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=Marine Geology 222–22Development of the Kura delta, Azerbaijan; a record
of Holocene Caspian sea-level changes
Robert M. Hoogendoorn a,*, Jelle F. Boels a, Salomon B. Kroonenberg a,
Mike D. Simmons b,1, Elmira Aliyeva c, Aliya D. Babazadeh c, Dadash Huseynov c
aDelft University of Technology, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences, Department of Geotechnology,
Section of Applied Geology, Mijnbouwstraat 120, 2628 RX, Delft The NetherlandsbCASP, University of Cambridge, Department of Earth Sciences, West Building 181A Huntingdon Road, Cambridge CB3 0DH, United Kingdom
cGeological Institute of Azerbaijan, Azerbaijan Academy of Sciences, 29A H. Javid Avenue, Baku 370143, Azerbaijan
Accepted 15 June 2005
Abstract
Late Holocene deposits of the Kura delta indicate an alternating dominance of deltaic and shallow marine environments.
These major environment shifts are controlled by the high frequency sea-level changes of the Caspian Sea. The level of the
Caspian Sea, now at 27 m below Global Sea Level (GSL), changes at rates of up to a hundred times as fast as global sea level,
allowing observation of sedimentary processes on a decadal scale that would take millennia in an oceanic environment. The
modern Kura delta is a river-dominated delta with some wave action along its north-eastern flank, and without tidal influence.
Morphological and hydrological changes have been monitored for over 150 years, continuing up to the present day using
remote sensing imagery. Offshore sparker survey data, onshore and offshore corings, biostratigraphical analysis and radiometric
dating enable a reconstruction of the Holocene Kura delta.
Four phases of delta progradation alternating with erosional transgressive surfaces have been identified, representing just as
many cycles of sea-level fall and rise. The first cycle is represented by lowstand deposits truncated by a transgressive surface
(TS1) at ca. 80 m below GSL. TS1 is overlain by several metres of laminated clays and silts, deposited during a Late Holocene
forced regression (H1). These deposits are truncated by the prominent reflector (TS2), corresponding to the Derbent lowstand
around 1500 yr BP and subsequent transgression. This transgressive surface is overlain by prograding shallowing upwards
deposits, H2, in turn truncated by a third transgressive surface (TS3), correlated with a lowstand of ca. 32 m below GSL. The
last phase, H3, comprises an onshore progradational unit followed by an aggradational unit with an offshore veneer of clays and
silts, corresponding to the formation of the modern Kura delta that started at the beginning of the 19th century.
D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Kura River; Caspian Sea; delta progradation; regressive deposits; transgressive surface; marine erosion
0025-3227/$ - s
doi:10.1016/j.m
* Correspondi
E-mail addre1 Present addr
3 (2005) 359–380
ee front matter D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
argeo.2005.06.007
ng author. Tel.: +31 15 278 8192; fax: +31 15 278 1189.
ss: [email protected] (R.M. Hoogendoorn).
ess: Neftex Petroleum Consultants Ltd, 80A Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxford, OX14 4RY, UK.
R.M. Hoogendoorn et al. / Marine Geology 222–223 (2005) 359–380360
1. Introduction
The interaction between (rapid) sea-level change
and deltaic systems has mainly been examined in
outcrop studies (Burns et al., 1997; Naish and
Kamp, 1997; Reynolds et al., 1996). The Kura delta
presents the possibility to study the effects of rapid
sea-level changes on active delta environments in a
well constrained setting. The Kura delta is located
along the southwestern shore of the Caspian Sea,
Azerbaijan (Fig. 1). According to Galloway’s (1975)
classification, it is a fluvial-dominated delta, with
Fig. 1. (A) Schematic overview of the Kura delta study area with locations
(24 January 2004), (C) Location map including the bathymetry of the sou
located), major faults, syncline and anticline structures and oil and gas fi
location of the Kura basin in relation to the Caspian Sea.
redistribution of delta sediments through wave-action
on the northern shore. Beside the fluvial and shallow
marine processes, rapid sea-level change has a strong
influence on the formation of the Kura delta. The
present day subaerial delta covers ~200 km2 of largely
undeveloped arid lowland and shoreline swamps. This
area is the result of the latest phase of delta develop-
ment which started at the beginning of the 19th cen-
tury (Mikhailov et al., 2003). Major human
developments that have affected the delta dynamics
in the last 50 yrs have been the building of the
Mingechaur Reservoir, ca. 150 km upstream of Kura
of acquired field data. (B) ASTER satellite image of the Kura delta
thwestern Caspian Sea (rectangle indicates where the Kura delta is
elds of the Lower Kura basin from Inan et al. (1997). Inset shows
R.M. Hoogendoorn et al. / Marine Geology 222–223 (2005) 359–380 361
River mouth, and development of industrial fish and
rice ponds in the delta plain.
Earlier studies of the Kura delta undertaken by
Belyayev (1971), focussed on hydrology and delta
growth over the last 200 yrs. These have recently
been updated and expanded by Mikhailov et al.
(2003). Limited work has been done on the (late)
Holocene development of the Kura delta, as well as
on the determination of its depositional environments
and lithofacies. The data on delta growth and the
detailed hydrological data, combined with the work
of Rychagov (1997), on the fluctuations of Caspian
sea-level do provide a narrow constraint on the sedi-
mentation models and interpretations of the Kura delta
lithology.
Fig. 2. (A) Part of the map of Europe by Joseph Scheda (1845). At the l
evidence of a subaerial body. To the south of the river mouth, an active de
the Landsat TM7 Satellite image (2001) of the Kura delta and the Caspi
indicate active channel switching of the Kura River.
During 3 field campaigns 40 cores, up to 7 m
depth, were drilled onshore, and 8 wells drilled to
20 m depth in the offshore. In addition 14 piston
cores penetrated down to 3.5 m, and 18 sparker
profiles were shot in lines parallel and perpendicular
to the delta contours offshore, with a total survey
length of 215 km (Fig. 1). The resulting data reveal
that the Holocene delta consists of possibly four
progradational phases and three erosional phases.
During the Holocene the active delta has switched
location several times as a result of the sea-level
fluctuations, and fluvial dynamics of the Kura River,
resulting in the subsequent lateral displacement of
the delta apex over a distance of several tens of
kilometres from the Qizilagac Bay (formerly known
ocation of the Kura River mouth (centre of the square) there is no
lta body can be seen, consistent with the deltaic remains observed in
an Sea (B). These deltaic remains south of the modern Kura delta
R.M. Hoogendoorn et al. / Marine Geology 222–223 (2005) 359–380362
as Kirov Bay) lying to the south of the present delta
(Fig. 2). There are historical records of the Kura
discharging into the Qizilagac Bay, as far back as
2500 yrs BP (Mikhailov et al., 2003), explaining the
presence of remnant deltaic features and spits and
barriers in this bay. Furthermore the onshore cores
disclosed the major role of the recent 3 m sea-level
fall and rise, during the last 200 yrs, in the devel-
opment of the Kura delta. Whereas fluvial and
marine processes are the primary forces affecting
the formation and morphology of most major deltas
(Galloway, 1975), the Kura delta has formed in
response to a combination of fluvial processes and
the rapid, high frequency sea-level changes in the
Caspian Sea.
2. Regional setting
2.1. Geologic setting
The modern Kura delta is located on the border
between the Kura and South Caspian basins (Fig. 1).
The South Caspian basin is part of an active tectonic
zone in which the Greater and Lesser Caucasus are
being uplifted (Mitchell and Westaway, 1999), while
the Caspian seafloor subsides at a rate of 2.5 mm
yr�1 (Inan et al., 1997). The Kura basin is situated in
the eastern part of the depression between the
Greater Caucasus to the North and the Lesser Cau-
casus to the South. Middle Jurassic volcanism,
together with shallow-marine Jurassic and Cretac-
eous sediments form the base of the succession in
the Kura basin, which has been encountered at a
depth of more than 8000 m in the Saatly ultra
deep borehole in the centre of the Kura basin
(Khain, 1984; Khain and Shardanov, 1952; Levin,
1995). From Miocene times onwards, shallow-mar-
ine and deltaic sedimentation has been dominant.
Major uplift occurred at the end of the Miocene as
a result of underplating of the Transcaucasian micro-
continent under the European plate. Folding of the
Kura basin sediments, and older units, into NW–SE
oriented anticlinal structures took place mainly at the
end of the Pliocene, leading to the development of
numerous mud volcanoes, still active today. These
mud volcanoes are unique geological features and
give rise to significant gas, water, and oil seepages
(Guliyev and Feizullayev, 1997). A mud volcano is
found several kilometres offshore, northeast of the
Kura delta.
Ever since the late Pleistocene periodic transgres-
sions and regressions of the Caspian Sea changed the
coast-line configuration of the present day Kura basin
lowland. During significant transgressions, this low-
land turned into an inland shallow water bay, in which
ancient deltas of the Kura River were formed. The
traces of several deltas can be found in the present
topography of the lowland. Over the period of large-
scale regressions, the delta of the Kura River pro-
truded into the sea far more to the east of the modern
delta (Mamedov, 1997).
2.2. River system characteristics
The Kura River is the largest watercourse in the
Southern Caucasus. It originates in the springs located
2720 m above sea level on the northeast slopes of
Kizil-Giadik (Turkey). It then flows through the ter-
ritory of Georgia and the lower reaches of the river are
in Azerbaijan, where it flows through the Kura basin
into the Caspian Sea. In the Kura basin the Kura River
merges with its major tributary, the Araks River. The
Araks River drains the eastern Lesser Caucasus.
According to Mamedov (1997), the Araks- and Kura
River had their own deltas in the past. The total length
of the Kura River is 1515 km and the total area of the
catchment is 188,000 km2 (including the Araks
River). The catchment occupies the greater part of
the Lesser Caucasus and the south-eastern Greater
Caucasus.
The Kura water discharge at the river mouth aver-
aged around 17.1 km3 yr�1 (550 m3 s�1) between
1938 and 1984 (Bousquet and Frenken, 1997). The
sediment (bedload and suspended load) of the Kura
River upon entering the delta is predominately clay,
silt and fine sand (b200 Am). The annual sediment
volume reaching the delta averaged 11.3*106 m3
yr�1 between 1967 and 1976 and from 1977 to
1986 the sediment volume dropped to 8.8*106 m3
yr�1 (Aybulatov, 2001; Mikhailov et al., 2003).
2.3. The Caspian Sea
The Caspian Sea, with surface area of 3.93�105
km2, is the largest inland water body on earth;
R.M. Hoogendoorn et al. / Marine Geology 222–223 (2005) 359–380 363
(Kosarev and Yablonskaya, 1994), it has virtually no
tides and its salinity is 13 mg/l. The Caspian basin is
divided into approximately equal-sized northern, mid-
dle and southern parts. The northern part is a shallow
shelf region reaching a maximum depth of about 10
m. The middle and southern regions are deeper areas,
separated by an east–west oriented underwater range
near the Apsheron peninsula. The depth of the south-
ern Caspian Sea is approximately 1025 m and the
shelf edge is located 20 to 40 km offshore of the
present day Kura delta. The sea level of the land-
locked Caspian basin, presently at approx. 27 m
below GSL, fluctuates rapidly on several time scales,
Fig. 3. (A) Estimated Holocene sea-level fluctuations of the Caspian Se
fluctuation, 1900–2000 AD (Klige and Myagkov, 1992).
seasonal to centuries. The measured seasonal sea-level
change is up to 0.4 m (Cazenave et al., 1997) while
the maximum measured inter-annual Caspian sea-
level change in the records has been 0.34 m yr�1.
These fluctuations are a result of the interaction
between differences in river discharge (predominantly
the Volga River), evaporation, precipitation and water
temperature (Kosarev and Yablonskaya, 1994; Rodio-
nov, 1994).
The sea-level curve for the last 160 yrs is accu-
rately known from the gauge at Makhachkala, and
since 1993 from satellite measurements (Fig. 3)
(Kosarev and Yablonskaya, 1994). From 1930 to
a (Rychagov, 1993a,b, 1997) and (B) measured Caspian sea-level
Fig. 4. Monitored shoreline progradation of the modern Kura delta
(Aybulatov, 2001; Mikhailov et al., 2003).
R.M. Hoogendoorn et al. / Marine Geology 222–223 (2005) 359–380364
1977, sea level dropped by ~2.7 m, and from 1977 to
1995, it rose at a rate of 15 cm yr�1 (Kaplin and
Selivanov, 1995). Numerous transgressions and
regressions of the Caspian Sea have also occurred in
the more distant past (Ignatov et al., 1993; Svitoch,
1991). The Holocene sea-level history has been recon-
structed from a marine terrace section along the Dage-
stan coast. Results from these studies show five
transgressive phases that have been dated around
8000, 7000, 6000, 3000 and 200 BP (Rychagov,
1993a,b, 1997). The lowest documented sea level is
estimated at 50 m below global sea level at the end of
the Pleistocene or early Holocene (Mangyshlak
regression). The Derbent regression, around 1500
BP, reached a minimum of at least �32 m. The
highest level reached by the Caspian Sea during the
Holocene is around �22 m, the elevation of the
present delta apex.
2.4. Delta morphology
A barrier-breach around 1800 AD marked the
onset of the progradation of the present day Kura
delta. The morphological development has been
described in detail by Mikhailov et al. (2003). Pro-
gradation of the shoreline and the delta body have
been continuously monitored. Fig. 4 illustrates the
rapid progradation during the last ~180 yrs. The sub-
aerial modern Kura delta is elongated and slightly
lobate. Deposition is asymmetrical, and the delta
accretes to the south–east (1208) as a result of the
southward directed current. It measures 40 km from
the apex to the tip of the delta, is 55 km at its widest
point and has a surface of ~200 km2, making it the
third largest delta in the Caspian region (Warren and
Kukosh, 2003). The NW–SE oriented Kura River has
three channels oriented northeast (NE), southeast (SE)
and south (S). At present the SE channel is not active.
The channels have a low sinuosity in the delta plain.
During the latest period of sea-level fall, the main
channel flowed in south-easterly direction with a sin-
gle distributary flowing in north-easterly direction.
During the latest sea-level rise the SE channel closed
and was partly filled, the southern channel formed at
this time. Currently, the active main southern channel
bifurcates into numerous (ca. 20) smaller ones that are
10–100 m wide at the delta front. These are situated in
the leeward side of the delta, and are consequently
shielded from longshore currents and waves. The
northern flank of the delta is composed of a barrier
lagoon complex. The eastern flank is currently sus-
ceptible to erosion as no sediment is being transported
to the delta front by the SE channel.
3. Delta sediments and stratigraphy
3.1. Lithology
Lithological profiles of representative cores are
shown in Fig. 5, an overview of all lithofacies is
given in Table 1, while all core location are shown
in Fig. 1. The onshore cores were made using a hand
auger. This device provides quick and simple method
to recover a continuous subsurface sediment sample, 1
m length, in unconsolidated sediments ranging in
grain size from clay to fine sand. Most onshore
cores are 7–8 m deep. The piston cores were obtained
offshore using a 3.5 m long, 10 cm wide piston corer
Fig. 5. Lithologic profiles of selected cores, note that the vertical scale of well 4 (F) is in meters while the others are in centimetres.
R.M. Hoogendoorn et al. / Marine Geology 222–223 (2005) 359–380 365
profiler, and wells were drilled up to 20 m deep, in 2
m sections.
A typical onshore core (Fig. 5A, B and C) consists
of massive dark grey clays and silty sands at the base.
These pass up into laminated clays and silty clays
overlain by layered fine sand, silts and clays. These
deposits are often intercalated with sandy beds, mas-
sive and heterolithic sands, which vary in thickness
(10–100 cm.) and sorting. The massive sands are
relatively poorly sorted, dark reddish brown in colour,
very fine to medium silty/clayey sands, with a uni-
form grain size. The thickness of the massive sand
layers varies between 10 cm and 1.3 m. The hetero-
lithic sands are brownish and reddish and vary in
grain size resulting in fining—or coarsening up
sequences. They are well sorted with a thickness
that varies between 10 cm and 0.5 m. The top of the
cores consist of massive clays and silty clays (homo-
Table 1
Characteristics of the lithofacies of the Kura delta
Lithofacies Texture Observed sedimentary characteristics Location
Massive clay and silts Silty clay and clay Massive, roots, desiccation cracks Onshore
Massive sands Medium to very fine sand Massive, sharp boundaries Onshore
Heterolithic sands Medium to very fine sand,
silty sand
Coarsening up or fining up,
badly sorted
Onshore
Interstratified clays,
silts and sands
Fine to very fine sand,
silt and clay
Layers and lamination Onshore and offshore
Laminated clays and silts Silt and clay Lamination, mud dominated Onshore and offshore
Dark grey clays Clay and medium to very
fine sand
Dark grey colour, well sorted layers,
mud dominated
Onshore and offshore
Shelly sands Medium to fine sand Shells Offshore
Cemented shells Shells fragmented and cemented 100% shells Offshore
R.M. Hoogendoorn et al. / Marine Geology 222–223 (2005) 359–380366
genous) which are rich with rootlets. The onshore
cores located away from the main channel often lack
sandy deposits. The cores towards the delta front
feature a set of layered fine sand, silts and clays on
top of the homogenous massive clays.
The offshore piston cores (3.5 m) consist of fine
sediment (Fig. 5D and E). The distal piston cores are
homogenous and consist primarily of laminated clays.
The colour-laminated clays and silty clays are found
with abundant mm- to cm-scaled colour transitions
A
N
0 10 km
Fig. 6. Depositional environments
and their colour varies from yellowish brown to olive
black. The continuous thickness of the laminated
clays reaches 260 cm. In some cases, in proximal as
well as distal cores, thin shelly, sandy deposits can be
found. Sometimes complete shells occur within these
coarser layers and vary in size from 1 mm to 5 cm.
The locations proximal to the delta shoreline generally
show laminated clays at the bottom of the proximal
piston cores which are overlain by layered clays and
silts. The layered clays and silts are sporadically
'
Delta plainProximal delta frontFluvial Sand (Levee & Channel fill)Mouth BarBarrier lagoon complexInterdistributary bayDistal delta frontProdeltaKura River
of the modern Kura delta.
R.M. Hoogendoorn et al. / Marine Geology 222–223 (2005) 359–380 367
intercalated with films of fine sand, the thickness of
the sand and silt layers varies from 1 mm to 1 cm.
There are also silty clays containing significant
amounts of organic material forming black layers,
5–20 cm thick.
The wells feature diverse lithofacies over their 24 m
thickness (Fig. 5F). Massive mottled clays or yellow-
ish brown sandy to silty clays, containing abundant,
coarse, red granules have been found at the bottom of
the wells at a depth of ca. 80 m below GSL. The colour
laminated clays and layered clays and silts are inter-
bedded. Whole as well as fragmented shells occur
within heterolithic, brown, poorly sorted fine sand to
silt. The thickness of the sandy deposits are up to 0.5
m. Though generally these deposits thinner than 10
cm. Shells vary in size from ca. 2 mm to 5 cm. Well
recovery is poor (30–70% recovery), therefore, these
well data should be interpreted with caution.
3.2. Depositional environments
Satellite images, field observations and surficial
sediments were used to classify the delta into several
Fig. 7. Sparker profile 5 (0105) showing the downlap of the modern delta
the middle of H2 and clinoform stacking in the southern part of the profi
depositional environments. Fig. 6 illustrates the spa-
tial distribution of these depositional environments.
Characteristic surficial sediments of the upper
and lower delta plain include massive silty clays,
sands, and layered sands and clays. These lithofa-
cies are interpreted subaerial deposits formed by
fluvial processes. The mottled clays which have
been observed in the lower portion of the well
cores have also been related to a lower delta plain
depositional environment. Sandy sediments on the
subaerial delta surface were only found at the bifur-
cation of the northern and southern distributaries,
forming a point bar on the inside of the river bend.
Sandy deposits in the subsurface samples of the
delta plain are represented by massive and hetero-
lithic sands locally deposited in higher energy envir-
onments in the vicinity of the distributaries, e.g.
channel fills, crevasses, or levees. However, the
poor sorting, ranging from fine sands to clays,
indicate an environment where flow energy is spor-
adically high enough to deposit such a mixture, but
not continuously high enough to effectively sort the
material.
to the NE, and the ddrapeT, comprising several, parallel reflectors in
le indicating the aggrading phase of H2.
R.M. Hoogendoorn et al. / Marine Geology 222–223 (2005) 359–380368
The proximal delta front comprises the southern,
low angle dipping seafloor, and that part of the lower
floodplain that is occasionally submerged. Deposits of
the proximal delta front environment comprise layered
clays, silts and fine sands. Depending on the local
topography and hydrodynamics of the channels, parts
of the delta front deposits may contain organic mate-
rial, representing the marshy freshwater environment,
representing a transition zone between the delta plain
and the proximal delta front. The distal delta front is
the part of the delta comprising a high angle slope
varying between 0.38 and 0.58. The laminated clays are
found here. The distal delta front gradually changes
into the prodelta where sedimentation rates are low.
Between the prograding northern distributaries an
interdistributary bay has formed, ca. 0.5 to 1 m deep,
in which clay and silt has been deposited during
floods. This bay was dry during the last lowstand
(1977) and is currently submerged and overgrown
with aquatic vegetation.
Fig. 8. Sparker profile 2 (0102) coast-parallel profile, illustrating the two c
horizontally filled with sediments and incised the underlying strata. The mo
for an aggradation channel since it is still visible in the surface topograph
Mouth bar deposits occur seaward of the river
mouth (South). This facies is characterized in the
sub surface samples by laminated sands, and inter-
bedded sands and muds (85% sand).
The beach on the northern flank is a very diverse
geomorphological unit. The beach contains ripples,
storm berms, and washover channels. The beach pro-
graded seaward and facilitated the enclosure of the
back barrier lagoon. The beach consists of well sorted,
medium grained sand. The shelly sands from the wells
are interpreted as lower shoreface deposits as the
presence of whole shells indicate an open marine
environment.
3.3. Sparker data
The shallow subsurface of the offshore Kura has
been mapped using 215 km of sparker shallow acous-
tic profiles arranged in a grid of 18 profiles (Fig. 1).
Data quality is sub optimal due to multiples and back-
hannel types the most S-SE channel (right-hand side of the figure) is
st N-NW channel (left-hand side of the figure) serves as an example
y.
R.M. Hoogendoorn et al. / Marine Geology 222–223 (2005) 359–380 369
ground noise. This relates to the high degree of gas
saturation in the shallow subsurface. Nonetheless, the
quality is sufficient to determine the major elements of
the offshore delta geometry and its shallow subsur-
face. Five sparker profiles (Figs. 7–11) show the
typical features of the Kura delta. In addition to the
present day delta (H3), three prograding deposits PH,
H1 and H2, were identified. Two transgressive sur-
faces, TS1 and TS2 were defined as prominent dis-
continuity surfaces on the sparker data. Furthermore a
drape of continuous reflectors is recognisable on all
profiles and is considered to represent sedimentation
of the modern Kura delta. Consequently the base of
this drape is interpreted as TS3.
Four main features can be recognized within the
profiles: (1) horizontal/subhorizontal reflectors (delta
plain), (2) clinoform reflectors (delta front, prodelta)
(3) concave-upward reflectors (distributary channels
and possible incised channel), which are often asso-
ciated with (4) hyperbolic reflectors (levees, barrier).
The horizontal/subhorizontal reflectors represent
the topset facies. The stratigraphic position and the
Fig. 9. Sparker profile 11 (0111) Overview of the northern offshore part, w
the mud volcano. The data also shows the subhorizontal and clinoform refl
transgressive surface 2 (TS2) can be correlated to a facies change in well 3,
were dated at ca.1400 BP (Fig. 12).
parallel character of these reflectors implies vertical
aggradation in a delta plain depositional setting (Figs.
7, 8 and 9). The cores which penetrate these reflectors
show layered clays, silty clays and fine sands that are
interpreted as proximal delta front deposits. Typical
palaeo-floodplain deposits are only found at the base
in wells 4 and 5. Other subhorizontal reflectors are
interpreted to represent the mud volcano dynamics.
The clinoform reflectors are sigmoid clinoforms
and interpreted to the prograding delta front to pro-
delta deposits of the palaeo Kura River. The cores did
not reveal any crossbedding to confirm the observa-
tion of the sparker data, but did contain laminated and
layered clays and silty clays at the locations and
depths, similar to the modern distal delta and delta
front sediments (Figs. 7, 9, 10 and 11).
The concave-upward reflectors are mainly asso-
ciated with the topset deposits of Fig. 8. Two channel
types can be recognized: (1) Channel type 1 incises
and fills horizontally. The incised channel is asso-
ciated with a regressive system as it is filled up
when the sea level rises, (2) Channel type 2 aggrades
ith the sediment drape of the modern delta extending to the slope of
ectors representing the progradational phase of H2. Furthermore the
TS1 is correlated to the deeper sandy shelly horizon of well 3, which
Fig. 10. Sparker profile 7 (0107) data also shows the subhorizontal and clinoform reflectors representing the progradational phase of H2 and
reveals the depth interval at which erosive features occur (between 20 and 25 m), as well as interference of the delta with the slope of the
submerged mud volcano.
R.M. Hoogendoorn et al. / Marine Geology 222–223 (2005) 359–380370
vertically, this channel type is associated with a trans-
gressive phase of delta development. When the regres-
sive channel is suffocated, other, smaller, channels
develop. These channel features are preserved under
a drape of sediment, in a similar way to the processes
observed in the modern delta.
Hyperbolic reflectors are commonly found near
the channel type 2 and may therefore be associated
with levee deposits, although no core has penetrated
these deposits. A second type of hyperbolic reflec-
tors is shown in Fig. 8, which shows a bump in the
centre on the figure which is not associated with a
channel in the subsurface. This feature may be
associated with a barrier bar, though evidence for
this is limited. Nevertheless, the core data show the
occurrence of shoreface deposits and the north flank
of the modern Kura delta has an active barrier
system. Subsequently this is thought to be an accep-
table assumption to relate the hyperbolic features to
levee’s and barriers.
4. Laboratory analyses
4.1. Radiometric dating
210Pb analysis was used to determine sedimenta-
tion speed for a maximum period of 150 yrs (Lami et
al., 2000). 210Pb analysis was used to determine sedi-
mentation speed for a maximum period of 150 yrs. the
results for 210Pb analyses for pistons 7 and 9 (Fig. 12)
give estimated sedimentation rates varying from 1.9 to
2.2 cm yr�1. The results of the 210Pb analyses from
the onshore core 12 were inconclusive. This can be
explained by a resetting of the internal clock of the210Pb isotope due to emergence of the sediment, and
Fig. 11. Sparker profile 14 (0114) in line with the progradational direction of the modern delta shows a high seafloor gradient (0.58) and also
depth-related erosive features. Steep clinoform features of the H2 phase appear at the slope.
R.M. Hoogendoorn et al. / Marine Geology 222–223 (2005) 359–380 371
the resulting contamination by fresh water. In contrast,
samples from the lower part of onshore core 13, taken
from the dark grey clays, show a constant low 210Pb
value.
Shells (all Dreissena polymorpha/andrussovi) from
well 3 have been dated using 14C isotopes (Table 2 and
Fig. 12). From every sampled interval, shells were
examined to assess the likelihood that they were in
situ. Next the samples were dated to compare the
spread of results. Samples 6(1), 6(2), and 5(1) show
a decreasing age upward suggesting they are in situ.
The other samples, 3(1), 4(1), and 5(2) are older than
underlying shells from the other samples, indicating
that they may have been deposited after being
reworked. As a result, the sedimentation rate at the
location of well 3 over the past ~1400 yrs is estimated
at an average of 1.2 cm yr�1. At well 3 the reflective
surface of the sparker data (TS2) is located at a depth
of c. 10 m. Sample 5(1) is from depth 16–16.3 m.
Therefore, these datings indicate that TS2 is younger
than ~1400 yrs BP, and at a sedimentation rate of 1.2
cm yr�1 its age is around 875 yrs BP, i.e. the 11th
century AD. TS2 could therefore correspond to an
erosional level related to the sea-level rise of the
Caspian Sea following the Derbent regression.
4.2. Biostratigraphic dating and diatom analysis
Biostratigraphic analysis of the shells resulted in
the recognition of invasive species (Table 2). The
Fig. 12. Lithologic profiles with summary of all age data (based on 210Pb, 14C, Biostratigraphic and diatom data) and interpreted depositional
environment. Note that the vertical scale of well 3 is in meters while the others are in centimetres. In well 3 the datum level of the interpretated
TS2 of Fig. 9 is shown.
R.M. Hoogendoorn et al. / Marine Geology 222–223 (2005) 359–380372
timing of first occurrence of invasive species in the
Caspian Sea is well known (Kosarev and Yablons-
kaya, 1994), and therefore can be used to date historic
deposits. Mytilaster lineatus invaded the Caspian Sea
around 1920–1930, attached to ships coming from the
Black/Azov Sea region. Abra ovata was deliberately
introduced in order to raise biological production and
consequently fish productivity in 1939. The barnacle
Balanus improvisus was introduced with the opening
of the Volga-Don Canal in 1954. The age estimates
and subsequent average sedimentation rates derived
from lowest occurring depth of invasive species are
given in Table 1. Piston cores 7 and 9 show an
average rate of approx. 2.3 cm yr�1. This is in agree-
ment with the results from the 210Pb analysis.
A total of 10 offshore sediment samples were
analysed for diatom content. Of these, 8 were found
to contain diatoms, with 5 containing sufficient num-
bers to allow counting and detailed environmental
interpretation. The samples typically contained a pro-
portion of inorganic material, including quartz and
mica, and diatom recovery from these samples was
Table 2
Overview of the 14C analyses and biostratigraphic results (Caspian reservoir age is ca. 290 yr, K. van der Borg personal comment)
Site Sample Depth (cm) Material Years BP Cal years
Well 3 3#3 1050–1060 Dreissena polymorpha/andrussovi *1844F32 1409–1335
Well 3 3#4 1530–1550 Dreissena polymorpha/andrussovi *2829F33 2674–2539
Well 3 3#5(1) 1600–1630 Dreissena polymorpha/andrussovi fresh 1368F36 947–888
Well 3 3#5(2) 1600–1630 Dreissena polymorpha/andrussovi old *1914F32 1495–1420
Well 3 3#6(1) 1710–1715 Dreissena polymorpha/andrussovi fresh 1414F37 984–918
Well 3 3#6(2) 1710–1715 Dreissena polymorpha/andrussovi old 1443F29 1009–944
Site Depth (cm) Invasive species Years
Piston core 7 244–246 Balanus improvisus 1954 AD
Piston core 9 109–111 Balanus improvisus 1954 AD
Well 2 305–310 Abra ovata 1939 AD
Well 3 920–925 Mytilaster lineatus 1920 AD
R.M. Hoogendoorn et al. / Marine Geology 222–223 (2005) 359–380 373
low. Recovery of diatoms tended to be highest in
samples with a high proportion of clay. Table 2 and
Fig. 12 show the results of the diatom analysis from
the piston core samples, and the interpretation of their
depositional environment. Although there were lim-
ited data the diatom analyses of layered silts and clays
from the piston cores indicate that the depositional
environment is related to a delta front, confirming the
sedimentological interpretations of the depositional
settings.
5. Depositional history
The unique sea-level situation of the Caspian Sea
does not allow a straight forward sequence strati-
graphic interpretation of the different deltaic deposits
using definitions as given by, e.g. Hunt and Tucker
(1992) and Plint and Nummendal (2000). Regressive
systems tracts (RST) (Myers and Milton, 1996) do
describe some features found in the deposits of the
Kura delta, for instance the boundaries, which can be
interpreted as transgressive surfaces (TS). Further-
more it could be argued that the overall (early) Holo-
cene Caspian sea-level shows an overall rising trend.
Nevertheless the lack of clear stacking patterns in the
sparker data for the different phases of delta deposi-
tion and the exceptional rate of change of the Caspian
sea-level restrains us from using sequence strati-
graphic terms, although similarities between the
deposits and systems tracts will be mentioned.
In order to be able to refer certain stratigraphic
features to former sea levels, all datum levels are
stated in absolute values calculated as h =d +w + z,
in which d is the depth of the feature in the well or
piston core, w is the water depth at the top of the well,
and z the datum level of the sea in 2001 with respect
to the Kronshtadt gauge in the Baltic (�27 m). A
schematic overview of the geochronolgy for the Kura
delta deposits in relation to the Holocene Caspian sea-
level curve (Rychagov, 1997) is shown in Fig. 13. The
overall depositional patterns, calculated datum levels
and 14C datings combined show 4 phases of deposi-
tion, one pre-Holocene and three late Holocene
phases. These phases are characterised by different
stages of deltaic deposition associated with erosive
marine surfaces, which are interpreted to represent
cessation of the sediment supply and transgression.
5.1. Phase 1, pre-Holocene deposits (PH, TS1)
The oldest deposits recovered are the stiff red
mottled clays at the bottom of the deepest wells 4
and 5, at absolute depths of about �89 and �82 m.
The mottling in these deposits indicates incipient soil
formation in floodplain deposits during a pronounced
lowstand. Such a lowstand did not occur in the Holo-
cene (Rychagov, 1997) therefore deposits of phase 1
are probably pre-Holocene. The late Pleistocene low-
stand of ca. �50 m below GSL of the Mangyshlak
regression (ca. 16 kyr BP) (Mamedov, 1997) corre-
sponds well with the well data when datum levels are
compensated for the regional subsidence of 2.5 mm
yr�1 (Inan et al., 1997). In both wells sandy shelly
deposits occur on top of the reddish clays at absolute
depths between �83 and �76 m which are associated
Fig. 13. Geochronological representation of the different phases of delta development superimposed on the Holocene Caspian sea-level curve
(Rychagov, 1997). Giving close constraint to the interpretation of the (late) Holocene deposits of Kura delta.
R.M. Hoogendoorn et al. / Marine Geology 222–223 (2005) 359–380374
with shoreface environments, Sparker profile 7 (Fig.
10) shows a reflector at this level. The results from
Rychagov (1997), show that, after the lowstand, at the
Pleistocene–Holocene transition, a transgression
occurred. TS1 reflector is interpreted as a marine
erosion surface formed during this transgression.
Since well recovery is very poor, the TS1 reflector
only occurs in one profile and no biostratigraphic
information is available for this phase, the position
of these deposits in the overall stratigraphy remains
inconclusive.
5.2. Phase 2, late Holocene deposits 1, (H1, TS2)
The second phase consists of sedimentation of the
unit underlying the Transgressive Surface indicated by
TS2 in the sparker profiles. The seismic facies within
this unit is indistinct. The wells that intersect the TS2
continue 10–14 m down into this sedimentary unit.
The bottom of the unit is unknown except for the TS1
reflector of sparker profile 7. The unit consists mainly
of layered silty clays, with minor intervals of lami-
nated clays and silts, and, in Well 3 (Fig. 9), several
shell-rich horizons. Microfauna in Well 2 indicate a
decreasing depositional depth (with some fluctua-
tions). Depositional depth in Well 3 fluctuates
between 10 and 15 m, in harmony with the actual
water depth of 11.4 m. In the uppermost part of the
unit the ostracod Iliocypris brady was found, indica-
tive of fresh-water influence. Together these data
indicate a generally falling sea level during deposi-
tion. Six 14C datings were obtained from the shell-rich
horizons in Well 3, located underneath the boundary
between H1 and TS2, and indicated deposition at ca.
1400 BP. Therefore the H1 deposits are thought to be
associated with the forced regression preceding the
Derbent lowstand of 1500 BP (Rychagov, 1997).
Since the Derbent regression did not start before
3500 BP and no other depositional units were found
between TS1 and TS2 it is probable that no deposition
took place at the study site during the early-Holocene.
The TS2 is a prominent reflector in the sparker
sections, especially NE and E of the present delta. The
surface is highly irregular in shape between absolute
depths of 45 and 60 m, and truncates H1 sediments.
Below that it slopes smoothly down to 75 m, the
deepest level it has been recognised (Fig. 11), and
parallel to the stratification of the underlying unit. The
irregular topography of the reflector indicates either
an erosive origin, or an accumulative origin as over-
stepped barriers, or both, but in any case features that
occur in a coastal to onshore setting. The shell horizon
recovered in Piston Core 5 at an absolute depth of
�47 m can also be related to this phase. This is the
R.M. Hoogendoorn et al. / Marine Geology 222–223 (2005) 359–380 375
deepest appearance of TS2 in the sampled data and
suggests that this may be a lowstand. On the basis of14C datings this lowstand must have taken place
around 1400 yr BP. While a lowstand of �34 m is
inferred for the Derbent regression (Rodionov, 1994;
Rychagov, 1997; Varushchenko et al., 1987), our data
suggests that the lowstand fell, to an estimated depth
of �37 to �42 m when it is assumed that the shells
from Piston Core 5 were deposited at a water depth of
5–10 m. Hence this surface is interpreted to be asso-
ciated with the Derbent lowstand and the subsequent
transgression.
5.3. Phase 3, late Holocene deposits 2 (H2, TS3)
H2 consists of deltaic deposits between TS2 and
TS3 reflectors. In some places only a pocket of this
unit has been preserved between the two reflectors.
The succession consists of latterly varying facies that
are syndepositional. Proximally, organic-rich silty clay
was deposited in a delta front environment. A prograd-
ing deltaic sequence with clinoform-shaped reflectors
can be seen on the distal, more seaward side, shown in
profile 5 and 11 (Figs. 7 and 9). Furthermore this phase
is found at the base of the onshore cores and consists of
massive dark grey clays and silty sands, similar to the
modern delta plain deposits. The depositional depth
indicated by the microfauna in Well 2 first increases
and, then decreases back to its initial level of 25 m. In
Well 3 the depositional depth is uniformly about 15 m.
Both figures are similar to the present water depth of
�26.3 and �11.4, respectively. Organic-rich clays at
�38 m absolute depth in Piston core 7 contain fresh
water diatoms, and have higher vegetal organic com-
pounds than organic clays from organic clays in piston
cores sampled in deeper water. This suggests that also
this unit reflects an overall falling sea level. The
aggrading stacking patterns of sparker profile 5 (Fig.
7) indicate a transition from regression to transgression
during this phase, which suits the definition of a
Regressive Systems Tract. In view of the position of
the deposits between the two transgressive surfaces the
age of phase 3 is probably between the 11th and 16th
century AD when several alternating stages of rapid
regression and rapid transgression occurred (Rycha-
gov, 1997).
The TS3 reflector truncates the H2 unit with an
irregular topography with ridges, benches and depres-
sions, especially between �47 and �57 m absolute
depth. The reflector is smooth at �37 m depth along
the shallow SW part of the delta. The age of the
Transgressive Surface can only be established indir-
ectly, since datings from this unit are not available. The
overlying unit is known to have been deposited from
the start of the 19th century onward following the 200
BP highstand (Rychagov, 1997) . During the period
preceding this highstand major barrier complexes were
formed (Storms, 2002). Because at that time the Kura
River did not discharge at its present location, but
much further south, in the QVzVlagac bay, the barrier
complex at the apex of the present-day delta and
subsequently TS3 were formed during the 16th and
17th century (Mikhailov et al., 2003).
5.4. Phase 4, modern delta (H3)
As documented by Mikhailov et al. (2003) the
modern delta started to form at the start of the 19th
century and is closely constrained by data on delta
growth, sea-level change and hydrology. H3 is the
uppermost sedimentary unit seen in the sparker pro-
files and consists of the ddrapeT that covers TS3. The210Pb profile at Piston cores 7 and 9 shows that the
major part of the drape is less than 200 yrs old, and
therefore it is coeval with the major part of the surfi-
cial deposits in the onshore part of the delta. The
onshore sequence represents a complex of sandy, silt
and clayey sediments deposited on top of H2 deposits.
The onshore data reveal a rapid progradation that was
facilitated by the shallow offshore platform and the
sea-level fall, starting around 1933. By 1960, before
the sea-level reached the 1977 lowstand, the rapid
progradation was halted as a result of the increasing
accommodation. Sea-level rise after 1977 led to inun-
dation of the present delta plain and deposition of
uniform clayey sediments on top of the previous
progradational wedges, an aggradational process that
continues until today. This sequence is confined to the
tip of the delta and along the shoreline.
6. Discussion
The history of the Kura delta can be traced back
only for a relative small time interval in this study. The
present position of the delta corresponds with the axis
R.M. Hoogendoorn et al. / Marine Geology 222–223 (2005) 359–380376
of the rapidly subsiding Kura basin (Khain and Shar-
danov, 1952) and it is also situated at the head of a
prominent submarine valley, suggesting a period of
deep incision in its early history. The bulge shape of
the submarine delta suggests a cumulated thickness of
at least 50 m. All these facts suggest that its history
must go back much further than can be retrieved from
our data. With respect to the available data, the historic
and newly collected data form only a part, although the
network of core and sparker data compliment one
another and clearly characterize the Kura delta.
For a better understanding of the significance of
the development of the late Holocene Kura delta it is
useful to compare it to other deltas, as many sedimen-
tological investigations of modern fluvial-dominated
deltas have concentrated on the Mississippi delta
(Coleman et al., 1998; Fisk, 1961; Frazier, 1967;
Gould, 1970; Roberts, 1997), it is logical to use it
as a reference point. A number of similarities exist
between the Mississippi and the Kura deltas. (1) All
sediment is concentrated in a single channel with a
limited number of outlets. (2) Both deltas build out on
their own unconsolidated sediments. (3) Present day
delta fronts are being (partly) redistributed by waves.
(4) Different phases of delta development can be
recognized. However, some differences in the
sequence of events leading to the above mentioned
analogues are also recognized. Primarily, a scale dif-
ference, both spatial and temporal is evident. The
Mississippi delta is bigger in all aspects, water and
sediment discharge, delta surface and delta volume
and has been at its current location for at least 2000
yrs (Coleman et al., 1998), whereas the current Kura
delta has switched at least 4 times during the same
period. Secondly, the Mississippi delta started to
develop after a major avulsion has occurred (Tornq-
vist et al., 1996). Avulsions are caused by decrease of
the river gradient as a result of several processes that
interact, such as subsidence, rise of floodplain lake
levels or relative sea-level rise (Overeem et al., 2003).
The sequence of events in the Kura delta seems to be
different: progradation starts as a result of sea-level
fall and the subsequent sea-level rise causes aggrada-
tion and eventually a switch of the delta lobe. Despite
the differences the Kura delta could be described as a
bbaby birdfootQ (Fig. 1) delta based on the similar
morphological development patterns as seen in the
Mississippi delta.
The important role of Caspian sea-level has been
described. Since all Caspian deltas, such as the Volga,
Ural and Terek deltas are subjected to the same rapid
base level change, it is essential to establish if simila-
rities occur in the development of the Kura and other
Caspian deltas. The Volga delta is the most studied
Caspian delta system; it is also a fluvial dominated
delta affected by the rapid Caspian sea-level fluctua-
tions. However, studies show that fluvial processes
and sea-level fluctuations are not the only primary
controls over the Volga delta development. A funda-
mental control on delta morphology and stratigraphy
is the low gradient (Aybulatov, 2001; Kroonenberg et
al., 1997, in press; Overeem et al., 2003). The Ural
River also enters the shallow northern Caspian Sea,
therefore delta morphology is similarly controlled by
the low gradient of the basement over which the delta
progrades. The Terek delta, in contrast, is largely
reworked by wave action resulting in a highly destruc-
tive delta environment (Mikhailov, 1997). So despite
the major influence of the Caspian sea-level on these
deltas, they all evolved differently. The general shelf
edge setting bathymetry of the Kura delta (Fig. 1), and
the minor influence of waves, make the Kura delta
more comparable with other delta settings. It is there-
fore the better suited as a natural laboratory to test
conceptual models of sea-level change in deltas.
The early Pliocene Productive Series in Azerbaijan
consist of fluvial deltaic sediments deposited in the
isolated South Caspian Basin by several large river
systems, which were also subjected to an unstable sea-
level regime (Hinds et al., 2004; Reynolds et al.,
1996). Many offshore and onshore hydrocarbon
occurrences are in this unit (Aliyeva, 1988; Bagirov
and Lerche, 1998). The Productive Series in the
southwest of the South Caspian Basin has volcano-
genic heavy mineral assemblage, indicating prove-
nance form the Kura River, which rains Jurassic and
Cenozoic volcanic deposits in the Lesser Caucasus
(Pashaly, 1964). Despite similarities with regards to
depositional setting of the early Pliocene Productive
Series, this study shows that any comparison between
the Kura delta and the Productive Series is difficult
because of the differences in lithology. Except for the
thin and narrow sand bodies in the channels and
barriers of the onshore plain, the whole late Holocene
Kura delta consists of clays and silts, while the Pro-
ductive Series is characterized by the presence of large
R.M. Hoogendoorn et al. / Marine Geology 222–223 (2005) 359–380 377
amounts of sand (Reynolds et al., 1996). Several
reasons can be put forward for the absence of sand
in the present delta. The Kura River occupies the axis
of a very rapidly subsiding basin. The strongest sub-
sidence in the past has occurred not close to the coast,
but ca. 100 km inland near Kurdamir (Inan et al.,
1997). Here part of the sand may be trapped before
it reaches the coast.
7. Conclusions
The modern Kura delta is a single-channel, river-
dominated delta, with some wave influence at its
northern edge. Its main offshore Holocene sediment
body is at least 20 m thick and consists of clays and
silts, with rare sandy shell horizons. On the surface of
the onshore delta plain channel-levee sands and sandy
Downlap of Mode
?
Breached Barrier
Modern progradingdelta H2
TS2H2
Coverage by onshore cores (A)
Modern aggradingdelta
Delta FrontDelta Plain
H3
H2
H1PH
Delta FrontDelta Plain
Environment
Major Accoustic Reflector
Barrier TS3
Data gap
Delta plainProximal delta frontFluvial Sand (Levee & Channel fill)
Mouth BarH2 (Paleo delta) 0
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
P.D.CaspianSea level
1977CaspianSea level
Depth (m)
5
D
0A
B
Depositonal environments modern delta (H3)
N
D
D'A
A'
Stage
Fig. 14. (A), interpretation of the main (D-AV) onshore core section throug
level and the delta front location at the time indicated. The delta front mov
the relatively stable sea level (1800–1933) and during the sea-level fall
recognized as an overlap on top of the progradational sequence near the del
and along the southern shoreline. (B) Schematic summary of the Kura
deposition and marine erosion.
coastal barriers are found. Its stratigraphy reflects both
rapid Caspian sea-level change, and variations in
sediment output of the Kura River. Reconstruction
of the detailed stratigraphy is made difficult by the
limited resolution of the sparker data, and low recov-
ery from the well samples. However the detailed
historical data, the reconstructed Caspian sea-level
curve, the knowledge of the onshore cross-section
and the offshore core data provide the possibility to
reconstruct a stratigraphic framework for the cyclic
late Holocene deposits that underlie the modern Kura
delta. Depositional geometries, key surfaces, and stra-
tal patterns based on sparker data are used to define
the architecture of the late Holocene depositional
cycles and their relation to Caspian sea-level change.
The interpretation of the late Holocene Kura delta
development can be summarised in seven stages (Fig.
14A and B).
rn Kura
? ? ?SB1
Coverage by offshore core- and sparker data
~-48m
~-80m
H1
PH
~-27m
TS3~-32m
TS21.5 ky
Well2
TS1Well3
TS1
km
A`2001194619291907D' A1860
h the Kura delta. Vertical dashed lines approximate the Caspian sea-
es along stream constructing a progradational delta sequence during
(1933–1977). The major sea-level rise (1977–present day) can be
ta front. The aggradational sequence is confined to the tip of the delta
delta development, in order to illustrate all phases/stages of delta
R.M. Hoogendoorn et al. / Marine Geology 222–223 (2005) 359–380378
7.1. Stage 1 (PH)
Pre-Holocene fluvial sedimentation (probably top
of a lowstand deposits) identified by reddish soil in
the delta plain sediments recovered from deep well
data associated with the Mangyshlak regression based
on depositional depth.
7.2. Stage 2 (TS1)
PH was followed by formation of a Transgressive
Surface after the Mangyshlak lowstand, with no sedi-
ment transported to this location by the Kura River.
7.3. Stage 3 (H1)
Reactivation of sediment supply resulting in pro-
gradational deltaic deposition of a shallowing-
upwards sequence of clays, silts and shell horizons
deposited during the Derbent regression (before 1500
BP), depositional depths at the start of the regression
were comparable to the present-day and estimated at a
maximum 42 m below GSL at the end of this stage
(forced regressive deposits).
7.4. Stage 4 (TS2)
The absence of sediment supply and transgression,
following the Derbent lowstand (maximal, ca. �42 m
absolute depth, 1500 yr BP), resulted in a period of
marine erosion. Identified in the sparker profiles as
Transgressive Surface 2 (TS2).
7.5. Stage 5 (H2)
Renewed deltaic progradation with clayey and silty
sediments on top of the TS2 erosional discontinuity.
Sparker data shows that the prograding system gra-
dual changes into an aggrading system, becoming
more fluvial and organic near the top of the sequence.
7.6. Stage 6 (TS3)
A next phase of no sediment supply and trans-
gression resulting in an erosive surface, possibly
related to a 16th century lowstand and following
transgression ending in the highstand of 200 BP.
This stage probably related to the 17th–19th century,
when the Kura River was diverted southwards to the
Qzlagac Bay.
7.7. Stage 7 (H3; modern delta)
Deltaic sedimentation resumed at the present-day
position from the start of the 19th century onwards,
depositing a series of prograding sandy to clayey
bodies in the present delta plain, and a veneer of
clayey and silty sediments offshore on top of the
last erosional discontinuity (TS3). The last 1929–
2000 sea-level cycle is expressed onshore by progra-
dation during base level fall, and aggradation due to
flooding of the delta plain during sea-level rise in
most recent times. This single sea-level cycle can be
distinguished in the cross section of Fig. 14A.
The Kura delta evolution shows cyclic behaviour; a
progradational delta body is formed during 3 regres-
sions at or near the present location while during
transgression the delta body probably shifts to the
Qzlagac Bay. The resulting erosional phases at the
present location are good markers for the Caspian Sea
lowstand. Therefore it can be concluded that the major
control of the Kura delta is the rapid sea-level change
of the Caspian Sea as well as the Kura River
dynamics.
Acknowledgements
Shell, BP, and ConocoPhilips are thanked for spon-
soring this project. Part of this research was co-funded
by the DUT-DIOC WATER 1.6 project. This paper is
part of the PhD thesis of R.M. Hoogendoorn. 210Pb
analyses were carried out by ing. W. Boer associated
with the NIOZ (Dutch Institute for Sea Research). Dr.
K. van der Borg of the Utrecht University (UU) per-
formed the 14C AMS analysis. Dr. A. Mitlehner,
micropalaeontologist from Millennia Limited, UK car-
ried out diatom analysis. Frank Wesselingh of Natur-
alis determined the shell samples. K. Scholte of the
Delft University of Technology (DUT) processed
satellite images and assisted in the field. Furthermore
we would like to thank P.J. Kloosterman (y), R. Von-hof, the KMGRU, CASP and GIA for their coopera-
tion and support. B. Ibrahimov is specially thanked for
his assistance in the field. Colleagues at DUT, G.J
Weltje and J, Noad helped substantially with their
R.M. Hoogendoorn et al. / Marine Geology 222–223 (2005) 359–380 379
comments on several versions of the manuscript. The
reviewers, one anonymous, M. Roveri and guest editor
F. Trincardi are thanked for their time and effort. Their
suggestions improved the manuscript considerably.
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