development and testing of groundwater drought...

BRITISH GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WALLINGFORD, OXON

UK

WELLFIELD CONSULTING SERVICES GABORONE BOTSWANA

CSIR PRETORIA

SOUTH AFRICA

DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO

BASIN PILOT AREAS

INCEPTION REPORT

Submitted

by

a Consortium comprising

DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS INCEPTION REPORT – MAY 2008

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................................................1 2. BACKGROUND.......................................................................................................................3 3. OBJECTIVES AND STRATEGY........................................................................................5 4. PREVIOUS WORK .................................................................................................................7 5. APPROACH TO ASSIGNMENT ........................................................................................9 6. INCEPTION PHASE ACTIVITIES....................................................................................11

6.1 Task 1.1: Mobilisation and Briefing by SADC Water Division and PMU 11 6.2 Task 1.2: Review of Groundwater Related Information in the Pilot Areas

........................................................................................................................................11 6.2.1 Baseline Data Collection.....................................................................11 6.2.1.1 Availability of information....................................................................11 6.2.1.2 Digital Data Bases ................................................................................12 6.2.1.3 Geo-referenced Digital and Scanned Maps..................................16 6.2.1.4 Remotely Sensed Data – Landsat images etc.............................17 6.2.1.5 Hard copies of maps and reports.....................................................17 6.2.1.6 Relevant international literature including academic papers ...17 6.2.2 GIS Data ..................................................................................................18

6.3 Task 1.3: Review of Socio-Economic, Socio-Cultural and Institutional Information in the Pilot Areas................................................................................18 6.3.1 Geographical Overview.......................................................................18 6.3.2 Climate .....................................................................................................22 6.3.3 Socio-Economic Environment ...........................................................24 6.3.3.1 Population Characteristics..................................................................24 6.3.3.2 Human Development and Poverty...................................................30 6.3.3.3 Infrastructure and Services ................................................................40 6.3.3.4 Water, Land, Agriculture and Food Security.................................45 6.3.3.5 Socio-Cultural Environment ...............................................................61 6.3.4 Institutional Arrangements..................................................................67 6.3.4.1 Regional Institutional Settings...........................................................67 6.3.4.2 Current Projects in the Limpopo River Basin Area .....................72 6.3.4.3 Water Sector Institutional Settings in the Limpopo Basin.........74

6.4 Task 1.4: Analysis of Baseline Information.......................................................80 6.4.1 Groundwater Assessment ..................................................................81 6.4.2 Biophysical Assessment .....................................................................81 6.4.3 Socio-economic, Socio-cultural and Institutional Assessment82

6.5 Task 1.5: Definition of Methodology and Work Plan for Information Collection.....................................................................................................................83 6.5.1 Identification of Knowledge and Data Gaps..................................84 6.5.2 Definition of Pilot Areas and Preliminary Nodal Point Selection 85 6.5.2.1 Development of Matrices....................................................................85 6.5.2.2 Population of Matrices .........................................................................91 6.5.2.3 Analyses of Matrices for Identification of Nodal Points (socio-

economic and groundwater) ..............................................................91 BRITISH GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

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6.5.3 Development of Data Collection Methods .....................................91 6.5.3.1 Communication with Stakeholders and Communities ...............92 6.5.3.2 Questionnaires.......................................................................................93 6.5.3.3 Structured Interviews ...........................................................................94 6.5.3.4 Semi-structured Interviews.................................................................94 6.5.3.5 Focus Group Meetings ........................................................................94 6.5.3.6 Observation.............................................................................................95 6.5.4 Groundwater and Biophysical Data Collection Plan...................95 6.5.5 Socio-Economic and Socio-Cultural Data Collection Plan .......95 6.5.5.1 Understanding of Institutional Arrangements, Structures and

Policy Context ........................................................................................95 6.5.5.2 Identification of Stakeholders / communities ................................96 6.5.6 Anticipated Problems and Limitations ............................................96

6.6 Task 1.6: Preparation and Presentation of the Inception Report...............97 6.6.1 Revisions to the Project Programme ..............................................97 6.6.2 Quality Assurance Plan.......................................................................98

6.7 Task 1.7: Finalisation of Methodology and Inception Report ......................99 7. PHASES 2 and 3..................................................................................................................101

7.1 Summary of Tasks .................................................................................................101 7.2 Mobilisation of Country Teams...........................................................................101 7.3 Data Flow and Evaluation ....................................................................................102 7.4 Selection of Representative Pilot Nodes .........................................................102 7.5 Work Plan and Timing...........................................................................................102

8. CONCLUDING STATEMENT ..........................................................................................103

APPENDIX A Groundwater Bibliography APPENDIX B Socioeconomic References APPENDIX C Synopsis of ‘Protection and Strategic Uses of Groundwater

Resources in Drought Prone Areas of the SADC Region: Groundwater Situation Analysis of the Limpopo River Basin’ - Final Report, 2003. CSIR, Pretoria, South Africa

APPENDIX D Minutes of the Initial Client Meeting


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1. INTRODUCTION The Southern African Development Community (SADC) has the goal of fostering cooperation and mutual benefit from the resources of the region amongst its member countries – Angola, Botswana, DRC, Lesotho, Mauritius, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Madagascar, South Africa, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. Through this mutual goal SADC has identified water as a key resource that can benefit from such cooperation. Important events in the development of the SADC organisation that have a direct bearing on the water sector are summarised below;

• 1995 - SADC Heads of States signed the Protocol on Shared Watercourse Systems. Ratified in 1998, revised version signed in 2000 and ratified in 2003.

• 1996 - SADC created the Water Sector for management of regional water resources.

• 1997 - SADC Water Sector Coordinating Unit (WSCU) established. • 1997-1998 - SADC Regional Strategic Action Plan on Integrated Water

Resources Development and Management (RSAP–IWRM) prepared. • 2003 - SADC WSCU relocated to SADC Secretariat and re-named the SADC

Water Division. • 2002-3 SADC Regional Indicative Strategic Development Plan (RISDP) to

provide strategic guidance to SADC Programmes, especially on poverty reduction issues.

The RISDP exercise identifies most priorities in the RSAP–IWRM, indicating the need to develop and implement a regional strategic water infrastructure to:

• promote development and integration – regional economic integration is at the heart of the RISDP and SADC objectives,

• reduce poverty, • increase food security, • fight diseases, • mitigate the effects of floods and droughts.

The development and management of water resources in SADC Member States has traditionally focused on surface waters. However, increasing aridity and limited surface resources have resulted in increasing dependency among SADC Member States on groundwater for both domestic and commercial water needs. Recognizing this increasing dependency, the SADC has developed a Groundwater Management Programme (GMP). The overall objective of the GMP is to promote the sustainable development of groundwater resources at a regional level, incorporating research, assessment, exploitation and protection, particularly related to groundwater drought management.

Regional groundwater resources face a number of threats from increasing population pressures, industrial development, mining, point and non-point sources of pollution and agricultural practices and introduced exotic plant species, resulting in over-exploitation, contamination, and degradation. The factors are compounded by the affects of both meteorological and social drought which is impacting the security and


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sustainability of water resources and resulting in the degradation of Groundwater Dependant Eco-systems (GDEs). The lack of detailed information pertaining to regional groundwater resources along with the transboundary nature of many of the aquifers is currently complicating the sustainable management and allocation of groundwater.

To address these challenges the SADC has secured a grant (TF 055090 SADC) from The Global Environmental Facility (GEF) to implement one of the ten sub-projects under the Groundwater Management Programme: The SADC Groundwater and Drought Management Project. The Project’s objective is defined as "The development of consensus on a SADC regional strategic approach to support and enhance the capacity of its member States in the definition of drought management policies, specifically in relation to the role, availability and supply potential of groundwater resources."

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2. BACKGROUND

Whereas drought was once perceived as the exception it is now considered to be the norm for many arid areas of the world including the Limpopo region. It is partly awareness of this factor by the Government of Botswana which has led to successful drought management in the Kalahari, whereas other Governments seem still to be surprised by the onset of water scarcity. The key components of any drought mitigation strategy are:

• Drought proofing (including developing existing coping measures) • Structured development rather than relief • Early warning: monitoring and forecasting to trigger actions • Early response, and • Drought preparedness

These components draw from previous experience of drought in the region and it is essential that all facets of drought are taken into account in designing the mitigation strategy. Although this experience can be summarized generically (below), specific data gathering for the Pilot Areas will be essential to guide the forms of drought proofing and drought preparedness, that are best suited to the sociological and environmental frameworks within the Pilot Areas. In addition it is essential that actions are taken in collaboration with communities and their leaders so that their effectiveness at the onset of drought is automatically assured. Timeliness of intervention is the key to protecting livelihoods. Drought planning strategies are essential if effective protection is to take place. The precursor to drought crisis is commonly failure of the rains, causing crop failure and subsequent loss of animals. Pre-drought management may take the form of foodgrain imports, movement of livestock to distant range and replacement of dry surface water sources with groundwater. Usually the first area to be affected by drought is agriculture and this is reflected in crop failure, perhaps in the first year, and animal deaths perhaps in the second and subsequent years. Water for drinking and domestic use is commonly derived from a separate source than water that is used to sustain agriculture. For example, the soil moisture deficit may reach the wilt point and surface water sources used for irrigation may dry up, whereas water wells are likely to be drawing on groundwater reserves for a long time thereafter to maintain domestic needs. Some groundwater may also be used for irrigation of community gardens and other smallholdings. Immediate drought impacts on livestock are driven by inadequate fodder caused by lack of rain. At the beginning of drought, pastoralists and other livestock owners want to sell animals to boost their purchasing power as food prices rise. There is an urgency to sell before their condition deteriorates, and they become unsaleable. Inevitably livestock mortality increases and forced sales take place. Although a complex network of socio-economic, demographic and environmental





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factors come into play, the availability of groundwater or surface water has the most important effect on the severity of drought impact. Water must also be available on stock routes in order to get animals safely to market, and security from theft must be in place. The timely and well organised provision of emergency water, generally groundwater, can greatly assist to mitigate the effects of drought by opening up emergency grazing areas and emergency boreholes. However, this question the effects of water provision on rangeland ecosystems, and the acceptability of limited ‘sacrifice areas’ around boreholes. It also requires an adequate definition of drought to trigger access to the emergency grazing and requires a competent authority to oversee use of the emergency area. Other issues that need to be tackled are the identification of effective indicators that can be monitored on the ground to measure the effectiveness of drought proofing measures. These include data such as livestock numbers, well and borehole status, distance travelled to collect water, the occurrence of stomach illness at rural clinics, and continued dialogue with village representatives. Food transport is an obvious and effective form of short-term agricultural drought relief. But it is not a sustainable strategy, and it removes livelihoods from the receiving community, but it is the most commonly deployed response to water scarcity events. Water tankering, on the other hand, may be effective locally on a short-term basis, for example in Northern Province in the early 1990s, but it is not a substitute for the provision of permanent and sustainable supply. Additional forms of relief are required to lessen the impact of socio-economic drought and to combat the longer-term effects of agricultural drought. Effectiveness needs to be measured both with regard to short-term humanitarian relief and more critically to longer term sustainability in post-drought years. Armed with these lessons, the consultant believes that the key to the Limpopo project is to gather a raft of social, economic, environmental and engineering data for the Pilot Study areas that can be fed into a decision matrix that will identify best and cost effective drought proofing measures to be identified to suit those areas. These measures can then be implemented, while structures are designed and constructed. Appropriate dissemination and educational work will be carried out through community leaders, and a network established that informs communities of early warnings of the likelihood of impending drought so that appropriate actions can be implemented. Indicators will be selected and monitoring can only commence once the fabric is in place to permit such activity. However, care must be taken to identify factors specific to the Pilot Areas and those that can be exported generically to almost any region within SADC.


3. OBJECTIVES AND STRATEGY The Groundwater and Drought Management Project will address the need for the SADC Member States to cooperatively develop a strategic regional approach to support and enhance the capacity of the Member States in the definition of groundwater drought management policies, specifically in relation to the role, availability (magnitude and recharge) and supply potential of groundwater resources (as a portion of the overall water resource). This will assist in reconciling the demands for socioeconomic development and those of the principal groundwater-dependent ecosystems. The Project will address a number of activities at three different scales: the regional, national and the river basin levels. It is envisaged that the methodologies established and lessons learnt from these activities will be replicated in other areas of SADC to expand the knowledge and management of groundwater resources regionally. The project includes four components:

Testing of practical local groundwater drought management strategies at pilot level;

The development of groundwater drought management tools and guidelines;

Research into GDEs, their occurrence, vulnerability, value and protection; and,

Establishment of a Groundwater Management Institute of Southern Africa (GMISA) to continue long term groundwater and drought monitoring and the promotion of better management and awareness in the SADC region and at national levels.

The current consultancy is to address Component 1 of the project: “Testing of practical local groundwater drought management strategies at pilot level”. The objectives of this consultancy are to:

1: Develop and test a groundwater drought management plan and associated interventions within the Limpopo Basin pilot area to obtain empirical information that can be replicated elsewhere in the SADC region.

2: Design and pilot physical interventions for mitigation against groundwater drought within the Limpopo Basin (i.e. drought-proof an area by addressing poverty while still considering bio-physical environmental groundwater needs).

3: Derive and develop approaches, methodologies, and lessons learnt to input into the development of generic decision support guidelines and the region’s knowledge base regarding groundwater drought mitigation; and thus enable SADC member states to replicate and expand on the concepts and activities related to groundwater and drought Management.




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In addressing these objectives the consultant will assist the SADC, through the SADC Water Division, to support Member States in developing appropriate interventions that will contribute towards sustainable management of groundwater resources while fostering economic development, addressing poverty alleviation and contributing toward development targets, such as the Millennium Development Goals. This will be achieved through:

• development of groundwater drought management plans for specific pilot ‘Nodes’ or foci,

• testing the plan and • assimilating lessons learnt.




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4. PREVIOUS WORK

A significant amount of work related to the objectives of the project has previously been undertaken in the Limpopo River basin, both under the preparatory GEF programme as well as by national and international studies and organisations. However, the primary document on which the current project programme was established was the 2003 study completed by CSIR, South Africa on behalf of WB/SADC Water Division under the GEF programme entitled ‘Protection and Strategic Uses of Groundwater Resources in Drought Prone Areas of The SADC Region: Groundwater Situation Analysis of the Limpopo River Basin’. A very brief synopsis of the content and findings of this report are presented below, with a more comprehensive critique of the study concentrating on and adding to information on the central part of the Limpopo Basin that encompasses the Pilot Areas contained in Appendix C. The key issues addressed by the above project were:

• Groundwater resources, uses and management in the Limpopo Basin • Geology and hydrogeology of groundwater systems • Recharge • Role of rivers • Climatic conditions including occurrence of droughts and floods • Internationally shared aquifers • Review of current conditions and potential threats to ground water

resources Assumptions made in the study appear to include:

• That the regional geology of the Limpopo Basin is understood, including geomorphological development.

• That the hydrogeology of the region is understood • That rainfall/evaporation/runoff relationships are understood as these

inform rates of recharge. An overview of groundwater occurrence and resources in the entire Limpopo Basin was produced and two Pilot Areas selected for further study. The report provides an overview of the following aspects, namely:

• Groundwater and Drought • The Limpopo Basin as a study area • Water Use and Demand in the Limpopo Basin • Geology • Hydrogeology • Description of the two selected Pilot Study Areas




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Form the current re-appraisal of this earlier study it has been concluded that the basin wide study produced a reasonable assessment of the occurrence of groundwater within the Limpopo Basin at a regional scale. However, at that scale it is apparent that although the assumptions noted above may be true in a broad regional sense they are found wanting at Pilot Area level.

Although sufficient understanding was presented to provide a way forward for the present project at Pilot Area level there is a lack of detailed information or indication as to where the primary detailed data may be located. It is suspected that in part this may be due to the actual lack of necessary basic information, especially in Mozambique and Zimbabwe.

In order to compensate for the apparent lack of Pilot Area specific data in the initial baseline study it is suggested that a process of ‘correlation’ with similar, possibly adjacent, areas where specific studies have been undertaken will be the most appropriate way forward. This can probably be best achieved be the evaluation of ‘grey’ literature collections and databases by the in country specialists whilst engaged in additional data collection activities during Phase 2 of the current programme. Additional relevant information may also be obtained from local institutions and local offices identified by the present project but not visited during the earlier basin wide study.




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5. APPROACH TO ASSIGNMENT The Consultant’s overall approach to the Project is shown in diagrammatic form in Figure 4.1 at the end of this Section. The project has been divided into five Phases of activity established on the basis of the requirements and time lines of the Terms of Reference and in order to effect efficient execution and close control of all activities.

The Consultant is convinced that essential objectives will be achieved by:

• Mobilising a multi-disciplined Project Team comprising a small number of extremely competent consultants, with professional experience meeting the Client’s expectations and who can be relied upon to produce their inputs both timeously and to the highest professional standard

• Using regional facilities available to the Consultant in order to efficiently address the Project objectives;

• Collecting, analysing and reviewing all available background data on the Limpopo Basin in general and the proposed Pilot Areas in particular;

• Satisfactorily completing an Inception Report that provides a clear outline for a work plan and methodology for later phases of the Project;

• Fully engaging all stakeholders at Pilot Area level as well as at regional, national and basin level;

• Executing a field programme that comprehensively characterises the proposed Pilot Areas and the typical ‘Nodes’ selected within them;

• Implementing a number of different ‘drought alleviation’ measures in differing hydrogeological and biophysical environments and comprehensively monitoring their effectiveness over at least one dry season.

• Holding workshops to involve regional stakeholders and SADC to reach consensus on possible ‘drought-proofing’ measures that may be developed into a basin-wide, and eventually SADC-wide, strategy;

• Initiating capacity building and awareness raising initiatives at both community and regional level to ensure continuity of intervention and monitoring;

• Provision to SADC of the deliverables as indicated in the terms of Reference as well as a comprehensive Final report on the project.

Full cognisance will be taken of the results of and the data gathered during previous and ongoing regional studies undertaken by SADC, in particular the earlier Groundwater Situation Analysis of the Limpopo River Basin prepared by CSIR for SADC in 2003 which successfully identified the Pilot Areas that are the focus of the current project. During this study twelve criteria were selected for assessing the potential pilot areas including, representivity and replicability throughout SADC, aquifers with high competition between water users or user groups, transboundary shared resource (including downstream cumulative impacts), water-use predominantly rural and for agricultural, local and provincial


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or district water management structures in place, and stakeholder commitment to Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM).




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6. INCEPTION PHASE ACTIVITIES During the initial Inception Phase of the project a total of 7 Tasks were scheduled (WCS Technical Proposal, 2007). The activities associated with and the results and findings of each Task is presented separately below.

6.1 Task 1.1: Mobilisation and Briefing by SADC Water Division and PMU

An initial Project Inception Meeting was held on 12 March 2008 with the Client and attended by members of the Consultant Core Team [J Farr, WCS; J Davies, BGS; J Rascher, CSIR], the SADC Project Supervisor [P Beetlestone] and the SADC Project Communications Representative.

The Project Supervisor outlined the background to the project and procurement process that had been undertaken and discussions were held on the project schedule, challenges and vision for the project. More detailed discussions ensued on the Inception Report, workplan and scope of work and it was agreed that a crucial aspect of the Inception Phase would be to derive an acceptable analytical methodology for the selection of the Nodal Points that would be the focus of the subsequent stages of the study in each of the relatively extensive Pilot Areas. It was suggested that some form of matrix could be used (physical and socio-economic) as part of the methodology to identify these Nodal Points. The Project Inception Meeting concluded with a general discussion concerning data availability in and access to the two Pilot Areas and with a request that the Client provide details of SADC representatives and other stakeholders plus letters of introduction for use in the riparian states. Minutes of the Project Inception Meeting are contained in Appendix D.

6.2 Task 1.2: Review of Groundwater Related Information in the Pilot Areas

6.2.1 Baseline Data Collection

6.2.1.1 Availability of information

Information on the occurrence and use of groundwater needed to describe aspects of the impact of drought on groundwater resources and other factors within the Central Limpopo area within the context of the Limpopo Basin and the SADC region as a whole are being collected. These include:

Archived information and data held at BGS Wallingford, CSIR in Pretoria

and Wellfield Consultants in Gaborone. Much of this was collected and archived during previous SADC projects.




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Papers and information from the international literature – several thousand items from the SADC region and 500 items from the Limpopo Basin have been listed within an EndNote bibliographic archiving systems

Reports and maps from government departments and others in Zimbabwe, South Africa, Botswana and Mozambique – collected during the earlier research studies undertaken in these countries and listed in Appendix A.

Information held at the SADC Water Sector offices and related sectors and drought/climate monitoring groups based in Gaborone

Information and records held at the Ratcliff Science and Rhodes Institute libraries at the University of Oxford and at the BGS Library in Keyworth

Additional research information from universities in South Africa (Pretoria University current research on Basement Complex aquifers in the Northern Province) and research organisations (Water Research Commission in Pretoria).

The availability of hydrogeological and related information, maps and digitised databases, as required for the compilation of hydrogeological maps are listed within the country reports compiled by the SADC Hydrogeological mapping project.

6.2.1.2 Digital Data Bases

Fundamental to the study of groundwater within the Limpopo Basin and the consideration of focal areas in particular is the construction of a series of database layers containing data from georeferenced sites. Databases of information available in South Africa will be obtained via the offices of CSIR; those in Botswana through Wellfield Consulting Services; and those in Zimbabwe and Mozambique through the in-country representatives. South Africa Within South Africa, available digital data sets have been listed and commented upon within the various parts of the DWAF Groundwater Resource Assessment II Project (GRA2) as of 2004. These sets of data were applied at a Quaternary Catchment scale to create national level distribution maps. Therefore, the available density of data may not be applicable at the sub Quaternary catchment level on the current project. Limiting factors on the use of these data sets include:

The reliable and detailed data sets are usually only available for a specific

area, usually related to one scheme or DWAF region, That they area available at a national level, but are either incomplete or at

an inappropriate scale.

Relevant data sets need to be assessed to see if they have been updated since being used on the GRA2 project.




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Data Set Title Source Date of Data Acquisition

Situation Assessment of the Needs of Rural Communities

DWAF Paul du Plessis provided spatial data and water source data John Hillox provided updated population figures and explanation on recent updates

Community population figures were updated in 2004. Water source data were last assessed in 1999.

WSAM Unassured Irrigation Requirement

Updated version of WSAM database supplied by Anne Beater April 2004

Study completed in 2000, but values represent the situation in 1995

WSAM Gross Rural Water Requirement

Updated version of WSAM database supplied by Anne Beater, April 2004

Based on data from 1990 to 1998, but values should represent 1995

National Groundwater Database (NGDB) Department of Water Affairs

Continually updated although it spans a long period

Directorate of Geohydrology’s 1:500 000 Hydrological Map Series

Jan Girman provided approval for data use Helene Mullen and Nicoline Fourie provided the data on CD

Published in 2000, but is based on older data

The Distribution of South Africa’s Population, Economy and Water Usage into the Long Term Future

Research done by Schlemmer, Markdata and Eric Hall and Associates for DWAF

Compiled in 2001, base year 1995 with projections up to 2025

G.R.I.P. (Limpopo Province) Willem Du Toit

Compiled in 2003, but is based on much data of varying ages.

1:250 000 National Land Cover Obtained from the CSIR published in 1998

Situation Assessment of the Needs of Rural Communities database was compiled by Steven Marais, Paul du Plessis and John Hillox. The community population figures were updated in 2004 and the water source data were last assessed in 1999. Community population estimate figures were obtained through counting huts using aerial photography. Water source data are listed as one of four data fields: groundwater surface water ground and surface water unknown

It would be useful to correlate population figures with those of the 2001 census. The work involved in renaming and reclassifying areas makes this an onerous task, which should only be carried out if and when necessary. These




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data only address rural domestic use and are thought not to include irrigation and / or subsistence agriculture. G.R.II.P. (Limpopo Province) Groundwater Database was compiled by Mr. Willem Du Toit in 2003, but is based on data of varying ages. The database includes groundwater use figures for Water Management Areas in the Limpopo Province with sectoral breakdown. It is limited by the larger old RSA towns being excluded from the GRLP database. It is thought that not all of the borehole information has been uploaded to the website yet. Lack of documentation makes it difficult to assess the accuracy of these data. An additional limitation is that these data are only available for the Limpopo province. Contact details: Willem Du Toit, Tel: 012-336 8121, [email protected] The GRIP project concentrated on rural areas, as this is where most groundwater development is required. All the data on the GRIP website have been verified. The problem cases were referred back to the participating consultants and will not be uploaded until they have been checked and verified. All data on the website are as accurate as can be.

Other databases from the GRA2 recharge assessment report Rainfall – one or two of the automatic weather stations of the South African Weather Service maybe located within the project area. These have possibly been collecting data since 1999. The South African Atlas of Agrohydrology and Climatology, produced in 1997, includes 1989 data obtained from more than 6000 rainfall stations. Baseflow per quaternary catchment - The most recent baseflow values are available from the WR90 database. A time series of monthly flows for each of the quaternary catchments exists and each time series covers the period 1920 to 1989 (sixty nine years). Surface topography slope - There is correlation between ground surface slope and groundwater recharge. The steeper the slope, the greater the surface water run-off and the lower the groundwater recharge. If a slope is very shallow, the recharge potential will be higher. Need to obtain web-based DEM data. Soil cover - Soil conditions are also considered an important factor in controlling groundwater recharge. Important characteristics of soil, with respect to groundwater recharge include soil thickness and soil texture. The only type of data available for this purpose is the Institute for Soil, Climate and Water (ISCW) Land Type data. These data were mapped at a scale of 1:250 000 and the Land Type polygons are determined according to microclimate, terrain and soil forms. Within the Land Types the percentage of soil types, thicknesses, etc. is given, however, the actual soil conditions (such as thickness) are not mapped.




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mailto:[email protected]


Vegetation - Vegetation also plays a role in controlling groundwater recharge. Different types of vegetation transpire at different rates, thus varying the amount of precipitation available for groundwater recharge. The National Botanical Institute (NBI) has produced the most suitable vegetation data set for the whole of South Africa. Geology (lithology and structural data) - South African hydrogeology is characterized by predominantly secondary aquifer conditions, with groundwater occurrences being controlled by geological settings and structural features, such as faults, and fractures. The Council for Geoscience (CGS) has released a 1:250 000 scale geological coverage for the whole of South Africa. This coverage was derived from merging the individual 1:250 000 geological data sets. A structural geology data set has also been completed at the scale of 1:250 000 and will also be beneficial to this project. A request has been submitted to the Council for Geoscience for the use of the 1:250 000 scale data sets (both lithological and structural data) Groundwater quality - The Water Research Commission (WRC) has funded studies into characterization of the chemistry of South African groundwater but the GIS files are not available. Additional groundwater chloride concentration data are obtainable from DWAF through the “Geo-request” service. Depth to groundwater - Depth to groundwater data are obtainable from DWAF through the “Geo-request” service. Botswana

A range of data types required for the formulation of the National Water Master Plan were compiled into a series of spreadsheets, e.g. rainfall and river flow data within eastern Botswana. Copies of these data spread-sheets will form the basis of the GIS data from Botswana. The National Borehole Archive includes hydrogeological data derived from the Departments of Water Affairs and Geological Survey as provided by government and private drilling contractors and groundwater consultants. Digital data is also available for the national groundwater monitoring system, for aquifer testing data (specific areas only), and from a large number of groundwater resources projects that have been completed in various regions.

Mozambique

The current situation regarding accessible digitised information in Mozambique, related to groundwater occurrence in the western parts of the country is unknown. Formerly, digitised borehole records were maintained at




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the offices of the Direccao Nacional De Aguas (D.N.A.) in Maputo. The current status of this database will need to be ascertained.

Zimbabwe The current situation regarding accessible digitised information in Zimbabwe related to groundwater occurrence in the southern parts of the country is unknown. Formerly digitised borehole records were maintained at the offices of the District Development Fund (DDF) offices in the main provincial towns, and detailed databases were maintained at various government departments in Harare. The current status of these databases will need to be ascertained.

6.2.1.3 Geo-referenced Digital and Scanned Maps

Various maps are now available in digital format for inclusion within a regional ArcGIS system. Other usually older maps are only available in hard copy paper format. The relevant parts of these maps will need to be scanned and georeferenced to enable the map images to be used within the project ArcGIS. Fully digitised maps currently available include: South Africa Topographic maps at 1:50 000 scale Topographic maps at 1:250 000 scale Hydrogeology maps at 1:500 000 scale Geological maps at 1:250 000 scale At Water Management Area level various electronically generated maps are available DWAF Water Management Area Maps Limpopo area Water level map TDS map Electrical conductivity map Exploitation potential map Harvest potential map Luvuvhu/Letaba Area

Botswana Topographic maps at 1:50 000 scale Topographic maps at 1:250 000 scale Geological maps at 1:50 000 scale (partial coverage) Various thematic maps (land use, vegetation, soils) at various scales




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Zimbabwe Some topographic maps at 1:50 000 scale Topographic maps at 1:250 000 scale Mozambique

Current situation is unknown

6.2.1.4 Remotely Sensed Data – Landsat images etc Two sets of images, one of Landsat Thematic mapping (TM) images and a second of enhanced thematic mapping (ETM) Landsat imagery have been acquired for the Limpopo Basin area from the SADC Remote Sensing Unit. The ETM imagery can be used at a scales of up to 1:50 000. National digital aerial photograph coverage is available in Botswana and South Africa, but availability of this information in Zimbabwe and Mozambique is not known.

6.2.1.5 Hard copies of maps and reports

Various maps and reports related to the hydrogeology and geology of Botswana, Zimbabwe, South Africa and Mozambique held at BGS Wallingford are listed in Appendix A. As mentioned above, hard copy out of print paper hydrogeology and other thematic maps from Zimbabwe and Mozambique will be scanned and georeferenced for presentation within an Arc9 based geographical information system.

In addition, hard copy reports and maps related to the hydrogeology and geology of Botswana can be accessed from the WCS archives, and DWA/DGS.

6.2.1.6 Relevant international literature including academic papers

An extensive literature search in relation to the Limpopo Basin in general and the Pilot Areas in particular has been undertaken utilising the BGS library search facilities plus a number of web-based search engines.

Several thousand papers and items of information from the international literature from the SADC region and 500 items from the Limpopo Basin have been listed within an EndNote bibliographic archiving system that will be further updated and expanded as the project proceeds.




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6.2.2 GIS Data As noted above, digital data is available for some parts of the project area and for some aspects of the physical data set, but digital data is far from plentiful or complete. This clearly complicates the assembly of a comprehensive and representative GIS archive for the two Pilot Areas which would ideally contain a full suite of thematic layers that can be used both for descriptive representation as well as data analysis.

Notwithstanding the above constraints a GIS database on an Arc 9.0 platform will be compiled for the project, using existing digital data where available and georeferenced digital data from scanned hardcopy to either complete the particular data layer, or to provide the layer in its entirety. Unavoidably this will lead to variable layer quality spatially, but it is hoped that this can be improved by additional data collection and sourcing as the project proceeds.

6.3 Task 1.3: Review of Socio-Economic, Socio-Cultural and Institutional Information in the Pilot Areas

Understanding the human dimension is important in the designing of drought mitigation strategies that will secure livelihoods based on stable, productive and profitable use of water and land use. The socio-economic baseline study of this project will describe the socio-economic as well as policy and institutional dimensions of people living in the Limpopo Basin to understand the potential range of impacts of a shortage of surface water and impacts of drought, and the likely responses of those impacted. While the socio-economic study will eventually focus to obtain specific information on the identified pilot areas (that are characterised by data scarcity), the baseline study will address a number of activities at two scales, namely the river basin levels as well as national levels. The study will include the collation and compilation of existing geographical, climatic, socio-economic, cultural and institutional data for the Limpopo River Basin and each of the four countries within the Limpopo Basin, namely South Africa, Botswana, Mozambique and Zimbabwe. Where possible, information will be provided for the two project pilot areas, namely the Western Pilot Area and the Eastern Pilot Area. 6.3.1 Geographical Overview Limpopo River Basin The Limpopo River which is about 1700 km long, is shared by 4 Riparian countries namely Botswana, Mozambique, South Africa and Zimbabwe. The Project Area is focussed on the Limpopo River Basin which is situated in the east of southern Africa between about 20 and 26°S and 25 and 35°E. It covers an area of 412 938 km2. Located in south-eastern Africa, the basin covers 1.3% of the continent. Figure 1 below illustrates the Limpopo River




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Basin in relation to the four countries that share the Limpopo River basin, South Africa 45%, Botswana 19%, Zimbabwe 15%, and Mozambique 21% (Turton et al., 2005). In particular, the study focuses on two project Pilot Areas within the Limpopo basin. These areas were defined in an earlier project titled “Groundwater Situation Analysis of the Limpopo River Basin” prepared by CSIR for SADC in 2003, namely the • The Western Pilot Area (WPA) and the • Eastern Pilot Area (EPA) The basin covers an area of approximately 408 000 km2 and consists large parts of eastern Botswana, southwestern Mozambique, northern South Africa and southern Zimbabawe (CSIR, 2003). The WPA covers approximately 17 000 km2 centred on the junction between the Limpopo and Shashe rivers which form the boundary between South Africa, Botswana and Zimbabwe. The eastern pilot area (EPA) is centred roughly on the intersection of the borders of Mozambique, South Africa and Zimbabwe Major tributaries include the Bubye from Zimbabwe, Levubu from South Africa and Munezi from Zimbabwe via Mozambique (Wellfield Consulting, 2007).

Figure 1. The Limpopo River Basin in relation to country boundaries (Source: Adapted from UNFAO, 2004).




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A geographical overview of the four countries that share the Limpopo River basin, namely Mozambique, Botswana, South Africa and Zimbabwe and is provided below. Mozambique Mozambique lies in south-eastern Africa between South Africa and Tanzania, with the Mozambique Channel forming its eastern border.

The Limpopo River Basin falls almost entirely within Gaza Province and covers portions of three districts in the Inhambane Province. Mozambique is a coastal country with a total land area of about 800,000 km². The country is bordered by South Africa and Swaziland in the south, Zimbabwe, Malawi and Zambia in the west, Tanzania in the north and the Indian Ocean in the east (UNICEF, n.d.). The Eastern pilot study area in Mozambique comprises an area of 7 491 km2 (CSIR, 2003). South Africa

South Africa has a surface area of 1 219 090 km2 and occupies the southernmost part of the African continent (RSA, 2008). The country is made up of eleven provinces, namely the Western Cape, the Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal, the Northern Cape, Free State, North West, Gauteng, Mpumalanga and Limpopo. The country shares common boundaries with Namibia, Botswana and Zimbabwe, and to the north-east Mozambique and Swaziland (RSA, 2008). Although most of the country lies at over 1,000 m above sea level, it has a coastline of about 3 000 km (RSA, 2008). The South African part of the Limpopo catchment can be grouped into two major components, namely the Crocodile/Limpopo River Basin up to the confluence with the Luvuvhu River (near Pafuri) at the border with Zimbabwe, South Africa and Mozambique and the Elephants River Basin, which leaves South Africa through the Kruger National Park and joins the Limpopo River in Mozambique. Limpopo is the gateway to the rest of Africa. It is favourably situated for economic co-operation with other parts of southern Africa as it shares borders with Botswana, Zimbabwe and Mozambique (RSA, 2008). The Limpopo Province of South Africa is located in the northern-most part of the country. Previously known as the Northern Province, it is bordered by Zimbabwe to the north, Mozambique to the east, Botswana to the west and the provinces of Gauteng, Mpumalanga and North West to the south. It comprises a surface area of 124 000 km2 (10% of the land area of the country) and is the fifth largest province in South Africa in size, and the fourth largest in terms of population (5,6 million people) (Stroebel, 2004). The Limpopo Province is the gateway to the rest of Africa (RSA, 2008). It is favourably situated for




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economic co-operation with other parts of southern Africa as it shares borders with Botswana, Zimbabwe and Mozambique. The province is linked to the Maputo Development Corridor through the Phalaborwa SDI, which is a network of rail and road corridors connecting to the major seaports. This is complemented by the presence of smaller airports in centres such as Phalaborwa and Musina, as well as the Gateway International Airport in Polokwane (RSA, 2008). The capital city is Polokwane, which lies strategically in the centre of the province (RSA, 2008). The Western pilot study area in the Limpopo Province of South Africa comprises an area of 2 483 km2, while the Eastern pilot area includes 6 452 km2 (CSIR, 2003). Botswana

Botswana, which has a land area of 581 730 km2, is a landlocked country that straddles the Tropic of Capricorn at the centre of the Southern African Plateau. The country is located at an average altitude of approximately 1000m and shares its borders with South Africa, Zimbabwe, Namibia and Zambia. The southern, eastern and a portion of the northern borders of Botswana are formed by rivers (the Molopo, Limpopo and Chobe Rivers respectively) and a large wetland (the Okavango Delta) is present in the northwest of the country at the terminus of the Okavango River. The majority of the country is characterised by flat savannah and is devoid of major mountains, although more hilly country is present along the eastern margin (EIU, 2007b).

In Botswana the Limpopo River Basin falls within the major land division of the hard veldt, a mainly flat to undulating surface with occasional hills and ridges that developed on the Basement Complex. The Botswana part of the basin feeds into the upper reach of the Limpopo River. It consists mainly of the following sub-basins, namely Notwane, Bonwapitse and Mahalapswe, Lotsane and Motloutse and Shashe (EIU 2007b). The Western pilot study area in Botswana comprises an area of 6 485 km2 (CSIR, 2003).

Zimbabwe

Zimbabwe is a land-locked country and neighbour to Zambia, Mozambique, South Africa and Botswana. The country’s surface area is 390 757km2. The Limpopo catchment area in Zimbabwe falls predominantly in Matabeleland South Province, as well as portions of two districts in the Masvingo Province (Mwenezi and Chiredzi) and one district in Midlands Province (Mberengwa). The specific area of interest for the groundwater project falls within the Masvingo and Matabeleland South Provinces in Zimbabwe. The landform is




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characteristically almost flat to gently undulating with slopes mainly less than 2 percent (UNFAO, 2004).

The Western pilot study area in Zimbabwe comprises an area of 5 092 km2, while the Eastern pilot area includes 5 639 km2 (CSIR, 2003).

6.3.2 Climate

Limpopo River Basin

The Limpopo River Basin is predominantly semi-arid, dry and hot. It is a region of summer rainfall, generally with low precipitation. Approximately, 95% of the annual rainfall occurs between October and April, in a number of isolate rain days and isolated locations. The overall feature of the mean annual precipitation is that it decreases fairly uniformly westwards (UNFAO, 2004). Rainfall varies from a low of 200 mm in the hot dry areas to 1 500 mm in the high rainfall areas. The majority of the catchment receives less than 500 mm of rainfall per year (UNFAO, 2004). The EPA generally has a higher rainfall than the WPA, with only a small part in South Africa having 250-300 mm per year and fairly large areas with more than 450 mm. A small portion of the Soutpansberg in South Africa receives more than 500 mm. Most of the EPA has a mean annual potential evaporation of 1450-1500 mm per year, the maximum being 1500-1550 in Mozambique in the north-eastern part (Wellfield Consulting, 2007).

Mozambique

The climate is tropical to sub-tropical. Average annual precipitation is around 970 mm but varies from 330 mm per year in Pafuri in the south-west to in excess of 2600 mm per year in Gurue in the northern mountains (FAO, 1995). There is a distinct rainy season between October and April. Average annual temperatures are over 20ºC in the coastal lowlands. The region is prone to droughts and southern and central areas also to flooding. The climate is determined in the south by the activity of the sub-tropical anticyclones located in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans (St. Helen and Mascarenhas) which causes thermal depression in the inner parts of the country and inter-tropical convergence zone (ITCZ) which affect primarily the northern region. Rainfall and altitude divide the country into two regions, the humid tropics in the north and east, and the semi-arid tropics in the highlands and south. (UNFAO, 2004).




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South Africa

South Africa has an average annual rainfall of 450 mm, compared with a world average of 860 mm (DEAT, 2006: 145). Sixty-five percent of the country receives less than 500 mm per year, which is generally accepted as the minimum amount required for successful dry-land farming. Twenty-one percent of the country, mainly the arid west, receives less than 200 mm per year (RSA, 2008). As such South Africa’s rainfall is unreliable and unpredictable and therefore large fluctuations in the average annual rainfall are the rule rather than the exception in most areas of the country (RSA, 2008). The mean annual temperature of the Limpopo Province ranges from 16° in the south to 22° in the north, with an average of 20° for the area as a whole. The average maximum monthly temperature is 30° in the month of January, while the average minimum monthly temperature is 4° in the month of July. The Mean Annual Precipitation (MAP) ranges widely with rainfall ranging from as little as 200 mm/annum in the north to over 1 200 mm/annum in the Soutpansberg Mountains. In general, rainfall decreases from the south to the north, with the lowest rainfall occurring in the Limpopo valley in the north-east (RSA, 2008). Surface water resources are limited in the country, with most rivers flowing for only a few days per year. These sand rivers have significant stores of groundwater in their beds. It is estimated that approximately 80% of the humans and animals in Botswana are dependent on groundwater (Moyo et al., 1993, p. 32 cited by Swatuk and Rahm, 2004). Botswana

Botswana’s climate is generally semi-arid. Rinfall ranges from approximately 250 mm/yr in the southwest to 550 mm/yr in the east up to a maximum of 690 mm/yr at Kasane in the extreme north. Annual open water evaporation is of the order of 2,000 mm and exceeds average rainfall in all months of the year. Average temperatures are also high, with a mean annual temperature in Gaborone of 28.4oC and in Maun (northwest) of 30.3oC (Bee Pee, n.d.).

Zimbabwe

Zimbabwe has a subtropical climate characterised by clear wet and dry seasons with transitional periods in between. The mean annual rainfall for the country is 650mm and ranges from below 400mm in the south to over 1000mm in the north-east (EIU, 2007c).




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6.3.3 Socio-Economic Environment

According to Earle et al., (2006; xi) “The Basin is of critical socio-economic importance to the 14 million people distributed across the four riparian states of Botswana, Mozambique, South Africa and Zimbabwe. Urban centres, mostly in Botswana and South Africa, are major water users supplying industries, power stations and municipalities. Water is also used in rural areas for domestic, livestock watering and irrigation purposes. While irrigated agricultural activities are largely concentrated in South Africa and Zimbabwe, the majority of rural populations engage in rain-fed agriculture, which does not guarantee secure livelihoods. This is due, in large part, to the region’s semi-arid climate where only two out of every five agricultural seasons produce reasonable crop yields. These climatic conditions emphasize the need for effective management of transboundary water resources and effective governance structures, delivery and control mechanisms. Appropriate institutional frameworks and governance structures have a pivotal role in defining the socio-economic situation of the people in the Basin”. In addition, the Limpopo River Basin Groundwater Situation Analyses found that both first and third world socio-economic conditions exist within the Limpopo catchment. The report states that “… in the larger part of the Limpopo catchment, much lower socio-economic conditions prevail often resulting in severe and undesirable impacts on a more local level” (CSIR, 2003).

The socio-economic analyses of this study will include the compilation of existing information with the view to identify gaps that will be filled by information obtained from focus group meetings in the different countries.

6.3.3.1 Population Characteristics

The population of a region forms part of the ultimate objective of the development process, as well as being a subject in the process, since the people provide labour and entrepreneurship for production and also consume the output of production. To form a clear picture of socio-economic conditions in a region, it is vital to analyse the size, spatial distribution, composition and growth pattern of the population, along with changes in these magnitudes and possible future trends and tendencies (DBSA, 2001).

Limpopo Basin

The Limpopo River Basin is home to about 14 million people in its four riparian states namely, Botswana, Mozambique, South Africa and Zimbabwe. Three of these four states (with the exception of Mozambique) are the most economically developed states in southern Africa (Turton 2005). Their contribution to the Southern African Development Community (SADC) GDP in 2002 was as follows (SADC n.d.):




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• South Africa - 65.7 percent • Zimbabwe - 3.6 percent • Botswana – 3.1 percent and • Mozambique 2.2 percent

On the one hand, urban centres such as Gaborone and Francistown in Botswana, Pretoria and parts of Johannesburg and Polokwane in South Africa are major users of water resources of the basin, mainly to supply industries, power stations and municipalities. On the other hand, rural areas mainly use water for domestic purposes, livestock watering and irrigation The majority of the rural population relies on rain-fed agriculture for their livelihoods which are largely insecure as sources of sufficient and sustainable food supply. This is because of the semi-arid climate and extremely variable rainfall (Earle et al., 2006).

Figure 2 below shows some of the details that have been discussed.

Figure 2. Hydrological, political, and population characteristics of the Limpopo Basin (Source: Louw and Gichuki 2003).




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According to 2000 statistics (see Table 1), the river basin supports a population of approximately 14 million people, namely 10.7 million in South Africa, 1 million each in Botswana and Zimbabwe, and 1.3 million in Mozambique (Louw and Gichuki, 2003), making it one of the most densely populated basins in Africa (Böge, 2005). Forty three percent (43%) of the population lives in urban areas while 57% lives in rural areas. Fifty six percent (56%) of the population lives below the poverty line. A geographic and demographic overview of the Limpopo River Basin is provided in Table 1 while selected geographical and demographic statistics of the 4 basin countries are provided in Table 2.

Table 1. Demographic Overview of the Limpopo River Basin (Source:

Adapted from CGIAR, n.d.)

DEMOGRAPHIC OVERVIEW OF THE LIMPOPO RIVER BASIN

Variables Figures/Information Area 412,938 km2 Population 14 million Percentage urban 43% Percentage rural 57% Percentage of population below poverty line 56%

There is a strong diversity of rural versus urban population in the Limpopo Basin. In two countries – Botswana and South Africa - the capital cities and some of the largest urban populations reside within the basin boundaries, such as Gaborone, Francistown, Pretoria, Polokwane, Thohoyandou, and Witbank. Not reflected in the Basin population figures are other large urban centres – Johannesburg, Maputo, and Bulawayo, – which are located on the fringes of the Limpopo Basin and influence, or are influenced by, events and activities within the Basin. Pretoria and Johannesburg are also at the headwaters of the Limpopo’s major tributary, the Olifants (Elephants) River. Aside from these urban centres, which for the most part are located at the headwaters (or near the mouth in the case of Maputo), the Limpopo Basin is predominantly rural. Table 2 reflects selected demographic statistics of the four basin countries.




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Table 2. Geographical and Demographic Statistics for the Four Basin Countries (UNFAO, 2004)

SELECTED STATISTICS OF THE FOUR BASIN COUNTRIES

Country Total area (km )2

Area of country within basin (km )2

As % of total basin

area (%)

As % of total

country area (%)

Population in basin (million)

As % of country

population (%)

Population density in

basin (persons

/(km )2

Population of country (million)

Botswana 581 730 80 118 19 14 1.0 59 12.5 1.6

Mozambique 801 590 84 981 21 11 1.3 7 15.3 16.5

South Africa 1 221 040 185 298 45 15 10.7 24 57.5 42.1

Zimbabwe 390 760 62 451 15 16 1.0 9 16.0 11.4

Total 412 938 14.0 33.9 71.6

Mozambique Mozambique has a total population of 20 366 795 (INE, 2007 projection). The country is divided into 11 provinces that are divided further into 130 districts, themselves divided into 300 administrative posts and localities. The administrative divisions show great variations in terms of spatial distribution and pressure on the various types of natural resources – some 40% of the population is concentrated in the northern coastal provinces of Cabo Delgado and Nampula, as well as Zambézia in the central part of Mozambique. There is a high concentration of people along the coastal strips, as well as in the main rivers valleys which are the most suitable area for farming. Some 78% of the population lives in rural areas and 80% of them work in agriculture (ROSA, 2006). According to 2007 estimates, the population displayed the following distribution, namely 0-14 years: 43.1%; 15-64 years: 54%; and < 65: 2.8%. The infant mortality rate is estimated at 124/1000 births; the fertility rate 5.5 children born/woman; and life expectancy 47 years (INE, 2007). However, the HIV pandemic is expected to infect 1.7 million people in 2007 largely affecting the 15-49 age groups (INE, 1997).

The Limpopo River Basin in Mozambique largely falls within the Gaza Province. It also covers portions of three districts in Inhambane Province. The area is predominantly rural (estimates vary between 75-90%) and the population density decreases significantly with distance from the coast and the Chókwe area. The province is too dry to support a sizeable population. Gaza has a population of some 1.3 million. The province has one of the highest HIV/AIDS rates in the country – probably due to the high rates of




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migration to South African mines. According to the Provincial Director for Health, Dario Sacur, in 2004 around 22 % of the population aged 15 to 49 years was living with HIV or AIDS compared to a national average of 14.9 % (UNICEF, n.d.).

The density of the population within the Limpopo River Basin ranges from 1 person/km2 in Chigubo District to more than 100 persons/km2 in rural Xai-Xai District. The basin wide average in Mozambique of 15 persons/km2 compares with a national population density of 21 persons/km2 (UNFAO, 2004). South Africa

According to statistics South Africa, the mid-2007 population was estimated at 47.9 million. These statistics show that of the 47.4 million people, Africans were in the majority and constituted roughly 79.6% of the total South African population. The White population was estimated at 9.1%, the coloured population at 8.9% and the Indian/Asian population at 2.5% (Stats SA, 2007a). The provincial estimates showed that KwaZulu-Natal was home to 20.9% of the population, followed by Gauteng with 20.1% and the Eastern Cape with 14.6%. The Northern Cape had the smallest share of the population, namely 2.3% (Stats SA, 2007a). Statistics South Africa report that the growth rate of the population of the country is declining steadily and this is shown in the difference between 2001-2002 where the growth rate was 1.3%, and 2006-2007 where the growth rate is 1% (Stats SA, 2007b). Mid year 2007 estimations found that 51% (approximately 24.3 million) of the population in South Africa are female. Of females in South Africa 79.5% are categorised as African; 8.9% as Coloured; 2.5% as Indian/Asian and 9.1% as White (Stats SA, 2007a:3)

There is a growing trend toward urbanisation in South Africa. In 2006 it was estimated that by 2007 58% of the South African population lives in the urban areas whereas in 1996 it was only 53% (DEAT, 2006: 236). This growth in urbanisation despite that fact that the country’s urban areas only occupy less than 2% of the country’s land area (DEAT, 2006: 236). South Africa has a history of labour migration within its borders especially amongst African men (Posel, 2003). Apartheid social engineering, and in particular the restriction of mobility of Africans infused the internal migration policies of the country, the main reasoning was to inhibit and control urbanisation of Africans. In 1994 with the new democratic government and consequent abolition of Apartheid laws such as those underpinning labour migration rules, many scholars predicted that migrants would settle permanently at or near the places where they work thus creating a much more stable workforce (Posel, 2003). In general this has been the case, however research indicate that female labour migration is on the increase.




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This has been the case primarily due to a change in household composition and where women might be less likely to get married and/or living with their male partners, thus they also might encounter less resistance to their migration than previously (Posel, 2003). Nearly 45 percent of the total population of South Africa lives in the four Northern provinces (Limpopo, North West, Mpumalanga and Gauteng).

Limpopo Province is almost completely contained within the Limpopo River Basin, as are parts of North West, Mpumalanga and Gauteng Provinces. The Limpopo Province is by far the most dominant administrative zone in the basin – representing more than half of the rural population – for a total of more than 4 million people (UNFAO, 2004). The mid-year population estimates shows that Limpopo Province has 7.4% of the total population in South Africa, who live on about 123 910 km2 of land (Stats SA, 2007b). Zimbabwe Zimbabwe Population Census in 2002 indicates that the Zimbabwe population was estimated to be 11.635 million growing at 1.1% per annum. The projection for 2007 is 11.83 million. However, the 2007 country report developed by the Economist Intelligence Unit estimates the population to be 13 million (UNFAO, 2007). The average population density is 30 people per square km (EIU, 2007c). According to the population census of 1992, about 8 percent of Zimbabwe’s population resided in the Limpopo River Basin, then estimated at 850 000 people, and currently estimated at just more than 1 million. The average population density in the semi-arid regions of the Limpopo River Basin is generally low, ranging from 6 persons/km2 in Beitbridge District to 23 persons/km2 in Umzingwane, adjacent to Bulawayo, compared with 30 persons/km2 at the national level. However, the primarily rural district of Mberengwa has a population density of 37 persons/km2, comparable with the more densely populated rural areas around Harare (UNFAO, 2004).

Botswana

According to Botswana’s most recent population census results issued in April 2002, the Botswana population stood at 1.68 million people. This represents an increase of 27% since the 1991 census. Annual population growth stood at 2.4% compared to 3.5% during the previous inter-census period. Although the country suffers from a high HIV/AIDS infection rate, it seems that the increase in deaths from AIDS was countered by a lower death rate in the non-infected population. This reflects the presence of improved living conditions and health services. The number of foreigners, noticeably immigrants from Zimbabwe, in Botswana has been increasing rapidly, however they still only officially make up 5% of the population. Overall, there




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has been a substantial increase in Botswana’s urban population, which now constitutes nearly 60% of the total population (EIU, 2007b).

According to the 1991 census, nearly 46 percent of Botswana’s population was urban-based, an increase of 18 percent over the 1981 estimates (GOB, 1992 cited in UNFAO, 2004). While much of this growth is a consequence of the continued expansion of the larger urban areas such as Gaborone and Francistown, most of the increase is attributed to a reclassification of some larger villages from rural to urban. Eighty-three percent of Botswana’s people live in the eastern hardveldt region with its characteristics of better surface water and groundwater availability, good communications, proximity to South Africa, access to markets, and better-quality soils compared with the rest of the country. The Limpopo River Basin covers most of the hardveldt and falls within the rural administrative districts of North East, Central, Kgatleng and Kweneng. This catchment area accounts for 59 percent of the country’s population and 28 percent of its area. The average national population density is only 2.3 persons/km2, although the highest population density is in the districts of Kweneng (21 persons/ km2) and Kgatleng (15 persons/km2) because of the location effects of greater Gaborone (GOB, 1992 cited in UNFAO, 2004).

6.3.3.2 Human Development and Poverty

Two related concepts that are useful for measuring “how people are doing” are human development and poverty. Human development can be viewed as the process of enlarging people’s choices so that they can live quality (longer and healthier) lives. This is usually measured in terms of educational and health opportunities, as well as some measure of wealth or standard of living. Poverty is usually defined as living below a certain income or income-poverty threshold, but it has many dimensions (IFAD, 2001 in UNFAO, 2004). The Human Development Index (HDI) was introduced in 1990 as an attempt to measure and rank countries according to progress in human development beyond a simple gross national product figure. Instead of using only a financial measure, the HDI is a composite of three basic components of human development namely:

• longevity – as measured by life expectancy • knowledge – as measured by a combination of adult literacy (two-

thirds weight) and mean years of schooling (one-third weight) and • standard of living – as measured by purchasing power, based on

real GDP per capita adjusted for the local cost of living

The index ranges from 0 to 1 (UNFAO, 2004).




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Limpopo River Basin The rural population of about 8 million people living in the Limpopo River Basin faces special challenges to make a living. As indicated earlier, the area is predominantly semi-arid, with little arable land and very low potential for agriculture. The broad Human Development Index for the four countries in the Limpopo Basin is reflected in Table 3 below.

Basin Indicators Table 3. Human Development Index for the Limpopo River Basin

Countries (Source: UNICEF, n.d)

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDICATORS

Country

Global HDI (2004)

Life expectancy 2006

Adult literacy rate, 2000-2005 (%)

Population using improved drinking sources (%)

Under 5 mortality rate 2006

Population aged 15-49 living with HIV/AIDS (%) end 2005

Botswana 0.570 49 81 95 124 24.1

Mozambique

0.390 42 39 43 138 16.1

South Africa

0.653 50 82 88 69 18.8

Zimbabwe

0.491 42 89 81 105 20.1

At the national level, as of 1998, three of the four countries were in the medium (values between 0.500 and 0.790) human development range: South Africa, Botswana, and Zimbabwe. Mozambique has the lowest HDI value in the region (0.374), although in percentage terms, the situation has been improving steadily (GOM–UNDP, 1999). The impact of the HIV/AIDS pandemic on life expectancy is an important factor in slowing the growth, or reducing the HDI, especially for Botswana, South Africa and Zimbabwe. There is also great disparity in HDI values between geographical regions and urban and rural areas. Generally lower (higher HPI) in more remote rural areas, where education, health and employment opportunities are more limited (UNFAO, 2004).

Mozambique

Mozambique’s human development index indicators (HDI) have improved steadily since the 1990s but are still the lowest in the SADC region, and it is one of the poorest countries in the world with 54% of the population living under poverty. Since the early 1990s, Mozambique has engaged in




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an extensive socioeconomic transformation at an accelerated pace, based on a transition from a socialist centrally planned economy to a liberalized economy, including a decentralisation process that is just beginning. It has since then been one of the world’s fastest growing economies, but this has been off a very low base for even before the war it was among the world’s poorest and least developed countries. Government policies and reforms, together with substantial donor supports, have contributed to macroeconomic stability, rapid growth, socio-economic transformation and poverty reduction (ADB/ADF, 2006).

While growth reached 7.9% in 2006 (EIUa, 2007), observers point to the need for a real transition out of poverty as expansion has been driven mainly by foreign financed ‘mega-projects’ such as the US$2 billion Mozal aluminium smelter and large aid inflows. There is also the need to promote growth in a more widespread manner. To achieve its objectives of reducing poverty, Mozambique has put in place a pipeline of mega projects with projected investments of about US$10billion, or almost 2.5 times current GDP (Nasir et al., 2003 cited in ECA, 2005: 103) with a view to increasing manufacturing outputs and exports. A review of these projects, however, shows that they will create at most 20,000 jobs, only 5,000 of them directly within the companies involved and the remaining 15,000 among suppliers and service providers (Ibid). With an estimated 3,7 million new job seekers expected in Mozambique’s labour market by 2010, such projects will absorb less than 1 per cent of these new job seekers. Continuing to channel investments into those areas with the highest returns will be the main route to growth over the long term, and to this end Mozambique has reverted to a high degree of integration with the South African dominated regional economy. Poverty reduction is the central goal of the Government’s medium-term economic program, the poverty reduction strategy that aims to reduce poverty headcount to 45% by 2009. This commitment is expressed in many policy documents, including the Programa do Governo para 2000-2004, the Government Document to the Consultative Group, the Interim Policy Reduction Strategy paper (I-PRSP), and the Plano de Acçaõ para Redução da Pobreza Absoluta 2000-2004 (PARPA). The government believes that it can only reduce poverty if per capita income grows by at least 5% per year over the next ten years. A major challenge for the Government is to ensure a more even distribution of the economic gains that have been made over the past 16 years. The new wealth and progress seems primarily to be concentrated in and around the capital Maputo. Much of the growth is linked to the development of highly intensive ‘mega’ projects (such as Mozal) that have limited absorption of unskilled workers (de Vletter, 2006). Without agricultural development, national advances in economic development may well not be sustainable and will remain fragile.




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Poverty is higher in rural areas, but the gap between rural and urban areas is shrinking - in 2003, 51.5% of the urban population lived below the poverty threshold (down from 62% in 1997), and the figure for the rural populations was 55.3% (down from 71.3% in 1997) (UNDP, 2005). Poverty is greatest in the northern and central provinces: Zambézia is the poorest, followed by Cabo Delgado; Maputo City is the richest province (AIM, September 2006a). The fiscal resources of the government are still very weak due to the relatively limited economic activity and costs generated by the enormous proportion of the population living in severe poverty. Since the end of the war, Mozambique has been heavily dependent on foreign aid. A group of some 18 donors known as Programme Aid Partners, provide direct budget support – US$583 million for 2007, while total aid to the country amounts to US$1,2billion – almost half the state budget and more than in almost any other country Dependence on external aid means that government has tended to be driven by donor agendas and is reliant on donor funding to develop new programmes Although access to services (health, water, sanitation and education) has improved dramatically, the poorest quintile of the population continued to have very limited level of education and access to health care services. The government of Mozambique lists the key factors determining poverty as: i) the low levels of education within households (adult illiteracy is 47%); ii) high dependency rates; iii) low returns from agriculture and manufacturing activities; and iv) limited access to infrastructure. On income distribution Mozambique performs better than its neighbours (UNIrin, 2006). The rapidly escalating HIV-AIDS pandemic is weakening national capacities and considerably slowing the rate of development. Although the precise level of infection is hard to gauge, the Ministry of Health estimates that the prevalence rates in 2004 were 16.2% (EIU, September 2006). Highest rates coincide with migration patterns, particularly in terms of migrant labour to South African mines, and those areas where there is most competition for land: the major international transport corridors and the peri-urban areas (Norfolk, 2004). Prevalence rates vary, with 18% infected in the south, 20% in central Mozambique and only 9% in the north, the hardest hit regions being those with cross-border traffic or where there have been large numbers of returning refugees (EIU, September 2006). The impact in terms of productivity, on finances and human resources over the coming years is likely to enhance vulnerability, and especially of woman as the greatest burden of care falls on female members. The land rights of women also become increasingly insecure under patriarchal customary tenure systems as widows may lose their land. Family savings are consumed and assets sold to help pay for medical expenses and agricultural land usage often declines amongst afflicted families. There




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has been an increase in the number of reported malaria cases since 1999 (EIU, September 2006), with 3.4 million reported in 2005. Severe problems of poverty still exist in Mozambique, affecting nearly 70 percent of the population, or 10.9 million people, according to the latest poverty assessment (GOM-UNDP, 1998). The incidence is higher in rural than in urban areas, with rural headcount reaching 71.2 percent compared with 62.0 percent in urban areas. The incidence of poverty is highest in the central region, whereas the north and south are nearly equal. However, if Maputo city – which has low rates relative to the rest of the country – is excluded from the southern region, the remainder of the southern region (including Gaza Province) has poverty rates higher than the northern region, and not significantly different from the central region (UNFAO, 2004).

South Africa

Stats SA (2006b) reports that after several years of decline, employment in South Africa has generally been on a slightly upward trend since March 2003 (Stats SA, 2006). In the year to March 2006, the number of employed persons rose from 11 907 000 in March 2001 to 12 451 000 in March 2006. The unemployment rate has remained fairly stable over time and since March 2004 it is showing a modest decline in March 2005 from 26.5% compared to 25.6% in March 2006 (Stats SA, 2006b). Employment is dominated in South Africa by wholesale and retail trade who employ 24.1% of the population (Stats SA, 2006b). A percentage of 17.5 of the population is employed by “Community and Services”, 13.9% in manufacturing and 10.6 in agriculture. 17.6% of the population is involved in the informal sector (excluding agriculture) of work. Estimates from the HSRC of poverty show that the proportion of people living in poverty in South Africa has not changed significantly between 1996 and 2001. Additionally, those households living in poverty have sunk deeper into poverty and the gap between rich and poor has widened (Schwabe, 2004). Approximately 57% of individuals in South Africa were living below the poverty income line in 2001, unchanged from 1996. Limpopo and the Eastern Cape had the highest proportion of poor with 77% and 72% of their populations living below the poverty income line, respectively. The Western Cape had the lowest proportion in poverty (32%), followed by Gauteng (42%) (Schwabe, 2004). While 10% of the population continues to earn more that 50% of household income in the country, the poorest 40% of the population accounts for less than 7% of household income, with the poorest 20% accounting for less than 1,5% of income (based on income from work and social grants) (Stats SA, 2008).




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Analysis of the General Household Survey in 2005 indicates that that there were about 118,500 children living in a total of 66,500 child-headed households across South Africa at the time of the survey. This is equal to roughly 0.7% of all children (0 – 17-year olds) and to 0.6% of all households in the country. The proportion of children living in child-headed households relative to those living in households where adults are resident is therefore small (Children’s Institute, 2006). In 2007, there were 12 410 501 learners in ordinary public and independent schools in South Africa, who attended 26 099 schools and were served by 395 452 educators (DOE, 2007). Substantial progress has been made with regard to both school attendance and educational attainment during the last decade. The percentage of people aged 5–24 attending school has increased (from 63% in 1996 to 74% in 2007), particularly for those aged 5–17 years (Stats SA, 2007b). Disparities between different population groups regarding educational levels do still exist, for example Whites have the highest percentage (73%) while the Coloureds have the lowest percentage (64%) (Stats SA, 2007b). The percentage of persons with no schooling has substantially decreased from 19% in 1996 to 10% in 2007 (Stats SA, 2007b). Access to housing and secure accommodation has been integral to the government’s commitment to alleviate poverty in the country. The Department of Housing’s expenditure increased from R4,2 billion in 2002/03 to R9,5 billion in 2008/09, representing an average growth rate of about 8% from 2002/03 to 2005/06, and accelerating to 21,5% from 2005/06 to 2008/09 (RSA, 2008). Almost 71% of the households live in formal dwellings compared to 64% in 1996. 15% of the households live in informal dwellings (Stats SA, 2007b). In South Africa the life expectancy for males are 50 and for females, 52 (WHO, 2007). South Africa is one of the countries with the highest HIV prevalence rates in the world. Statistics South Africa (2007b) estimates the total HIV prevalence rate in 2007 at 11% in 2007 and the HIV-positive population at 5,3 million (Stats SA, 2007b). The estimate for the infant mortality rate (IMR) in South Africa for 2007 is estimated at 45,2 per 1000 (Stats SA, 2008). There are approximately 400 provincial public hospitals in South Africa (RSA, 2008). In South Africa the physician density to 1000 people is 0.77, and the nurse density to 1000 people is 4.08, these rates are reasonably better than those of Zimbabwe (0.16 and 0.72 respectively), Botswana (0.40 and 2.65 respectively), Mozambique (0.03 and 0.21 respectively) (WHO, 2007). There is a total of 185 477 traditional healers in South Africa (WHO, 2007).




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Since 1996, electricity has been the main energy source in South Africa. and as a result electricity consumption has also increased, for example 80% of households use electricity for lighting as compared to 58% in 1996; 67% of households use electricity for cooking as compared to 47% in 1996; and, 59% of households use electricity for heating compared to 45% in 1996 (RSA, 2008). Estimates suggest that R107 billion will be needed between 2005 and 2009 to meet the country’s growing energy needs (RSA, 2008). Currently South Africa is facing a severe electricity shortage causing incremental load-shedding especially in the more urban areas. A predicted 60% increase in payment for electricity is expected (Business Day, 2008). Eskom (South Africa’s premier electricity provider) is set to invest R84 billion over the next five years. The balance of R23 billion is reserved for independent power producer (IPP) entrants. The refurbishment of three power stations –Camden in Ermelo, Grootvlei in Balfour, and Komati in Middelburg – will result in an additional 3 800 MW to the system (RSA, 2008). Eskom is expected to spend about R12 billion (nominal rand) on recommissioning these stations, representing about 40% of the cost of a new station. About 10% of the costs will go towards improving environmental performance such as particulate emissions and water controls. At least 36 000 jobs are expected to be created, directly and indirectly, during both construction and operational phase activities (RSA, 2008). Access to water for all South African citizens has not yet been realised however, the historical inequality that exists has been addressed by government in a very serious manner. For example, in 1994, there were 15.9 million people without clean, safe water, while 20,4 million people did not have access to adequate sanitation facilities. But by March 2006, this number had decreased to 3.3 million people who still lacked access to clean safe water, while 15.3 million were without adequate basic sanitation facilities (RSA, 2008). Today 88% of households in South Africa have access to piped water and 47,3% have access to piped water from within their dwelling (Stats SA, 2007b). The percentage of households with access to flush toilets connected to a sewerage system increased from 49,1% in 2001 to 55,1% in 2007; while the use of pit latrines (without ventilation) declined from 22,8% in 2001 to 20,6% in 2007 (Stats SA, 2007b). However, the proportion of households without access to any toilet facility also declined from 13.6% in 2001 to 8,2% in 2007 (Stats SA, 2007b). Refuse removal services to households have been increased from 1996 (51.2%) to 60,1% in 2007 (Stats SA, 2007b). These increased levels of service delivery regarding refuse removal have encourages people to not




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use their own refuse dump, these number have declined by about 4,0% in 2007 (Stats SA, 2007b). Statistically, the Limpopo Province is the poorest province in South Africa, with the lowest per capita income and the highest number of illiterate people (StatsSA, 2003 cited by Stroebel, 2004). The province is the most rural in South Africa with 89% of its residents residing in rural areas. The unemployment rate is high at 46% (StatsSA, 2003 cited by Stroebel, 2004). Botswana

In Botswana, The HPI reveals that more than 25 percent of the population live in human poverty and that the HPI values for rural areas are nearly double those in the urban areas – 39.0 compared with 16.8. These disparities are closely linked to available services such as schooling, water supply and health care (UNFAO, 2004; GOB–UNDP, 2000). Since the discovery of large deposits of minerals in the late 1960s, Botswana’s economy has transformed drastically and the resulting high economic growth rate has enabled the country to achieve a remarkable level of economic and social transformation over the past three decades. This has become particularly evident in terms of developments in social infrastructure, school enrolment, water supply, health services, rural roads, as well as other services and infrastructure. As a result, Botswana has increasingly been able to confront the challenges of both development and conservation (Mpotokwane and Keatimilwe, n.d.). The diamond mining industry dominates the Botswana economy and contributed approximately 35.5% to the national GDP in 2005/6. Other resources that are mined are diamonds, copper-nickel, and soda ash, salt and in particular coal, of which Botswana has massive reserves. In addition to mining, the government has also sought to promote private-sector manufacturing as well as more recently focusing its attention on international financial services and tourism. While financial and business services accounted for approximately 10% of GDP in the 1990s, it is likely that a further increase in the contribution from this sector will take place over the coming decade. In terms of tourism, the government is hoping to benefit from the Football World Cup which will be held in South Africa in 2010 (EIU, 2007b). Although diamond mining is the main contributor to wealth, it is not labour intensive and therefore accounts for less than 5% employment in the formal sector. Approximately 50% of formal employment takes place in the public sector (central and local government and parastatals), which is indicative of Botswana’s lack of economic diversification. Official unemployment stood at 19.6% in 2001 (at the time of the last census) and




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has been a difficult problem to tackle for various reasons. Possibilities for work in the agricultural sector are fraught by drought and low incomes, in the towns there is increasing competition from Zimbabwean immigrants (many of whom are skilled), and there are fewer opportunities for employment for Botswana’s citizens in South African mines. More than 80 000 people are currently self-employed or work in the informal sector. This figure is likely to grown unless more opportunities can be created in the manufacturing or services industries (Economist Intelligence Unit, 2007b). One of the Botswana government’s greatest achievements is the fact that it has been able to provide almost universal free education with only limited fees for secondary schooling. Adult literacy stood at 81% in 2006, and employment in the education sector accounts for nearly 13% of formal sector employment. A total of 15 725 students were enrolled at the University of Botswana in Gaborone in 2006 but a large percentage of the Batswana population also studies abroad with more than 6600 students studying in South Africa in 2006 and an approximate 2200 students studying at overseas tertiary institutions. The government also plans to establish a second university, the Botswana University of Science and Technology, which will be located in the Serowe-Palapye sub-district (EIU 2007b). Botswana has a well-developed, decentralised primary health care system. A problem the health sector faces is that many trained staff members are attracted to work overseas and are therefore difficult to retain. HIV/AIDS, diarrhoea, tuberculosis, pneumonia and malaria are some of the diseases that are prevalent in Botswana. According to the Botswana Aids Impact survey, HIV/AIDS infection rates reportedly vary widely across the country, ranging from 11% to 29%. There has been some disagreement on rates of infection and the impact on life expectancy. According to the Joint UN Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) the prevalence of HIV/AIDS among Batswana aged 15-49 at the end of 2003 stood at 37.3%, but by 2005 UNAIDS had lowered this estimate to 24.1% (EIU, 2007b). There also seems to be some disagreement over the impact of HIV/AIDS on life expectancy. Some international estimates suggest that life expectancy has fallen to below 40 years (compared to over 60 years a decade ago), but the government has disputed this. The 2001 population census estimates life expectancy to be at around 55 years. One possible explanation for the discrepancy is that international estimates do not take into account the generally high level of healthcare in Botswana, which slows the rate at which the health of infected people deteriorates and also increases the life expectancy of non-infected people. The government has however nonetheless declared HIV/AIDS a national




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emergency and recognises the potentially serious effects of the disease for the workforce of the country. It appears that families remain reluctant to seek assistance from government welfare programmes, which reflects the stigma that is still attached to AIDS (EIU, 2007b). The National AIDS Co-ordinating Agency coordinates various programmes, some with the support of donors, philanthropists and international pharmaceutical companies, which draw on the government’s financial resources. A programme that distributes anti-retroviral (ARV) drugs to AIDS sufferers was introduced in early 2002, and although people are still reluctant to come forward and be tested, the total number of people being treated had reached more than 71 000 by August 2006 (EIU, 2007b). Zimbabwe

In terms of HDI and HPI characteristics, Zimbabwe exhibits a disparity between geographical regions and between urban and rural communities. At the national level, Matabeleland South Province ranks highest (best) in terms of HDI or HPI. Four of the six districts in this province have HDI values greater than 0.60, which is near the national average of 0.62. Beitbridge District is the lowest in the Province, comparable with Mberengwa District (Midlands Province). The two districts in Masvingo Province, Mwenezi and Chiredzi, are ranked 74 and 65, respectively, out of the 77 districts and urban centres listed in the 1999 report (UNFAO, 2004). The Europeans arrived in 1890 in search of mineral wealth but later turned to agriculture when mineral exploration failed. Zimbabwean (then southern Rhodesian) politics have been dominated by the white minority ever since. Zimbabwe gained independence in 1980 and has been ruled under one party since. The country has experienced a decline in living standards since 1990 and considerable social, political and economic instability since 2000 (EIU, 2007c). The Zimbabwe economy has been on the decline for the last decade with the real Gross Domestic Product (GDP) shrinking by about 42% from 1998 to 2006, which has reflected especially through declining investment and tourism. Unemployment and under-employment are extensive, with urban unemployment become particularly critical in more recent years. Even prior to the 2002 crop failure, 75% of the country’s population was classified as poor and about 42% as very poor. Poverty has since been exacerbated due to depressed harvests and the rising cost of living with the decline in value of the Zimbabwe dollar. Poor people primarily include unemployed and under-employed urban people and rural small farmers and former farmers. Agriculture is the country’s biggest contributor to the economy. Recent successive crop failures have severely constrained people’s ability to cope especially within the context of an impoverished national economy (UNFAO, 2007).




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6.3.3.3 Infrastructure and Services

The provision of infrastructural services represents a precondition for improved economic growth, welfare, quality of life and productivity of people, while the non-provision or reduction of services has a detrimental impact on the efficiency of a region’s economy. Infrastructural services can play an important role in the direct improvement of the welfare of households in a specific region. These services have different effects on improving the quality of life. Access to clean water and sanitation can for example reduce mortality; access to transport provides access to markets; access to employment opportunities and social services such as health and education; increases in earnings potential and socio-economic aspirations; access to communication networks can result in an improved level of education and literacy rate. Non-provision of services on the other hand can detract from economic quality of life since much time has to be devoted to activities such as collecting fuel wood or water – time that could otherwise be spent on income-earning activities. The provision of infrastructural services does not, however, necessarily lead to the eradication of poverty (DBSA, 2001).

Limpopo River Basin

The general infrastructure of the different countries in the Limpopo basin differs and will be discussed under each country below. Some of the infrastructural information is contained in sections 5.2 and 6.3. Mocambique

Infrastructure in Mozambique is generally poor and inadequate as it was severely affected during the civil war. Unplanned growth of the precarious and peri-urban areas, aggravated by the absence of land use planning instruments and their execution and control has resulted in most of the urban population living in areas without adequate access to basic infrastructure and social amenities (CEDH and UEM, 2006). Following the Peace Accord with grants from the World Bank, African Development Bank and other Mozambique’s development partners several projects were put in place to rebuild the affected infrastructure but there is still much to be done (Nations Encyclopaedia, n.d.). The country has approximately 30,400 kilometres of highways of which 5,685 kilometres are paved. Large sections of the remaining 24,175 kilometres of highway are almost impassable during the rainy season. In addition to the road network, there is a total of 3,131 kilometres of railway. Major rail lines connect to South Africa, Malawi, and Zimbabwe and the latter 2 countries are dependent upon railway links with Mozambique since they are landlocked. Mozambique also has 70 airports, although only the majority of runways are not paved. The telecommunication sector has




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traditionally been monopolized by the government-owned national telephone company (TDM), but the introduction of legislation legalizing the privatization of the telecommunication sector in 1999 led to the transformation of the TDM into a public enterprise with 100 percent of the shares owned by government. In 1999, there were only 4.0 telephone mainlines per 1,000 people, a dismal contrast to the United States where there were 640 mainlines per 1,000 people in 1996 (Nations Encyclopaedia, n.d.). Mozambicans consume a total of 1.018 billion kWh of electricity of which 385 million kWh is imported. Seventy five percent of internal electricity production comes from hydro, while the remaining 25 percent is derived from fossil fuel. Electricity is mainly used in cities as there is no electricity in the smaller towns and villages (Nations Encyclopaedia, n.d.). The parastatal Electricidade de Mocambique (EDM) controls the water supply system. It has recently awarded a concession for the private management of the water supply system in 5 major cities, which may lead to decreased accessibility, as there is no governmental guarantee of fair pricing. As such, if rates to access water increase, the poor will have to cut their water intake (Nations Encyclopaedia, n.d.). Tourism has become one of the major sources of private investment in Mozambique and in 2005 revenue from tourism totalled US$108 million. It is forecast to reach US$144 million dollars in 2006. Currently the tourism sector employs about 35,000 people. The country is well endowed with natural resources and impressive physical attraction. The extensive coastline has many unspoiled beaches and potential holiday resorts and the country possesses one of the most diverse collections of wildlife species (ADB/ADF, 2006). South Africa Compared to the rest of Africa, South Africa has a good infrastructure. Infrastructure includes a highly developed network of some 358,596 kilometres of roads) and 21,431 kilometres of rail track. There are a number of international and national airports (Nations Encyclopaedia, n.d.). South Africa's modern and extensive transport system plays a very important role in the national economies of several other African states. A number of countries in Southern Africa use the South African transport infrastructure to trade. SPOORNET, the largest railroad operator in Southern Africa, has 3,500 locomotives and 124,000 wagons. There are 30 international airports, where the necessary facilities and services exist to accommodate international flights (Nations Encyclopaedia, n.d.).




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In the Limpopo Province of South Africa, the modern N1 highway and national main rail lines bisect Limpopo from south to north. This provides investors with direct access to South Africa’s industrial and commercial heartland in the Gauteng Province to the south, and Southern African Development Community (SADC) to the north. With an international consortium now investing an initial US$70 million to upgrade Maputo port, Limpopo exporters estimate savings of about one third of their current transportation costs by using the facility. Linked to Limpopo by road and rail, Maputo port is situated between 300 and 400 kilometres from the main mining and agricultural centres of Limpopo (Nations Encyclopaedia, n.d.). Limpopo has an international airport and two modern regional airports. Polokwane International Airport (PIA) in Limpopo’s capital city is being developed into a major cargo hub serving sub Saharan Africa and as an alternative to South Africa’s main airport in neighbouring Gauteng Province (Trade and Investment, Limpopo, n.d.). South Africa has a power supply parastatal (ESCOM) that supplies electricity to the country (Trade and Investment, Limpopo, n.d.). There are several opportunities for sport and recreation. The maim attractions frequented by both foreign and local tourists include the world renowned Kruger National Park and the ancient cyacad forests of Modjadji the Rain Queen (Trade and Investment, Limpopo, n.d.). There are more than 4 000 educational institutions in the Limpopo Province that include agricultural, technical, teachers training and nursing colleges, a technikon and two universities. Several provincial high schools qualify among the top 100 schools as per Matric/Grade12/School leaving examinations each year. Extensive health services are available throughout the Province. Hospitals with modern equipment and specialist staff are found in all the larger centres and also in some smaller towns (Trade and Investment, Limpopo, n.d.). The physical water infrastructure of the Limpopo Province in South Africa is depicted in Tables 4 and 5 below.




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Table 4. Physical Infrastructure of Limpopo (Source: Stats SA, 2001)

African/

Black Coloured Indian/ Asian White Not

applicableLimpopo No access to piped (tap) water 249095 188 43 467 14

Piped (tap) water to community stand: distance greater than 200m from dwelling

263535 288 68 1351 41

Piped (tap) water to community stand: distance less than 200m from dwelling

185164 153 29 501 16

Piped (tap) water inside yard 362795 1103 219 6081 272

Piped (tap) water inside dwelling 90175 937 1608 29370 487

Not applicable 0 0 0 0 36

Table 5. Physical Infrastructure of Limpopo (Source: Stats SA, 2001)

African/ Black Coloured Indian/

Asian White Not applicable

Limpopo Flush toilet (connected to sewerage system) 162788 1651 1772 31237 632

Flush toilet (with septic tank) 19174 62 51 5642 60 Chemical toilet 15732 16 2 70 1

Pit latrine with ventilation (VIP) 94393 107 33 146 24

Pit latrine without ventilation 584290 542 83 237 84 Bucket latrine 8117 22 1 49 2 None 266270 268 27 389 27 Not applicable 0 0 0 0 36

Botswana Botswana’s road network is well developed and tarred roads form a link between all major population centres and neighbouring countries. Botswana’s main railway line, which runs for 640 km from Zimbabwe to South Africa, carries the country’s bulk exports such as copper, nickel, beef, soda ash and salt. The country also has several airports and airfields though air services are restricted as a result of low demand. Daily flights take place between Johannesburg and Gaborone, as well as between Cape Town and Maun. Links also exist with Namibia and Zimbabwe. In terms of telecommunications, Botswana’s system is fully digital and regulated by the Botswana Telecommunications Authority, which has received international recognition as a model regulator. Internet access




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remains low (65 000 in 2005), though most leading private companies and government agencies have their own websites (EIU, 2007b). Over the past few years, energy provision in Botswana has increased by an average of 10% a year. According to the Ninth National Plan (April 2003- March 2009), the government of Botswana aims for 70% of the population to soon have access to electricity. Approximately 70% of power is supplied by the state-owned Botswana Power Corporation which imports power from the Southern African Power Pool (SAPP), and noticeably Eskom from South Africa. The remaining 30% is covered by the company’s only power station at Morupule. Given the current energy crisis in South Africa, the BPC is planning and overseeing the expansion of the Morupule power station. Plans are also in the pipeline to build a coal-fired power station in Mmamabula in eastern Botswana, which will export 70% of its electricity to South Africa. South Africa also supplies Botswana with refined oil, supplemented with a small supply from Namibia to the western part of the country (EIU, 2007b). Zimbabwe

In 1996 Zimbabwe had a well-developed infrastructure that includes a road network that comprised of 18,338 kilometres of roads, of which 8,692 were paved. The closest seaport is Beira in Mozambique Zimbabwe has a direct railway link with Zambia, which connects it to the Tanzanian port of Dar es Salaam through the Tazara railway. The railway system also connects Zimbabwe to the Mozambican ports of Beira and Maputo as well as 2 South African ports. It comprises 2,759 kilometres of track, of which 313 kilometres is electrified Zimbabwe has 2 state-controlled airlines and one international airport situated in Harare (Nations Encyclopaedia, n.d.). Zimbabwe Electricity Supply Authority (ZESA) has the sole responsibility for power generation and distribution. The search for national energy self-sufficiency in the early 1980s led to an emphasis on coal and other thermoelectric projects (78% of supply) and the hydroelectric power from the Kariba dam (22 %). Although the second stage of the Hwange thermal power station, commissioned in 1987, raised the total capacity to 2,071 megawatts (mw), supply has failed to keep up with demand, leading to imports from Mozambique and South Africa. All oil and gas is imported. A pipeline from Port Beira in Mozambique to Mutare which was built before the 1965 declaration of independence did not become operational until 1982, and was extended to Harare only in 1993. Ethanol, produced since 1980 from sugarcane, is blended with gasoline for domestic sale. Imports of fuel are monopolized by the National Oil Corporation of Zimbabwe (Noczim), which has been mired in scandals and run at a loss for several years, partly due to lack of authority to raise prices in line with the depreciation of the Zimbabwe dollar (Nations Encyclopaedia, n.d.).




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Zimbabwe's domestic communication system consists of microwave radio relay links, land lines, radiotelephone communication stations, fixed wireless local loop installations, and a substantial mobile cellular phone network. Internet connection is available in Harare and planned for all major towns and for some of the smaller ones. International communication is through satellite earth stations including 2 Intelsat and 2 international digital gateway exchanges (in Harare and Gweru). Zimbabwe's telephone system was once one of the best in Africa, but now suffers from poor maintenance with more than 100,000 outstanding requests for connection despite an equally large number of installed but unused lines. The Posts and Telecommunications Corporation PTC), despite investing heavily in the digitization of its network using fiber-optic technology, has failed to satisfy demand. By 1997 there were 212,000 telephone lines in use. In addition, there are about 20,000 fixed telephones with wireless local loop connections. There were 70,000 mobile cellular phones in 1999. The PTC has since lost its monopoly rights to cellular phone operators such as Eocene, which won the right to establish a cellular phone network in 1997 after more than 4 years of legal battles (Nations Encyclopaedia, n.d.).

6.3.3.4 Water, Land, Agriculture and Food Security

Limpopo River Basin Background Due to a combination of natural, political and social factors, significant changes in the way water resources are managed in the basin have been recorded. Earle et al., (2006:2) states that “The imposition of nation-states by colonial authorities in the nineteenth century changed the landscape by parcelling out natural and human resources to the newly created states irrespective of existing social and political realities. The dilution, and in some cases obliteration of the socio-political fabric resulted in severe economic disruptions for local populations based on agriculture. Decades of interventions aimed at improving agriculture of local populations have not yielded the expected results. Agricultural water use and agricultural production still remain low, despite the introduction of “appropriate” technologies. It can be argued that one of the reasons for this is the neglect of local level water institutions that might prove more efficient in meeting the needs of the local population”. Water Urban centres such as Gaborone, Francistown (Botswana), Pretoria, Johannesburg and Polokwane (South Africa) are major users of water resources of the Limpopo basin as they supply industries, power stations and municipalities. Juxtaposed to these urban centres are rural areas where water is used for domestic purposes, livestock watering and irrigation. The majority of the rural population relies on rain-fed agriculture




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for their livelihoods because of the semi-arid climate and extremely variable rainfall (Earle et al., 2006). Surface water resources in the Limpopo basin are now close to being fully committed by the upstream states (Conley, 1996). While the progressive declines in water availability since the 1980s prompted the construction of extensive inter-basin water transfer schemes in South Africa, these additional supplies of water have not been sufficient to fully meet the existing shortfalls. In Zimbabwe the Limpopo River tributaries have been developed to their full potential while both Botswana and South Africa are planning new water developments and the construction of new water storage dams (Carmo Vaz and Pereira, 2000). In the South African portion alone, water use exceeded the basin’s potential yield by 186 mm3 in 2000. Surface flows along the lower Limpopo River in Mozambique are extremely low for up to 8 months in a year, with zero surface flow for up to 3 or 4 months of this period; this was not the case before 1975 (Carmo Vaz and Pereira, 2000). Low flows in the lower Limpopo River in Mozambique have also resulted in an intrusion of saline marine waters into the groundwater aquifer located close to the mouth of the Limpopo River, hampering domestic and irrigation uses of this groundwater resource (Conley, 1996). Water Use The Limpopo River Basin, of which all the rivers in the Limpopo WMA are a part, is shared by South Africa, Botswana, Zimbabwe and Mozambique (DWAF, 2004). There are no water sharing agreements on the Limpopo as a whole, although there is an agreement between South Africa and Mozambique (formerly Portugal) relating to the Massinger Dam situated on the Olifants River, which is a tributary of the Limpopo River (DWAF, 2004). Land Utilization Most of the Limpopo WMA is too dry for dryland agriculture and there are limited surface water resources to support irrigation (DWAF 2004). Land use is therefore dominated by stock farming (mostly cattle) while there is an increasing tendency to replace this with game farming (DWAF 2004). Most of the WMA is still covered by natural vegetation and plantation forestry is very limited and as a land use covers only a very small portion of the total surface area of the WMA (DWAF, 2004). Agriculture and Food Security The rural population of about 8 million people living in the Limpopo River Basin face special challenges to make a living as it is a predominantly semi-arid area with little arable land and very low potential for agriculture.




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Food security is thus a constant problem. And around a million people currently rely on food aid (DWAF, 2004). The Limpopo River supports impressive mangrove vegetation and freshwater ecosystems that provide an important source of food and income for local communities. However, rapid urbanization and tourism development are causing widespread environmental degradation. Along vast stretches of the river, mangrove areas are being cut down for construction or cleared for agriculture. In addition, at the narrow coastal zone at the mouth of the river there is salt water intrusion at high tide which is affecting the quality of irrigation water, and raising soil salinity. The level of damage to the environment means that any attempt to rehabilitate irrigation infrastructure must work in parallel with the preservation and restoration of the riverine environment. As the potential for irrigated agriculture is limited, for the most part, increases in agricultural production need to be achieved through rain fed cropping systems (DWAF, 2004).

Mozambique

Water Mozambique has 104 identified river basins that drain the central African highland plateau into the Indian Ocean. The majority of the rivers have a highly seasonal, torrential flow regime, with high waters during 3-4 months and low flows for the remainder of the year, corresponding to the distinct wet and dry seasons. Groundwater potential is considerable and lies in the alluvial formations of the various rivers. Well yields in the Zambezi and Incomati basins are up to 70 000 m3/day. In Mozambique, 97.3 k m3 of surface water and 17 k m3 of groundwater are produced annually. Considering an overlap between surface water and groundwater of 14 km3/yr, the total internal renewable water resources are 100.3 k m3/yr. In addition, 116.8 km3 of surface water enter the country annually, of which 66 percent from the Zambezi River, and thus total actual renewable water resources become 217.1 km3/yr. The two main lakes are Lake Niassa (Lake Malawi) and Lake Chirua (Lake Chilwa), both of which are shared with Malawi. The total surface area of Lake Niassa is 30 800 k m2, of which 21 percent belong to Mozambique. Lake Chirua has an average total area of 750 k m2 of which no more than 29 k m2 are within Mozambique. In addition river to the two main lakes, there are more than 1 300 small lakes, 20 of which have an area of between 10 and 100 k m2. The total capacity of 27 dams with a height of 10 m or more is estimated at 64.5 k m3. This refers mostly to the useful reservoir capacity. The Cahora Bassa dam on the Zambezi River is the largest hydroelectric plant in southern Africa with an installed capacity of 2 060 MW and a useful storage capacity of 39.2 km3. In 1971, 583 small dams (of which 90 percent were for irrigation or livestock watering)




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were registered, with a total volume of 60 million m3. It is believed that most of them were destroyed during the war (UNFAO, 2005). Water Use Water use estimates for the year 2000 indicate a total water withdrawal of 635 million m3. The main consumer of water is agriculture, accounting for 550 million m3 (87 percent), followed by the domestic sector using 70 million m3 (11percent) and industry consuming 15 million m3 (2 percent). The main source of water in Mozambique is surface water. However, groundwater is utilized on a large scale in a number of urban centres for drinking water supply. Handpump-mounted boreholes and shallow wells are used throughout the country as the main source of drinking water in rural areas (UNFAO, 2005). Land Utilization Land is state property and can by no means be sold, alienated or mortgaged (República de Moçambique. Lei de Terras 1997). Land use is mainly rural, with pastureland dominating (around 56% of the land area) (BGS, 2002). It is estimated that 78% of Mozambique’s total area is covered by natural vegetation. The total cultivable land is estimated at 36 million ha equivalent to 45% of the total area of the country. Mozambique’s arable land is estimated at 5.43%; permanent crops 0.29% and other 94.28%. Arable cropping mainly takes place in the fertile Zambezi valley of north-central Mozambique. More than 80% of the labour force is employed in the agricultural sector and the main crops produced include cotton, cashew nuts, sugar cane, tea and cassava. Irrigation is mainly along the Zambezi River basin and water is taken almost exclusively from surface sources (mainly rivers) (BGS, 2002) Agriculture and Food Security Following the end of civil war and severe drought between 1992-3, the agriculture sector grew rapidly, data from the Famine Early Warning System records growth of about 26% from 1996-2002 (ECA, 2005). Agriculture, including livestock and forestry, accounts for a quarter of GDP (ADB/ADF, 2006) and the family sector of some 3,3 million farming units accounts for over 90% of the nation’s agricultural production (ROSA, 2006). The main food crops are maize, sorghum, millet, rice, cassava, cowpeas and beans. The main cash crops are cotton, sugarcane, cashew nuts, coconut, tobacco, tea and sunflowers (ADB/ADF, 2006). There has been growth in agriculture, but this is largely in the commercial sector. The area under cultivation has expanded at a rate of 2.4% per year due to: i) macroeconomic stability; ii) sector liberalisation; and iii) return of 3,2 million displaced to rural areas. “For subsistence farmers, increased yields are almost entirely the result of cultivating more land following the end of the war and higher productivity following the demise of collectivisation” (Vaux et al., 2006: 15). Of the total 36 million ha of land




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suitable for agriculture, only 20% is exploited by about 2,5 million peasants (ROSA, 2006). Around 75% of the cultivated area is taken up with food crops and the remaining 25% used for export crops such as cotton, cashew, copra, sugar cane and tobacco. Women account for 55% of the labour force in agriculture (ADB/ADF, 2006). A sector wide support programme for agricultural and rural development, PROAGRI (Programa de Investimento Publico Agrário) (Phase 1 1999-2004; Phase 11 2005-2009), and the Poverty Reduction Strategy and Plan (adopted in 2002) “have both established principles and priorities in respect to natural resource usage that are intended to ensure a reduction in the vulnerability and an improvement in the livelihoods of the rural poor” (Norfolk, 2004: 1). The aim of PROAGRI is to stimulate the agricultural production and commercialisation processes through 1) small scale farming; 2) commercial farming and 3) sustainable management of natural resources. Nevertheless, to date policies have not provided the necessary support to the small-scale farming sector and conflicts between the fostering of cash crops and food crops persist (ROSA, 2006). The National Strategy for Food Security is a programme aimed at promoting socio-economic development and meeting the fundamental needs of the population, with particular focus on the most vulnerable groups. In a recent report on ‘Attaining food and nutritional security in Mozambique’, ROSA (2006: 8) notes the following: “The reduced size of small-scale farmer’s plots and the increasingly low soil productivity results in a low volume of production, problems that are aggravated by the lack of use of agricultural techniques that could improve capacity and lack of access to and control over god quality seeds. Poor access to inputs, very limited coverage of agricultural extension services and little agricultural research further limit agricultural development”. It concludes, that in general “the State’s policies and strategies are so ineffective that they are not able to ensure sustainability of the agricultural system in all its components…This situation is aggravated by the occurrence of cyclical natural hazards” (Ibid).

South Africa

Water South Africa’s inland water resources consist of rivers, dams, lakes, wetlands and sub-surface aquifers. These water resources are allocated to 19 Water Management Areas (WMAs) across the country (DEAT, 2006). However because of the uneven distribution of water resources, water transfers between the WMAs are essential, both nationally and internationally. South Africa’s water requirements are mostly supplied by surface water supplies such as rivers and dams, for example South Africa has approximately 320 major dams which together has a total capacity of 32 400 million m3 (DEAT, 2006). However, the usable yield of the total runoff is considerably constrained due to the ecological reserve




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(approximately 20%), and even more so by sources of pollution (DEAT, 2006). Where surface water is inadequate South Africa can rely on its groundwater reserves. While limited because of the South African geology (mainly hard rock), groundwater contributes significantly to, in particular, the baseflow of perennial rivers along the eastern escarpment and northeastern parts of South Africa (DEAT, 2006). Water Use Much of South Africa’s groundwater is used consumptively. Agricultural irrigation accounts for approximately 62% of South Africa’s total water requirement while urban requirements only come to 23% (remaining 15% used by other sectors. Research shows that groundwater use has increased considerably between 1950 and 2004 (from 584 million m3 to 1 770 million m3) (DEAT, 2006). Land Utilization Due to the irregular rainfall and intermittent droughts experienced in certain parts in South Africa, the country’s land surface is susceptible to degradation. It is estimated that almost 18% of South Africa’s natural land cover is transformed mainly by cultivation (10.46%), degradation of the natural cover (4.47%), urban land use (1.51%) and forestry (1,41%) (DEAT, 2006). South Africa’s land surface is mainly used for agriculture and subsistence livelihoods (80%), however only 11% has actual arable potential while the remaining 69% is used for grazing (DEAT, 2006). Stock owners in the Limpopo Province of South Africa operating on communal grazing lands with restrictions on the use of the common resource, earn more net farm income and invest in watering points than farmers operating on unregulated communal land (Anim and van Schalkwyk, 1996 cited by Stroebel, 2004). This illustrates important implications for managing livestock production in communal grazing areas (Stroebel, 2004). Agriculture and Food Security Information on agriculture and the agricultural sector in South Africa shows that 80% of South Africa’s land is used for agricultural purposes, this is about 100 million ha (Stats SA, 2006a). Linked to this is the number of people who depend on agriculture for their livelihoods, a total of 6 million. Of these 6 million people, approximately 1 million are employed as farm workers. In addition, the agricultural sector provides employment to approximately 1.3 million households in South Africa. The South African agricultural economy is dual which is made up of a fairly well developed commercial sector, and primarily in the rural areas, a subsistence oriented sector (RSA, 2008). About 12% of South Africa’s surface area can be used for crop production. High-potential arable land comprises only 22% of total arable land. Some 1.3 million hectares (ha) are under irrigation (RSA, 2008).




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Almost 50% of South Africa’s water is used for agricultural purposes. The availability of water is generally acknowledged as the most limiting factor for the agricultural production of the country primarily because of the uneven distribution of rain (RSA, 2008). As a result of this uneven distribution of rainfall, the agricultural activities range from intensive crop production and mixed farming in winter-rainfall and high summer-rainfall areas, to cattle-ranching in the bushveld, and sheep-farming in the more arid regions (RSA, 2008). Owing to its geographical location, some parts of South Africa are prone to drought (RSA, 2008). Major import products include wheat, rice and vegetable oils. For the past five years, agricultural exports have contributed on average about 8% (7,6% in 2004) of total South African exports (RSA, 2008). The largest export groups are wine; citrus; sugar; grapes; maize; fruit juice; wool; and deciduous fruit such as apples, pears, peaches and apricots (RSA, 2008). Other important export products are non-alcoholic beverages, food preparations, meat, avocados, pineapples, ground-nuts, preserved fruit and nuts, hides and skins, and dairy products (RSA, 2008). In July 2002 the South African government approved the Integrated Food Security and Nutrition Programme (IFSNP). The programme aims to achieve physical, social and economic access to safe and nutritious food for all South Africans (RSA, 2008). Its goal is to eradicate hunger, malnutrition and food insecurity by 2015. In particular, the IFSNP recognises the broad regional food-security framework that the Regional Indicative Sustainable Development Programme highlighted, and that prompted South Africa to respond to the humanitarian appeal by the UN World Food Programme for emergency relief in the SADC region (RSA, 2008). In the Limpopo Province of South Africa, agriculture is the main source of income, with maize as the primary staple crop. Cattle farming predominate in the arid and semi-arid western and northern parts. Livestock and livestock-related products account for more than 50% of the agricultural income of the province (Oni et al., 2003 cited in Stroebel, 2004). Smallholder, resource-poor mixed farming is the most prevalent agricultural system. Large scale, commercial farming enterprises, mostly owned by white farmers, produces most of the agricultural goods in the province. Smallholder farms are usually located in the former homelands and cover approximately 30% of the province. These farms are characterised by low levels of productivity and small farm holdings of approximately 1.5 ha per farmer. Production is primarily for subsistence purposes with little marketable surplus (Oni et al., 2003 cited in Stroebel 2004). The agricultural sector in the province is the largest employer outside of government, with approximately 122 000 people living and working on farms (Stroebel, 2004).




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Eighty-six smallholder cattle farmers in the Nzhelele District of the Makhado Municipality of the Vhembe District in the eastern part of the Limpopo Province were surveyed by Stroebel (2004). This area was part of the former Venda homeland. According to this study, “Family size is the single most important influence on number of cattle and goats kept among all factors studied. The most important factor limiting the total amount of land cultivated and the area planted with maize is farm size. Farm size has no relationship with number of cattle or sheep raised, as livestock predominantly depends on communal grazing. Due to adequate availability of communal grazing land area, with no restriction on access, farmers kept as many animals as possible. As the farm sizes were very small, animal traction (to a small extent), mainly supported by family labour, played a prominent role in land cultivation (2004:146). Botswana

Water Botswana is a semi-arid, land-locked country located in the heart of Southern Africa, where there are distinct wet and dry seasons and drought is endemic. Rainfall varies widely throughout the country, averaging less than 250 mm/year in the southwest up to about 600 mm/year in the northeast. Surface water resources are limited in the country, with most rivers flowing for only a few days per year. These sand rivers have significant stores of groundwater in their beds. It is estimated that approximately 80% of the humans and animals in Botswana are dependent on groundwater (Moyo et al., 1993 cited in Swartuk and Rahm, 2004). Low rates of surface runoff and groundwater recharge are typical. Even during the wet season stream flow is not continuous, with internal rivers only flowing for 10-75 days a year. The Okavango Delta in the northwest is a large inland delta including about 6 000 km2 of permanent swamp and between 7 000 and 12 000 km2 of seasonally inundated swampland. Together with the Chobe and Linyati rivers, it accounts for 95 percent of all surface water in the country. An estimated 11 km3 of water flows every year into the delta, but most of it is lost through evapo-transpiration. There is a spillway from this area to the Chobe River in the Zambezi basin in periods of high floods. Internal renewable surface water resources are estimated at 0.8 km3/year (Moyo et al. 1993 cited in Swartuk and Rahm, 2004). Most dams on rivers have been constructed for urban water supplies or for livestock watering. The major dams are constructed on the larger rivers and some have required international agreements. It is considered that most ‘good’ sites for larger dams have now been used or are reserved for large water supply dams (for urban and industrial water uses), which are




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expected to be constructed in the near future. The smaller dams on smaller rivers currently suffer from sedimentation and irregular stream flows, making planning for use by irrigation difficult. Many earth dams built for livestock watering and irrigation (over 240 since 1970) have also suffered from lack of maintenance and many are now not in use (Moyo et al., 1993 cited in Swartuk and Rahm, 2004). Groundwater resources are used throughout the country for livestock and domestic watering and for small areas of irrigation. These resources are geologically old and quality can be affected by salinity and concentrations of fluorides, nitrates and other elements. Current groundwater recharge rates are equivalent to about 1.7 km3/year.Considering an overlap of about 0.1 km3/year between surface water and groundwater, the total internal renewable water resources are 2.4 km3/year. In most parts of Botswana groundwater abstraction effectively mines a limited resource. It is estimated that over 21 000 boreholes exist in the country, but many are not used and capped. Just over half of the registered boreholes in the country are owned by the government, the remainder by private individuals. Although the amount of water potentially available is large, it is relatively expensive to exploit and it is saline in many places. Aquifers also have to be protected carefully from contamination, mainly caused by faecal material from septic tanks and pit latrines (Moyo et al., 1993 cited in Swartuk and Rahm, 2004). Water Use Human settlements are consuming an ever-increasing share of water in Botswana. Of the 113 million m3 of water consumed in 1992, irrigation and livestock accounted for 47 percent, domestic use 34 percent and industries 20 percent. In 2000, water withdrawals increased to 194 million m3, including 80 million m3 for irrigation, forestry, livestock and wildlife (41 percent), 79 million m3 for urban use, villages, settlements and small industry (41 percent) and 35 million m3 for mining and energy (18 percent). By the year 2020, total water demands are expected to reach 336 million m3 annually and the domestic sector and small industry are expected to account for 52 percent of total consumption. Groundwater supplies two-thirds of the water consumption. Rural areas depend on groundwater resources. Water from dams, rivers and other surface water sites currently contributes about one-third to national water consumption. Four large dams supply some of the urban areas with water. A pipeline of 360 km, from the dams of Letsibogo to the water plant of Mmamshia, has been constructed in order to supply water to the capital city of Gaborone. A pilot project using wastewater for irrigation is being developed in Glen Valley close to Gaborone (source). Botswana is a water scarce country and has relatively limited surface water resources (constituting 35% of the country) with the few perennial




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rivers that flow into the country (the Okavango, the Zambezi-Chobe and the Limpopo) springing from external sources. The rest of the streams that run across the country are ephemeral. Temporary surface water may also be held in natural pans for a short period of time after the rains, and this source of water, in addition to other ephemeral water sources, may be used to meet up to 20% of livestock water requirements (Arntzen et al., 1999). Despite the limited availability of the surface water supply to the country, this nonetheless provides 90% of the water that is used in urban areas. As a result of limited rainfall, limited surface water resources and regular droughts, the country relies considerably on groundwater sources, which have an uncertain recharge rate, supplying water to both rural and urban populations. The government therefore takes an active role in developing and managing the resource. The total estimated runoff for the country is 705 Mm3 or 1.2 mm which is extremely small compared to other countries with a similar climate (e.g. Australia) and emphasises the meagre surface water resources that Botswana has (Bee Pee and SRK Consulting, n.d.). The single biggest challenge in Botswana as far as its water supply is concerned is the question of where water will be provided from beyond the year 2020 when all surface water sources originating in Botswana will most likely have been committed. The Botswana government is currently attempting to maximise the exploitation of internally available resources but will most likely eventually have to look at regional sources for its water supply (Arntzen et al. 1999). A particular problem that is presenting itself to the Botswana government is that as demand increases, available supply decreases. This statement specifically pertains to groundwater resources, which are being depleted both due to over-utilisation as well as low recharge rates. In the face of these difficult circumstances, it has become the central goal of government policy to achieve the sustainable use of water resources. However, given a series of cultural traditions and political constraints, as well as bureaucratic and managerial weaknesses, the current system of water allocation remains unsustainable in the long run and inefficient in the short term (Swatuk and Rahm, 2004). As far as water demand is concerned, this is increasing both due to increased wealth and economic activity and comes from a variety of sectors including human use, agriculture, livestock and wildlife (tourism). Water use can be divided in consumptive and non-consumptive categories and is attributed to several sectors: Human use is coupled with increased rates of urbanisation and a higher standard of living;

• Tourism places both consumptive and non-consumptive use demands on natural resources, for instance water and wildlife during hunting safaris;




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• Livestock increasingly compete with wildlife for limited water resources in the continuing wildlife-livestock conflict;

• Agriculture is of course a primary consumer of water, but economic returns remain marginal;

• Mineral and energy production are heavy users of water yet, unlike agriculture, contribute significantly to the economy; and

• International demands pose a concern for water in Botswana as all perennial surface water resources in the country are shared international watercourses (Swatuk and Rahm, 2004).

Land Utilization In Botswana, communal land is the most common form of land tenure. In eastern Botswana, the majority of the population derive their livelihood from rainfed subsistence farming, combined with livestock keeping and the utilization of a variety of natural produce (Silitshena & McLeod, 1989, pp. 79-86 cited by Dahlberg, 2000). The official view for many years has been that this land use has resulted in increased land degradation, and a number of policies have been introduced to halt this process. As regards tenure, these have advocated the privatization of land use, such as the establishment of fenced commercial cattle ranches with exclusive grazing rights, to promote a more sustainable land management (Botswana, 1975; Sandford, 1980 cited by Dahlberg, 2000). During the past few decades it has been recognized that these privatization ventures have not had the envisaged positive effects (Botswana, 1991a; White, 1993 cited by Dahlberg, 2000). However, the official view is still that ‘the uncontrolled management of communal grazing is not only unproductive but has led to unprecedented range degradation’ (Botswana, 1991b, p. 10 cited by Dahlberg, 2000), and the debate about the rationale of communal land-use practices is still continuing (Peters, 1987; Okoth-Ogendo, 1998 cited by Dahlberg, 2000). Agriculture and Food Security The contribution of agriculture to the economy has declined drastically and now only represents about 5.52% of GDP. The government, however, continues to look for ways to develop this sector – upon which many rural households still depend. Botswana is prone to periods of severe drought as is evident in the fact that between 1999 and 2007 only 2000 was a year in which there was no drought; this of course impacts negatively on the agricultural sector. In order to ensure that drought does not lead to famine, the government runs relief programmes. Most of the agricultural sector is at best marginal and is currently also in general decline because many farm workers have migrated to the country’s urban areas. The main component of Botswana’s traditional and modern agricultural sectors is livestock, and in particular cattle. The numbers of livestock in Botswana have decreased considerably and farmers have complained that the Botswana Meat Commission (BMC) has offered them inadequate prices




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and has not looked after their interested sufficiently. Food crop production, mainly maize, sorghum, millet and beans, provides less than one-third of the population’s consumption (EIU, 2007). Zimbabwe

Water Total internal renewable water resources have been estimated at 12.26 km3/year, of which 11.26 km3 are surface water resources, 6.00 km3 are groundwater resources. The overlap between surface water and groundwater resources has been estimated to be 5.00 km3. Zimbabwe is bordered to the north by the Zambezi River and to the south by the Limpopo River, both of which flow into Mozambique. The country consists of the following major river systems which form the basis of the seven river catchments the country has been divided into: Save, Runde, Mzingwane, Gwayi, Sanyati, Manyame and Mazowe. With the exception of the Save and Runde the other main rivers drain into either the Zambezi or Limpopo (UNFAO, 2005). The annual potential yield at 10 percent risk (resources in a dry year of a 10th year frequency) from all river basins in the country has been estimated to be 11.26 km3/year. This assessment excludes external surface water resources from such bordering international rivers like the Zambezi and Limpopo. Out of this potential yield and allowing for topographical constraints and disparities between locations of storage sites and regions where water is required, the estimated exploitable yield is 8.5 km3/year, of which 56 percent (4.8 km3/year) is already committed. This leaves 3.7 km3/year available for irrigation and other sectors. Dams are the core of significant progress towards the full development of the country’s water resources (UNFAO, 2005). The government has embarked on an aggressive large and medium-size dam construction programme in the country both for irrigation and other purposes. Total capacity is about 103 km3, but this includes 50 percent of Lake Kariba on the Zambezi River which is shared between Zambia and Zimbabwe and accounts for 94 km3 of this capacity. Not taking into consideration this shared dam, total capacity is thus about 9 km3 (UNFAO, 2005). The overall groundwater resource is small when compared to estimates of surface water resources, mainly because the greater part of Zimbabwe consists of ancient igneous rock formations where groundwater potential is comparatively low. The estimated groundwater potential is between 1 and 2 km3/year (UNFAO, 2005). Total internal renewable water resources have been estimated at 12.26 km3/year, of which 11.26 km3 are surface water resources, 6.00 km3 are




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groundwater resources. The country consists of the following major river systems which form the basis of the seven river catchments the country has been divided into: Save, Runde, Mzingwane, Gwayi, Sanyati, Manyame and Mazowe. With the exception of the Save and Runde the other main rivers drain into either the Zambezi or Limpopo. The overlap between surface water and groundwater resources has been estimated to be 5.00 km3. The estimated groundwater potential is between 1 and 2 km3/year (UNFAO, 2005). Zimbabwe experienced a severe dry spell during the 2006/07 cropping season which has been confounded by the devastating effects of the decade-long economic decline of the country. In particular, decline in production by the large-scale commercial agricultural sector has been dramatic as a result of the land reform activities. Half-way through the season the Zimbabwe Government declared 2007 a drought year, after the 2006/07 season was characterised by late rain and which was ineffective for planting. The entire season was characterised by dry spells and below-average soil moisture conditions with a gradient of decreasing soil moisture from the north of the country to the south and in this year, although some good rains fells in the northernmost provinces. In parts of the south, people had total crop failure for that season (FAO, 2007). Zimbabwe has been experiencing droughts of various magnitudes over the last 20 years and rainfall seems to have been declining over this period (Spong et al., 2005). Water resources in Zimbabwe are becoming progressively scarce with the increase in domestic, agricultural and industrial demands. Rivers provide for the bulk (90%) of the country’s water supply. River flows are highly seasonal and therefore assurance of supply from rivers is variable. The country therefore relies on dams to support a range of survival needs and economic activities. Lake Kariba provides opportunities for power generation, recreation and tourism and fisheries, the focus at Lake Chivero is on water supply and Lake Mutirikwi provides mainly for recreation. Groundwater supplies are limited because of the porous nature of the chrystalline basement rocks that underlie about 75% of the country (Spong et al., 2005). Water Use Total water withdrawal was estimated at 4.2 km3 in 2002. Agriculture is the greatest water user in Zimbabwe accounting for 79 percent of total water use (see Table 6). Agricultural water uses are for irrigation, fish farming and livestock watering. Irrigated agriculture will continue to dominate the water demands for Zimbabwe in the foreseeable future.




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Table 6. Water Resources and Withdrawals: (Earth Trends 2003).

ZIMBABWE Water Resources and Withdrawals

Internal Renewable Water resources (IRWR), 1977-2001, in cubic km Surface water produced internally 13 Groundwater recharge 5 Overlap (shared by groundwater and surface water) 4 Total internal renewable water resources (surface water + groundwater - overlap)

14

Per capita IRWR, 2001 (cubic meters) 1,078 Natural Renewable Water Resources (includes flows from other countries) Total, 1977-2001 (cubic km) 20 Per capita, 2002 (cubic meters per person) 1,530 Annual river flows: From other countries (cubic km) - To other countries (cubic km) - Water Withdrawals – 1987 Total withdrawals (cubic km) 1.2 Withdrawals per capita (cubic m) 131 Withdrawals as a percentage of actual renewable water resources

8.6%

Withdrawals by sector (as a percent of total) 2002 (FAO Aquastat) {a} Agriculture 79% Industry 7% Domestic 14% {a} Totals may exceed 100 percent due to groundwater drawdowns, withdrawals from river inflows, and the operation of desalinization plants

The surface water resources in the basin are intensively used for commercial and subsistence irrigation, industry, cooling of coal-fired power plants and for domestic water use in urban and rural areas. In addition to using river water directly, the relatively large rural population in the drier western and northern parts of the basin also makes extensive use of shallow groundwater resources via boreholes and hand-dug wells. Extensive coal, gold and platinum mining activities in the upper portions of the catchment in South Africa (particularly the Olifants and Crocodile-Marico sub-catchments) have been accompanied by large volumes of acidic and saline drainage, where contaminated water seeps out of underground mines or their waste disposal sites and enters surface water systems (Conley, 1996). The continued release of these contaminated waters into the headwater streams has resulted in progressive downstream contamination of surface water resources in the South African portion of the Limpopo basin. Additional mining developments are planned for the South African portion of the Limpopo basin and these are likely to exacerbate the current poor water quality experienced by downstream water users (Amaral and Sommerhalder, 2004). Surface water in Zimbabwe is usually of good quality for irrigation: generally conductivity is less than 500 micro siemens/cm. Groundwater on the other hand tends to be more variable in quality, with some being




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saline, sodic or saline sodic. Current knowledge about the quality of groundwater in the country is limited. Chemical analyses of water are done before the implementation of drip systems but are rarely done for surface and sprinkler systems. Poor drainage and salinity are not a major problem in irrigated areas in Zimbabwe, although it has been observed in some schemes under surface irrigation and it is normally associated with poor land levelling and poor water management or the use of poor quality irrigation water (UNFAO, 2005). Land Utilization Zimbabwe can be divided into 5 zones based on soil type and climate which in turn determine the type of economic activity. Regions 1, 2 and 3 are suitable for intensive crop cultivation and livestock farming while regions 4 and 5 are not optimal for crop farming but better suited for raising livestock on a large scale. The bulk of Mashonaland (west, east and central), Midlands and Manicaland Provinces fall under regions 1, 2 and 3, while Matabeleland (north and south) and Masvingo Provinces fall under regions 4 and 5. The three Mashonaland Provinces constitute the ‘bread basket’ of the country. Zimbabwe’s agricultural sector has historically produced exportable surpluses of maize and other food crops (UNFAO, 2007). Agriculture and Food Security Zimbabwe’s people have a high dependency on natural resources and thus socio-economic development is closely linked to the availability of and access to natural resources (Spong et al., 2005). Massive food production losses happened in and prior to 2007 (UNFAO, 2007). National cereal production is an estimated 44% down from 2007, resulting in a large national food deficit. Maize output is estimated to be 46% lower than last year and 13% lower than the year before. Many have lost their harvests and crops due to extended periods of below-average rainfall. Primary reasons for these declines are drought conditions, deteriorating infrastructure, especially for irrigation and unprofitable prices for most of the crops of which the market is government controlled. Cereal import requirements is estimated to be about 1.052 million tonnes, of which maize deficit accounts for about 813 000 tonnes (UNFAO, 2007). The purchasing power of households is very low due to hyperinflation which has surpassed 3 700%, which is greatly limiting to households in terms of buying available supplies particularly for lower- and middle-income households. In addition, because of the weakness of the local currency, the country’s ability to import supplies such as fuel and electricity is crippled. There are still some low level export earnings from tobacco and cotton, but even tobacco exports, the country’s main agricultural export commodity, hit an all-time low in 2006 (UNFAO, 2007).




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The combination of economic and climatic hardship is resulting in severe food insecurity in both urban and rural areas. The food insecurity is closely linked to performance in the agricultural sector. Historically, food insecurity is concentrated geographically in the rural areas of Matabeleland north (24%), Masvingo (20%) and Matabeleland south (20%) due to shortage of food and transport, unstable prices of most commodities and water and sanitation and health problems. Chronic poverty and the HIV/AIDS pandemic (1.6 million people infected) have further aggravated the severity of food security (UNFAO, 2007). Masvingo Province is mostly suitable for livestock rearing. Rainfall in this region is too low and too erratic even for drought-resistant crops. Maize, millet and lowland cash crops are grown in this region. Small grains like soya beans are grown in the commercial sector and sugar beans, ground nuts and sweet potatoes are grown in the communal areas. Key socio-economic limitations in Zimbabwe are (Spong et al., 2005)

• Low economic growth • High population growth and high rural densities • Increasing migration to urban areas • Increased pressure on the land • Food shortages • Unemployment • High rates of HIV/AIDS • Inadequate water supply, education and health facilities.

There is a general increase in the use of agrochemicals in the country due to the intensification of crop production. It is thought that the regular use of commercial levels of agrochemicals is an occupational risk for irrigation farmers and increases the risk of contamination of both surface water and groundwater resources. However, data on water analysis showing agrochemicals levels in natural water sources in Zimbabwe are not obtainable and it is thus difficult to establish the extent of pollution due to irrigated agriculture. In Zimbabwe the net effect on human health of irrigation development tends to be positive. There is an improvement of the nutritional status of the people both on the scheme and in the surrounding area. Indirectly, benefits are twofold: i) because of the economic progress resulting from irrigation, communities can afford better health care; ii) the upgraded infrastructure (roads, electricity, etc.) that accompanies irrigation ensures better basic health services such as child immunization, family planning and mother and child health. However, despite the net positive effect on human health, irrigation (especially surface irrigation) in the country is associated with an increased risk of malaria, schistosomiasis, enteric diseases like diarrhoea, agrochemical poisoning, skin and eye diseases (UNFAO, 2005).




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6.3.3.5 Socio-Cultural Environment Limpopo River Basement

According to a recent study done on the indigenous and institutional profile of the Limpopo basin (Earle et al., 2006) data show that the Limpopo Basin is predominantly inhabited by people speaking languages of the Bantu linguistic family. It is hypothesized that practices originally shared by groups with similar historic origin have taken different directions, depending on the socio-political systems the groups have experienced. The Ndebele, descendants of Soshangane, are the largest ethnic group within the basin, although at national level they constitute about 20 percent of the population. While most discussions on ethnic groups in Zimbabwe focus on the Shona and Ndebele, they ignore the variety of ethnic groups, particularly in the Limpopo Basin.

Mozambique

The Mozambican part of the Limpopo Basin is populated by three different ethnic groups, namely the Changana, the Copi and the Tshwa. Of these, the Changana and Tshwa are sub-groups of the larger Tsonga group (INGC et al. 2003 in Earle et al., 2006)). The Changana is the majority ethnic group within the Mozambique part of the basin. They populate the Western and Southern parts of Mozambique’s basin area that include the districts of Massangena, Chicualacuala, Massingir, Chigubo, Mabalane, Guijá, Chókwe, Bilene, Xai-Xai, Cidade de Xai-Xai. It also includes most parts of Chibuto. The Copi populates small areas of the Chibuto and the Panda districts and the Tshwa mainly lives along the eastern border of the basin in the Mabote and Funhalouro districts. They are also found in some parts of the Panda and the Massinga districts. A series of Bantu migrations during the early nineteenth century was responsible for the distribution of Tsonga sub groups in the Limpopo Basin (INGC et al. 2003 in Earle et al., 2006), following the expansion of the Zulu empire that were precipitated by a severe period of drought that began in the 1790s and led to widespread famine in 1830 (INGC et al. 2003 in Earle et al., 2006). The distribution of ethnic and language groups in the Mozambican part of the Limpopo Basin is reflected in Figure 3 below.




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Figure 3. The distribution of ethnic and language groups in the Mozambican part

of the Limpopo Basin (Source: INGC et al. 2003 in Earle et al., 2006). South Africa

South Africa describes itself as the “rainbow” nation due to its rich heritage and current melting pot of cultural diversity and people. The South African population consists of the following groups: the Nguni (comprising the Zulu, Xhosa, Ndebele and Swazi people); Sotho-Tswana, who include the Southern, Northern and Western Sotho (Tswana people); Tsonga; Venda; Afrikaners; English; coloureds; Indians; and those who have immigrated to South Africa from the rest of Africa, Europe and Asia and who maintain a strong cultural identity. A few remaining members of the Khoi and the San also live in South Africa. (Stats SA, 2007a). The Constitution of South Africa (RSA, 1996) makes provision for each citizen to have the right to use a language and to participate in the cultural life of their choice, but no one may do so in a manner that is inconsistent with any provision of the Bill of Rights. Each person also has the right to instruction in their language of choice where this is reasonably practicable (RSA, 1996). The Constitution recognises 11 official languages, namely Afrikaans, English, isiNdebele, isiXhosa, isiZulu, Sesotho sa Leboa, Sesotho, Setswana, siSwati, Tshivenda and Xitsonga. According to Census 2001 (StatsSA, 2001), isiZulu is the mother tongue of 23,8% of the population, followed by isiXhosa (17,6%), Afrikaans

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(13,3%), Sesotho sa Leboa (9,4%), and English and Setswana (8,2% each). The least-spoken indigenous language in South Africa is isiNdebele, which is spoken by 1,6% of the population. Although English is the mother tongue of only 8,2% of the population, it is the language most widely understood, and the second language of the majority of South Africans (RSA, 1996). The Constitution guarantees freedom of worship, and the official policy is one of non-interference in religious practices. Almost 80% of South Africa’s population follows the Christian faith. Other major religious groups are the Hindus, Muslims, Jews and Buddhists. A minority of South Africa’s population do not belong to any of the major religions, but regard themselves as traditionalists of no specific religious affiliation (RSA, 2008). Under the apartheid government of South Africa, the Limpopo Province had three homeland areas: Lebowa for the Sothos, Gazankulu for the Shangaans and Venda for the Vendas. People were forced to live in the homelands based on their ethnicity. Overcrowding in these former homelands led to soil erosion and the development of slums, with residents having almost no possibility of paid employment (Stroebel, 2004). Of the total population of 5,6 million people, 97.2% are African, 0.2% are Coloured, 0.1% are Indian and 2.6% are White (Stroebel, 2004). According to StatsSA (2001), the population of the Limpopo Province consists of the following ethnic groups distinguished by culture, language and race:

• The Northern Sotho (Sepedi): Approximately 57% • The Tsonga (Shangaan): Approximately 23 % • The Venda: Approximately 12 % • The Afrikaners: Approximately 2.6 % • The English: Approximately 5%

The distribution of language groups in North-Eastern South Africa, including the South African part of the Limpopo Basin is reflected in Figure 4 below:




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Figure 4. Distribution of language groups in North-Eastern South Africa, including the South African part of the Limpopo Basin (Source: Van der Merwe and Van Niekerk 2004 in Earle et al., 2006).

Botswana

Batswana groups dominate the population in Botswana and some estimates put the figure as high as 90%. The remainder of the population is made up of the Kalanga, who live in the north-east of the country near the border with Zimbabwe, the San (Basarwa or Bushmen), Herero (from Namibia), Whites (including some Afrikaner farmers in the north and east) and Asians (Economist Intelligence Unit, 2007). The major ethnic groups in the Botswana part of the basin are the Tswana, Kalanga, Basarwa, and Kgalagadi (Earle et al., 2006). The national language of Botswana is Setswana, but English is used as the official language of business, government and higher education and is widely spoken (EIU, 2007b). The distribution of the main language groups in Botswana is depicted by Figure 5 below (Earle et al., 2006).




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Figure 5. Distribution of ethnic and language groups in Botswana (Source: Department of Surveys and Mapping, Botswana 2001 in Earle et al., 2006)

The Tswana is the largest ethnic group and comprises more than half of the total population. Of the eight Tswana tribes, the groups present in the Limpopo Basin are (Earle et al., 2006) the

• Bakwena • Bangwato and • Bangwaketse.

The Kalanga (originally from Zimbabwe) are found on the Botswana/Zimbabwe border, and occupy the upper north-eastern part of the basin along the Shashe river. The Kgalagadi have been incorporated into the Tswana dom and live south-east Botswana. The Basarwa (or San Bushmen), traditionally hunter-gatherers, do not cultivate crop land, but may own some livestock for subsistence. They were assimilated by the other Tswana groups and today only a few Basarwa remain (Earle et al., 2006). Despite aiming for mono-culturalism there are eight self-administering tribal reserves that are recognized as Tswana tribal divisions and most Botswana nationals acknowledge membership in one of these eight tribal states. The states are:

• Tawana in the northwest

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• Ngwato in east-central areas • Kwena, Ngwaketse, Tlokwa, Malete and Rolong in the south-east

(Earle et al., 2006). Livestock rearing (as opposed to crop production activities) remains a significant cultural status symbol and source of rural livelihoods for the Batswana and often, poor villagers are herding livestock for well off community members that are living in towns and cities (Earle et al., 2006). A major cultural impediment related to water is “the fact that there is no general belief that water will run out. This combines with a sense that government will provide, an attitude that the ruling BDP has consciously cultivated during its long years of neo-patrimonial rule (Swatuk, 1997). As the population urbanizes along the eastern transportation corridor (the rain belt), and benefits from large-scale supply projects, drought conditions as experienced elsewhere in the country become other people’s problems. Moreover, as drought impacts livestock most seriously, and as majority cattle holdings are concentrated among elites, solutions are to be found in more boreholes, not fewer livestock. There is much rhetorical support for the concepts of sustainability, but serious policy implementation is limited. Clearly, there is need for an intensive education campaign targeting the public and government officials (Gabaake, interview, 2002). Various NGOs are engaged in consciousness-raising activities (Fritz, interview, 2002; Sekhute-Batungamile, interview, 2002)” (Swatuk and Rahm, 2004).

Zimbabwe

The Shona, primarily agriculturalists, is the largest ethnic group in Zimbabwe and settled in the country over 1000 years ago. The other major ethnic group, the Ndebele, are related to the Zulus and have established themselves in the Bulawayo region. There are about four times as many Shona as Ndebele in Zimbabwe (EIU, 2007c). While most discussions on ethnic groups in Zimbabwe focus on the Shona and Ndebele, they ignore the variety of ethnic groups, particularly in the Limpopo Basin (Earle, et al., 2006). This variety is depicted by Figure 6 below. The Ndebele live mainly in the south and west, which means for this project, the Ndebele would be the primary ethnic group to consider. White people make up about 0.5% of the total population.




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Figure 6. Distribution of ethnic groups in the Zimbabwean part of the

Limpopo Basin (Source: Hachipola 1998 in Earle et al. 2006).

6.3.4 Institutional Arrangements Various forms of institutions are involved in the management of natural resources. According to Earle et al., (2006) they can be categorized under three broad themes namely state, civil society and traditional institutions (Nemarundwe 2003 cited in Earle et al., 2006). For the purpose of this document the following categories will be used to discuss, namely

• regional institutional settings • current projects in the Limpopo Basin area and • water sector institutional settings

6.3.4.1 Regional Institutional Settings

For the purposes of this section, the following three regional institutional components are discussed as they are deemed relevant to the contents and purpose of the study. They are the SADC Food, Agriculture and Natural Resources Sector, the SADC Protocol on Shared Water Course




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Systems and a number of transboundary river basin agreements and commissions. The management of water resources in a sustainable manner is controlled by international treaties, protocols and policies. At regional level policies and agreements have been developed by SADC (e.g. Botswana, Zimbabwe, Mozambique and South Africa). Furthermore, every country has developed its own set of policies and legislation in relation to the management and control of water resources. The most important international treaties are (UNFAO, 2004):

• The Helsinki Rules on Shared Water • The SADC Protocol on Shared Water Course Systems • The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance

The SADC Food, Agriculture and Natural Resources Sector

Since 1980, SADC has implemented a programme of action covering cooperation in various sectors including food security, and hence developed a food security strategy (FSS). The main objective of the FSS is to ensure adequate food availability to meet the needs of individual households and the population of the region as a whole, and to ensure that the individual households have access to food. Over time, increasing emphasis has been placed on the demand side of the food security issue, focusing on household economies and vulnerable groups (UNFAO, 2004). The coordination of the Food Security Programme is the responsibility of the Food, Agriculture and Natural Resources (FANR) Directorate. The Regional FANR Coordination and Cooperation Programme provides the core financial and technical support for the processes of cooperation within SADC on all food security, agricultural development and natural resources development issues. The Regional Information System for Food Security is concerned with the generation and exchange of information relating to all aspects of food security, ranging from information about policies through socioeconomic data of economies to data concerning the nutrition of households is an essential prerequisite for decision-making across all the facets of the FANR sector. The main components of the programme are the following (UNFAO, 2004):

• Regional Early Warning System • Regional Remote Sensing Component of the Regional Early

Warning System • Regional Agricultural Potential Information System • Regional Food Security and Nutrition Information System • Regional Environmental Information System • Regional Food Security Database Project, including a market

information component




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• Famine Early Warning System (FEWS) implemented in collaboration with the United States Agency for International Development (USAID)

The SADC Drought Monitoring Centre (DMC) is charged with the responsibility of monitoring climate extremes, especially drought, in a timely manner with respect to their intensity, geographical extent, duration and impact upon various socioeconomic sectors, and of giving early warning for the formulation of appropriate strategies to combat the adverse effects of climate extremes. This contributes towards minimizing the negative impacts of climate extremes to the socio economic environment. The SADC Groundwater and Drought Management Project (SADC GDMP) is part of the Regional Groundwater Management Programme (RGMP) which has ten sub-projects, namely (UNFAO, 2004):

• Capacity building • Establishment of a regional groundwater information system • Establishment of a regional groundwater monitoring network • Compilation of a regional hydro geological map and atlas for the

region • Groundwater assessment of the Limpopo River basin.

The SADC Protocol on Shared Watercourse Systems in the Southern African Development Community

Since the mid-1990s there has been a noticeable shift within SADC countries away from bilateral cooperation towards greater regional and basin-wide cooperation – a move that reflects the prominence of water security on the national security agendas of most SADC states (Malzbender and Earle, 2007). Inter-state cooperation on water matters in southern Africa is now guided by the revised Protocol on Shared Watercourse Systems in the Southern African Development Community – the “SADC Protocol” (SADC, 2000) that was adopted in August 2000 and ratified by all states in 2003. The SADC Protocol promotes measures for the protection of the environment and prevention of environmental degradation from the utilization of shared watercourses. Amongst other issues, the protocol addresses cooperation aimed at harmonizing national water policies and legislation, collecting and sharing data and information, conducting surveys and studies, developing physical infrastructure, mitigating the effects of floods and droughts and, in general, the management of water resources for the mutual and equitable benefit of States that share these watercourses (Republic of South Africa, 2004: 149). The protocol is guided by three key strategic objectives of equity, efficiency and environmental sustainability.




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Management of shared river basins is an important aspect of regional integration, and this will increase in importance because of the anticipated effects of climate change (De Wit and Stankiewicz, 2006). In terms of the SADC Protocol (SADC, 2001), each country is responsible for improving the efficiency and rational use of water within their respective boundaries. Most SADC states have already implemented, or are in the process of implementing, laws, policies and strategies that are intended to manage freshwater ecosystems sustainability (Malzbender and Earle, 2007). The shared river basins in the SADC are indicated in Table 7 below:

Table 7: Shared River Basins in the SADC Region (Source: Pallet, J (ed) cited in SADC, 2005)

Shared River Basins in the SADC

Member Number Name of River Basin/State Basin

Botswana 4 Limpopo, Okavango, Orange-Senqu, Zambezi

Mozambique 9 Buzi, Incomati, Limpopo, Rovuma, Savé, Maputo, Pungue, Umbeluzi, Zambezi

South Africa 4 Incomati, Limpopo, Maputo, Orange-Senqu, Umbeluzi Zimbabwe 6 Buzi, Limpopo, Okavango, Pungué, Savé, Zambezi

Transboundary River Basin Agreements and Commissions

South Africa’s upstream position and economic domination of the SADC region enable it to maintain control over water flows in the rivers that drain its territory. Nevertheless, South Africa’s attitudes towards regional integration and the equitable sharing of water resources have undergone significant and positive developments since the introduction of a democratic government 1994. South Africa’s foreign policy with regard to the SADC region now reflects a commitment to close cooperation on diplomatic, economic and security issues, adherence to human rights, the promotion of democracy, and the preservation of regional solidarity, peace and stability (RSA, 2004). In keeping with this, the South African government has publicly committed itself to honouring the treaties and agreements that are in place and to continue to create confidence and mutual trust in the working institutions designed to give effect to these instruments (RSA, 2004). There are several treaties and agreements, as well as river basin organizations and commissions, which are now in place in the Limpopo. Data giving more information about existing treaties and agreements in the Limpopo Basin, taken from Turton (2004) and Ashton et al. (2005), are featured in Table 8 below:


UK


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Table 8. Treaties and Agreements in the Limpopo Basin (Source: Turton (2004) and Ashton et al. (2005)).

TREATIES AND AGREEMENTS IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN

In 1926 a general agreement between Portugal and South Africa was signed on the principles of best joint utilisation, negotiation and collaboration regarding data exchange, consultation and joint studies. This laid the groundwork for the subsequent development of other basin agreements in the region. A second water use agreement signed in 1964 by the two countries was a colonial agreement that spoke of rivers of “mutual interest”, although its focus was the Cunene River. A third formal agreement was signed in 1971 for the purposes of constructing the Massingir Dam in Mozambique, and which placed no restrictions on South Africa, despite recognising that the inflow to Massingir Dam would decrease as South Africa developed more dams in the future. Thus at the time of Mozambique’s independence in 1974 from their Portuguese colonisers, there were no agreements between South Africa and Mozambique on sharing water resources or the management of common river basins. After independence, Mozambique signed an agreement with Swaziland to share the waters of the Umbeluzi River basin, but it contains no mention of such key issues as the exchange of information, joint control of measuring stations or water quality at the border, neither does it impose regular meetings (Carmo Vaz and Pereira, 2000). For a variety of reasons, not least of which were the political conflicts plaguing the region, negotiations in the late 1970s with South Africa and Zimbabwe (Rhodesia at the time) developed very slowly and falteringly. The Tripartite Permanent Technical Committee (TPTC) was formalised between Mozambique, South Africa and Swaziland, (but which excluded Botswana and Zimbabwe) in 1983, the first basin-wide water regime in Southern Africa applying to the Incomáti. The purpose was to make recommendations on the management of the water shortages being experienced in the Limpopo, Incomáti and Maputo rivers at the time (Amaral and Sommerhalder, 2004). However, the outbreak of civil war in Mozambique seriously constrained that country’s capacity to deal with such issues. Negotiations were resurrected and in 1986 the first actual multilateral agreement signed by all Limpopo basin states brought about the Limpopo Basin Permanent Technical Committee (LBPTC) between Botswana, Mozambique, South Africa and Zimbabwe, the second basin-wide agreement to be reached in Southern Africa. It too failed, but in 1989 it was replaced by the upgrading of the 1983 bilateral agreement between South Africa and Botswana to the Joint Permanent Technical Committee (JPTC) on the Limpopo River basin. It is functioning well and has been responsible for the Joint Upper Limpopo Basin Study. The Joint Water Commission was signed in 1996 between South Africa and Mozambique relating to technical matters on all common (shared) rivers. In 2002, Mozambique, South Africa and Swaziland signed an interim agreement for the Incomáti and Maputo river basins – The Tripartite Interim Agreement for Cooperation on the Protection and Sustainable Utilisation of the Water Resources of the Incomáti and Maputo Watercourses – the so-called IncoMaputo Agreement. Malbender and Earle (2005: 15) note that the “IncoMaputo Agreement is currently the only one in the region that has advanced to a stage where it comprehensively covers basin management issues, ranging from water allocation between states, the development of water quality standards and information sharing requirements”. In 2003 the Limpopo Watercourse Commission (LIMCOM) was signed by South Africa, Botswana, and Mozambique. Zimbabwe has agreed to membership but not ratified, frustrating its establishment as a legal entity, although it is functioning as a co-ordinating body.




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6.3.4.2 Current Projects in the Limpopo River Basin Area

The Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park

On 28 November 2001 the Mozambican government designated an area of land within the Gaza Province stretching from Pafuri in the North and following along the Limpopo River to the East meeting the Elephants River as its southern border and the international border with South Africa to the West as Coutada 16. This area is to be integrated into the recently renamed Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park (TFCA), which includes the Kruger National Park in South Africa and Gonarezhou Park in Zimbabwe. Responsibility for the implementation of the park on the Mozambican side is shared by the Mozambican government under the Ministry of Tourism and the Peace Parks Foundation. The Great Limpopo will bring together some of the best and most established wildlife areas in southern Africa. The park will be managed as an integrated unit across three international borders. The establishment of the transfrontier park, measuring 35 000km² is the first phase in the establishment of a bigger transfrontier conservation area measuring almost 100 000 km² - the world’s greatest animal kingdom (Peace Parks, n.d.). Figure 7 depicts a map which indicates the size and location of the park.




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Figure 7: Map Showing the Parks (Source: Peace Parks, n.d.).

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The CGIAR Challenge Programme on Water and Food (CPWF) The CGIAR Challenge Programme on Water and Food (CPWF) is an international, multi-institutional research initiative with a strong emphasis on north-south and south-south partnerships (CGIAR, n.d). The initiative brings together research scientists, development specialists, and river basin communities in Africa, Asia and Latin America to create and disseminate international public goods (IPGs) that improve the productivity of water in river basins in ways that are pro-poor, gender equitable and environmentally sustainable. CPWF is working with many local partners to improve food security and maximize the use of available water. The programme is focusing on the areas of greatest poverty and encouraging equitable allocation of increasingly scarce water resources. If people can overcome their food security problems, they will be better able to manage their water resources, make decisions regarding land use and help plan for a sustainable future for the basin as a whole (CGIAR, n.d). The CPWF priorities in the Limpopo River Basin include (CGIAR, n.d.):

• Promoting sustainable agricultural development for poverty alleviation

• Facilitating greater cross-border cooperation and ensuring equitable inter-country and inter-sectoral water allocation

• Protecting and restoring areas of environmental degradation • Introducing technologies to optimize water use efficiency • Improving natural hazard forecasting, particularly drought and

floods Inter-basin and Intra-basin Water Transfers

A number of water transfer schemes have been developed or proposed in order to address the relatively severe water shortage in the Limpopo River Basin while maintaining the current emphasis on water supply management rather than water demand management. Transfers of water may be made from one sub-basin of the Limpopo River Basin to another, within one country or between countries. This is termed intra-basin water transfer. Water can also be transferred between the Limpopo River Basin and other basins, within one country or between countries. This is termed inter-basin water transfer. The Limpopo has four inter-basin transfer schemes and two intra-basin schemes. In South Africa, water is imported from the Usutu, Vaal and Komati Rivers to serve the high water quantity and quality demands of the power stations in the Upper Elephants River Basin. In addition, continued importing of water from the Orange and Vaal River system and greater reuse of return flows in the Crocodile River could create surplus water in the Crocodile River, which could then be exported to supplement the Mogalakwena, Mokolo and Elephants basins. However, these return flows affect the quality of the water, and it becomes increasingly important to manage the resulting water quantity and quality




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in an integrated way in order to prevent environmental impacts and to ensure compliance with other water user requirements (UNFAO, 2004: 46). The following section briefly describes the policies and institutions that each of the countries that constitute a part of the Limpopo Basin has in place as far as water management is concerned.

6.3.4.3 Water Sector Institutional Settings in the Limpopo Basin

Post-colonial independency for African countries “signalled a shift in the political relationship between governments and the traditional authorities, generally resulting in the further centralization of powers to the national government away from the traditional authorities. These developments took place at different times in the respective countries, as they became independent at different times” (Earle et al., 2006:29).

Mozambique: Water Policy and Institutions

Since the end of the civil war in Mozambique in 1992 and the election of a democratic government, there has been a more positive stance towards traditional governance structures. State institutions, especially in the rural areas are still weak. Although new laws and policies have been adopted to bring together customary structures, elected local structures and local state administration, the implications of the new policies are unclear and the relations between the different structures are often problematic. According to the National Water Directorate (DNA), the Mozambican government has recognized this problem and is in the process of promoting legislation that will clarify the rights and responsibilities of traditional leaders (Earle et al., 2006).

The water law was prepared and enacted in 1991. It is based on a river basin approach towards water management. According to the law, water is property of the State, as well as hydraulic structures of public interest. By law, the Ministry of Public Works and Housing is responsible for water management. The National Water Council, created in 1991, comprises the four different Ministries involved in water development: the Ministry of Agriculture, the Ministry of Energy, the Ministry of Industry, and the Ministry of Construction and Water, which chairs the Water Council. Its main function is to elaborate a national water management policy, and to monitor its execution (AMCOW, 2006). The National Water Directorate (DNA) is in charge of policy making and implementation, overall planning and management of the country’s water resources and the provision of water supply and sanitation services. It is one of the four Directorates of the Ministry of Construction and Water. Its objectives are to ensure the proper utilization of ground-and surface water




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resources. In addition to the DNA, several new institutions have recently been created, including a corporate public utility FIPAG, for 13 cities. DNA and some municipal corporations also supply water in urban areas, and there is also an independent regulator, CRA. With increased scope for urban private sector management, and systems for fiscal decentralization for rural water supply, new roles for the private and NGO sectors have also emerged. All of these have started to come together just as the MDG challenge is coming to the forefront of policy discussions (AMCOW, 2006). . The recently created Administraçaoes regional de agues (ARAs), which are basin authorities responsible for water development and management, have administrative and financial autonomy but report to DNA. The ARAs are also in charge of collecting hydrological information. The only ARA created by the end of 1994 is ARA-sul, in charge of the southern part of the country up to the Save river, where most problems of water management exist (AMCOW, 2006). The National Directorate for Agricultural Hydraulics (DNHA) within the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MADER) is the coordinating authority for activities relating to irrigation and drainage. It performs studies, executes agricultural hydraulics projects and supports smallholder irrigation development. It is the coordinating authority for activities relating to irrigation and drainage. Inside DNHA a programme was specifically created for small-scale irrigation (Programa nacional de irrigacao de pequena escala (PRONIPE)) (AMCOW, 2006). South Africa: Water Policy and Institutions

Since 1994 when the first democratically-elected government of South Africa came to power, the country has seen the enactment of new water laws and a new, comprehensive National Water Resource Strategy (Earle et al., 2006). This government put forward the Reconstruction and Development Programme which was based on the fundamental concept that people who are affected by decisions should take part in making those decisions (RSA, 2008). It set out five key programmes: meeting basic needs; developing our human resources; democratizing the State and society; building the economy; and implementing the Reconstruction and Development Programme. Water is an essential ingredient of each of these programmes (RSA, 2008). The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa was passed in 1996 and contains both the Bill of Rights and the framework for Government in South Africa. Two provisions of the Bill of Rights are particularly relevant to the management of water resources (RSA, 2008). These are sections 27 and 24, which state that:-




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“Everyone has the right to have access to (among others) sufficient food and water, and that the State must take reasonable legislative and other measures, within its available resources, to achieve the progressive realization of these rights. Everyone has the right to an environment that is not harmful to their health or wellbeing; and to have the environment protected, for the benefit of present and future generations, through reasonable legislative and other measures that prevent pollution and ecological degradation, promote conservation, and secure sustainable development and use of natural resources, while promoting justifiable economic and social development”.

This has provided the incentive for the government to develop the National Water Policy for South Africa (1997) which created a regulatory framework within which water services could be provided. Schedule 4 of the Constitution vests the responsibility for water and sanitation services in local government. National government, however, is responsible for the regulatory function; and the National Water Act (1998), which aims to ensure that water resources are protected, used, developed, conserved, managed and controlled in a sustainable manner, for the benefit of everyone in South Africa (RSA, 2008)

In order to achieve what has been proposed in these documents, the government has restructured the department which is now known as the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry. Its main functions include (RSA, 2008):

• Establishing catchment management agencies (CMAs) to perform water-resource management functions currently performed by the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry’s regional offices

• transferring water-service delivery and operations to water-services authorities (WSAs).

The department remains focused on the phased implementation of the National Water Act, 1998 (Act 36 of 1998), with a particular emphasis on implementing a new organizational structure, which includes (RSA, 2008):

• establishing the National Water Resource Strategy (NWRS), which will set out the procedures, guidelines and overall strategy for managing water resources

• developing and testing a strategy for compulsory water-use licensing to facilitate equitable access to water resources for historically disadvantaged individuals

• enhancing water-use efficiency • ensuring compliance with dam-safety • developing regulations and enhancing public safety at water-

resource installations




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• investigating and implementing appropriate institutional arrangements for the optimal management of the Working for Water (WfW) Programme

• building national capacity to monitor the state of water resources, so that accurate information is used in decision-making about the use and management of water resources

• creating the National Water Resource Infrastructure Agency (NWRIA) to manage and develop national infrastructure.

At present, “there is no explicit formal recognition of customary water management structures in the National Water Act and there are in practice no vehicles for integrating customary and statutory water management structures into a comprehensive water management system” (Earle et al., 2006:34). Zimbabwe: Water Policy and Institutions

The Water Act (1998) reformed the water sector to ensure a more equitable distribution of water and stakeholder involvement in the management of water resources. According to the legislation, water cannot be privately owned, and the “priority date water right system” has been replaced by water permits of limited duration which will be allocated by Catchment Councils. Pollution of water is an offence and the “polluter pays” principle applies (UNFAO, 2005). The Zimbabwe National Water Authority Act (1998) led to the establishment of ZINWA, a parastatal agency responsible for water planning and bulk supply. ZINWA plans and manages water resources on a catchment basis and involves all stakeholders. Other responsibilities include the management of the water permit system, operationalization of water pricing, operating and maintaining existing infrastructure and executing development projects. ZINWA works with seven river catchment councils to which it will devolve responsibility for managing river systems and enforcing laws and regulations at the local level (UNFAO, 2005). Several attempts have also been made to formulate an irrigation policy for the country as evidenced by the writing of the Derude policy paper on small-scale irrigation schemes (1983) and the FAO irrigation policy and strategy document (1994). However neither of these documents has been formally endorsed by the government as policy on irrigation development. National policies and objectives for the agricultural sector are set out in Zimbabwe’s Agricultural Policy Framework (ZAPF) 1995-2020. ZAPF clearly states the government’s policy on water resources and irrigation development. Specific national policy objectives include:




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• Growth in the irrigated area particularly in the smallholder sector with minimal negative impacts on the environment and human health

• Equitable allocation and efficient use of scarce water resources • Establishment of a water pricing structure which is consistent with

cost and social efficiency • Establishment of an effective institutional structure • Implementation of drought mitigating strategies.

According to Swatuk (2002 in Earle et al., 2006) the traditional authority systems tend to be strong forces in resource management and local-level decision making. People respect their indigenous/traditional institutions more than the formal state institutions and they subscribe to them for all issues of their lives, of which water is one (Earle et al., 2006). Botswana: Water Policy and Institutions

Botswana is characterized by a healthy economy, the growth of which has, however, affected different parts of the population in different ways. Water management in Botswana thus has to take into account both increased economic prosperity, but at the same time realize that this is predictably accompanied by higher income differentials and inequalities. Given that the healthy economic situation in Botswana has enabled the government to develop water supply facilities and increase accessibility to water, it is imperative that the concerns of disadvantaged groups, including female-headed households, be taken into account (Arntzen et al. 1999). Botswana is committed to the sustainable management of natural resources, which, of course, include water. This is evident in various policies and legislation, as well as the Vision 2016, according to which Botswana is aiming to achieve sustainable economic growth and development by 2016. Other areas of importance which the Vision Statement focuses on are sustainable resource use, sustainable wildlife management (for the benefit of local communities while at the same time taking into account the environment) and measures to limit pollution (Mpotokwane and Keatimilwe, n.d.). In terms of water management, a good working relationship was established between the colonial government and traditional leadership through the drilling of boreholes to provide water for the inhabitants of the land and for the watering of livestock, which is an important livelihood activity for natives (and the settlers) (Earle et al., 2006). There is an absence of intact local level traditional leadership in water management. The post-‘colonial’ government has changed the role of




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traditional leadership in an effort to improve water supply. This was done through the Tribal Land Act of 1970 and Water Act of 1968 that transferred land and water administrative powers from traditional leaders to Land and Water Apportionment Boards, respectively (Earle et al., 2006). The first regulation pertaining to water use in Botswana was passed in 1967 in the form of the Water Act, and this took place concurrently with the establishment of the Department of Water Affairs. The Department has ultimately been placed within the Ministry, Energy and Water Affairs, with water scarcity being considered the single largest limiting factor for national development and securing an adequate supply becoming the central feature of the evolving water policy. In essence Botswana water policy reads as follows: water resources belong to all and are controlled by the state, although it has delegated the power to issue water rights to the Department of Water Affairs and the Water Apportionment Board (land boards are responsible for issuing certificates of land rights). The Water Act makes provision for existing water rights to be suspended in the event of a drought or when water is required for public purposes. In addition, the Act provides penalties for pollution and for altering and interfering with water flow, as well as requirements to dispose of wastewater with minimal pollutants (Bee Pee and SRK Consulting, n.d.). The Water Apportionment Board (WAB) is now responsible for granting rights to water and for managing issues related to water. Individuals are however still allowed to drill boreholes on their private properties without seeking a right to do so. Under the 1968 Water Act, the WAB can revoke water rights that are not utilized by the holders of the rights (Earle et al., 2006). In 1974, the government established a policy through which the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) could rehabilitate and build small earth dams and provide productive water for livestock watering, irrigation and fishing to many of the rural poor, especially in the Limpopo Basin. The intention of this policy was to devolve greater water resources management to syndicate dam users, mainly to foster ownership and sustainability reminiscent of pre-colonial times. The Small Dams Project has however been characterized by mismanagement and inadequate control regarding use of the water by farmers (Ministry of Agriculture 2003 in Earle et al., 2006). Related issues such as maintenance of dam infrastructure, water rights and duties are still unclear for the most dam groups which have affected the use and maintenance of these water resources. It is also poses threats to rural village food security and overall poverty alleviation (Earle et al., 2006). The Ministry of Minerals, Energy and Water Affairs plays a primary part in the Botswana water sector. In terms of groundwater management, there are two departments that play an important part in the ministry: these are the Department of Water Affairs (DWA) and the Department of Geological




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Services (DGS). There are also other government departments that are also involved in the groundwater sector. They are the Ministry of Health, the Department of Irrigation (Ministry of Agriculture), the Department of Local Government and Development (Ministry of Local Government, Lands and Housing), and the District Water Departments under the District Councils. Water is supplied to Gaborone, Francistown and several other towns and large villages by the Water Utilities Corporation, a parastatal corporation which operates several wellfields. The largest private groundwater users are the Jwaneng and Orapa diamond mines and the BCL copper-nickel mine. Many private boreholes are operated by individuals or syndicates for livestock watering throughout the country (Bee Pee and SRK Consulting, n.d.). Guiding present day policy is the National Water Master Plan (NWMP) of 1991 which focuses on supply-side interventions to increasing demands. In terms of augmenting supply, the government has developed significant human and technical capacity in exploiting both surface- and groundwater resources. The government is also concerned with exploring the utility of new technologies and/or approaches to increasing water supply and is furthermore concerned with the question of improving water quality. The government also considers controlling demand and improving both current use practices and forms of delivery as important ways to increase supply. A number of possible Water Demand Management policies are currently being considered in Botswana. These include: rainwater collection, storm water run-off diversion and collection, water-efficient appliances in households, industries and agriculture etc. The major problem in this regard though is that the government’s to the actual implementation of these measures is not consistent or well developed and that serious consideration to them is only given in conditions of severe drought. It appears that a possible reason for such an approach may be fact that the ruling BDP seeks to stay in favour with the electorate and this adopts a patrimonial approach to “public goods”, including retaining water prices far below the accepted operating and maintenance costs. This contradicts both regional and global trends as well as stated government policy in support of full cost recovery (Swatuk and Rahm, 2004).

6.4 Task 1.4: Analysis of Baseline Information

This activity has involved the careful evaluation of all data that has currently been gathered and compiled on each of the two proposed Pilot Areas. Data have been divided into exclusively groundwater data, data pertaining to other biophysical aspects of the areas and socio-economic, socio-cultural and institutional data.




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6.4.1 Groundwater Assessment

The assessment will focus on feeding data into the Groundwater Potential Matrix (Section 6.5.2.1), i.e. aquifer saturated thickness, size of the aquifer, type of the aquifer, transmissive properties and typical borehole yield as well as the water supply issues of coverage and suitability of abstraction point. In addition it will look closely at sustainability indicators, in particular what is the past performance of individual sources during times of water scarcity, the appropriateness of the engineering design of the abstraction facility for the conditions and if the source is located in a favourable geological position.

The assessment will also review the hydrogeological setting of the Pilot Areas and the respective Nodal Points. This is being accomplished by inspection of regional and sub-regional hydrogeological assessments, where they exist, and by analogy to similar, documented areas where they do not. Prevailing patterns of rainfall are also being inspected to identify trends such as the significant decline in rainfall recorded at Harare since the 1940s, and to examine the implications of such changes in climate on the security of the groundwater resources. Existing drought coping strategies will be examined to determine pointers towards the more sustainable water sources, albeit usually unprotected sources. These may include sand river dug outs, well deepening, lowering of borehole pumps etc. A key overall objective of the assessment is to identify what strategies could be developed and implemented to lessen the hardship of drought for the rural communities.

6.4.2 Biophysical Assessment

During the Inception Phase of the project little specific information relating to the biophysical environment in the two Pilot Areas has been acquired or identified. It is thus intended that this aspect of the data collection, compilation and evaluation be continued during the Phase 2 activities, as it is assumed that more specific information will become available as a result of the proposed Pilot Area field surveys. The biophysical data assessment will then subsequently identify specific ecosystem dependence on groundwater in the Pilot Areas, particularly in the proposed Nodal Points, and the impact of increased or more variable future groundwater usage during drought may have on a temporal and/or seasonal basis. Ecosystems of especial concern include wetlands and riparian fringe ecosystems, although other environments such as groundwater dependent woodlands, spring/seepage systems and pans that frequently rely on shallow alluvial aquifer resources which are already subject to the effects of climatic variations will be examined.




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6.4.3 Socio-economic, Socio-cultural and Institutional Assessment

The objective of this section of the report is to provide a brief assessment of the basin country’s socio-economic baseline information obtained for the Limpopo basin. It has to be accentuated that the socio-economic, socio-cultural and institutional information for the (local) pilot areas may slightly differ from the general country and regional profile. A full (local) pilot area socio-economic, socio-cultural and institutional analysis will be done during the second phase of the study, when data collection through the various methods explained below (and falsification of it) has been completed. The final analysis will be done to:

• detect consistent patterns within the data • state and interpret research findings

The results will be used to inform a decision making matrix (variables, ranking and comparison) to identify specific nodal points for drought intervention. The assessment of the baseline study of the different countries in the Limpopo Basin revealed that socio-economic conditions and socio-cultural and institutional arrangements vary considerably, “from a well developed and supported infrastructure in certain areas, to deep rural areas with only the minimum levels of services in terms of basic human needs” (CSIR, 2003:23). These conditions are summarized in Table 9 below:

Table 9: Socio-Economic, Socio-cultural and Institutional assessment in the Pilot

Study Countries

Country Variable Mozambique South Africa Botswana Zimbabwe Area 800,000 km² 1 219 090 km2 581 730 km2 390 757km2

Climate Tropical to sub-tropical Sub-tropical Sub-tropical Subtropical

Total Population 20 366 795 47 900 000 1 680 000 11 635 000 Population in Basin 1 300 000 10 700 000 1 000 000 1 000 000 SADC GDP contribution (2002)

2.2 % 65.7% 3.1% 3.6%

HDI (2004) 0.390 0.653 0.570 0.491 Life Expectancy (2006) 42 yrs 50 yrs 49 yrs 42 yrs

Population aged 15-49 living with HIV/AIDS (%) end 2005

16.1% 18.8% 24.1% 20.1%

Infrastructure and Services Poor and inadequate Good Good Currently poor due

to low maintenance

Industry Glass, textiles Mining (diamonds, coal) iron and steel

Mining (diamonds, copper, nickel)

Mining on small scale (coal, gold)




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Country Variable Mozambique South Africa Botswana Zimbabwe Land Utilization Arable land Arable land Arable land Arable land

Agriculture Cotton, cashew nuts, sugarcane, tea, fruit, livestock

Corn, wheat, sugarcane, wool, livestock

Sorghum, maize, livestock

Tobacco, cotton, wheat, corn, livestock, sheep, goats

Socio-Cultural: Ethnic/language Groups living in Limpopo Basin Cultural Values

Changana, the Copi and the Tshwa Livestock, especially cattle - cultural value

Northern Sotho, Tsonga, Venda, Afrikaans Livestock, especially cattle - cultural value

Bakwena,Bangwato Bangwaketse Livestock, especially cattle -cultural value Cultural impediment related to water

Shona, Ndebele Livestock, especially cattle - cultural value

Institutional

State institutions, especially in the rural areas are weak; rights and responsibilities of traditional leaders not clarified

No explicit formal recognition of customary water management structures in the National Water Act No vehicles for integrating customary and statutory water management structures into a comprehensive water management system”

There is an absence of intact local level traditional leadership in water management

The traditional authority systems tend to be strong forces in resource management and local-level decision making

6.5 Task 1.5: Definition of Methodology and Work Plan for Information Collection

Following the analysis of the current data set this important task identifies the knowledge and data gaps and defines the actual methodology of the primarily field orientated second stage of the programme. The methodology for information collection will be based on data collection, especially at local level in the 4 basin states (Phase 2) through quantitative as well as the qualitative methods of research. It will be essential for sociologists to collaborate with communities and their leaders so that their effectiveness at the onset of drought is automatically assured. In particular the methodology for more comprehensively defining the extent of the proposed Pilot Areas and for selecting the Nodal Points, in which subsequent field testing of drought alleviation groundwater schemes, will be determined and applied.

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The methods of collection of additional data in each of the Pilot Areas are also defined and a proposed data collection plan is set out. 6.5.1 Identification of Knowledge and Data Gaps

The identification of knowledge and data gaps will inform the consultation process with communities (and questionnaires) and guide Phase 2 data collection. As mentioned above, specific data gathering for the (local level) Pilot Areas will be essential as literature consulted, focuses either on country and basin profile or addresses specific issues that do not necessarily focus on detailed socio-economic baseline information of the different communities living in the pilot areas. Except for local information that will be collected to fill the gaps in the variables used in the socio-economic baseline study, some of the specific issues that will be focussed on to obtain information (matrix variables) are listed below:

Water • water resources (surface) status in the pilot areas • well and borehole status • the needs/criteria of the different communities re drinking water, water

for agricultural and livelihood purposes • institutional arrangements • how drought would play a role in these criteria • distance travelled to collect water • the role of gender and children in the provision / collection of water • water tankering • the perceptions and insights of people concerned on the adequacy of

water supply and quality and infrastructures / services • cultural practices Agriculture and Livestock • land use and land use systems (including institutional arrangements) • agricultural (livelihood) practices • cash income through agriculture • food transport • livestock numbers • cultural practices (impediments etc) Health • the number of clinic in the pilot areas • occurrence of stomach illness (statistics of rural clinics) c, and

continued dialogue with village representatives.




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6.5.2 Definition of Pilot Areas and Preliminary Nodal Point Selection Two Pilot Areas designated the Western Pilot Area [WPA] and Eastern Pilot Area [EPA] have been identified and geographically outlined as a result of the earlier study undertaken by CSIR. One of the principal tasks of Phase 2 of the project will be to closely examine the extent as well as the physical and socioeconomic characteristics of each of these areas in order to more effectively define the limits of the Pilot Areas, whilst at the same time identifying and selecting specific Nodal Points for more detailed study.

Such Nodal Points should be fully representative of the different physical and socioeconomic environments within the respective Member States that are included in each of the Pilot Areas as each Nodal Point will be subjected to various groundwater interventions and long term monitoring with respect to the principal objective of the project, namely the more effective utilisation and management of groundwater resources to alleviate the impacts of drought. It is anticipated that, if possible, at least one Nodal Point will be selected in each Member State in both the WPA and EPA, resulting in a total of at least 6 Nodal Points to be subjected to some form of intervention and long term monitoring. In order to successfully execute this critical task the Consultant would intend during Phase 2 to undertake a detailed data gathering exercise in both the WPA and the EPA, covering physical, socioeconomic and institutional data that will help define the Pilot Area limits and which will provide the essential information that can be used to identify the Nodal Points that will become the focus of the study in the longer term.

6.5.2.1 Development of Matrices

On the assumption that a sufficiently comprehensive and relatively evenly geographically distributed data set can be assembled for each Pilot Area by means of field surveys involving questionnaires, interviews, meetings and direct observation, the Consultant would propose to devise and apply a ‘Matrix’ approach to the evaluation of these data and the selection of the Nodal Points for each Pilot Area. Two sets of matrices will be devised and then combined for the final Nodal Point selection. One set will encompass the physical (essentially groundwater-related) information and the other will involved the socioeconomic and institutional data. Preliminary matrices have been designed and are discussed below in order to illustrate the methodology, but it should be stressed that these initial evaluation tools may be subject to considerable modification dependent on the type and amount of




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information that can be collected for each Pilot Area during the field survey exercise. Groundwater Matrices It is envisaged that 3 matrices dealing with the groundwater and water supply situation in the Pilot Areas will be utilised. These have been designated the Groundwater Potential Matrix, the Data Availability Matrix and the Water Supply Matrix. Each matrix will contain a series of attributes that are rated on a scale of 1 to 5 according to their significance or the magnitude of their quantitative value. Attributes will also be weighted in accordance to their significance to the theme of the project i.e. groundwater use during drought. The final rating scores for each matrix will then be combined, with each matrix total again being weighted, to provide a final combined rating score from which potential Nodal Points can be ranked and selected. The proposed matrix format and composition is described briefly below. Groundwater Potential Matrix This matrix includes specific quantitative information relating to the aquifers in the potential Nodal Point area, namely aquifer type and dimensions (thickness; area), aquifer parameters (transmissivity, recharge potential – estimated if necessary), plus average/estimated water quality and individual borehole yield. Because of their importance in terms of drought alleviation the groundwater quality and yield parameters will probably be weighted more highly in the numerical matrix assessment process. Each parameter will generally be defined as follows:

• Aquifer thickness – Saturated aquifer thickness is considered to be indicative of aquifer storage potential. The thickness of the principal aquifer in the area will be estimated from current data, or by extrapolation from similar hydrogeological areas. A range of thicknesses will be established from borehole data.

• Aquifer area – The estimated area of the principal aquifer is considered to be important in relation to both storage and potential recharge. A range of areas will be estimated from geological maps and existing knowledge.

• Aquifer type – The type of potential aquifer is considered highly important since it significantly influences the overall hydrogeological regime and any resource quantification methodology. The aquifer types provisionally identified range from essentially non-aquiferous fractured Basement, dual porosity/highly fractured sandstone, karstic limestone/dolomite, granitic regolith, alluvial deposits (both adjacent and non-adjacent to the river) and the sand river body itself.




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• Transmissivity – The transmitting capability of the potential aquifer is important in defining the ability of the aquifer to provide water to an extraction system (borehole, well etc). A range of transmissivity will be determined if sufficient data is available or by extrapolation from other similar aquifer areas.

• BH yield – individual borehole yield can be important in assessing the potential of an aquifer in the absence of other aquifer parameters. It can also help define the type of extraction system that is most appropriate. In the absence of definitive yield data for a particular area, assumptions will be made based on knowledge for other areas.

• Water quality – Groundwater quality is very important in terms of potential usage. A range of values of TDS will be established existing date and field survey measurements and will be referred to groundwater use. In the absence of definitive water quality data for a particular area, assumptions will be made based on knowledge from other areas.

• Recharge potential – In order to make some judgement on the replenishment of the groundwater resources of the area a considered opinion on the possibility of recharge will be made. Since the quantification of this parameter is always debatable actual values are not considered appropriate at this level of study. Low recharge potential will essentially score low in the matrix.

Data Availability Matrix This matrix assesses the completeness and integrity of the various data sets that relate to an evaluation of the groundwater potential of the potential Nodal Point area, including geological, hydrogeological, geophysical, water quality, as well as overall groundwater potential evaluation. For each potential Nodal Point area the various data sets will be scored on a scale of 1 to 5, based on an assessment of the data quality, availability and credibility. The following scoring system will be applied, but subject to revision and modification based on the spatial availability of requisite data:

• Geological data - refers to the availability of borehole geological logs. A score of 1 reflects no data availability and a score of 5 indicates a high density of both percussion and cored borehole information

• Hydrogeological data – refers to the availability of any hydrogeological data such as water levels, or borehole testing information. A score of 1 reflects no data and a score of 5 reflects information from exploration and production borehole drilling and testing.




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• Water Quality data – refers to the availability of groundwater hydrochemical data. The higher the score, the larger the percentage of boreholes in the area that have hydrochemical data

• Geophysical data – refers to the availability and type of geophysical data for the area. A score of 2 indicates limited ground surveys and a score of 5 indicates an extensive coverage of ground surveys plus airborne geophysical data.

• Overall groundwater evaluation – refers to the perceived status of the overall evaluation of the groundwater potential which has occurred in the area, ranging from a low score of 2 for only minor exploration to a score of 5 for a fully documented evaluation. Assuming adequate data availability this matrix component will probably be more highly weighted as it is considered an important overview of the hydrogeological data set.

Current Water Supply Matrix This matrix assesses the status of the current water supply in the potential Nodal Point area in order to arrive at a judgement of supply adequacy and reliability during drought periods. Specific aspects include;

• Supply coverage – this assesses the number and distribution of groundwater extraction points in the potential Nodal Point area in relation to the type and distribution of demand

• Type of extraction – this addresses the type of groundwater

abstraction, including dug wells (both permanent and transient), shallow boreholes (< 50m deep and most usually equipped with hand pumps) and deep boreholes (>50m deep and often equipped with motorised pumps)

• Distance of extraction points from demand – an average distance

will be used as an assessment of the adequacy of the water supply situation in the potential Nodal Point area, with greater distances implying less than ideal status.

Socio Economic Matrices

From the socio economic perspective the identification of Nodal Points will involve the following methods, namely

Decision Matrix

A decision matrix is a support tool that allows decision makers to solve their problem by evaluating, rating (ranking), and comparing different alternatives. This tool will be used to decide on specific nodal points (for




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intervention) within the pilot areas. The identification of variables for a socio-economic and biophysical decision-making matrix (to identify nodal points), will be based on the following methods:

• Community mapping

Community mapping is “the visual presentation of what the community perceives as its community space. This includes showing the boundary of the community as understood by community members and all of the elements recognized by them as part of their area. Most of the spatial information is obtained through direct observation, and facilitators should familiarize themselves with the area sufficiently to be able to assist the community members in drawing the map. However, it’s the community members themselves who must decide what does and what does not go on the map. Some items of importance to the community, and which they may choose to mark on the map, may not be noticeable to outsiders, such as sacred sites or clan boundaries” (World Bank, 2006).

This tool will be important for community groups to sketch out their community lay-outs. The objective of this exercise is not to produce a map, but to engage community members (unused to being involved in planning exercises) to observe their dynamics and capabilities.

• Opportunity Ranking

“A list of potential opportunities for solving each problem should be drawn up from community discussion. Each opportunity should then be ranked for it suitability as a solution using a set of criteria, many of which are tried and tested”. The purpose of this tool is to help community members and developmental partners decide what mitigation measures/projects to start implementing. This will be done by taking into account the locally available resources, skills and capacities. A scoring system will be used for ranking the options against agreed sustainability criteria, such as costs and the need for external expertise and finance. “It is however important to remember that community feelings about options are more important than ‘objective scores’ (World Bank, 2006).

Common used criteria for ranking criteria opportunities are:

• sustainability (can the community keep the project (i.e. boreholes)

running by itself after outside assistance has gone?) • productivity (will intervention substantially increase the availability

of needed resources (water) • equitability (will the project benefit a broad cross section of the

community?) • cost (will large amounts of external funding be needed?)




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• technical feasibility (does the project require specialized expertise both to start and maintain?)

• social/cultural acceptability (does the project fit within the community’s norms and values)

• time needed (will it take a long time for the community to reap the benefits of the project – i.e. will the community reap benefits with the next drought?)

In addition to the socio-economic analyses, community mapping and opportunity ranking, the following methods will be followed to obtain the relevant information to inform the decision-making matrix for the identification of nodal points:

• Problem Census

The Problem Census “is developed in a small group setting, conducted in the community or village where stakeholders live. It is a non-threatening focused discussion that uses small group dynamics to elicit (a) a complete and ranked census of the real and perceived (drought

and groundwater) problems of households and the village as a whole and

(b) the community’s proposed solutions to these (groundwater and drought) problems” ((World Bank, 2006).

The purpose of this tool would be to provide community members with the opportunity to articulate drought and groundwater problems (including water, livestock and livelihoods) and then collectively decide upon priority interventions/solutions. All solutions suggested will be considered and the final ranking of problems and preferred solutions will be that of the communities (World Bank, 2006).

An example of Participatory Assessment (Decision Matrix) of Water Options is outlined in Table 10 below:

Table 10: Participatory Assessment of Water Options

Criteria Sustain-

ability Produc-

tivity Equita-bility

Feasa-Bility

Social/ Cultural Cost Time Points Rank

Boreholes 1 3 1 0 2 1 2 10 4 Roof

Catchment 3 2 3 2 2 2 2 16 1

Shallow Wells 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 13 2

Surface Dams 1 2 1 2 2 1 1 10 3

Key: 0 = nil; 1 = low; 2 = average; 3 = high




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The matrix/matrices will be compiled in collaboration with each of the communities that will be consulted. It will be populated with variables used for the baseline study and (possible) variables from information collected as well as the ranking done for the different variables. 6.5.2.2 Population of Matrices The proposed matrices will be populated as far as possible from data already collected and compiled. However, it is already apparent that a considerable amount more information will require to be gathered by field survey before the matrix evaluation system can be regarded as adequate and able to produce an acceptable, scientifically based selection of the critical Nodal Points which will form the focus of the remaining stages of the project. 6.5.2.3 Analyses of Matrices for Identification of Nodal Points (socio-

economic and groundwater)

As noted in 6.5.2.1 above, the matrix approach to selection of Nodal Points will be undertaken in a semi-quantitative manner by the application of weighting factors to various aspects of each matrix, as well as weighting factors to the matrices themselves during their final combination for each sector (groundwater and socioeconomic). This approach will result in a ranked listing of potential Nodal Points for each sector, which will then require further amalgamation into a final ranked listing of potential Nodal Points based on the analysis of both groundwater and socioeconomic/institutional information. Although both sectors are important to the selection of representative Nodal Points that will provide suitable ‘test sites’ for possible construction and/or community interventions and monitoring, other practical logistical and operational factors such as general access, community and local authority acceptance and willingness to be involved, practicality and estimated cost of specific construction interventions and overall Member State political climate and support will necessarily come into play in the final selection. However, how significant and influential these various ‘extraneous’ factors should be during the final selection process will be subject to discussion with the Client during the completion of the Phase 2 tasks.

6.5.3 Development of Data Collection Methods

The collection of data in the four pilot areas is important obtain the most recent information in order to fill in the knowledge gaps identified through the baseline socio-economic study.




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This would include the gathering of specific demographic information of the pilot areas not obtained through the literature study (such as family size, births, in and out migration, morbidity, mortality) and related socio-economic information (such as ethnicity, health, education, livelihoods, income sources etc). This information will provide planners of drought mitigation interventions with a general understanding of the communities affected by drought. From such general understanding, an idea can be formed of land use and resource management practices. Data collection methods to inform effective drought mitigation intervention will require different qualitative and quantitative methods to obtain the maximum amount of information. It will specifically include questions to understand: • water availability, accessibility, affordability and acceptability • impacts of drought on community water supplies and coping strategies

deployed • socio-economic and socio-cultural constraints and opportunities for

improved water management • identification of human actions and capacity-building methods to

improve understanding of drought management The different methods of data collection and the rationale for its utilization are discussed below. 6.5.3.1 Communication with Stakeholders and Communities

Sociologists in the four Limpopo basin countries will initiate and facilitate several consultations with stakeholders about the project. The main objectives of stakeholder consultation in the pilot areas will be to identify all stakeholders, including the relevant authorities, mainly by physically visiting the areas. It will be vital that all stakeholders/groups are included. The information merging from the data collection should place the project team members as well as community leaders and community members in a position to make the right choices to implement groundwater and drought mitigation strategies. The following techniques (although no limited to these, as more suitable techniques may be identified by the sociologists and field workers, depending on local circumstances and institutional arrangements in the different areas). • identify existing administrative structures important for the

implementation of the project • explain project objectives to the relevant authorities and leaders of the

communities as well as participating household members




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• discuss with government departments (i.e. Department of Health, Department of Water Affairs, Department of Agriculture etc) at national and local level policies and strategies in relation to water, drought management and sustainable livelihoods

• have discussions with NGO’s, community leaders and clinic staff in the selected pilot study areas to obtain more information and to gain further insights

• promote participation / ensure information exchange between the project (field) workers and identified stakeholders

• to obtain information through the various teqhniques that will be discussed below

• to test the information obtained from the questionnaires for validity (falsification)

• provide opportunities for stakeholders to propose acceptable intervention methods

• manage community expectations concerning interventions / benefits of the project

• obtain concerns of the most vulnerable groups (women, the elderly etc) • discuss with local, district and national government representatives in

the health, social services and water/sanitation sectors the support provided to households

• discuss levels of water supply and livelihood coverage in the pilot areas

• meet with local entrepreneurs in the selected pilot areas involved in water and agricultural/livestock activities to ascertain their role in service provision and discuss the strengths and weaknesses

Stakeholder consultation will as far as possible be conducted in local languages and Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) techniques will be used where necessary to accommodate those that are non-literate. Where necessary, informing and/or training of field workers/sociologists to conduct quantitative/qualitative research will be done during a one-day workshop that will be held after submission of the inception report. Follow-up field work will be done to fill in gaps and to examine falsification of information obtained.

6.5.3.2 Questionnaires




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Questionnaires will be developed, mainly for sociologists/field workers to collect relevant socio-economic and socio-cultural information These questionnaires will in the first place focus on data gaps (according to the different categories used in the baseline study, i.e. demographics, water use, land use, institutional arrangements, etc). The specific issues to be investigated through the questionnaires will be listed the different variables related to these issues will be identified. Specific attention will be given to the language and vocabulary and sociologists from the different countries

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will assist in adapting it for respondents. Structured questions will mainly be used, but where necessary, open-ended questions will be asked. Questionnaires may need to be translated in the main language used in the area of research.

6.5.3.3 Structured Interviews The aim of the structured interviews will mainly be to determine the frequency of various answers and to find relationships between answers to different questions. These interviews will be based on an established set of questions that will be presented to each respondent in the same way. It is anticipated that questionnaires will be used in two ways, namely: • self-administered questionnaires that will be completed by respondents

themselves and • non self-administered questionnaires that will be completed with the

assistance of the interviewer (in assistance to respondents that cannot read or write and to overcome any misunderstandings)

6.5.3.4 Semi-structured Interviews Semi-structured interviews will be useful, as respondents will be allowed to comment broadly on defined issues. They will, in other words be free to provide more information than was asked for and to expand the discussion (which may for example relate to their own experience on water related issues and drought management). The interviewer will during the discussion/s be in the position to ask the respondent/s to clarify issues or to further explain.

6.5.3.5 Focus Group Meetings Focus group meetings have proofed to be a very effective methodology to obtain information from stakeholders. It will include direct interaction/ consultation/meetings with different groups of stakeholders in each of the identified pilot areas (east and west) of the 4 countries. It also proofed to be most effective when stakeholders are ‘grouped’ according to demographics, cultural values etc in order to allow for optimum participation. As a result of discrimination within their societies, women and members of other vulnerable groups may for example find it difficult to provide information or to defend their interests in a public forum. Therefore, it will be important to have separate and specific focus group meetings with these groups (IFC, 2007).




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6.5.3.6 Observation The technique of simple observation will be used to observe water use and infrastructure in the selected pilot areas. Biases due to the subjectivity of the observer will be alleviated by information obtained through data collection methods discussed above. GPS will be used to map the different communities and water services in the research areas

6.5.4 Groundwater and Biophysical Data Collection Plan

In order to collected additional groundwater and biophysical information for each Nodal Point in particular hydrogeologists from each basin state will be deployed to the two Pilot Area. These teams (operating in tandem with local sociologists – see below) will gather data from local sources (communities, local authorities, private sector) on all water sources in the area, whether these are boreholes, dams, hand dug wells, or other temporary sources used on a seasonal basis. Information will include data on abstraction volumes, quality, sustainability, abstraction methodology, usage, etc. They will also collect any available environmental biophysical information related to the areas, especially data on wetlands, perennial surface flows, seepages and springs, wildlife seasonal movement and water sources, riparian vegetation composition and seasonality, environmental degradation and causes, plus other water related facets of the natural environment.

Data so gathered will be compiled into the project data base for further evaluation and will contribute significantly to the finalisation of the matrices to be utilised for the selection of the Nodal Points that will become to focus of the intervention study

6.5.5 Socio-Economic and Socio-Cultural Data Collection Plan 6.5.5.1 Understanding of Institutional Arrangements, Structures and

Policy Context “Institutional analysis is a process for discussing what institutions is present in and around a community, how important each institution is, how they relate to each other, and who participated in them. Institutions could be, for instance, schools, churches, farming cooperatives, women’s groups, government offices etc” (World Bank, 2006).

Sociologists/field workers will have to ask community members to describe: • the institutions in their community • their functions




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• their importance in relation to other institutions • their central/peripheral role to the community’s life.

This information is important for planning purposes as it will identify those community institutions that will plan an active role in groundwater management strategies and programmes. 6.5.5.2 Identification of Stakeholders / communities

“Stakeholder identification is the discovery of a project’s stakeholders; that is, of their interests and the ways in which those interests affect a project’s viability. Stakeholder identification contributes to project design by learning about the goals and roles the different groups, suggesting appropriate forms of engagement with those groups. Stakeholders are persons or groups who are affected by or can affect the outcome of a project. Stakeholders may be individuals, interest groups, government agencies or corporate organizations. They may include politicians, commercial and industrial enterprises, labour unions, academics, religious groups, national, social and environmental groups, public sector agencies and the media” (World Bank, 2006).

Stakeholders in the pilot areas may include: • communities (local, regional, national) • vulnerable groups (elderly, women, children) • government officials (local, regional, state and national officials) • regulators (local, regional, state and national agencies) • environmental NGOs and CBOs • advocacy groups (health and safety, human rights, social justice,

political groups and others) • other civic organizations (educational organizations, churches, trade

unions etc) • especially concerned people (other ongoing projects, those that want

to become involved, etc).

6.5.6 Anticipated Problems and Limitations

During the assembly of this Inception Report it has become apparent that there are a number of potential problems and limitations to the acquisition of a comprehensive data set on which to establish the drought interventions, as well as to being able to successfully implement and monitor any such interventions. These issues are noted below, and will require serious consideration and discussion with the Project Supervisor during the programming of the upcoming field stages of the project.




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• It is anticipated that under the current political situation in Zimbabwe, it may be difficult to work in communities as well as to build a relationship of trust.

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• In certain parts of both Pilot Areas it may not be possible to gather a

spatially consistent set of data relating to groundwater resources and availability as a result of either a fundamental lack of water sources and/or data pertaining to those that are in the area, or due to data loss resultant upon political or administrative factors.

• The practicalities of data gathering and the programming (within the

project time frame) of subsequent intervention construction and monitoring may be seriously hampered by access difficulties (political or otherwise), availability of fuel and other essential commodities, availability and ability of potential local contractors and a number of other extraneous factors related to both local and international economic forces.

6.6 Task 1.6: Preparation and Presentation of the Inception Report

This task encompasses the compilation of a Draft Inception Report with contributions from each of the Core Team members covering the groundwater/biophysical and the socioeconomic aspects of the programme as derived from existing and currently accessible information, together with a number of base maps showing the location and essential infrastructure of the two Pilot Areas. In addition to this review and evaluation of the existing data the Inception Report is to review and if necessary revise the work schedule, personnel inputs and overall time frame of the programme as set out in the consultancy contract as a result of the Inception Phase evaluations. The Inception Report should also clearly indicate the QA measures that the Consultant proposes to put in place for the remaining phases of the project. Each of these latter two issues is amplified below. If requested by the client the Draft Inception Report will be presented by members of the Core Team at a meeting of the client project steering committee such that specific aspects can be discussed and comments taken.

6.6.1 Revisions to the Project Programme Work Schedule It is envisaged that the Work Schedule will essentially remain as indicated in Form Tech 8 (Revised) of the contract, except that is has become apparent that Phases 2 and 3 will almost certainly overlap and run partially in parallel with each other. It is hoped that this will enable the two phases to be slightly compressed which will assist in making up the initial time




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loss and achieving the principal intervention objectives of the project by Month 18.

On the downside considerable discussion between team members has indicated that Phase 4, Drought Intervention Construction, which is scheduled for 6 months, may be over optimistic in terms of time, and that construction of physical interventions may take considerably longer, depending on the type of intervention construction, the availability of expertise and materials in the particular Nodal Point and the seasonal weather. Clearly, the choice of intervention for each Nodal Point must take these factors into account if the project time frame is in any way to be adhered to. Personnel Inputs It is not envisaged that there will be any changes to the personnel schedule, although the delayed start of the programme has raised some difficulties with respect to availability of certain team members at the times indicated in Form Tech 7 of the contract. However, the Consultant believes that none of these personnel input problems are insurmountable and the project should not be adversely affected. Overall Time Frame

Following discussions with the Client at the initial Inception Meeting it is apparent that the overall time frame for the project is closely tied to the UNOPS funding schedule, and that Contract Phase A (i.e. the bulk of the project, up to and including the first part of Phase 5 – Monitoring and Evaluation) has to be completed by July 2009. The Consultant will make every effort to adhere to this requirement by making forward adjustments of various activities wherever possible without detriment to the integrity of the work, although it should be noted that the late start to the programme has somewhat exacerbated this scheduling. 6.6.2 Quality Assurance Plan

The QA plan to be adopted comprises a two tier quality control system primarily targeted at the data collection activity, but also involving the data archiving and GIS database system. Specifically there will be a Primary, a Secondary and a Tertiary Quality Control data check system, as briefly described below.




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Primary QA The Primary quality control check will be at the point of collection of the data/information and will be the responsibility of the particular data collection person. This will simply require that the data gathered is as numerically/technically correct as possible in the context of the scope of the data collection exercise, and that the recording of this data, most usually in hard copy but possibly also as digital data, is error free. This should be relatively easy to achieve with respect to groundwater/physical data, but socioeconomic information is very often more subjective and open to interpretation by the recorder and so will require more care and guidance from the Socio-Economic Manager.

Secondary QA The Secondary quality control check will be undertaken by the appropriate Core Team member in the office and prior to entry of the field data into the project database. This will involve scrutiny for obvious errors in transcription as well as errors related to numerical values and on site ‘interpretation’ of information, with this latter based largely on experience and the context of the data collection exercise. Any errors will be corrected or referred back to the data collection teams for correction and/or further enquiry. This secondary level of quality control will also be exercised by the Project Director over the entry of data into the project database as well as the veracity of the GIS data and the graphic outputs derived there from. Tertiary QA The Tertiary QA will essentially focus on the data evaluation and written outputs of the project and will be the responsibility of the two senior members of the Activity Team Specialists [Dr N Robins – BGS; Dr C Colvin – CSIR] together with the Project Director. All aspects of the various reporting deliverables will be scrutinised by each of these individuals in a peer review manner prior to submission of the reports to the Client.

6.7 Task 1.7: Finalisation of Methodology and Inception Report

Once the Draft Inception report has been submitted and appraised by the Client, and any comments and additional requirements have been received, the final Inception Report will be produced in the requisite number of copies and in digital format and presented to the Client. This final Inception Report will include all modifications requested by the client and will describe in detail the methodology that the Consultant will




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employ for the remaining phases of the project in order to bring the project to a successful conclusion.




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7. PHASES 2 and 3

(Pilot Programme Definition and Drought Mitigation Planning)

This section of the report describes in summary form the upcoming activities of Phases 2 and 3 of the programme, namely Pilot Programme Definition and Drought Mitigation Planning. These phases are largely field orientated and will culminate in the definition of appropriate drought intervention construction work at each of the Nodal Points in the WPA and the EPA. A brief summary of the salient aspects of Phases 2 and 3 is presented below.

7.1 Summary of Tasks The tasks as set out in the technical proposal and the contract for Phases 2 and 3 are as follows; Phase 2

• Stakeholder Analysis and Engagement within the Pilot Areas • Delineation of the Pilot Areas • Institutional/Regulatory Analysis of Groundwater Management in

the Pilot Areas • Representative Pilot ‘Nodes’ Selected

Phase 3

• Drought Intervention/Groundwater Management Plans for Pilot Areas

• Prepare Designs for Drought Intervention Structures • Develop ToRs for Construction Contractors.

7.2 Mobilisation of Country Teams As indicated in the technical proposal it is the Consultants intention to utilise local two person teams composed of a Hydrogeologist and a Socioeconomist in each of the riparian Member States. These local teams will have the advantage of language and the knowledge of local customs, institutions and governmental structures and should facilitate the efficient gathering of new data in each of the Pilot Areas. Local teams will be called together at an internal Consultant workshop immediately on acceptance of the Inception Report for a comprehensive briefing and especially to ‘standardise’ the data collection approach and data formats. Data collection and other local ‘on the ground’ activities related to stakeholder engagement, intervention planning and, where




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necessary, stakeholder workshops will then take place during the next 4-6 months.

7.3 Data Flow and Evaluation

During Phases 2 and 3 data collected by the local Country Teams will be fed back to the Consultants Head Office for QA, compilation, archiving and evaluation by the Core Team members and Activity Team Specialists as appropriate. A number of these Specialists will also spend time during Phases 2 and 3 in the Pilot Areas in order to gather first hand information on their particular specialisation, with others contributing by evaluating data collected by the Country Teams. Data flow for each principal aspect of the programme (groundwater/biophysical and socioeconomic/institutional) will be controlled by the respective Core Team Manager and the whole data system and evaluation coordinated by the Project Director. 7.4 Selection of Representative Pilot Nodes One of the key tasks during Phase 2 will be the selection of Nodal Points within the WPA and the EPA, using newly gathered data and the matrix approach detailed in Section 6.5. Depending on the nature and volume of data that becomes available the matrices themselves may have to be modified to enable sensible application to enable the selection of Nodal Points that are both as representative as possible and logistically and operationally workable.

Once Nodal Points have been defined they will be further discussed with the Client prior to acceptance into the programme. 7.5 Work Plan and Timing As noted earlier, the overall Work Plan and Timing of Phases 2 and 3 of the project is expected to follow that set out in the contract, although the Consultant will make all efforts to slightly condense some of the activities in an effort to reduce the Phase 2 and 3 programme time and allow more time for the Phase 4 Drought Intervention Construction work prior to the Month 18 deadline.




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8. CONCLUDING STATEMENT

This Inception Report provides a compilation and synopsis of the large volume of information pertaining to the Limpopo Basin in general, and the Pilot Areas in particular, that has been gathered during Phase 1 of the programme. Preliminary assessment of this data has guided the establishment of a methodology for the forthcoming Phases 2 and 3, which will then build upon this data set by intensive data gathering field surveys targeted at both the Western and Eastern Pilot Areas. This forthcoming work will serve to define and comprehensively characterise both physically and socio-economically the specific Nodal Points in each of the Pilot Areas in which groundwater-focussed drought interventions will be designed and implemented. The Inception Report also highlights the time lines and personnel aspects of the upcoming phases of the project, as well as noting the possible problems and difficulties that may impact upon these. It is believed that although more time than had been anticipated has been spent on initial data collection and completion of this Inception Report, a much firmer grasp of the existing situation in the Limpopo Basin and the proposed Pilot Areas has been achieved. This will then enable a more focussed and efficient programme for Phases 2 and 3 to be planned and implemented such that the overall project time lines can be met.




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APPENDIX A

Groundwater Bibliography (Additional bibliography material compiled into Endnote software)




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Hard copy maps held at BGS Wallingford Botswana Hydrogeology Maps – scale 1:1 000 000 Busch, K. and M. Von_Hoyer (1995). Groundwater Pollution Vulnerability Map of the Republic of Botswana. Gaborone, Geological Survey Department, Lobatse. Von_Hoyer, M. and W. Struckmeier (1987). Groundwater Resources Map of the Republic of Botswana - north. Gaborone, Geological Survey Department, Lobatse. Von_Hoyer, M. and W. Struckmeier (1987). Groundwater Resources Map of the Republic of Botswana - south. Gaborone, Geological Survey Department, Lobatse. Topographic Maps – 1:50 000 Department_of_Surveys_and_Lands (1982). Sheet 2127D4. Gaborone, Botswana, Department_of_Surveys_and_Lands (1983). Sheet 2127D3. Gaborone, Botswana, Department_of_Surveys_and_Lands (1984). Sheet 2128C1. Gaborone, Botswana, Department_of_Surveys_and_Lands (1984). Sheet 2128C3. Gaborone, Botswana, Department_of_Surveys_and_Lands (1984). Sheet 2128C4. Gaborone, Botswana, Geology Maps – scale Key, R. (1996). Topisi - Quarter Degree Sheet 2227A. Lobatse, Geological Survey of Botswana. Nkala, G. (1996). Marico River Area - Quarter Degree Sheet 2426D. Lobatse, Geological Survey of Botswana. Mozambique Hydrogeology Map – scale 1:1 000 000 Ferro, B.P.A. and Bouman, D, 1987, Hydrogeological Map of Mozambique. National Directorate for Water Affairs (D.N.A.), Ministry of Construction and Water, Republic of Mozambique. In two sections, North and South with explanatory notes. South Africa Geology Maps – scale 1:250 000 Department_of_Minerals_and_Energy_Affairs, S. A. (1981). 2230 Messina. Pretoria, Department_of_Minerals_and_Energy_Affairs, S. A. (2000). 2228 Alldays. Pretoria,




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Hydrogeology Map – scale 1:250 000 Department_of_Minerals_and_Energy_Affairs, S. A. (2002). 2127 Messina. Pretoria, Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry, S. A. (1996). 2326 Pietersburg. Various Maps Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry (1993). Practical availability of water for human consumption: Rural communities (not on commercial farms). Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry, S. A. (1995). Groundwater Resources of the Republic of South Africa - Sheet 1. Pretoria. Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry, S. A. (1995). Mapping Status 1 July 2001, 1:500 000 Hydrogeological Map Series of the Republic of South Africa. Zimbabwe Reports - Various Gear, D. (1977). The manner of occurrence of groundwater in Rhodesia. Salisbury, Rhodesia, Hydrological Branch, Ministry of Water Development. Interconsult (1985). National Master Plan for Rural Water Supply and Sanitation: Hydrogeology, Ministry of Energy and Water Resources and Development, Republic of Zimbabwe. Interconsult (1985). National Master Plan for Rural Water Supply and Sanitation: Hydrogeology, Ministry of Energy and Water Resources and Development, Republic of Zimbabwe. Jones, D. (1988). The Nature of Zimbabwe: A guide to conservation and development. Gland, Switzerland, Harare, Zimbabwe, IUCN, IUCN-ROSA. Makumbe, J. M. (1996). Participatory development: The case of Zimbabwe, University of Zimbabwe Publications. Matiza, T. and S. A. Crafter, Eds. (1994). Wetlands ecology and priorities for conservation in Zimbabwe. Proceedings of a seminar on wetlands ecology and priorities for conservation in Zimbabwe, Harare Kentucky Airport Hotel, 13-15 January 1992. Gland, Switzerland, IUCN. Owen, R. J. S. (1989). The Use of Shallow Alluvial Aquifers for Small Scale Irrigation; with reference to Zimbabwe, University of Zimbabwe and Southampton University, UK. Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Zimbabwe Lister, L. A. (1987). The Erosion Surfaces of Zimbabwe., Zimbabwe Geological Survey.




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Odell, J. (1975). Explanation of the Geological Map of the Country around Bangala Dam., Rhodesia Geological Survey. Stagman, J. G. (1962). The Geology of the Southern Urugwe District., Southern Rhodesia Geological Survey. Stagman, J. G., N. M. Harrison, et al. (1978). An outline of the geology of Rhodesia., Rhodesia Geological Survey. Swift, W. H. (1962). The Geology of the Middle Sabi Valley., Southern Rhodesia Geological Survey. Swift, W. H., W. C. White, et al. (1953). The Geology of the Lower Sabi Coalfield., Southern Rhodesia Geological Survey. Thompson, A. O. (1975). The Karoo Rocks in the Mazunga Area, Beitbrige District., Rhodesia Geological Survey. Watson, R. L. A. (1969). The Geology of the Cashel, Melsetter and Chipinga Areas., Rhodesia Geological Survey. Wilson, J. F. and H. J. Martin (1964). The Geology of the Coutry around Fort Victoria and the Bikita Tinfield., Southern Rhodesia Geological Survey. Maps of Zimbabwe Topographic Maps, scale 1: 50 000 Zimbabwe_Surveyor_General (1985). 2230A1 Luchetche, Zimbabwe_Surveyor_General (1990). 2229B2 Beitbridge, Topographic Maps, scale 1:250 000 Zimbabwe_Surveyor_General (1984). SF3507 Mphoengs, Zimbabwe_Surveyor_General (1975). SF3508 WestNicholson, Zimbabwe_Surveyor_General (1983). SF3512 Beitbridge, Zimbabwe_Surveyor_General (1992). SF3601 Masvingo, Zimbabwe_Surveyor_General (1975). SF3602 Chipinga, Zimbabwe_Surveyor_General (1990). SF3605 Mwenzi, Zimbabwe_Surveyor_General (1975). SF3606 Chiredzi, Zimbabwe_Surveyor_General (1984). SF3609 Malipati, Various Maps – scale 1:1 000 000 Zimbabwe_Surveyor_General (1994). Zimbabwe Geological Map Zimbabwe_Surveyor_General (1984). Zimbabwe: Relief (layered) Zimbabwe_Surveyor_General (1984). Zimbabwe: Natural Regions and Farming Zimbabwe_Surveyor_General (1984). Zimbabwe: Hydrological Zones




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Zimbabwe_Surveyor_General (1984). Zimbabwe mean annual rainfall Zimbabwe_Surveyor_General (1982). Zimbabwe rural population density Director, F. D. o. T. a. T. S., _ Rhodesia_and_Nyasaland (1960). Federal Atlas map No. 11: Soils Map of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. Salisbury, Director, Federal Department of Trignometrical and Topographical Surveys, Rhodesia and Nyasaland. Hydrogeology maps – scale 1:500 000 Interconsult (1986). Zimbabwe Regional Hydrogeological Map - Sheets 1 to 4. Harare, Zimbabwe, National Master Plan for Rural Water Supply and Sanitation, Ministry of Energy and Water Resources and Development. Geology Maps – scale Geological Survey Office, Southern Rhodesia (1971). Geological Map of the Country South of Chibi: to accompany Geological Survey Short Report No. 41, Geological Survey Office, Salisbury, Rhodesia.




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APPENDIX B

Socio-economic References




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British Geological Survey (BGS). 2002. Groundwater Quality: Mocambique. NA: BGS Oni, SA, Nesamvuni, AE, Odhiambo JJO and Dagada, MC. 2003. Executive summary of a study of the agricultural Industry of the Limpopo Province. In: Nesamvuni, AE, Oni, SA, Odhiambo JJO and Nthakeni, ND (Eds). Agriculture as the cornerstone of the economy of the Limpopo Province of South Africa. University of Venda for Science and Technology. Thohoyandou. South Africa. Stroebel, A. 2004. Socio-economic complexities of smallholder resource-poor ruminant livestock production systems in Sub-Saharan Africa. A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Faculty of Natural- and Agricultural Sciences Centre for Sustainable Agriculture. Bloemfontein: University of the Free State. Dahlberg, Annika, C. 2000. Vegetation diversity and change in relation to land use, soil and rainfall - a case study from North-East District, Botswana. In: Journal of Arid Environments (2000) 44:19–40. Available online at: http://www.idealibrary.com. Accessed: 2 May 2008.




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APPENDIX C

Synopsis of

‘Protection and Strategic Uses of Groundwater Resources in Drought Prone Areas of the SADC Region: Groundwater Situation Analysis of the Limpopo River Basin’ - Final Report, 2003. CSIR, Pretoria, South Africa




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1. Introduction The key issues addressed by the above project were: · Groundwater resources, uses and management in the Limpopo Basin · Geology and hydrogeology of groundwater systems · Recharge · Role of rivers · Climatic conditions including occurrence of droughts and floods · Internationally shared aquifers · Review of current conditions and potential threats to ground water resources Assumptions appear to include: • That the regional geology of the Limpopo Basin is understood, including

geomorphological development. • That the hydrogeology of the region is understood • That rainfall/evaporation/runoff relationships are understood as these inform rates of

recharge. The overview of groundwater occurrence and resources in the Limpopo basin was produced and two pilot study focal areas selected for further study. Here we provide a critique of the study concentrating on and adding to information on the central part of the Limpopo basin encompassing the focal areas. The report provides an overview of the following areas:

• Groundwater and Drought • The Limpopo Basin as a study area • Water Use and Demand in the Limpopo Basin • Geology • Hydrogeology • Description of the two selected Pilot Study Areas

The content of each section is commented upon in turn and additional sources of information suggested. 2. Groundwater and Drought The concepts and types of drought, as they occur within the SDAC region, are outlined. The nature of meteorological droughts and their impact upon groundwater systems are discussed to introduce the concept of groundwater drought. The need for integrated drought management that takes into account the impact of long term drought on groundwater recharge and the long-term sustainability of groundwater resources is stressed. The report suggests that although groundwater may be a reliable alternative source during surface water drought it will only remain so if managed properly. Poor management of groundwater resources during drought can lead to groundwater drought. Drought conditions impact upon:

• Water shortage - occurs when available water does not meet minimum needs. • Water scarcity - relates water demand to availability and use , • Water stress - caused by scarcity can result in conflict due to crop failure, • Water security - reliable and secure access to water.




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Past responses to drought are suggested to been reactive; such as the mobilisation of emergency borehole drilling and community feeding programmes. Responses need to be better prepared taking into account the sustainable management of all natural resources so that appropriate use of available groundwater resources can be achieved during drought when surface waters are in deficit. This will require the development of appropriate groundwater management strategies for drought prone areas to reduce the impact of drought on community life as well as associated natural systems and resources. 3. The Limpopo Basin Study Area The current understandings of the physical nature of the Limpopo Basin in terms of its extent, physiography, climate and weather patterns, drainage basins; and surface water resources, are outlined at a regional scale. Presented below is a synopsis of the situation within the area of the Central Limpopo Basin that encompasses the two focal areas taken from the regional descriptions and the two focal area descriptions. 3.1. Physiography The Central Limpopo Basin between latitude 21° and 23° South and longitude 28° and 32° East, including the towns of Beit Bridge and Messina and the large villages of Bobonong, Tsetsebjwe, Evangelina, Tuli, Massisi, Sengwe, Malapati, Eduardo Mondlane and Mapai. It is an area of livestock farming, irrigation, mining, eco-tourism, game farming subsistence farming and tourism. The population away from the population centres is low except in the former Vena homeland area. The topography of the area north of the Soutpansberg range is flat with land sloping gently towards the Limpopo River, rising northwards towards the escarpment in Zimbabwe and the eastern Soutpansberg in South Africa. The northern end of the Lebombo mountains crosses the area, roughly following the South Africa - Mozambique and the Zimbabwe - Mozambique borders. The elevation of the Limpopo river falls from 1 050 masl at its confluence with the Shashe River to 200 masl at Pafuri where it joins the Levuvhu River and enters Mozambique to flow downstream through alluvial flats and wetlands. Alluvial deposits occur along lower Motloutse and Shashe Rivers and along the Limpopo between Motloutse confluence and Pafuri, downstream of which extensive alluvial floodplain deposits occur, beginning about 20 km upstream of the Levuvhu confluence and extending into Mozambique. 3.2. Climate and Weather Patterns Climate in the area is controlled by regional systems and the global El Nino event:

• Sub-tropical eastern continental moist maritime system brings cyclones and heavy rainfall;

• South Indian Ocean high pressure system brings south-easterly landward winds and rain; and

• the ITCZ located over the tropics can move south bringing heavy rains. • Strong El Nino events correlate with drought conditions in the SADC region; and

conversely weak events brings above average rainfall.




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The central Limpopo area has a semi-arid to savannah climate, with low surface runoff and high moisture deficits. About 250-500 mm/annum of rain falls during October to April during rainstorms, with more than 500 mm/annum in the higher Soutpansberg range most falling between October to April. Low rainfall occurs in the rain-shadow of the Soutpansberg range. Mean annual potential evaporation of 1 450-1 500 mm per year, the maximum being 1 500-1 550 in Mozambique. The aridity index for the EPA is 0.30-0.40 over much of the catchment, reaching 0.20-0.30 in the low-lying areas central part of the Limpopo valley in the western part and in Mozambique. The area is susceptible to desertification with dry season maximum temperatures of 32 to 40°C. Rainfall, temperature, soil moisture, evapotranspiration, river-flow, reservoir status and underground water resources are critical drought issues that need to be monitored. Drought is a long period of low rainfall impacting surface and subsurface water resources causing soil water deficits. The main issue is the shortage of water. A groundwater drought occurs when groundwater sources fail as a consequence of drought. Rainfall and evaporation define both drought and recharge to groundwater resources. The region experiences 18-20 year wet/dry cycles as shown by severe droughts during 1831-35, 1844-51, 1857-65, 1877- 86 and 1894-99; and recorded regional droughts during 1905/06-1915/16; 1925/26-1932/33; 1944/45-1952/53; 1962/63-1970/71; 1982/83; 1986/87; 1991/92; 1994/95; and 2002/03

During the 1991/92 and 1994/95 droughts, natural low flows in the Limpopo River were further reduced by high levels of abstraction that changed the Limpopo from a perennial to an ephemeral river, a condition that continues resulting in stressed ecosystems. Major flood events also affect the Limpopo. The highest Limpopo River flood, occurred in February 1955. Recent floods occurred in 1893/94; 1915; 1955; 1971/72-1980/81; 1995/96; and 1999/2000 The effects of climate change include increased average air temperatures and, although storm intensities have increased, declining rainfall by more than 15%. Temperature increase will raise potential evaporation by 6-8% adversely impacting low flows during droughts and increasing flood size during wet periods. 3.3. Drainage The report defines three Limpopo River reaches of which the Middle Reach, about 200 km long between the Shashe/Limpopo confluence and Pafuri, runs through the central Limpopo area.




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The ephemeral drainage of the western area comprises the main Shashe and Limpopo rivers and tributaries of the Thune and Motloutse Rivers in Botswana and the Tuli and Umzingwani Rivers in Zimbabwe. In that area the gradients of the Limpopo and Shashe Rivers are approximately 1:600 and 1:800 respectively. The Motloutse and Shahse Rivers contribute significantly to surface-flow in the Limpopo and flow in the alluvial sand aquifer. Downstream of Mussina,major tributaries include the Bubye from Zimbabwe, Luvuvhu from South Africa and Munezi from Zimbabwe via Mozambique. All substantially contribution to flow in the middle and lower Limpopo. The Levuvhu River maintained a perennial flow regime until the early 1990’s when over-abstraction for irrigation in the upper reaches and droughts caused the river to become ephemeral.

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3.4. Surface Water Resources By 1991, 60% of the natural flow along the Upper Limpopo (determined at 1 432.5 x 106 m3 in 1991) had been allocated to water users by 1990. Since 1997, flows from Botswana have been reduced by the constructed the Letsibogo Dam on the Motloutse River in 1997 and additional dam are being planned on the Tati, Thune, Lotsane and lower Shashe tributaries. The impact of damming and increased abstraction may render downstream areas susceptible to drought. In the middle reach, the Shashe, Umzingwane and Bubye Rivers join the Limpopo River from the north and the Sand, Nzhelele and Levuvhu Rivers from the south. Flow along the Umzingwane River is reduced by the Zhorve Dam, north of Beit Bridge. Between Shashe and Beit Bridge, 6 120 ha are irrigated using Limpopo River water. The Beit Bridge area is one of the driest parts of Zimbabwe with insufficient rainfall for food production. The Sand River catchment has > 700 small farm dams used for stock watering and irrigation. The Nzhelele River catchment has the Nzhelele and Albasini dams and > 80 small farm dams for domestic use, agriculture, forestry and game farming use. Following the 1990 Joint Upper Limpopo Basin Study, a multi-catchment and multi-reservoir flow model of the Limpopo was set up to investigate rainfall-runoff, reservoir inflow, demand, outflow and evaporation, abstraction and point discharge functions, channel loss, and streamflow reduction due to afforestation. 4. Water Use and Demand in the Central Limpopo Basin Reliable figures for sectoral consumption and demand are not readily available in the Limpopo Basin. 4.1. Botswana Domestic supply for the south-east of the country, estimated to be 100 x 106m3 by 2020, will be obtained from dams on Limpopo river tributaries. Irrigation occurs along the Limpopo River using water drawn from the “sand-river” at Talana and Seleka Farms. Livestock obtain water from shallow wells in sandriver. Groundwater is supplied to villages using boreholes equipped with motorised pumps. 4.2. Mozambique There are no water use data available. 4.3. South Africa The largest use of groundwater is for irrigation to schemes at Pontdrift/Weipe and Levuvhu. 4.4. Zimbabwe




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Limited irrigation used to be practiced in the Tuli River and Umzingwane River catchments and on the Zimbabwe side of the Limpopo River. These systems are reported to be defunct. Rural communities use groundwater for domestic supply.

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5. Geology The geology of the Limpopo Basin in included in regional and national descriptions of the geologies of the four constituent countries. Comprehensive volumes describing the geology of Mozambique and South Africa were published in 2006-7 by the Council for Geosciences of South Africa. District geological memoirs and scientific literature describing aspects of specific areas add further detail. Each country has produced national geology maps at 1:1 000 000 scale with regional maps at 1:250 000 scale. The compilers of the report draw on these sources to produce a comprehensive summary of the geology of the Limpopo Basin. For the purposes of providing a geological basis to understand groundwater occurrence a much simpler geological description is required that relates to gross litho-stratigraphy and tectonic structure as well as understanding of rock weathering profiles in the near surface zone. It is the latter that impacts upon shallow groundwater occurrence and rainwater recharge. The nature of the weathered zone needs to be discussed further in the present project. The simplified litho-stratigraphic column for the Central Limpopo Basin includes: Stratigraphic Unit Lithology Holocene Sand river alluvium Pliocene–Quaternary Palaeo-Limpopo alluvium Cretaceous-Miocene Continental sandstones and clays Jurassic - Karoo Basalts, rhyolites and volcanics Triassic - Upper Karoo Sandstones, siltstones and mudstones Carboniferous – Permian Sandstones and shales above glacial sediments Lower Karoo Neoproterozoic Sedimentary, volcanic and granitoid intrusive rocks Achaean Granitoid (intrusive and metamorphic) Basement

Complex (cratons) Mafic (“greenstone belt”) to felsic volcanic and

meta-sedimentary supracrustal units (mobile belt) The Central Limpopo Basin is underlain by all of the above geological units. 5.1. Archaean




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The Archaean Basement Complex consists of two granitoid and metamorphic cratonic blocks (the Kaapvaal and Zimbabwean cratons) separated by the Achaean-Early Proterozoic Limpopo Mobile Belt. The cratons are ancient continental blocks composed of complexes of granitoid intrusives, high schistic and gneissic metamorphics and greenstone belt rocks. The metamorphic Limpopo Mobile Belt is divided into northern,

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central and southern zones separated by shear zones. The ENE trending marginal zones contain high-grade granite-greenstone derived rocks; the north trending Central Zone contains high grade metasediments including granulites and amphibolites. In the cratons and the mobile belt, groundwater occurs in shallow fractured-and weathered regolith zones where dolerite dyke and fracture zones provide deeper flow-paths for circulating groundwaters. In these units high fluoride occurs in granitic groundwaters and trace elements such as arsenic and lead in greenstone groundwaters. 5.2. Neoproterozoic Rocks In the south east, Neoproterozoic sandstones, shales, conglomerates and some basalts and tuffs of the WNW –ESE trending Soutpansberg Sedimentary Trough separate the Southern Marginal Zone of the Limpopo Mobile Belt from the Central Zone, in the south-eastern Central Limpopo basin. Groundwater mainly occurs in shallow fracture zones.. 5.3. The Late Palaeozoic-Mesozoic volcano-sedimentary sequences (Karoo Supergroup) Following a period of glaciation during the basal Karoo Dwyka, the subsequent Karoo sediments were deposited under continental conditions under fluviatile, lacustrine and desert aeolian environments. North of the main Karoo Basin that underlies much of present day South Africa, these sediments and associated volcanic lavas were deposited within actively forming block faulted rift grabens and are often intruded by WNW-ESE trending dolerite dykes and sills The Basal-Lower Karoo units include fine grained compact glacially derived micrites, overlain by mudstones that form aquitards with poor porosity and water quality. The coarser-grained upper Karoo sedimentary formations contain waterbearing sandstones often under confined conditions and at depth. The upper part of the Karoo sequence is formed by extrusive rhyolite and basalt lavas of the Drakensberg and Lebombo Groups. The formation of the rift valleys, that profoundly altered patterns of continental drainage to their present day form, occurred during the initial breakup of the Gondwana landmass that resulted in the present day eastern coastline of eastern and southern Africa, and the deposition of eroded alluvial materials interbedded with marine deposits, of Cretaceous and later ages, within deep sedimentary basins that underlie present day Mozambique. In contrast with the much explored coal bearing continental Karoo deposits, the coastal alluvial and marine deposits of western Mozambique are poorly understood. 5.4. Miocene to Pliocene Rocks The Miocene to Pliocene formations present in western Mozambique include Miocene /Pliocene continental coarse ferruginous sandstones with interbedded clays. The dominant structural direction is ENE-WSW. The sedimentary formations dip towards the north and are vertically displaced by ENE trending faults. The late-Miocene and Pliocene epochs are characterized by tectonic activity with uplift and faulting forming sites of hot springs as at Tshipise and Klein Tshipise. The Pliocene - Quaternary periods are marked by sea-level drop and coastline regression resulting in erosion of the uplifted central areas and deposition of extensive alluvial flood plains.




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5.5. Regional Tectonism and Erosion Recent work has been undertaken on the correlation of groundwater occurrence with weathering patterns in Basement Complex rocks beneath a series of African erosion surfaces. Here a section describing erosion surface distributions and associated patterns of weathering needs to be included as these geomorphological features, in conjunction with zones of fracturing, may control the distribution of shallow groundwater bodies. 6. Hydrogeology The hydrogeology of areas such as the central Limpopo Basin, is best described using hydrogeological environments, each with a uniform scheme of groundwater occurrence characteristics. These are based on the simple lithostratigraphy, described above, tectonic activity, and the weathering and erosion factors experienced. The mode of groundwater occurrence in terms of storage and flow in each environment needs to be understood. Such a system is based upon the UNESCO system of hydrogeological map production as applied throughout eastern and southern Africa, including Mozambique. South Africa has developed a system of hydrogeological regions as proposed by Vegter (2001). The five main hydrogeological environments are

• Achaean basement complex rocks (granites, gneisses, greenstone belts, volcanics);

• Neoproterozoic age sedimentary rocks (Waterberg Group shales, quartzites, conglomerate and volcanic sequences)),

• Palaeozoic/Mesozoic age Karoo Supergroup sedimentary deposits with associated intrusions (i.e. dyke and basalt flows);

• Cretaceous and younger age consolidated and unconsolidated sedimentary sequences mainly in Mozambique; and

• Recent deposits associated with water courses such as the Limpopo and Shashe Rivers.

6.1. Hydrogeological Characteristics The hydrogeological characteristics of those parts of the four countries present in the Central Limpopo Basin are summarized below. Botswana The Central Limpopo Basin in Botswana is characterised by Achaean basement and gneisses, the Karoo Supergroup and Karoo age dykes. Achaean basement and gneisses underlie the north-eastern half of the basin. Groundwater resources are sufficient for rural supply. Fractured aquifers, such as Karoo sandstones, have good groundwater potential. The Ntane Sandstone Formation is characterised by high yields (100-150 m3/hr) and good quality. The best water strikes are normally encountered at the fractured zone just below the contact with the overlying basalt. Borehole yields from the Karoo Basalts aquifer are generally low (<2 l/s) compared to that from the underlying sandstone aquifers, and the Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), are often found to be in excess of 1 000 mg/l. In addition this shallower fractured aquifer is more vulnerable to pollution.




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Additional information will be obtained from recent studies undertaken in the Bobonong area for DWA. The alluvial aquifers along the Limpopo River are under-utilised and have high yields. Studies undertaken of the geology and hydrogeology of alluvial aquifers by DWA need to be reviewed as part of this assessment. Mozambique The post Jurassic tectonic margin alluvial to deltaic deposition environments of deposition in the region of present day Mozambique, produces hydrogeological conditions that differ markedly from those found in the other three countries. The Lebombo rhyolite along the border of South Africa and Mozambique, is a “hard rock” aquifer. The aquifers in rhyolite and basalt are weathered and fractured. Yields are higher in basalts and water quality in basalt and rhyolite of usable qualities. To the east Cretaceous and younger sediments are present. The Upper Cretaceous Sena Formation consists of continental sandstones and conglomerates with clayey cement, both impermeable. Groundwater in this formation has high TDS. A thin alluvial sandy clay or clayey sand cover commonly masks these formations which consist essentially of calcareous sandstone and clayey calcareous sandstone. Yields of these aquifers range from 3 to 10 m3/h. South Africa Groundwater in South Africa occurs in secondary aquifers in rocks of Achaean, Proterozoic and Palaeozoic/Mesozoic ages. Ephemeral river systems with alluvial aquifers are the Crocodile, Olifants, Sand and Mogalakwena Rivers.

• Groundwater potential of weathered and fractured basement rocks is low. • Sedimentary basins of Karoo age include the Tshipise basin, where high

borehole yields are observed in fractured basalt along the Taaibosch fault, and the Tuli basin.

• Alluvial aquifers associated with the Limpopo, Olifants, Sand and the Crocodile rivers, supply local farming, mining and domestic water needs, as well as the town of Mussina, the Venetia diamond Mine and irrigation at Pontdrif.

Ongoing studies by the University of Pretoria in conjunction with WRC and DWAF will provide additional information on the nature and resources of the weathered and fracture Basement Complex aquifer in Northern Province. Review of the sand river water abstraction project by Clanahan et al for the WRC in conjunction with similar studies undertaken in Botswana and Zimbabwe should provide additional insight into the resources of sandrivers. Zimbabwe In Zimbabwe, >70% of the surface area of the Limpopo Basin is underlain by Achaean granite and gneiss. In the southeast, Karoo-age sandstone and basalt occur (Interconsult, 1985). Zimbabwe’s aquifers form 10 major hydrogeological units, with the




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Karoo being divided into 5 sub-units. The three main units are described that apply to southern Zimbabwe. The Achaean granite and gneiss of the Basement and Limpopo Mobile Belt are the main rock types in the Limpopo basin. Groundwater occurs in shallow weathered zones and in deeper fractured zones. Yields are low (10-50 m3/d). Water quality is good, but the smaller weathering basins are vulnerable to overexploitation due to limited storage. Basins of Karoo age and covered by late Karoo basalt, feature in the south of the basin. The western Tuli Basin extends into Botswana and South Africa. The eastern Nuanetsi Basin is connected to the Tshipise Basin and the Save Basin. The Forest sandstone underlying the basalt is a significant fractured and confined aquifer with yields of 50-300 m3/d with a good water quality. Where covered by basalt, these aquifers occur at depth and are extensive. In the east along the border with Mozambique, the basalt is overlain by Cretaceous age mudstones from which yields are low and waters brackish to saline. The underlying Karoo basalt and sandstones have not been assessed. Alluvial aquifers occur along the Limpopo, Shashe, Masunga and Nuanetsi. The Limpopo and Shashe Rivers form transboundary or international aquifers. Review of the 1984 Masvingo and other drought relief drilling projects, the collector well/small scale irrigation project, the 1983-1988 Basement Complex groundwater project and various sand river water resources projects will provide additional information on groundwater resources in the area. 6.2. Hydrogeological region classification for the Central Limpopo Basin In the report, the Limpopo Basin has been divided into the eight hydrogeological regions based on the simplified geology. A description of each region is given below. Unit L0: Alluvium associated with river courses The Limpopo River alluvium and its tributaries form a sustainable aquifer more than 2 250 km long. These aquifers are well developed in all countries and play a major role in water supply during droughts. Boroto and Görgens indicate channel dimensions used to assess the amount of alluvium along the river course and that can be used for groundwater storage within river reaches.

• River reach 1: Upper Limpopo River from confluence of the Crocodile and Marico Rivers in South Africa, to Sterkloop.

• River reach 2: From Sterkloop flow to the confluence with the Shashe. • River reach 3: From the Shashe confluence to Beit Bridge. • River reach 4: from Beit Bridge to Pafuri • River reach 5: From Pafuri to Chonkwe

Upstream of confluence of the Limpopo and Olifants River, the alluvial system is narrow but well developed. The alluvium of the Limpopo River in Mozambique is clay rich with coarse to very coarse sands and occasional limestones and good water quality and yields. The Changane alluvial system is of limited depth and clayey, with poor water quality. Further inland at the Limpopo Olifants confluence, in South-North direction (Estivane), the alluvial aquifers of the old alluvial plains are well developed calcareous sandstones




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and limestones. The eroded valleys overlying the Tertiary and Cretaceous sedimentary formations have limited thickness of alluvial materials and do not constitute a significant aquifer. Unit L1: Fractured Basement Complex granites The Basement Complex granites have low yields and deep water strikes with water levels>50 mbgl and poor water quality of below 2 000 mg/l. Unit L2: Fractured Transvaal sequence and Bushveld Complex This unit is not present in the Central Limpopo Basin area. Unit L3: Fractured Waterberg, Palapye, Soutpansberg groups Sedimentary Waterberg and Soutpansberg groups do not have any primary porosity groundwater occurring within fracture zones. Yields are low, Unit L4: Central Zone of the Limpopo Mobile Belt Granite and gneissic rocks of the Central and Northern Marginal Zones of the Limpopo Mobile Belt have poor groundwater conditions. Karoo age sedimentary basins overlain by volcanic sequences occur in this unit. Unit L5: Zimbabwean Craton In the granites and gneisses of the Zimbabwean Craton, groundwater occurs in shallow weathered and fractured zones. Yields are low. Unit L6: Kaapvaal Craton In the gneissic rocks of the Kaapvaal Craton and the Southern Marginal Zone of the Limpopo Mobile Belt, groundwater occurs in shallow weathered and fractured zones. Yields are low. Unit L7: Unconsolidated sand and coastal plain aquifers This unit is not found in the central Limpopo Basin. 6.3. Groundwater Potential and Resources Botswana Groundwater sources in the Limpopo Basin of Botswana have been sufficient for rural water supply. Poor groundwater potential in the basement aquifers reflected in low yields and aquifer depletion. Alluvial aquifers along the Limpopo River have sediment thickness and lateral extent that are large with high average yields. Alluvial aquifers along tributaries have lower potential due to limited aquifer extent and less than optimum hydraulic characteristics. Fractured-porous aquifers in the basin, such as Karoo sandstone units, also have good groundwater potential, and high yields (100-150 m3/hr) and good water quality are near Bobonong.




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Centralised groundwater databases are held by the Department of Water Affairs in Gaborone and the Geological Survey Department in Lobatse. Mozambique Alluvial valleys associated with river courses form important shallow primary aquifers in Mozambique. Development of these water sources is however risky due to flood conditions often experienced in the Limpopo River flood plain. Those along the middle reaches of the Limpopo are important due to the good quality of the water and high specific yields of up to 20 m3/h/m. However, DNA (1985) caution that these resources should not be overestimated, as over-utilization could lead to salinisation of the aquifer. Groundwater potential in the Alto Limpopo Plains of western Mozambique underlain by arkosic sandstones of the Cretaceous Sena and Lower Tertiary Elefantes Formations, is low. Groundwater occurs in conglomerates and calcareous formations where yields up to 1 l/s have been obtained. Water quality is about 1 000 mg/l, but poor recharge and deep water levels restrict development. The groundwater potential of the Miocene age Mazamba Formation arkosic and argillaceous sandstones is moderate to low. Between the Changane and Limpopo Rivers the sandstone has a higher clay content which reduces borehole yields. Water quality is poor with TDS >3 000 mg/l reaching in places 30 000 mg/l. The Quaternary cover on the Mazamba Formation is up to 60 m thick, but water quality is brackish to saline. A potentially higher yielding aquifer, the Limpopo Aquifer, containing relatively fresh water (800 – 1 200 mg/l) occurs at 50 to 200 m depth to the north of the Limpopo River. Permeabilities are low, ranging from 0.8 to 1.4 m/d. The basalts and rhyolite of the Lebombo volcanic rocks do not produce high yielding boreholes. The basalts are more productive than the rhyolites. Groundwater quality of the rhyolite is better than that of the basalt and TDS is usually below 500 mg/l. Groundwater quality in the plains along the Lebombo mountain range is poor and, borehole yields with low recharge. A national groundwater database is understood to be maintained by the DNA in Maputo. However, data collection and collation is understood to have been decentralised to the regional ARAs. South Africa In South Africa, groundwater from the weathered and fractured Achaean Basement Complex and Neoproterozoic sedimentary aquifers has been extensively developed for village and farm water supply, especially within the former Venda Homeland area. Elsewhere, alluvial aquifers associated with the Limpopo, Olifants, Sand and the Crocodile rivers, supply local farming, mining and domestic water needs, as well as the town of Messina, the Venetia diamond Mine and irrigation at Pontdrift. DWAF has compiled a National Groundwater Database (NGDB) that includes all hydrogeological information. The database forms the basis for the Governments water supply programme to the rural communities. Limpopo Province has compiled the Groundwater Resource Information Programme (GRIP) database.




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The Directorate Water Services has a programme of “Groundwater Developing Strategies”. In the Limpopo Province these strategies are developed on a District Municipality basis. Zimbabwe Groundwater occurrence in the basement rocks is controlled by secondary porosity associated with fracturing, jointing and weathering. Average depth of weathering is of the order of 10 m to 30 m. Borehole yields from the weathered and/or fractured zones are low (10-50 m3/d) with specific capacity between 2 and 20 m3/d/m. Where weathering is well-developed yields of 50 to 100 m3/d are possible. Water levels are usually less than 10 mbgl and quality is generally good. Upper Karoo-age Batoka Basalt outcrops in the south and southeast of the basin where it is underlain by the Forest sandstone formation. In the Batoka basalt formation groundwater occurs in weathered and/or fractured zones with yields of 20-100 m3/d. Water quality is generally good. The confined Forest sandstone aquifer underlying the basalt is laterally extensive and has primary and secondary porosity. The aquifer has yields of 50-300 m3/d and water quality is good. Recharge is estimated to be only about 100x106 m3. Therefore, should this aquifer be exploited to any large degree, groundwater management will be of utmost importance. Cretaceous mudstones, siltstones and sandstones are present in southeastern Zimbabwe, with yields of 10-50 m3/d, but water quality is variable with high TDS. The alluvial aquifers along the major rivers have thick clean sands and groundwater potential is high with yields in the range of 100-5 000 m3/d. Water quality is good although vulnerable to pollution. Recharge occurs through annual flood events. A national groundwater database was established at the Ministry of Water Development in Harare. This database was designed to capture all groundwater related data held at provincial level by the DDF and other government bodies. The current status of this database is currently unknown and may be difficult to access. 6.4. Groundwater Quality The current quality status of groundwater in the region appears to be poorly understood especially the possible presence of minor ions such as fluoride and trace elements such as arsenic, both of which can affect communal health. Several areas of high nitrate concentrations (>250 mg/l) have been identified that are linked to agricultural activities along the Limpopo River. An assessment needs to be undertaken of the presence of agri-chemicals and other possible pollutants within the shallow aquifers of the focal areas especially downstream of irrigated areas and large townships. 6.5. Groundwater Recharge




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The interaction between river base-flow and groundwater is poorly understood. Estimates made by Hughes (1999) for base flow show that there is very little groundwater inflow into the Limpopo River; a possible indication of low groundwater recharge in the area.

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The results of studies of rainfall recharge into weathered basement complex aquifers at the Ronwey catchment site in Masvingo made add to this area. 6.6. Groundwater Levels There are a number of small isolated areas where water levels are >50 m below surface. Over the largest part of the basin in Zimbabwe the groundwater levels are indicated to be below 20 m. This is a reflection of the shallow weathered aquifers found on the basement granites of the area. The isolated areas of deeper water levels in Zimbabwe are in the Karoo basins where the aquifers are confined and overlain by basalt. These deeper levels are perceived to reflect potentiometric levels. The deep water levels along the Zimbabwe Mozambique border are also believed to be associated with the confined aquifer conditions on the Nuanetsi sedimentary basin. The deep water levels just to the north of the Limpopo River in Mozambique are indicative of deeper confined aquifers not hydraulically connected to the Limpopo River. 6.7. Groundwater Monitoring In Botswana the DGS is responsible for groundwater resources and basin monitoring as part of the National Monitoring Network. This network comprises 476 manually monitored boreholes, 37 autographic water level recorders and 17 rain gauges. In South Africa the monitoring network is under review. 7. Conclusion The basin wide study has produced a reasonable assessment of the occurrence of groundwater within the Limpopo Basin at a regional scale. At that scale maybe the assumptions made that: • the regional geology of the Limpopo Basin is understood, including geomorphological

development. • the hydrogeology of the region is understood • rainfall/evaporation/runoff relationships are understood as these inform rates of

recharge. may be true in a broad regional sense but they are found wanting at focal area level. Although some understanding was obtained to provide a way forward for the present project at focal level there is a lack of detailed information or indication as to where this detail may be located. In part this may be due in large part to the lack of such information, especially in Mozambique and Zimbabwe. Understanding of these factors needs to be enhanced by the correlation with similar possibly adjacent areas where specific studies have been undertaken. This will require a trawl through grey literature collections and databases by in country specialists. Additional relevant information may be obtained from local institutions and regional offices not visited by the basin wide project, these sources need to be quickly identified by the present project.




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APPENDIX C

Minutes of the Initial Client Meeting




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M I N U T E S

Inception Meeting 12 March 2008 at 14:00, at the Wellfield Offices, Gaborone, Botswana

Present: John Farr (WCS), Jeffrey Davies (BGS), Philip Beetlestone (SADC), Barbara

Lopi (SADC), Jeanette Rascher (CSIR) Absent without leave: None

AGENDA ITEM

DISCUSSION ACTION WHO &

BY WHEN

1. Welcome John Farr (JF) and Philip Beetlestone (PB) welcomed the participants. Philip expressed his appreciation that the project has been started.

2. Background

and Objectives

Introduction PB provided a brief background on his involvement at SADC and introduced Barbara Lopi (BL) who will be responsible for the communications issues of the project. He invited the team to contact them at any time to discuss any issues related to the project. Procurement Process PB provided some information on the procurement process of the project. Four proposals were submitted. Wellfield’s proposal was well received and also won the contract/project (which is one of the pieces of a larger project). Project Schedule Late start due to several constraints – PB indicated that a revised work plan will be considered; It will however only affect construction. A large amount of field work etc will have to be done in the next 18 months. M&E will be the primary activities after 18 months (2nd phase), but equally important. The project is due to close in May 2009; a potential extension of the closing date for project will be resolved in a month or two. Challenges With reference to the proposal submitted, there are no real changes - only clarification of some of the issues. It is realized that very little, or in some cases no data is available, but “all projects have to




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start somewhere” (PB). Community engagement and participation will be a challenge, i.e. buy-in from traditional leaders etc. In some cases, alternative approaches may for example be necessary to overcome obstacles (PB). For the Monitoring and Evaluation process, the challenge is that there may be no drought (JF) VisionOne of the aims of this project is to create groundwater awareness in the region (PB). It is important that existing stakeholder involvement in groundwater issues be investigated (i.e. NGOs etc) as ‘piggy-backing’ may be an option.

3. Inception Report /Workplan

JF explained that the inception report/workplan will amongst others the following points: • A review of groundwater and socio-economic

related information of the pilot areas to investigate availability and lack of information (i.e digital data bases, hard copy maps and reports, academic papers published in international journals)

• Definition of Methodology and Work plan for Information Collection

• Analyses of baseline information to identify gaps

• Identification of knowledge gaps to inform questionnaire formats and content and identification of stakeholders (to fill in gaps in baseline survey)

• Anticipated problems and limitations (to possibly change approach in time when needed)

Prepare Inception Report

JF, JD, JR ? April 2008

4. Scope of

Work

Project Areas JF enquired why the specific project areas have been selected, in what ways it has been done and whether these areas selected is cast in stone. PB indicated that areas are key however the boundaries as set in the RFP are in no means set in stone. Focus of the Study JF enquired whether the focus of the study is on rural areas (and rural communities). PB confirmed that that is indeed the case – mainly to contribute

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to SADCs poverty alleviation actions. Obviously the bigger issues (such as Messina, Beitbridge Venetia Mine…) will have to be taken into account for downstream issues. Methodology Nodal Analyses is very important (PB). It has to be decided how to focus. It has to be narrowed down as the study areas are large. A matrix should be used (physical and socio-economic) as part of the methodology to identify nodal points (JR)

5. General General discussions: • In east area (Mocambique) very rural areas to

deal with (have to come from Zimbabwe or SA side) – PB

• On Zimbabwe side still rural, but many more boreholes -PB

• SA (Kruger National Park). Extensive work in region has been conducted in the Limpopo National Park by the IUCN focusing on resettlement issues

• List of stakeholders and letters to them • Letters of interactions with different countries • SADC Remote sensing unit may be able to

provide information

Obtain name of IUCN person responsible for resettlement and provide to JR To be provided To be provided

PB

PB PB

PB PB

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development and testing of groundwater drought...

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