developments in sports facility design

8/3/2019 Developments in Sports Facility Design

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Developments in Sports Facility Design:

When Stadiums take over Cities

Scott BruckmanCourtney Crawshaw

Dan CudocKyle Ellis

Money and Banking, IBEC 352James F. Dicke College of Business Administration

Ohio Northern University Ada, Ohio402 West College Ave.

Ada, Ohio 45810

Email: [email protected] 4, 2007 2007 Team Two Productions All rights reserved.


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Developments in Sports Facility Design:

When Stadiums take over Cities

Abstract

In the mid 1970s most sports stadiums were designed to be used by multiple sports leagues. This

was done in an effort to save space and taxpayer money. In addition, single stadiums were able

to be used throughout the year, thus eliminating down time. Due to the flexibility in design, the

stadium could be used for other purposes outside the realm of sports. Today, more and more

specialized stadiums are being built throughout the country as wealthy owners want their own

stadiums under their own control. This paper will look into two United States cities and the

contrasting approaches in design, funding, and purpose of their respective stadiums.


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[1] Introduction

In the mid 1970s most sports stadiums were designed to be used by multiple sports

leagues. This was done in an effort to save space and taxpayer money. In addition, single

stadiums were able to be used throughout the year, thus eliminating down time. Due to the

flexibility in design, the stadium could be used for other purposes outside the realm of sports.

Today, more and more specialized stadiums are being built throughout the country as wealthy

owners want their own stadiums under their own control. In addition, increasing player payroll,

cost of operation, competition, and disparity between markets is causing many franchises to look

for alternative ways to keep existing fans or attract new fans. One of the main methods of

creating new revenue streams is the construction of new state-of-the-art stadiums. These new

palaces create an attractive appeal for various important segments of the population. For

instance, new stadiums create a buzz around their localities which will cause the most casual

fan to want to be a part of something new. Once they attend an event or game, the teams will

have an opportunity to further lure them in by creating a fun and exciting atmosphere.

Furthermore, these causal fans will have the opportunity to purchase food, gifts, and various

other memorabilia which will increase team revenues and increase chances of snagging a fan for

life. Another major reason to build a new stadium is to increase the opportunity to get the best

players. A new stadium can increase the chances of getting a highly sought after player because

they will want to have the opportunity to play in the nicest stadiums with the nicest workout

facilities and lock rooms. Lastly, a new stadium can increase the revenues for businesses located

in that city. The new attraction to the stadium will give local restaurants the opportunity for new

and increasing numbers of customers.


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However, there is a price to pay for these large, expensive structures. The cost of

constructing new stadiums can reach nearly a half a billion dollars. These large amounts will

force city governments to delay or deferrer payments of the stadiums over a long period of time;

thus increasing the long-term volatility of their budget. The following will discuss the positive

and negative aspect to new stadium construction as well as provide two opposing methods of

design and financing of new stadiums.


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[2] Trends in the Sports Industry

Recently there has been a spree of building new sports stadiums in cities all over the

country. Between 1990 and 1998, 46 sports arenas were built or renovated; in 1999, another 49

arenas were slated for construction. It is estimated that around two-thirds of the $22 billion

dollars it took to build these stadiums has come, or will come, from government sources

(Groothuis, et al). With the price tag on new stadiums continuing to rise, it is important to

understand how and why these projects are financed.

Until 1950, most sports complexes were privately financed; however, in the last half of

the 20

th

century municipal and state governments began to subsidize sports arenas. Public

officials often claim that governments should help build stadiums because of the positive

externalities that these new complexes create for the cities, states, and regions. In addition,

teams often claim that without public support they will move their organizations to different

cities which will help support them, thus taking these positive externalities with them.

Therefore, in order to keep these benefits in their cities public officials will try to support the

teams through subsidized public money, even if it puts the citizens they represent at risk.

What exactly are these externalities which public officials claim benefit the community?

One externality that is mentioned is the fact that sports teams generate revenue for other

businesses in the city in which they are located. They do this by producing revenue for hotels,

restaurants, and other attractions located in the city. Another type of externality that is created

by new sports stadiums is known as civic pride. Although this is a nonuse externality people

can still take pride in new arenas built in their city (Groothuis, et al). However, there are may

people who question whether or not taxpayer dollars should be used to build stadiums for private

businesses.


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[3] Effects of Sports Franchises on Host Cities

Professional sports generate millions of dollars in just a portion of the year, and thus can

have a great impact on the economy of the communities in which they operate. Many studies

have been conducted in attempts to find exactly how great this impact is, and whether or not the

impact is positive or negative. This leaves us with the question of whether or not it really is

beneficial for a city to host a professional sports team.

According to the book The Economics of Sports, by Michael Leeds and Peter von

Allmen, cities can greatly benefit from having a professional sports team. It is thought that

having a team spurs economic growth in the area and also has intangible benefits, such as the

pride of living in a big league city (Leeds & von Allmen).

Leeds and von Allman also discuss the down side of hosting a professional sports team.

They discuss situations in which teams can exploit the market. Most important of these

exploitations is the winners curse. In this case, cities pay more than necessary for a team to

come because they get into a bidding war with other cities.

As was stated earlier, professional sports generate a great sum of money, but this usually

takes place for only a fraction of the year while the team is in season. This brings up the issues

of the functionality of a stadium. Leeds and von Allman bring to light the fact that older

stadiums were built to house both football and baseball and thus could bring revenue to the city

for a larger portion of the year. Now that stadiums are only used for one sport, they are being

used much less (Leeds & von Allmen). This problem is being addressed by the new Dallas

Cowboys stadium. The new stadium will accommodate a wide range of events in the off season.

These events could range from concerts to the NCAA Final Four. This will ensure that the

stadium can bring in revenue year round.


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The Economics of Sports discusses the way in which stadiums are financed. This

chapter of the book describes a situation when a stadium is privately funded, costs are usually

kept to a minimum as opposed to when cities finance the stadium and the team demands every

luxury they can think of (Leeds & von Allmen). Cities usually will spend the extra money for

the team, thinking they will be able to charge the team for rent on the stadium and make back

some of the expenses. However, according the Leeds and von Allmen this is usually not the case

and the city will lose money on these extra expenditures. Most of the time the owner of the team

will receive the majority of the revenue made from the stadium, which takes away another

opportunity for the city to make back its money (Swindell and Rosentraub). A 1998 article

written by David Swindell and Mark Rosentraub states that some local governments have spent

as much as $500 million dollars on sports facilities from which they will receive no direct

revenue. So why do communities continue to spend the money to build these costly facilities? It

seems as though the intangible benefits brought about by hosting a professional sports team

weigh greatly on those making the decisions.

Some of these intangible benefits include the civic pride that comes from living in a big

league city, the high profile image the city carries, and the international publicity the city

receives. According to Swindell and Rosentraub these intangible benefits not only have an

effect on those citizens who attend the games but also on those who do not.

According to government officials there are direct and indirect costs and benefits that

come from having a professional sports franchise. Some indirect costs include congestion

caused by the large crowds coming to games, the increased pollution, and safety concerns.

Indirect benefits include a higher local income and a new sense of identity for citizens. One

direct benefit of a professional sports team is that peoples average propensity to consume will


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rise because they have something new to spend their money on (Leeds & von Allmen). Other

benefits for the city include the generation of economic growth in the city and surrounding areas,

the creation of jobs, revitalization of central business districts, and a change in land use patterns

(Swindell and Rosentraub).

The multiplier effect is also important in determining the benefit of a franchise to a city.

The multiplier effect attempts to calculate the amount of monetary benefit to a city that results

from other money spent in the city. Economists say that Americans spend 90 percent of every

dollar they earn. However, in a city with a professional sports franchise this percentage is

lowered to 67 percent. A problem with this measurement is that it does not account for those

people who live in the city but spend their money in other cities. However, it also does not

account for the number of people coming into the city from out-of-town (Leeds & von Allmen).

If a city is to host a Super Bowl almost all the people attending would be from out of town,

bringing in a significant amount of outside money.

Also in Chapter 7 of this book is a list of ways in which a city can raise money to fund a

stadium. Taxes and debt are the two most popular. In the case of the Dallas Cowboys new

stadium, the city of Arlington is using debt, in the form of bonds to pay for their portion of the

stadium. However, to pay off the bonds, the city has levied a tax on those attending the games.

With this policy, the city is practicing horizontal equity by taxing everyone who comes to the

game equally (Leeds & von Allmen).

The information obtained from Leeds and von Allmen only deals with economic impact

of teams during the regular season. What if a team is to make it to the post season? Dennis

Coates and Brad Humphreys took a look at the way post-season appearances can impact the per

capita income in cities with professional sports teams. Data collected from 1969 to 1997 shows


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that a post-season appearance in now way impacts the level of per capita income in a city with a

sports franchise. However, they did find that in the home city of a team winning the Super

Bowl, per capita income rises by about $140. They hypothesize that the winning up a Super

Bowl has a direct link on the productivity of workers in the home city. They do caution however

that the economics benefits brought about by winning a Super Bowl does not justify the great

expenditures it takes to accommodate a sports franchise and their facilities.


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[4] Example 1: Dallas Cowboys

The Dallas Cowboys have long been known as Americas Team. They are one of the

most unique franchises in the history of professional sports and to date have one of the best

records. The team, which has been under the ownership of Jerry Jones since 1989, has grown to

be one of the most profitable teams in the NFL. Thanks to Joness ability to make business

deals, the Cowboys will soon be moving to a new, state-of-the-art stadium in Arlington, Texas.

[4.1] Texas Stadium

The team currently resides in Texas Stadium in Irving, Texas. Texas Stadium was built

in 1971 at a cost of $35 million. The stadium has 65,675 seats and is recognized for its famous

hole in the roof (Munsey & Suppes). This hole is the outcome a flaw in the design of the

building. Texas Stadium was originally supposed to be completely domed; however, the stadium

was not strong enough to support the roof. Funding ran out before the support system could be

strengthened, and the hole in the roof was born (Munsey & Suppes).

Texas Stadium is owned by the city of Irving. The $35 million it cost to build the

stadium came solely from bonds issued by the city, and currently these bonds have not matured.

The Cowboys paid for the construction entirely through seat option bonds issued by the city of

Irving; bonds which if bought, gave a fan the option of buying season tickets to the Cowboy

games. Purchasing these bonds was the only way to get season tickets so fans jumped on board

for the innovative and risky investment (Aasen). Texas Stadium has no club seats, but the

stadium includes 379 luxury boxes which bring in a large part of the Cowboys revenue every

year (Munsey & Suppes). Luxury boxes were brought to Texas Stadium by Tex Schramm,

president of the Cowboys at the time the stadium was built (Granberry).


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Texas Stadium has certainly helped Jerry Jones and the Dallas Cowboys to become

profitable; however, there are questions as to whether or not Jones and Cowboys have helped

Irving to become more profitable. As was mentioned before, the city has still not paid off the

bonds it took to build the stadium. The bonds will mature on December 26, 2008 and the new

stadium is set to open in 2009 (Aasen, Seat Option).

Many stipulations have been made with regard to the termination of the Cowboys lease

agreement. In the end, Irving may be bringing in $7 million because of the move. The city cant

use the name Texas Stadium to market the area, but will receive a portion of the revenue from

any Texas Stadium memorabilia sold. The city will also receive 1,000 stadium seats and 100

square yards of turf that will be sold to the public. The Cowboys have agreed to pay for the

painting of the stadiums roof, if Irving agreed not to compete with the new stadium for other big

events. The city has also agreed to reduce the teams rent payments by $400,000 for this year

and next year. The Cowboys have agreed to keep no more than one percent of a 10 percent

ticket tax and a $3 per vehicle tax that was levied last year. This tax is expected to bring in

around $12 million which will be used to redevelop the area. The Cowboys also agreed to give

Irving 5.3 acres of land near the stadium which can also be used in the redevelopment process

(Aasen,Irving).

[4.2] The Cowboys New Stadium

The Dallas Cowboys New Stadium, which is currently the official name for the stadium

being built in Arlington, is expected to open for business in 2009 (Dallas Cowboys). The new

stadium boasts some pretty amazing features including, but not limited to, the following: The

stadium will house seating for 80,000, with the capability of expanding to 100,000 for special

events like a Super Bowl. The stadium is accessible from 14 major highways, and has 30,000


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parking spaces available for game days. The stadium features open air end zones with

retractable glass doors that measure 120 feet tall by 180 feet wide. The outside plazas, along

with 3 party decks, add up to 420,000 square feet of entertainment space. The field is located 50

feet below ground level creating a panoramic view for fans. The stadium holds 200 suites, in

eight locations, and on five different levels. The Hall of Fame suites will be just 20 rows from

the field, making them the closest suites in the NFL. Fifteen thousand club level seats will be

available to field level suite patrons and club members. Prior to the game, the Cowboys players

and coaches will walk through the field level Sideline Club on their way to the field. There will

be eight video boards throughout the facility, with the most impressive being the four board

cluster that will hang 110 feet above the field. This board, which runs from 20-yard line to 20-

yard line, is 180 feet long and 50 feet high. The stadium also holds 286 concession stands and

1,600 toilets. The 2.3 million square foot facility will be domed, making it the largest domed

facility in the world. The roof will be retractable, so as to mimic the hole in the roof of Texas

Stadium. The roof of this stadium will be supported by two, quarter mile long arches on either

side of the stadium (Dallas Cowboys).

With all the amazing features of the stadium, one cant help but wonder about cost.

Originally, the new stadium was supposed to cost $650 million, a huge jump from the $35

million it cost to build Texas Stadium. However, at last report, the cost has exceeded $1 billion

(Granberry). Where is all this extra money coming from?

When owner Jerry Jones was asked how he intended to pay for the new $1 billion

stadium he broke down the expenditures as follows: The city of Arlington will provide $325

million in seat option bonds, the NFL will provide $150 million thanks to their policy to pay a

certain lump sum for stadium financing, and the remainder (roughly $525 million) will be


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covered by Jerry Jones personally (Wikipedia). Over $297 million of the cities promised

contribution has been secured in bonds issued by the city. The bonds will be paid off with

money generated by a 2% increase in hotel taxes and a 5% increase in car rental taxes (AP). The

city hopes to have the stadium paid off by the year 2026. City officials have conducted a study

that shows $238 million will be added to Arlingtons economy. The city will reap $7 billion in

benefits over the life of the Cowboys 30 year lease (AP).

Jerry Jones is expected to pay for the rest of the cost of the stadium. With this

information, its not surprising the average price of a ticket for a Cowboys game is rising from

$43.48 to $98.88 at the new stadium (Granberry). Jones will also be making money on a 10%

ticket tax and a $3 parking tax, and will no doubt be charging hefty amounts for luxury boxes

and suites (AP). Also, corporate sponsorships are still being decided on. Some possible names

for the new field include Verizon Stadium, Wells Fargo Field, and the TI Dome. Those who

follow sponsorships say the naming rights could cost $300 million for a 30-year contract. This

deal not only generates money for the team, but also for Arlington. The city makes 5 percent, up

to $500,000 per year, from any naming rights contract the team signs. With the Cowboys

making anywhere from $10 to $18 million per year from naming rights alone, experts say that

when this deal is done, it will be one of the biggest of 2007 (Ahles).

However, new report state that Jones may actually be looking for a deal worth nearly $1

billion dollars for naming rights alone (Moore). To understand the significance of this number

one must realize that the most expensive naming rights deal to this date is shared by the New

York Mets of Major League Baseball and the New Jersey Nets of the National Basketball

Association. The Mets reached an agreement with Citibank Corporation to officially name the

new Mets Stadium Citi Field. It is reported that this deal is worth an astounding $400 million.


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In addition, the New Jersey Nets reached an agreement with Barclays Bank for a reported $400

million as well. The new name of the Nets arena will be The Barclays Center(Moore). A $1

billion agreement, if ever accepted, would more than double both the Mets and Nets naming

rights deals.

Many involved with the Cowboys deal feel that the likeliest buyer would be the local

Irving Texas, Exxon Mobile Corporation(Moore). Exxon Mobile is located in Texas and has

more than ample finances to enter into a business venture of this magnitude with such a giant in

professional sports. In fact, the Dallas Cowboys, according to Forbes Magazine, top the list of

the most valuable sports franchises in the world with a net value of $1.5 billion (Mosier).

Cowboys owner Jerry Jones feels there are a number of reasons buyers might be interested in

such an enormous deal with his franchise: one being that the Cowboys are so closely followed as

Americas team and secondly because of the enormity of the new stadium and everything it will

offer to Northern Texas (Mosier). For now the Cowboys new stadium will remain The Dallas

Cowboys New Stadium, only time will tell what the future will bring.


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[5] Example 2: Pittsburgh Sports Franchises

[5.1] Pittsburgh Steelers

Pittsburgh is a city that has also recently built new stadiums. In 2001, they completed the

beautiful PNC Park and later that year they opened Heinz Field. In addition, the city just

completed a deal with the new owners of the Pittsburgh Penguins to build a new arena to replace

the oldest arena in the National Hockey League, Mellon Arena (formerly known as the Igloo).

The total cost of the football stadium (Heinz Field) and the baseball stadium (PNC Park) along

with an expansion of the existing convention center cost about $809 million. Pittsburgh used a

combination of bond financing and public taxes to fund the projects. It is estimated that roughly

$300 million was raised though the sale of city bonds. The city also raised taxes on hotel

charges and among other things. Private equity also played a part in paying for the new

stadiums; Heinz Field, home of the National Football Leagues Pittsburgh Steelers, was

completed at a cost of $230 million of which the Steelers provided $76.5 million

(ballparks.com). The H.J. Heinz Company, whose name the stadium bears, will pay $57 million

over the next twenty years for the naming rights to the stadium. A five percent tax on Steelers

tickets helps finance the bonds in addition to the hotel tax.

Heinz field is located in the short north near downtown Pittsburgh. The stadium sits on

approximately 12.4 acres of land and has a seating capacity of 64,450, including approximately

6,600 club seats and a capacity of approximately 1,500 in 127 suites. One purpose of building

the new facilities was to provide each team with a dedicated building rather than a single shared-

use stadium. Heinz Field is primarily a football facility, though it has also hosted soccer games

and concertsin fact the first event at the venue was a concert by pop band 'N Sync shortly after

the stadium opened in August 2001. The Steelers debuted there during the 2001-2002 NFL


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season. Unlike Three Rivers, the playing surface at Heinz Field is natural grass. The field

features underground heating to help the grass survive Pittsburgh's winter climate. As a result,

the field is known for its difficult kicking surface (Wikipedia, Heinz Field).

[5.2] Pittsburgh Pirates

PNC Park, home of Major League Baseballs Pittsburgh Pirates, was completed at a cost

of $262 million dollars. The Pirates organization only contributed roughly $40 million to that

total amount. In an effort to help fund the new baseball park, the city of Pittsburgh sold $170

million worth of bonds to help pay for the debt. To help finance the bonds, Pittsburgh has

imposed a one percent tax on all athletes who do not live within the city limits. In addition, a

five percent charge on Pirates tickets help pay the coupon payments on the bonds.

It is interesting to note that when voters voted on a 0.5% sales increase tax to help pay for

the new stadiums, they voted the measure down by 65 percent. Some skeptics argue that only a

small group of people benefit from new stadiums. They believe that keeping sports teams in

their current city hurts the general population because of severe increases in taxes. However,

supporters believe this isnt true because sports are very important to cities that cherish their

teams. This is true in Pittsburgh were all there team, especially the Steelers, are deemed to be

the heart and sole of an entire region. Although increase taxes are bothersome, the costs are

spread out amongst a large base. Studies have shown that if the costs are spread out to a large

enough base, the funding initiatives often succeed (Groothuis, et al.).

PNC Park was the smallest of the new MLB stadiums to be built in recent years. It was

the first permanent facility to be built for a MLB team that hosted fewer than 40,000 since

Milwaukee County Stadium, which was later expanded. It was also the first to be built with two

decks rather than three (most of the seats are actually located within the lower deck, 26,000 to be


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exact) since County Stadium. Consequently, the highest seat in the park is only 88 feet from the

playing field, giving the stadium a very intimate feel. PNC Park also has the second smallest

capacity of any stadium in Major League Baseball, only a few thousand seats smaller than

Wrigley Field of the National League and about a thousand seats larger than Tropicana Field of

the American League. The stadium includes 2,800 club seats, 69 luxury suites, and 4 party suites.

Premium seating includes The Lexus Club at PNC Park, in the six sections directly behind home

plate. The Lexus Club offers a pre-game buffet in the adjoined restaurant as well as in-seat wait

service with full food and beverage menu. There is also the Pittsburgh Baseball Club level which

features Club 3000, named in honor of Pittsburgh's members of the 3000 hit club, Honus

Wagner, Paul Waner, and Roberto Clemente. Additionally, the Gunner's Lounge, named in

honor of legendary broadcaster Bob Prince and Keystone corner, features such amenities as high-

definition televisions and pool tables. The PBC encompasses the entire mezzanine section of the

park, and features an air-conditioned, fully-enclosed concourse and wider, cushioned seats

(Wikipedia, PNC Park).


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[6] Conclusion

This article illustrates two major examples of how a stadium can be financed. The

Dallas Cowboys are planning to construct the biggest, most elaborate, and most costly stadium in

history. However, much of the cost to construct the new stadium is being privately funded by

their owner Jerry Jones. In fact, Jones is contributing to nearly 53% of the entire cost himself.

Compare this to the owners of the Pittsburgh Steelers and Pirates who contributed 33.33% and

15.27% respectively. In contrast, the city of Arlington will have to pay $470 million for the new

stadium while the city of Pittsburgh will have to pay $470 million for their two stadiums in

addition to renovations to the convention center. Although it may seem as those Pittsburgh has a

better deal by receiving two stadiums for the same price, you must consider that together these

stadiums will be used equal to, if not less, per year than the new stadium being built in Arlington.

This is mainly due to difference in weather and the fact that both Pittsburgh facilities are open-air

stadiums with no roofing. Thus, the city will be forced to invest in two stadiums, along with the

maintenance, for at least thirty years. Another problem to consider is the exact increase in

revenue the stadiums will contribute to the city. This is especially true with the Pirates and

Steelers who have a long history of playing in downtown Pittsburgh; while the Cowboys will be

moving from Irving to Arlington and may see an increase in actual income due to their new

location.

In addition, the size and type of seating available seating in the stadium is drastically

different. For example, the new Cowboys stadium will have 200 luxury suites, while the Steelers

and Pirates stadiums will have 200 luxury suites combined (127 & 73 respectively). This is an

important fact because luxury suites are generally the most expensive seating location in most

stadiums and is owned by the wealthiest people or company in the area. It is vital for a sports


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organization to fill these suites because it generates tremendous amounts of revenue while also

allowing them access to wealthy investors and opportunity for other advertising partners.

In conclusion, after considering both the positive and negative aspects of new stadium

construction we believe that the construction of new stadiums and sporting arenas is not only a

positive development for cities, but also a necessary development for the viability of any sports

franchise as well as their host city.


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References

Aasen, Eric. (2007, January 24). Irving irons out Texas Stadium plan. The Dallas MorningNews. Retrieved 9 October 2007 from http://www.dallasnews.com

Aasen, Eric. 'Seat option bonds' got Texas Stadium built. The Dallas Morning News. Retrieved12 October 2007 from http://www.dallasnews.com

Ahles, Andrea. (2007, January 21). 30-year deal may bring $300 million. Star-Telegram.com.Retrieved 6 October 2007 from http://www.dfw.com

Coates, Dennis, & Humphreys, Brad R. (2002). The Economic Impact of Postseason Play inProfessional Sports .Journal of Sports Economics. 3, 291-299. Retrieved 12 October2007.

Granberry, Michael. (2006, December 10). New stadium may widen social divisions. The

Dallas Morning News. Retrieved 9 October 2007 from http://www.dallasnews.com

Groothuis, Peter A., Bruce K. Johnson, and John C. Whitehead. "Public Funding of ProfessionalSports Stadiums: Public Choice or Civic Pride?" Eastern Economic Journal. 30.4: 515-526. Fall 2004. EBSCO. Retrieved 30 October 2007 fromhttp://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdf?vid=4&hid=16&sid=27653afd-c0c6 40b8b052-f09af273eedb%40sessionmgr9

Leeds, Michael and Peter von Allmen. (2005). The Economics of Sports (2nd ed.). Boston:Pearson Addison Wesley. Retrieved 13 October 2007.

Moore, Dave. Deal Branding Dallas Cowboys New Venue Would Be a Record Setter, InsidersSay. Retrieved 2 April 2007. www.al.com.

Mosier, Jeff. Seat Licenses in Jones Game Plan. 14 September 2007. www.dallasnews.com.

Munsey & Suppes. Ticket Dogs. Texas Stadium. Retrieved October 9, 2007 fromhttp://football.ballparks.com/NFL/DallasCowboys/index.htm

PNC Park. www.ballparks.com. Retrieved 30 Oct. 2007 fromhttp://www.ballparks.com/baseball/national/pitbpk.htm

The Associated Press. Arlington council approves Cowboys stadium vote. Retrieved 12 October2007 from http://www.nfl.com

The Dallas Cowboys. Dallas Cowboys New Stadium. Retrieved 9 October 2007 fromhttp://stadium.dallascowboys.com/
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Swindell, David, & Rosentraub, Mark S. (1998). Who benefits from the presence of professionalsports teams? The implications for public funding of stadiums and arenas. PublicAdministration Review. 58. Retrieved 9 October 2007.

Wikipedia. Dallas Cowboys New Stadium. Retrieved 30 October 2007. www.wikipedia.com.

Wikipedia. Heinz Field. Retrieved 2 November 2007. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinz_Field

Wikipedia. PNC Park. Retrieved 2 November 2007. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PNC_Park

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