshipprograms,dualtrainingsystems,learnershipprograms)andcommunity-based(e.g.conductedincommunitiesbasedonlocalskillrequirementsandresources).Thereislittleinformationaboutcoursesofferedbyeachdeliverymode,particularlyforcommunity-basedproviders,althoughgenerallytheseareconductedinconjunctionwithinstitution-basedproviders.

ThePhilippineshasaround4,609institutionsoffering20,329programs(TESDACompendium,2015),ofwhich5,841programsareintourism.Tourismisthetopsectorforcourseofferings.Thisreflectstourismbeingoneofthefastestgrowingsectorsintheeconomy.

GenerallytraininginthePhilippinesoccursininstitution-basedorcommunity-basedsettings,withonlyabout3%ofenroleesandgraduatesbeingenterprise-based.Increasinglyinstitution-basedtrainingisbecomingmoredominantwithadeclineincommunity-basedtrainees,largelyduetoprogramsrunbylocalgovernmentandNGOsbeingupgradedtomeettrainingregulationsandbecomingclassifiedasinstitution-based.

TESDAmanagestheTVETsectorbyregulatingtheoperationsoftheprivatetechnicalvocationalinstitutes(TVIs)andparticipatingintrainingprovisionbyoperatingaround122(in2015)TESDAtraininginstitutes.TESDAhasqualityassuranceatseverallevels,includingthatTVIsmustcomplywiththerequirementsofprogramregistration,includingnecessarybusinesspermits,ocularsiteinspectionsandcurriculumevaluations,inordertoreceiveaCertificateofProgramRegistration(CoPR).Otherprocessesinclude:

• Promulgation of training regulations(TRs)–apackageofminimumstandardsoncompetency,nationalqualification,trainingstandardsandassessmentandcertificationarrangements.Thesearerevisedandupdatedevery3-5yearsorwhentherearesignificantchangesintheprogram.Outofthe20,329registeredprogramsinJuly2015,91%havetrainingregulations.

• Trainer certification

• Assessmentandcertification–designedtoensurethatmiddle-levelskilledworkerspossessthenecessarycompetenciestoperformthejobinaccordancewithindustryrequirements.

Problemswiththeprogram:

• Estimation of the demand for TVET Services–nocommonlyacceptedestimateofthedemandforTVETservices.OnlyenrolmentandgraduationdatareportedbyTESDA.

• Access by workers–noreadilyavailabledirectmeasureofaccessbyworkerstoTVET,withalackofprofiledataofenrolees.

• Access by vulnerable groups–thereisevencompositionofmaleandfemalegraduates.Themajorityofgraduatesareyoung,withmostbeingbetween15-24years(61%)or25-34years(23%).Thelargestproportionofenrolmentscomefromthemiddlesocioeconomicclassesandnotthelowersocioeconomicclasses.


Strategy Examples

• Access by SMEs–thereisnoavailabledatatodescribetheextentofaccessofSMEstoTVET.

• Funding the System–Peanoetal.(2008)estimatethat46.5%oftheresourcesforTVETcomefromthepublicsector.Privatesectorfundingprimarilycamefromtrainees(28.6%),firms(15.6%)andfromNGOsandfoundations(6.8%).Thelargedependenceonfinancingfromlegislatorsisaproblem,particularlyasitmaynotbesustainable.

• Quality control mechanisms–includesmandatoryregistrationofallTVETtrainingandasystemforregulatingcurriculum.Thereisaneedtodeveloparegistryoftrainersandassessorsandprovidetheirprofilespublicly.

Proposedimprovementstothesystem:

• TESDAtofocusmoreonregulationandinformationprovision

• Greateremphasisonenterprise-basedtraining

• Maketrainingcontinuouslyrelevanttoindustryneeds

• Greaterperformanceorientationinaccesstopublictrainingfunds

• ImprovetargetingandsufficiencyoffinancialassistanceforTVET

• Ensurequalityincommunity-basedtraining

• Improvedatagenerationanddissemination

• Improvecapacityformonitoringandevaluation

• ImprovetheimageofTVET

Challenges:

• Outdatedassessmentpractices

• Poortechnicalandinstitutionalcapacity

• Poorimage

• Weakanalyticalknowledgebase

• Limitedtechnicalconsultation,communicationandcollaboration

• Lackoflong-termstrategicplanning

• BestPracticeIndicators

• Partofanationalskillsdevelopmentpolicy

• Impactonlabourmarketismeasured

• Governanceisparticipatory,transparentandaccountable

• Centralisedunderoneauthority

• Offersacoherent,cohesive,inclusivequalificationsystemwithmovementacrosslearningpathways

• Qualificationhaveclearoutcomesintermsofknowledgeandskills

• Qualificationsareaccessedininstitutions,non-formallearningenvironmentsandtheworkplace

• Assessmentisrobustandfocusesonperformanceovertime

• Assessmentallowsforskillsfrominformalandnon-formallearningtoberecognised

• Isalignedwithregionalqualificationframeworks

• Providersareaccreditedandhavecloselinkstoindustry

• Programsreflectworkplacerequirements

• Trainersandteachersarecompetentandwellresourced

• Providersatalllevelsengagewithotherproviders

• Targetedprogramsareaccessiblebyvulnerablegroups

• Fundingisaccountableandsustainable

• Verystrongindustryorientation


Strategy Examples

Educationsystem

United�States:TheAmericaneducationalsystemisorientedtowardhigher-educationdiplomas.IntheUShotelandcateringindustry,however,thereisnorealprofessionalrecognitionforlow-leveloperationalfieldssuchascleaning,foodserviceorassemblycookery(whichconsistsofproducingsimplefoodpreparationsusingsemi-preparedproductssuppliedbythefoodprocessingindustry).Specialisationcomesintoplayonlyafterthefirsttwotofouryearsofhighereducationandthepossibilitiesarethereforefairlylimited:theyincludeonlytheculinaryartsandhotelmanagement.Thesearegenerallyrecognisedintermsofjobstatus.Full-timepostsaremorefrequentlyavailablewithbettercareerprospectsandwagesaremoreattractive.Somehotelschoolssubsequentlyproposenarrowermanagerialfieldsofspecialisation,distinguishing,forexample,independenthotelmanagementfromthatofchains,andrestaurantmanagementfromthatofcanteens(Strietska-Ilina&Tessaring2005).

Hong�Kong,�China:Thenewmodel,broughtinatthebeginningofthe2009/10academicyear,isnowmoreinlinewiththosefoundinChinaandeventheUnitedStates.Theremovaloffeesandoneseriesofpublicexamsinseniorsecondaryschoolisamovewhichwillmakeafulltwelveyears’ofeducationamuchmoreaccessibleoptionforagreatnumberofstudents.TertiaryeducationisimportantinHongKong,China.Thereare20degree-awardinghighereducationinstitutions,includingeightpublicly-fundeduniversities,twoprivateuniversities,apublicly-fundedHongKongAcademyofPerformingArtsandnineself-financinginstitutions.Tertiaryinstitutionsofferarangeofprogramsincludingundergraduateandpost-graduatedegrees,aswellasAssociatedegreesandHigherDiplomas.Forstudentswhofailtogainentrancetoadegreeprogram,studyinganAssociatedegreeoraHigherdiploma,whichmayarticulatewithadegreecourselateron,isapopularoption.ItisalsosometimespossibletogainacoursetransferfromasuccessfullycompletedHigherdiplomaorAssociatedegreeintoanoverseasdegreeprogramwithsomecredittransfer.

http://www.itseducation.asia/education-system.htm

Internships Brunei�Darussalam:SEAMEOSecretariatInternshipProgram(SIP)offersaselectednumberofapplicantspursuingundergraduateorpostgraduatestudiesortovolunteerswhohavedesiretodeepentheirknowledgetheirunderstandingofSEAMEOgoals,policiesandactivities.SIPprovidesanexcellentchanceforadirected,practicallearningexperienceinaregional/internationalplatform.

http://www.seameo.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=355:seameo-secretariat-internship-program-sip&catid=145&Itemid=427

Chile:TheGovernmentoffersmorethan300practicesforuniversitystudentsinpublicservices-InternshipsforChileproject.AgreementswithHarvard,Columbia,Oxford,StanfordandGeorgetownUniversities.

http://www.practicasparachile.cl/sala-de-prensa/notas/gobierno-ofrece-mas-de-300-practicas.html

Hong�Kong,�China:TheGovernmentiscommittedtonurturingyoungpeopleandtobetterpreparingthemforanincreasinglyglobalizedworld.TheHongKongEconomicandTradeOffice(HKETO)inSingaporelaunchedaninternshipschemein2014towidenHongKonghighereducationstudents’internationalperspectivesandenhancebilateralrelationsbetweenHongKong,ChinaandtheAssociationofSoutheastAsianNations(ASEAN).

Theinternshipschemeaimsto:

• ProvideopportunitiestohighereducationstudentsofHongKong,ChinatotakeupinternshipinASEANmembercountries;

• Enablestudentstobeexposedtotheworkoftherelevantindustriesandoperationoftheirrespectivehostorganizations,aswellastheeconomicandsocio-culturalenvironmentofthehostcountriesinASEAN;and

• Cultivatestudentsasthe“ambassadors”ofHongKong,ChinaintherespectivehostcountriesinASEANandviceversauponreturntoHongKong,therebyenhancingmutualunderstandingandstrengtheningtiesbetweenHongKongandASEAN.

TheGovernmentallocatesrecurrentfundingtotheVocationalTrainingCounciltoprovideindustrialattachment(IA)opportunitiesforabout9000studentsannuallystudyingwithsubventedHigherDiplomaprogramsandcertainVPETprograms.TheSelf-financingPost-secondaryEducationFundalsosupportsIAprojectsofself-financingpost-secondaryinstitutionsincludingthosewhichofferVPETprograms.


Strategy Examples

Scholarships Brunei�Darussalam:TheBruneiDarussalamGovernmentoffersannualscholarshipsunderaspecialscholarshipawardscheme,forthe2016/2017academicsessionwithopportunitiestostudyatselectedinstitutions.

https://www.opportunitiesforafricans.com/20162017-brunei-darussalam-government-scholarships-to-foreign-students-fully-funded/

http://youthkits.com/scholarship/brunei-darussalam-government-scholarships-to-foreign-students-20162017/

Hong�Kong,�China:TheGovernmentScholarshipFundandSelf-financingPost-secondaryEducationFundofferalargenumberofscholarshipstopost-secondarystudents(includingthosepursuingVPET)everyyear.Besides,theGovernmentintroducedthe“HongKongScholarshipforExcellenceScheme”inNovember2014tosupportoutstandinglocalstudentstopursuestudiesinrenowneduniversitiesoutsideHongKong.

JobGrants Canada:TheCanadaJobGrantisanemployer-driveninitiativethataimstoencourageemployerstohelpCanadiansdeveloptheskillstheyneedtofillavailablejobs.Throughthiscost-sharedprogram,businessesandemployerorganizationscanapplytotheirrespectiveprovinceorterritoryforgrantsofupto$10,000tocover2/3ofthecostoftrainingneworexistingemployees.

http://www.edsc.gc.ca/en/job_grant/info.page

FinancingPrograms

Chile:TheAgencyofInternationalCooperationfortheDevelopmentofChile(AGCID)offersacrossitsTrainingdepartmentandScholarships,differentprogramsoffinancinginorderthatcitizensofLatinAmerica,theCaribandsomecountriesofSouthAfrica,realiseinoureconomyformationofpostdegreeorcoursesofhigh-leveltraining.AlsoitreceivesstudentsintheframeoftheStudentPlatformoftheAllianceofthePacífico.

http://www.agci.cl/index.php/becas/becas-para-extranjeros

Thecompanygrantsagreatvaluetotheeducationandtheformation,withastrongsocialdemandofeducationandarapidgrowthoftheparticipationinthepostobligatoryeducation;theratesofgraduationinsecondarytopstudiesitpromotedfrom46%in199571%in2007(OECD,2009)

http://www.oecd.org/edu/skills-beyond-school/48478374.pdf

Hong�Kong,�China:Throughanumberofpublicly-fundedfinancialassistanceschemestargetedatstudentsatalleducationlevels,frompre-primarytopost-secondarylevelsandtothosepursuingspecificcontinuingandprofessionaleducationcourses,theStudentFinanceOffice(SFO)undertheWorkingFamilyandStudentFinancialAssistanceAgencyprovidesfinancialassistancetoensurethatnostudentsinHongKong,Chinawillbedeniedaccesstoeducationbecauseoflackofmeans.

ContinuousProfessionalDevelopment

People’s�Republic�of�China&theUnitedKingdom(UK):Ahigh-levelChina-UKtrainingprogramforteachers’continuousprofessionaldevelopment(CPD)hasbeenlaunchedforthefirsttimebytheBritishCouncilandtheMinistryofEducationofChinaonWednesdayinBeijing.

http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2015-12/05/content_22636312.htm


Strategy Examples

VocationalEducation

Indonesia:“VocationalEducationinIndonesia;CrucialtoCompeteintheASEAN”.Thegovernmentplanstobuildmorevocationalschoolstocatertothegrowinglabourmarketforskilledworkers,particularlyintheagriculture,fisheriesandanimalhusbandryindustries,andcallsfortheprivatesectortocomein

http://www.gbgindonesia.com/en/education/article/2016/vocational_education_in_indonesia_crucial_to_compete_in_the_asean_11489.php

RepublicofKorea:Studentsmaychoosetopursuevocationaleducationinvocationalhighschools,startingingradeeleven.Theseschoolsoffercoursesinagriculture,industry,commerce,homeeconomicsandmaritimestudies.Vocationalhighschoolsareintheprocessofchangingtomeetthegrowingdemandsforskilledworkersinscientificandtechnologicalfieldsbycreatingnewprogramsinthesefields.About27%ofRepublicofKoreastudentsareenrolledinschool-basedvocationalandtechnicaleducation.Ofthesestudents,43%goontojuniorcollege,andanother25%goontouniversity.TheMinistryiscurrentlyrevampingtheRepublicofKorea’scareereducationprograms,aswellasrestructuringcurriculumandpathwaysinvocationalschools.Studentsareencouragedtoidentifytheirtalentsandaptitudeatanearlystage,andpursuecareer-centredlearningthroughoutelementaryandsecondaryschool.TheMinistryisalsointheprocessofupdatingcurriculainconjunctionwithindustryneeds,placingaheavyemphasisoncollaborationbetweenbusinessesandschoolsandbymakinginternshipsavailabletovocationalstudents.ThegoalisaLife-longLearningAccountSystem,anonlinecareermanagementsystemthatwillrecordeachworker’svariouslearningexperiences,providinginformationforemployersbasedonuniformstandards.ThereisalreadyasimilarCreditBanksysteminplace(http://siteresources.worldbank.org/SOCIALPROTECTION/Resources/SP-Discussion-papers/Labor-Market-DP/0921.pdf),whichallowspeoplewithoutformalhighereducationtoaccruecreditsandultimatelydegreesthroughvariouslifelonglearningprogramsandcourses.

http://www.ncee.org/programs-affiliates/center-on-international-education-benchmarking/top-performing-countries/south-korea-overview/south-korea-school-to-work-transition/

Hong�Kong,�China:TheGovernmentsetuptheTaskForceonPromotionofVocationalEducationinJune2014withaviewtomappingoutastrategytopromotevocationaleducationandtraining(VET)inthecommunity.TheTaskForcesubmitteditsReporttotheGovernmentinJuly2015,proposingathree-prongedstrategywithatotalof27recommendations.Thethree-prongedstrategycomprises(a)rebrandingvocationaleducationandtraining;(b)strengtheningpromotion;and(c)sustainingefforts.InJanuary2016,theGovernmentacceptedalltheTaskForce’srecommendationsandisactivelyfollowingupwiththerecommendations.

Regardingrebrandingvocationaleducationandtraining,VEThasbeenrebrandedtovocationalandprofessionaleducationandtraining(VPET)coveringprogramsuptodegreelevelwithahighpercentageofcurriculumconsistingofspecialisedcontentsinvocationalskillsorprofessionalknowledge.Throughaseriesofstepped-upeffortsinpromotingVPET,theGovernmentendeavourstoengineeraparadigmshiftinthecommunitytorecogniseVPETasavaluedchoiceforthosewhohavegoodpotentialtodevelopintherelevantdisciplines.

Work-basedlearning

Republic�of�Korea:Promotingwork-basedlearninginschoolandboostingparticipationinvocationaleducationandtrainingwillbecrucialtoachievingthisgoal.TheKoreangovernment’seffortstodevelopandtoimplementtheNationalCompetencyStandards(NCS)toeducationandtrainingareanimportantstepforwardtomakeskillsdevelopmentmorerelevantforthelabourmarket.Moreeffectivecollaborationamongtherelevantstakeholderswillbecriticalforthestandardstosucceed.

Work-studyprogramsinschoolsanduniversitiescouldbeawaytoteachstudentshowtogeneratebusinessideas,raisefundsandrunabusiness.Workplacelearningandtrainingorganisedbycompaniescanalsoplayarole.

(…)broadentheaccesstotrainingopportunitiesfornon-regularworkers,includingviastrengtheningoftargetededucationalpolicies,andpromotetheirtransitionstoregularemployment

https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2014/wp14137.pdf


AppendixJ:OverviewofBestPractice–SkilledMigration5

Strategy Examples

VisaPrograms&Processes

Australia:ThemostcommonAustralia’s�457visaprogramtargetsskilledtemporaryworkers.ThisvisaallowsaskilledworkertraveltoAustraliatoworkintheirnominatedoccupationfortheirapprovedsponsorforuptofouryears.TheAustraliangovernmentstatesthatonlymanagerial,professionalandsemi-professionalworkersareeligible,withsomespecialisttradeoccupationsbeinganexceptiontothisrule.Minimumsalariesapplyandmigrantworkersmustmeethealth,securityandotherstandardrequirements.However,thereisnocapsetonadmissionsandemployersundertaketherecruitment,generallythroughagents.Afast-tracksystemisavailableforemployerswithagoodrecord(Khooetal.2007).

OthervisaprogramsforAustraliainclude(AustralianGovernment2016a,2016b):

•� 416–SpecialProgramvisafortheseasonalworkerprogram:ThespecialprogramofseasonalworkallowsseasonalworkerstocontributetotheeconomicdevelopmentoftheirhomeeconomybyprovidingaccesstoworkopportunitiesintheAustralianagricultureandaccommodationindustries.TheprogramoffersseasonallabourinselectedindustriestoAustralianemployerswhocannotsourcelocallabour.TheparticipatingcountriesincludeFiji,Kiribati,Nauru,PapuaNewGuinea,Samoa,SolomonIslands,Timor-Leste,Tonga,TuvaluandVanuatu.Intergovernmentalmemorandaofunderstanding(MOUs)weresignedbytheAustralianGovernmentandthegovernmentsoftheseparticipatingcountriestoenablethecitizenswhoareresidentsofthesecountriestoparticipateintheprogram.

•� 417–WorkingHolidayVisa:Inthecurrentversionofthisvisa,onlyyoungpeople(18-30)whowanttoholidayandworkinAustraliaforuptoayearareeligible.A2016review(Deloitte2016)hasidentifiedseveralrecommendationstoexpandtheuseofthisvisa,withonerecommendationtoincludeanextensionofstayfor2yearsfortourismindustrywork.ThevisaisconsideredasanimportantsourceofseasonallaboursupplyforcertainsectorsofAustralia’sagriculturalandtourismindustries.

•� 462–WorkandHolidayVisa:Asabove,butfromspecificcountries,includingAPECeconomies:Chile,China,Indonesia,Malaysia,ThailandandtheUnitedStates(alsounderreview).

Brunei�Darussalam:EmploymentVisaandanEmploymentPassappliedforbeforearrival,afterrequestfromtheEmployertotheLabourdepartmentofBruneiDarussalam.Furtherrestrictionsareinplace,includingabankguaranteeforcostofflightsfortheworker,medicalexam,andapplicationdocuments.AnEmploymentPassisvalidfor2-3years(Dej-Udomn.d.).

Canada:SkilledWorkerProgram(Permanent)–forpermanent,highlyskilledworkers;issuedusingapointssystem.TemporaryForeignWorkersProgram(TFW)-fortemporarylabourshortageswhereCanadiansandpermanentresidentsarenotavailable.

Indonesia:�VITAS/VBSTemporaryResidentVisa-sponsoredbythecompanyemployingtheworker.OnceVITAS/VBSreceived,theapplicantappliesforanIMTA/ExpatriateWorkPermit—alengthyprocessincludingseveralgovernmentdepartments.(Dej-Udomn.d.)

Malaysia:EmploymentPass(EP)–issuedtomanageriallevelemployeesinforeignownedcompanies–highlyskilledvisits;ProfessionalVisitPass–issuedtoqualifiedforeignerswithspecialistskillsorexperience(Dej-Udomn.d.)

Philippines:FirststepisapplicationforanAlienEmploymentPermit(AEP).OnceAEPapproved,anapplicationforoneoftwovisasfollows:9(g)Pre-ArrangedEmploymentVisa;SpecialNon-Immigrant47(a)(2)Visa(forworkersinspecifiedeconomiczones).Bothvisasareforhighly-skilledworkers.(Dej-Udom,n.d.)

Singapore:PEmploymentPasses–Highlyskilledworkers;QEmploymentPasses–skilledworkers;SEmploymentPasses–Pointsbasedsystemincorporatingexperience,education,salary–canbeissuedtounskilledforeignworkers.(Cerna2010)

Thailand:Non-BVisaandaworkpermit–Skilledvisa,appliedforbyaqualifiedThaientity.UndertheAlienOccupationAct,foreignersareprohibitedfromworkingin39occupationsincludingmanuallabour,agriculture,forestry,fishery,farmsupervision,accountancy,civilengineering,andarchitecturalwork.Medicalcheckalsorequired.(Dej-Udomn.d.)

5 Thistablereflectsselectedavailabledata.Datawasnotlocatedforalleconomies.


United�States:Mostpopular-H1-Bvisa–highlyskilledworkers,cappedat65,000peryear;H2-A–Agriculturalworkers;H2-B–Otherseasonalworkers;TN–SkilledworkersforMexicanandCanadianapplicants;E-2Highnetworthinvestorsincludingtraders;L1–InternationalCompanytransfer;US0-1Extraordinaryabilities;Othersincludingtalent,cultural,artists,andreligiousvisasareavailableonapplication.(Cerna2010;Stephenson2009;Tigau2013)Visaavailablealsoforfamilyunificationpreferences(Cerna2010)

Viet�Nam:Lengthyprocessforhighlyskilledworkersonly.Employerneedstofileayearlydemandforlabourreport.Applicationsmustbeprecededbythesupplyofapolicecertificate,followedbyapplicationsdocumentswhichmustallbetranslatedintoVietnamese.Maximumstay2years.(Dej-Udomn.d.)

ASEANQualificationReferencingFramework

AQRFisatranslationdevicetoenablecomparisonsofqualificationsacrossparticipatingASEANcountries,includingtheNationalQualificationFramework(NQF).MutualRecognitionAgreements(MRA)existinseveralsectorsincludingtourism.ThevoluntaryAQRFaimstohelpeconomiesreferencequalificationstofacilitatethefreermovementofskilledlabourwithintheASEANmemberstates

PacificAllianceWorkingHolidayProgram

Chile,�Colombia,�Mexico�&�Peru:DevelopedaWorkingHolidayProgramthatallowstheircitizenstoworkandliveinanyofthefoureconomiesforoneyearwithoutvisas.

Scholarships Republic�of�Korea:http://www.studyinkorea.go.kr/en/sub/overseas_info/korea_edu/edu_scholarship.do

TheKoreanGovernmentScholarshipProgram(KGSP)supportsfuturegloballeadersandpromotesinternationalcooperationineducationbyinvitingtalentedinternationalstudentstoKoreaforanopportunitytoconductadvancedstudiesathighereducationalinstitutionsinKorea.

http://www.niied.go.kr/eng/contents.do?contentsNo=78&menuNo=349

China:ChineseUniversityProgramisafullscholarshipfordesignatedChineseuniversitiesandcertainprovincialeducationofficesinspecificprovincesorautonomousregionstorecruitoutstandinginternationalstudentsforgraduatestudiesinChina.Itonlysupportsgraduatestudents.

http://www.csc.edu.cn/studyinchina/scholarshipdetailen.aspx?cid=97&id=3056

SeasonalWorkerProgram

Australia:Basedontheoverallsuccessoftheseasonalworkerprogramoperatingintheagriculturalindustry,theAustraliangovernmentannouncedapilotoftheprogramtoincludetheaccommodationindustry.WorkersfromFiji,Kiribati,Nauru,PapuaNewGuinea,Samoa,SolomonIslands,Timor-Leste,Tonga,TuvaluandVanuatuwillbeeligibletoparticipateintheprogramwhichsupportslocalbusinessesunabletofindlocallabour,andprovidesopportunitiesforemployment,andtraining,foramaximumperiodof6or9months,dependingontheeconomyoforigin.

ForeignWorkers Philippines:MeasureshavebeenimplementedtomakeiteasierforforeignerstoworkinthePhilippines,suchasprovisionalworkpermitsandfacilitatingtheextensionoflong-stayvisitors.ThePhilippineshassignedMOUswithCanada,JapanandChineseTaipeiontheaccreditationofskilledworkersinsectorssuchasarchitecture,healthcareandtourism.ThePhilippineshasalsosignedMOUswiththeManitobaandSaskatchewanprovincesinCanadatofacilitaterecruitmentandmutualrecognitionofskills,exploreopportunitiesforskillsupgrading,protectworkers’rights,andsupporttheintegrationofworkersintothebroadersociety.Likewise,thePhilippines–JapanEconomicPartnershipAgreement,inadditiontopromotinginvestmentandtradeingoodsandservices,facilitatesthemovementofworkersbetweenthetwoeconomies.(APEC2014).

Internationalstudyfinancing

Chile: BecasChileisaprogramdependanttotheMinisterofEducationwiththeaimtohaveanimpactontheeconomic,socialandculturaldevelopmentofChile.Tofulfilthisaim,SCHOLARSHIPSCHILIfinancesstudiesabroadintheprofessionalandtechnicalarea,intheframeofapoliticsoflongtermthatpromotestheincreaseofopportunitiesofformationanddevelopmentabroadandthepromotionoftheentailandinternationalcooperation.http://portales.mineduc.cl/index.php?id_portal=60

APEC Tourism Working Group 2017

APEC Publication number: APEC#216-TO-01.25

© APEC Secretariat 2017

Produced by:

Nicole Garofano, Antje Martins, Mark Olsen – EarthCheck

Dr Andreas Chai, Professor Kate Hutchings, Dr Char-Lee McLennan – Griffith University

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