diabetes mellitus normal blood glucose levels = 80 to 120 mg/100 ml of blood when not absorbed to...
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Diabetes mellitus Normal blood glucose levels = 80 to 120 mg/100 ml of
blood When not absorbed to rises, spills into urine Glucose is expelled, water follows leading to dehydration Not using glucose, fats and proteins used
Loss of weight and issue with infections Blood becomes acidic (acidosis) due to ketones in blood (ketosis)
Two types Type II – adult onset, Insulin resistant, insulin produce, cells don’t
recognize. Treated with diet and drugs to help with insulin sensitivity
Type I – juvenile, no insulin made. Treated with pump or injections
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Pineal Gland In brain, function not completely understood Melatonin – sleep trigger
Peak levels at night, make sleepyLowest levels at noonSecretion highest age 1-5, 75% smaller in
adolescenceHelps regulate mating behaviors in animalsHumans coordinates hormones of fertility
○ Inhibits reproductive system – inhibits gonadotropins
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Thymus Gland
Upper thorax, posterior to sternum Thymosin and thymopoietin
Normal development of T cells, lymphocytesDecreases in size throughout life, mostly
fibrous connective and fat by old age.What effect on immune system?
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Gonads Sex hormones same as adrenal cortex Ovaries – Ova (exocrine)
Estrogen – sex characteristics of womenProgesterone and estrogen – breast development
and menstrual cycle Testes – Sperm (exocrine)
Testosterone – sex characteristic of men, voice, muscle, sex drive, continuing sperm production
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Ovaries Each follicle contains egg with
Granulosa cells Granulosa cells secrete
estrogen called estradiol ½ of menstrual cycle, copus lutem secretes estradiol and progesterone after ovulation and 8-12wks of pregnancy Reproductive system
development Feminine physique, Bone growth Regulate menstrual cycle Sustain pregnancy
Follicle and corpus luteum secrete inhibin suppresses FSH via neg feedback
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Testes Interstitial cells secrete
testosterone and other androgens Male reproductive system Male physique Sex drive Sperm production and
sexual instinct all life Sustentacular cells
secrete inhibin Inhibits FSH, regulates
sperm production
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Diseases associated with the Thyroid Gland
Figure 9.8
GoiterFigure 9.9
Grave’s Diseaseexophthalmos
Hyperthyroidism – rapid heartbeat, high metabolism, agitated, hard to relax, thyroid gland enlarges, eyes bulge. Treated with surgery, or drugs.Hypothyroidism – results in myxedema, physically and metally sluggish, puffy, dry skin, obese, low temp. Treated with Thyroxine
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Addison’s Disease Hyperpigmentation Bronze coloring of
skin Aldosterone is low,
water and Na lost, electrolyte problems
Muscle weakness
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Hormone Chemistry Most are either
Steroid hormone – derived from cholesterol○ Sex steroids, corticosteroids, Calcitriol (not
steroid but derived from one)Peptide hormones – chains of 3-200+ aa
○ Hormones from Post Pit, most releasing and stimulating hormones from Hypothalamus, most hormones from Ant Pit
Monoamines – chain of aa and amino group○ epinephrine, NE, dopamine, melatonin, and
TH
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Hormone Synthesis -Steroids All made from either cholesterol or AA Steroids
Synthesized from cholesterol, functional group attached to 4 ring structure differs
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Hormone Synthesis - Peptides Gene transcribed to mRNA,
mRNA translated into preprohormones
Small chain of AA direct preprohormone to ER, snipped off = prohormone, inactive
Off to the Golgi for modification and packaging
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Hormone Synthesis - Monoamines From AA that retain amino group
Melatonin from Tryptophan, others from Tyrosine
TH unique- TH comes from a larger protein called Thyroglobulin, not part of finished TH○ TH two tyrosine linked together○ TH requires Iodine
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Synthesis of TH 1) ______ cells secrete thyroglobulin
into lumen of follicle = colloid 2) I absorbed by follicular cells from
blood, transported into lumen 3) I added to tyrosine of thyroglobulin
= monoiodotyrosine (MIT) 4) Another I added, diiodotyrosine
(DIT) 5) DIT + either MIT or DIT 6) DIT + MIT = T3, DIT + DIT = T4 but
both still connected to Thyroglobulin 7) TSH stimulated follicular cells to
take up colloid by pinocytosis, lysosome fuses, cleaves off thyroglobulin
Get 10%T3 and 90%T4
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Hormone Transport Transport via blood, hydrophilic
Peptides and monoamines are good, hydrophilic as well
What about Steroids?○ Need transport proteins – albumins and
globulins from liverBound vs. Unbound
○ Transport ○ Prolongs ½ life
TH over 99% bound, removal of Thyroid, TH up to 2 weeks
Aldosterone - ½ life twenty minutes
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Figure 9.1
Mode of Action Direct Gene
Activation – lipid soluble, steroids and thyroid hormone
Second-Messenger System – water soluble, nonsteroidalDifferent cellular
responses to same hormone
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Thyroid Hormone Specifically Carried by transport TBG, dissociates in blood
T3 and T4 enter cytoplasm
T4 – I cleaved ->T3Mitochondria – stimulate
aerobic respirationRibosomes – incr. mRNA
translationReceptors on chromatin,
incr. gene transcription○ Sodium potassium pump
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Peptides and Catecholamines Hydrophilic Two second messenger
systems cAMP and Diacylglycerol and
Inositol Triphosphate (IP3)
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Enzyme Amplification Hormones only needed in small amounts to
get effect in cell needed due to cascade 1 glucagon molecule trigger production of
1000 cAMP 1 cAMP makes 1 kinase 1 kinase activates 1000 enzyme molecules Each enzyme activates 1000 end product
1 glucagon produced 1 billion end molecules
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Hormone Clearance
Most cleared by liver and kidneys, excreted in bile or urine
Some degraded by target cells Bound take longer to clear than
unbound Metabolic clearance rate (MCR) = rate
hormone cleared Higher MCR shorter ½ life
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Modulation of Cell Sensitivity Up-regulation – target cell increases receptors
for hormone to make itself more sensitiveUterus and OT for labor
Down-regulation – reduction in receptors so target less sensitive to hormones,Happens when long exposure to high hormone levels
○ Cells of testis down regulate in response to high lutenizing hormone
What happens with long term hormone treatments?
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Hormone interactions Lots of different hormones in blood and cells
sensitive to more than one hormone Cells have to have specific receptor to be
sensitive to a hormone Interactions
Synergistic – 2+ hormones work together = FSH and testosterone inc sperm #’s
Permissive – one hormone enhances a targets response to a later hormone○ Estrogen stim up-regulation of progesterone receptors in
uterusAntagonistic – oppose actions
○ Insulin and glucagon○ Calcitonin and Calcitriol