diamond

Diamond

The slightly misshapen octahedral shape of this roughdiamond crystal in matrix is typical of the mineral. Itslustrous faces also indicate that this crystal is from a

primary deposit.

General

Category Native Minerals

Formula(repeating unit)

C

Strunzclassification

01.CB.10a

Identification

Formula mass 12.01 g/mol

Color Typically yellow, brown or gray tocolorless. Less often blue, green,black, translucent white, pink,violet, orange, purple and red.

Crystal habit Octahedral

Crystal system Isometric-Hexoctahedral (Cubic)Twinning Spinel law common (yielding

"macle")Cleavage 111 (perfect in four directions)Fracture Conchoidal (shell-like)Mohs scalehardness

10

Luster Adamantine

DiamondFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

In mineralogy, diamond (/damnd/; from the ancient Greek admas "unbreakable") is a metastable allotrope ofcarbon, where the carbon atoms are arranged in a variation ofthe face-centered cubic crystal structure called a diamondlattice. Diamond is less stable than graphite, but theconversion rate from diamond to graphite is negligible atstandard conditions. Diamond is renowned as a material withsuperlative physical qualities, most of which originate fromthe strong covalent bonding between its atoms. In particular,diamond has the highest hardness and thermal conductivity ofany bulk material. Those properties determine the majorindustrial application of diamond in cutting and polishing toolsand the scientific applications in diamond knives and diamondanvil cells.

Because of its extremely rigid lattice, it can be contaminatedby very few types of impurities, such as boron and nitrogen.Small amounts of defects or impurities (about one per millionof lattice atoms) color diamond blue (boron), yellow(nitrogen), brown (lattice defects), green (radiation exposure),purple, pink, orange or red. Diamond also has relatively highoptical dispersion (ability to disperse light of different colors).

Most natural diamonds are formed at high temperature andpressure at depths of 140 to 190 kilometers (87 to 118 mi) inthe Earth's mantle. Carbon-containing minerals provide thecarbon source, and the growth occurs over periods from1 billion to 3.3 billion years (25% to 75% of the age of theEarth). Diamonds are brought close to the Earth's surfacethrough deep volcanic eruptions by a magma, which cools intoigneous rocks known as kimberlites and lamproites. Diamondscan also be produced synthetically in a HPHT method whichapproximately simulates the conditions in the Earth's mantle.An alternative, and completely different growth technique ischemical vapor deposition (CVD). Several non-diamondmaterials, which include cubic zirconia and silicon carbideand are often called diamond simulants, resemble diamond inappearance and many properties. Special gemologicaltechniques have been developed to distinguish natural,synthetic diamonds and diamond simulants.

Contents

Diamond - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diamond

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Streak Colorless

Diaphaneity Transparent to subtransparent totranslucent

Specificgravity

3.52 0.01

Density 3.53.53 g/cm3

Polish luster Adamantine

Opticalproperties

Isotropic

Refractiveindex

2.418 (at 500 nm)

Birefringence None

Pleochroism None

Dispersion 0.044

Melting point Pressure dependent

References [1][2]

1 History1.1 Natural history

2 Material properties2.1 Hardness2.2 Pressure resistance2.3 Electrical conductivity2.4 Surface property2.5 Chemical stability2.6 Color2.7 Identification

3 Industry3.1 Gem-grade diamonds3.2 Industrial-grade diamonds3.3 Mining3.4 Political issues

4 Synthetics, simulants, and enhancements4.1 Synthetics4.2 Simulants4.3 Enhancements4.4 Identification

5 Stolen diamonds6 See also7 References8 Books9 External links

HistoryThe name diamond is derived from the ancient Greek (admas), "proper", "unalterable", "unbreakable","untamed", from - (a-), "un-" + (dam), "I overpower", "I tame".[3] Diamonds are thought to havebeen first recognized and mined in India, where significant alluvial deposits of the stone could be found manycenturies ago along the rivers Penner, Krishna and Godavari. Diamonds have been known in India for at least3,000 years but most likely 6,000 years.[4]

Diamonds have been treasured as gemstones since their use as religious icons in ancient India. Their usage inengraving tools also dates to early human history.[5][6] The popularity of diamonds has risen since the 19thcentury because of increased supply, improved cutting and polishing techniques, growth in the world economy,and innovative and successful advertising campaigns.[7]

In 1772, Antoine Lavoisier used a lens to concentrate the rays of the sun on a diamond in an atmosphere ofoxygen, and showed that the only product of the combustion was carbon dioxide, proving that diamond iscomposed of carbon.[8] Later in 1797, Smithson Tennant repeated and expanded that experiment.[9] Bydemonstrating that burning diamond and graphite releases the same amount of gas he established the chemicalequivalence of these substances.[10]

The most familiar use of diamonds today is as gemstones used for adornment, a use which dates back intoantiquity. The dispersion of white light into spectral colors is the primary gemological characteristic of gemdiamonds. In the 20th century, experts in gemology have developed methods of grading diamonds and other


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One face of an uncut octahedraldiamond, showing trigons (of positiveand negative relief) formed by naturalchemical etching

gemstones based on the characteristics most important to their value as a gem. Four characteristics, knowninformally as the four Cs, are now commonly used as the basic descriptors of diamonds: these are carat (itsweight), cut (quality of the cut is graded according to proportions, symmetry and polish), color (how close towhite or colorless; For fancy diamonds how intense is its hue), and clarity (how free is it from inclusions).[11] Alarge, flawless diamond is known as a paragon.

Natural history

The formation of natural diamond requires very specific conditionsexposure of carbon-bearing materials tohigh pressure, ranging approximately between 45 and 60 kilobars (4.5 and 6 GPa), but at a comparatively lowtemperature range between approximately 900 and 1,300 C (1,650 and 2,370 F). These conditions are met intwo places on Earth; in the lithospheric mantle below relatively stable continental plates, and at the site of ameteorite strike.[12]

Formation in cratons

The conditions for diamond formation to happen in the lithosphericmantle occur at considerable depth corresponding to the requirements oftemperature and pressure. These depths are estimated between 140 and190 kilometers (87 and 118 mi) though occasionally diamonds havecrystallized at depths about 300 kilometers (190 mi).[13] The rate atwhich temperature changes with increasing depth into the Earth variesgreatly in different parts of the Earth. In particular, under oceanic platesthe temperature rises more quickly with depth, beyond the range requiredfor diamond formation at the depth required. The correct combination oftemperature and pressure is only found in the thick, ancient, and stableparts of continental plates where regions of lithosphere known as cratonsexist. Long residence in the cratonic lithosphere allows diamond crystalsto grow larger.[13]

Through studies of carbon isotope ratios (similar to the methodology usedin carbon dating, except with the stable isotopes C-12 and C-13), it has been shown that the carbon found indiamonds comes from both inorganic and organic sources. Some diamonds, known as harzburgitic, are formedfrom inorganic carbon originally found deep in the Earth's mantle. In contrast, eclogitic diamonds containorganic carbon from organic detritus that has been pushed down from the surface of the Earth's crust throughsubduction (see plate tectonics) before transforming into diamond. These two different source of carbon havemeasurably different 13C:12C ratios. Diamonds that have come to the Earth's surface are generally quite old,ranging from under 1 billion to 3.3 billion years old. This is 22% to 73% of the age of the Earth.[13]

Diamonds occur most often as euhedral or rounded octahedra and twinned octahedra known as macles. Asdiamond's crystal structure has a cubic arrangement of the atoms, they have many facets that belong to a cube,octahedron, rhombicosidodecahedron, tetrakis hexahedron or disdyakis dodecahedron. The crystals can haverounded off and unexpressive edges and can be elongated. Sometimes they are found grown together or formdouble "twinned" crystals at the surfaces of the octahedron. These different shapes and habits of some diamondsresult from differing external circumstances. Diamonds (especially those with rounded crystal faces) arecommonly found coated in nyf, an opaque gum-like skin.[14]

Space diamonds


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Schematic diagram of a volcanic pipe

Primitive interstellar meteorites were found to contain carbon possibly in the form of diamond (Lewis et al.1987).[15] Not all diamonds found on Earth originated here. A type of diamond called carbonado that is found inSouth America and Africa may have been deposited there via an asteroid impact (not formed from the impact)about 3 billion years ago. These diamonds may have formed in the intrastellar environment, but as of 2008, therewas no scientific consensus on how carbonado diamonds originated.[16][17]

Diamonds can also form under other naturally occurring high-pressure conditions. Very small diamonds ofmicrometer and nanometer sizes, known as microdiamonds or nanodiamonds respectively, have been found inmeteorite impact craters. Such impact events create shock zones of high pressure and temperature suitable fordiamond formation. Impact-type microdiamonds can be used as an indicator of ancient impact craters.[12]Popigai crater in Russia may have the world's largest diamond deposit, estimated at trillions of carats, andformed by an asteroid impact.[18]

Scientific evidence indicates that white dwarf stars have a core of crystallized carbon and oxygen nuclei. Thelargest of these found in the universe so far, BPM 37093, is located 50 light-years (4.7 1014 km) away in theconstellation Centaurus. A news release from the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics described the2,500-mile (4,000 km)-wide stellar core as a diamond.[19] It was referred to as Lucy, after the Beatles' song"Lucy in the Sky With Diamonds".[20][21]

Transport from mantle

Diamond-bearing rock is carried from the mantle to the Earth's surfaceby deep-origin volcanic eruptions. The magma for such a volcano mustoriginate at a depth where diamonds can be formed[13]150 km (93 mi)or more (three times or more the depth of source magma for mostvolcanoes). This is a relatively rare occurrence. These typically smallsurface volcanic craters extend downward in formations known asvolcanic pipes.[13] The pipes contain material that was transported towardthe surface by volcanic action, but was not ejected before the volcanicactivity ceased. During eruption these pipes are open to the surface,resulting in open circulation; many xenoliths of surface rock and evenwood and fossils are found in volcanic pipes. Diamond-bearing volcanicpipes are closely related to the oldest, coolest regions of continental crust(cratons). This is because cratons are very thick, and their lithosphericmantle extends to great enough depth that diamonds are stable. Not allpipes contain diamonds, and even fewer contain enough diamonds tomake mining economically viable.[13] Diamonds are very rare[22] because most of the crust is too thin to permitdiamond crystallization, whereas most of the mantle has relatively little carbon.

The magma in volcanic pipes is usually one of two characteristic types, which cool into igneous rock known aseither kimberlite or lamproite.[13] The magma itself does not contain diamond; instead, it acts as an elevator thatcarries deep-formed rocks (xenoliths), minerals (xenocrysts), and fluids upward. These rocks arecharacteristically rich in magnesium-bearing olivine, pyroxene, and amphibole minerals[13] which are oftenaltered to serpentine by heat and fluids during and after eruption. Certain indicator minerals typically occurwithin diamantiferous kimberlites and are used as mineralogical tracers by prospectors, who follow the indicatortrail back to the volcanic pipe which may contain diamonds. These minerals are rich in chromium (Cr) ortitanium (Ti), elements which impart bright colors to the minerals. The most common indicator minerals arechromium garnets (usually bright red chromium-pyrope, and occasionally green ugrandite-series garnets),


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Theoretically predicted phase diagramof carbon

Diamond and graphite are twoallotropes of carbon: pure forms of thesame element that differ in structure.

eclogitic garnets, orange titanium-pyrope, red high-chromium spinels, dark chromite, bright green chromium-diopside, glassy green olivine, black picroilmenite, and magnetite. Kimberlite deposits are known as blue groundfor the deeper serpentinized part of the deposits, or as yellow ground for the near surface smectite clay andcarbonate weathered and oxidized portion.[13]

Once diamonds have been transported to the surface by magma in a volcanic pipe, they may erode out and bedistributed over a large area. A volcanic pipe containing diamonds is known as a primary source of diamonds.Secondary sources of diamonds include all areas where a significant number of diamonds have been eroded outof their kimberlite or lamproite matrix, and accumulated because of water or wind action. These include alluvialdeposits and deposits along existing and ancient shorelines, where loose diamonds tend to accumulate because oftheir size and density. Diamonds have also rarely been found in deposits left behind by glaciers (notably inWisconsin and Indiana); in contrast to alluvial deposits, glacial deposits are minor and are therefore not viablecommercial sources of diamond.[13]

Material propertiesA diamond is a transparent crystalof tetrahedrally bonded carbonatoms in a covalent networklattice (sp3) that crystallizes intothe diamond lattice which is avariation of the face centeredcubic structure. Diamonds havebeen adapted for many usesbecause of the material'sexceptional physicalcharacteristics. Most notable areits extreme hardness and thermalconductivity

(9002 320 Wm1K1),[23] as well as wide bandgap and high opticaldispersion.[24] Above 1 700 C (1 973 K / 3 583 F) in vacuum or oxygen-free atmosphere, diamond converts tographite; in air, transformation starts at ~700 C.[25] Diamond's ignition point is 720 800 C in oxygen and 850 1 000 C in air.[26] Naturally occurring diamonds have a density ranging from 3.153.53 g/cm3, with purediamond close to 3.52 g/cm3.[1] The chemical bonds that hold the carbon atoms in diamonds together are weakerthan those in graphite. In diamonds, the bonds form an inflexible three-dimensional lattice, whereas in graphite,the atoms are tightly bonded into sheets, which can slide easily over one another, making the overall structureweaker.[27] In a diamond, each carbon atom is surrounded by neighboring four carbon atoms forming a tetrhedralshaped unit.

Hardness

Diamond is the hardest known natural material on the Mohs scale of mineral hardness, where hardness is definedas resistance to scratching and is graded between 1 (softest) and 10 (hardest). Diamond has a hardness of 10(hardest) on this scale and is four times harder than corundum, 9 Mohs.[28] Diamond's hardness has been knownsince antiquity, and is the source of its name.

Diamond hardness depends on its purity, crystalline perfection and orientation: hardness is higher for flawless,


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The extreme hardness of diamond incertain orientations makes it useful inmaterials science, as in this pyramidaldiamond embedded in the workingsurface of a Vickers hardness tester.

pure crystals oriented to the direction (along the longest diagonal of the cubic diamond lattice).[29]Therefore, whereas it might be possible to scratch some diamonds with other materials, such as boron nitride, thehardest diamonds can only be scratched by other diamonds and nanocrystalline diamond aggregates.

The hardness of diamond contributes to its suitability as a gemstone. Because it can only be scratched by otherdiamonds, it maintains its polish extremely well. Unlike many other gems, it is well-suited to daily wear becauseof its resistance to scratchingperhaps contributing to its popularity as the preferred gem in engagement orwedding rings, which are often worn every day.

The hardest natural diamonds mostly originate from the Copeton andBingara fields located in the New England area in New South Wales,Australia. These diamonds are generally small, perfect to semiperfectoctahedra, and are used to polish other diamonds. Their hardness isassociated with the crystal growth form, which is single-stage crystalgrowth. Most other diamonds show more evidence of multiple growthstages, which produce inclusions, flaws, and defect planes in the crystallattice, all of which affect their hardness. It is possible to treat regulardiamonds under a combination of high pressure and high temperature toproduce diamonds that are harder than the diamonds used in hardnessgauges.[20]

Somewhat related to hardness is another mechanical property toughness,which is a material's ability to resist breakage from forceful impact. Thetoughness of natural diamond has been measured as 7.510 MPam1/2.[30][31]

This value is good compared to other gemstones, but poor compared to most engineering materials. Aswith any material, the macroscopic geometry of a diamond contributes to its resistance to breakage. Diamondhas a cleavage plane and is therefore more fragile in some orientations than others. Diamond cutters use thisattribute to cleave some stones, prior to faceting.[32] "Impact toughness" is one of the main indexes to measurethe quality of synthetic industrial diamonds.[26]

Pressure resistance

Used in so-called diamond anvil experiments to create high-pressure environments, diamonds are able towithstand crushing pressures in excess of 600 gigapascals (6 million atmospheres).[33]

Electrical conductivity

Other specialized applications also exist or are being developed, including use as semiconductors: some bluediamonds are natural semiconductors, in contrast to most diamonds, which are excellent electrical insulators.[34]The conductivity and blue color originate from boron impurity. Boron substitutes for carbon atoms in thediamond lattice, donating a hole into the valence band.[34]

Substantial conductivity is commonly observed in nominally undoped diamond grown by chemical vapordeposition. This conductivity is associated with hydrogen-related species adsorbed at the surface, and it can beremoved by annealing or other surface treatments.[35][36]

Surface property


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Brown diamonds at the National Museum of NaturalHistory in Washington, D.C.

The most famous colored diamond, Hope Diamondin 1974.

Diamonds are naturally lipophilic and hydrophobic, which means the diamonds' surface cannot be wet by waterbut can be easily wet and stuck by oil. This property can be utilized to extract diamonds using oil when makingsynthetic diamonds.[26] However, when diamond surfaces are chemically modified with certain ions, they areexpected to become so hydrophilic that they can stabilize multiple layers of water ice at human bodytemperature.[37]

Chemical stability

Diamonds are not very reactive. Under room temperature diamonds do not react with any chemical reagentsincluding strong acids and bases. A diamond's surface can only be oxidized at higher temperatures.[26]

Color

Diamond has a wide bandgap of 5.5 eV corresponding to thedeep ultraviolet wavelength of 225 nanometers. This meanspure diamond should transmit visible light and appear as aclear colorless crystal. Colors in diamond originate fromlattice defects and impurities. The diamond crystal lattice isexceptionally strong and only atoms of nitrogen, boron andhydrogen can be introduced into diamond during the growthat significant concentrations (up to atomic percents).Transition metals Ni and Co, which are commonly used forgrowth of synthetic diamond by high-pressurehigh-temperature techniques, have been detected in diamondas individual atoms; the maximum concentration is 0.01%for Ni[38] and even less for Co. Virtually any element can beintroduced to diamond by ion implantation.[39]

Nitrogen is by far the most common impurity found in gemdiamonds and is responsible for the yellow and brown colorin diamonds. Boron is responsible for the blue color.[24]Color in diamond has two additional sources: irradiation(usually by alpha particles), that causes the color in greendiamonds; and plastic deformation of the diamond crystallattice. Plastic deformation is the cause of color in somebrown[40] and perhaps pink and red diamonds.[41] In order ofrarity, yellow diamond is followed by brown, colorless, thenby blue, green, black, pink, orange, purple, and red.[32]"Black", or Carbonado, diamonds are not truly black, butrather contain numerous dark inclusions that give the gemstheir dark appearance. Colored diamonds contain impuritiesor structural defects that cause the coloration, while pure ornearly pure diamonds are transparent and colorless. Mostdiamond impurities replace a carbon atom in the crystallattice, known as a carbon flaw. The most common impurity, nitrogen, causes a slight to intense yellow colorationdepending upon the type and concentration of nitrogen present.[32] The Gemological Institute of America (GIA)classifies low saturation yellow and brown diamonds as diamonds in the normal color range, and applies agrading scale from "D" (colorless) to "Z" (light yellow). Diamonds of a different color, such as blue, are called


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A round brilliant cut diamond setin a ring

fancy colored diamonds, and fall under a different grading scale.[32]

In 2008, the Wittelsbach Diamond, a 35.56-carat (7.112 g) blue diamond once belonging to the King of Spain,fetched over US$24 million at a Christie's auction.[42] In May 2009, a 7.03-carat (1.406 g) blue diamond fetchedthe highest price per carat ever paid for a diamond when it was sold at auction for 10.5 million Swiss francs(6.97 million euro or US$9.5 million at the time).[43] That record was however beaten the same year: a 5-carat(1.0 g) vivid pink diamond was sold for $10.8 million in Hong Kong on December 1, 2009.[44]

Identification

Diamonds can be identified by their high thermal conductivity. Their high refractive index is also indicative, butother materials have similar refractivity. Diamonds cut glass, but this does not positively identify a diamondbecause other materials, such as quartz, also lie above glass on the Mohs scale and can also cut it. Diamonds canscratch other diamonds, but this can result in damage to one or both stones. Hardness tests are infrequently usedin practical gemology because of their potentially destructive nature.[28] The extreme hardness and high value ofdiamond means that gems are typically polished slowly using painstaking traditional techniques and greaterattention to detail than is the case with most other gemstones;[10] these tend to result in extremely flat, highlypolished facets with exceptionally sharp facet edges. Diamonds also possess an extremely high refractive indexand fairly high dispersion. Taken together, these factors affect the overall appearance of a polished diamond andmost diamantaires still rely upon skilled use of a loupe (magnifying glass) to identify diamonds 'by eye'.[45]

IndustryThe diamond industry can be separated into two distinct categories: onedealing with gem-grade diamonds and another for industrial-grade diamonds.Both markets value diamonds differently.

Gem-grade diamonds

A large trade in gem-grade diamonds exists. Unlike other commodities, suchas most precious metals, there is a substantial mark-up in the retail sale ofgem diamonds.[46] This results from the successful creation of aanti-competitive cartel by the De Beers corporation, which lasted until theywere unable to control new mine discoveries from the 1980s.[47] However,the diamond market remains an oligopoly. There is a well-established marketfor resale of polished diamonds (e.g. pawnbroking, auctions, second-handjewelry stores, diamantaires, bourses, etc.). One hallmark of the trade ingem-quality diamonds is its remarkable concentration: wholesale trade and diamond cutting is limited to just afew locations; in 2003, 92% of the world's diamonds were cut and polished in Surat, India.[48] Other importantcenters of diamond cutting and trading are the Antwerp diamond district in Belgium, where the InternationalGemological Institute is based, London, the Diamond District in New York City, Tel Aviv, and Amsterdam. Asingle company De Beers controls a significant proportion of the trade in diamonds.[49] They are based inJohannesburg, South Africa and London, England. One contributory factor is the geological nature of diamonddeposits: several large primary kimberlite-pipe mines each account for significant portions of market share (suchas the Jwaneng mine in Botswana, which is a single large pit operated by De Beers that can produce between12,500,000 carats (2,500 kg) to 15,000,000 carats (3,000 kg) of diamonds per year[50]) whereas secondaryalluvial diamond deposits tend to be fragmented amongst many different operators because they can be


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Diamond polisher in Amsterdam

dispersed over many hundreds of square kilometers (e.g., alluvial deposits in Brazil).

The production and distribution of diamonds is largely consolidated in the hands of a few key players, andconcentrated in traditional diamond trading centers, the most important being Antwerp, where 80% of all roughdiamonds, 50% of all cut diamonds and more than 50% of all rough, cut and industrial diamonds combined arehandled.[51] This makes Antwerp a de facto "world diamond capital".[52] Another important diamond center isNew York City, where almost 80% of the world's diamonds are sold, including auction sales.[51] The DeBeerscompany, as the world's largest diamond miner holds a dominant position in the industry, and has done so sincesoon after its founding in 1888 by the British imperialist Cecil Rhodes. De Beers owns or controls a significantportion of the world's rough diamond production facilities (mines) and distribution channels for gem-qualitydiamonds. The Diamond Trading Company (DTC) is a subsidiary of De Beers and markets rough diamonds fromDe Beers-operated mines. De Beers and its subsidiaries own mines that produce some 40% of annual worlddiamond production. For most of the 20th century over 80% of the world's rough diamonds passed through DeBeers,[53] but by 20012009 the figure had decreased to around 45%,[54] and by 2013 the company's marketshare had further decreased to around 38% in value terms and even less by volume.[55] De Beers sold off thevast majority of its diamond stockpile in the late 1990s early 2000s[56] and the remainder largely representsworking stock (diamonds that are being sorted before sale).[57] This was well documented in the press[58] butremains little known to the general public.

As a part of reducing its influence, De Beers withdrew from purchasing diamonds on the open market in 1999and ceased, at the end of 2008, purchasing Russian diamonds mined by the largest Russian diamond companyAlrosa.[59] As of January 2011, De Beers states that it only sells diamonds from the following four countries:Botswana, Namibia, South Africa and Canada.[60] Alrosa had to suspend their sales in October 2008 due to theglobal energy crisis,[61] but the company reported that it had resumed selling rough diamonds on the open marketby October 2009.[62] Apart from Alrosa, other important diamond mining companies include BHP Billiton, whichis the world's largest mining company;[63] Rio Tinto Group, the owner of Argyle (100%), Diavik (60%), andMurowa (78%) diamond mines;[64] and Petra Diamonds, the owner of several major diamond mines in Africa.Further down the supply chain, members of The World Federation ofDiamond Bourses (WFDB) act as a medium for wholesale diamondexchange, trading both polished and rough diamonds. The WFDBconsists of independent diamond bourses in major cutting centers such asTel Aviv, Antwerp, Johannesburg and other cities across the USA, Europeand Asia.[32] In 2000, the WFDB and The International DiamondManufacturers Association established the World Diamond Council toprevent the trading of diamonds used to fund war and inhumane acts.WFDB's additional activities include sponsoring the World DiamondCongress every two years, as well as the establishment of theInternational Diamond Council (IDC) to oversee diamond grading.

Once purchased by Sightholders (which is a trademark term referring to the companies that have a three-yearsupply contract with DTC), diamonds are cut and polished in preparation for sale as gemstones ('industrial'stones are regarded as a by-product of the gemstone market; they are used for abrasives).[65] The cutting andpolishing of rough diamonds is a specialized skill that is concentrated in a limited number of locationsworldwide.[65] Traditional diamond cutting centers are Antwerp, Amsterdam, Johannesburg, New York City, andTel Aviv. Recently, diamond cutting centers have been established in China, India, Thailand, Namibia andBotswana.[65] Cutting centers with lower cost of labor, notably Surat in Gujarat, India, handle a larger number of


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The Darya-I-Nur Diamondanexample of unusual diamond cut andjewelry arrangement

smaller carat diamonds, while smaller quantities of larger or more valuable diamonds are more likely to behandled in Europe or North America. The recent expansion of this industry in India, employing low cost labor,has allowed smaller diamonds to be prepared as gems in greater quantities than was previously economicallyfeasible.[51]

Diamonds which have been prepared as gemstones are sold on diamond exchanges called bourses. There are 28registered diamond bourses in the world.[66] Bourses are the final tightly controlled step in the diamond supplychain; wholesalers and even retailers are able to buy relatively small lots of diamonds at the bourses, after whichthey are prepared for final sale to the consumer. Diamonds can be sold already set in jewelry, or sold unset("loose"). According to the Rio Tinto Group, in 2002 the diamonds produced and released to the market werevalued at US$9 billion as rough diamonds, US$14 billion after being cut and polished, US$28 billion in wholesalediamond jewelry, and US$57 billion in retail sales.[67]

Cutting

Mined rough diamonds are converted into gems through a multi-stepprocess called "cutting". Diamonds are extremely hard, but also brittleand can be split up by a single blow. Therefore, diamond cutting istraditionally considered as a delicate procedure requiring skills, scientificknowledge, tools and experience. Its final goal is to produce a facetedjewel where the specific angles between the facets would optimize thediamond luster, that is dispersion of white light, whereas the number andarea of facets would determine the weight of the final product. Theweight reduction upon cutting is significant and can be of the order of50%.[68] Several possible shapes are considered, but the final decision isoften determined not only by scientific, but also practical considerations.For example the diamond might be intended for display or for wear, in aring or a necklace, singled or surrounded by other gems of certain colorand shape.[69]

The most time-consuming part of the cutting is the preliminary analysis ofthe rough stone. It needs to address a large number of issues, bears muchresponsibility, and therefore can last years in case of unique diamonds.The following issues are considered:

The hardness of diamond and its ability to cleave strongly dependon the crystal orientation. Therefore, the crystallographic structureof the diamond to be cut is analyzed using X-ray diffraction to choose the optimal cutting directions.Most diamonds contain visible non-diamond inclusions and crystal flaws. The cutter has to decide whichflaws are to be removed by the cutting and which could be kept.The diamond can be split by a single, well calculated blow of a hammer to a pointed tool, which is quick,but risky. Alternatively, it can be cut with a diamond saw, which is a more reliable but tedious procedure.[69][70]

After initial cutting, the diamond is shaped in numerous stages of polishing. Unlike cutting, which is a responsiblebut quick operation, polishing removes material by gradual erosion and is extremely time consuming. Theassociated technique is well developed; it is considered as a routine and can be performed by technicians.[71]After polishing, the diamond is reexamined for possible flaws, either remaining or induced by the process. Thoseflaws are concealed through various diamond enhancement techniques, such as repolishing, crack filling, or


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A scalpel with synthetic diamond blade

clever arrangement of the stone in the jewelry. Remaining non-diamond inclusions are removed through laserdrilling and filling of the voids produced.[28]

Marketing

Marketing has significantly affected the image of diamond as a valuable commodity.

N. W. Ayer & Son, the advertising firm retained by De Beers in the mid-20th century, succeeded in reviving theAmerican diamond market. And the firm created new markets in countries where no diamond tradition hadexisted before. N. W. Ayer's marketing included product placement, advertising focused on the diamond productitself rather than the De Beers brand, and associations with celebrities and royalty. Without advertising the DeBeers brand, De Beers was also advertising its competitors' diamond products as well.[72] De Beers' market sharedipped temporarily to 2nd place in the global market below Alrosa in the aftermath of the global economic crisisof 2008, down to less than 29% in terms of carats mined, rather than sold.[73] The campaign lasted for decadesbut was effectively discontinued by early 2011. De Beers still advertises diamonds, but the advertising nowmostly promotes its own brands, or licensed product lines, rather than completely "generic" diamondproducts.[73] The campaign was perhaps best captured by the slogan "a diamond is forever".[7] This slogan is nowbeing used by De Beers Diamond Jewelers,[74] a jewelry firm which is a 50%/50% joint venture between the DeBeers mining company and LVMH, the luxury goods conglomerate.

Brown-colored diamonds constituted a significant part of the diamond production, and were predominantly usedfor industrial purposes. They were seen as worthless for jewelry (not even being assessed on the diamond colorscale). After the development of Argyle diamond mine in Australia in 1986, and marketing, brown diamondshave become acceptable gems.[75][76] The change was mostly due to the numbers: the Argyle mine, with its35,000,000 carats (7,000 kg) of diamonds per year, makes about one-third of global production of naturaldiamonds;[77] 80% of Argyle diamonds are brown.[78]

Industrial-grade diamonds

Industrial diamonds are valued mostly for their hardness and thermalconductivity, making many of the gemological characteristics ofdiamonds, such as the 4 Cs, irrelevant for most applications. 80% ofmined diamonds (equal to about 135,000,000 carats (27,000 kg)annually), are unsuitable for use as gemstones, and used industrially.[79]In addition to mined diamonds, synthetic diamonds found industrialapplications almost immediately after their invention in the 1950s;another 570,000,000 carats (114,000 kg) of synthetic diamond isproduced annually for industrial use (in 2004; in 2014 it's 4,500,000,000carats (900,000 kg), 90% by produced in China). Approximately 90% ofdiamond grinding grit is currently of synthetic origin.[80]

The boundary between gem-quality diamonds and industrial diamonds ispoorly defined and partly depends on market conditions (for example, ifdemand for polished diamonds is high, some lower-grade stones will be polished into low-quality or smallgemstones rather than being sold for industrial use). Within the category of industrial diamonds, there is asub-category comprising the lowest-quality, mostly opaque stones, which are known as bort.[81]

Industrial use of diamonds has historically been associated with their hardness, which makes diamond the ideal


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Close-up photograph of an anglegrinder blade with tiny diamondsshown embedded in the metal

A diamond knife blade used for cuttingultrathin sections (typically 70 to350 nm for transmission electronmicroscopy.

material for cutting and grinding tools. As the hardest known naturallyoccurring material, diamond can be used to polish, cut, or wear away anymaterial, including other diamonds. Common industrial applications ofthis property include diamond-tipped drill bits and saws, and the use ofdiamond powder as an abrasive. Less expensive industrial-gradediamonds, known as bort, with more flaws and poorer color than gems,are used for such purposes.[82] Diamond is not suitable for machiningferrous alloys at high speeds, as carbon is soluble in iron at the hightemperatures created by high-speed machining, leading to greatlyincreased wear on diamond tools compared to alternatives.[83]

Specialized applications include use in laboratories as containment forhigh pressure experiments (see diamond anvil cell), high-performancebearings, and limited use in specialized windows.[81] With the continuingadvances being made in the production of synthetic diamonds, futureapplications are becoming feasible. The high thermal conductivity ofdiamond makes it suitable as a heat sink for integrated circuits inelectronics.[84]

Mining

Approximately 130,000,000 carats (26,000 kg) of diamonds are minedannually, with a total value of nearly US$9 billion, and about 100,000 kg(220,000 lb) are synthesized annually.[85]

Roughly 49% of diamonds originate from Central and Southern Africa,although significant sources of the mineral have been discovered inCanada, India, Russia, Brazil, and Australia.[80] They are mined fromkimberlite and lamproite volcanic pipes, which can bring diamondcrystals, originating from deep within the Earth where high pressures andtemperatures enable them to form, to the surface. The mining and distribution of natural diamonds are subjectsof frequent controversy such as concerns over the sale of blood diamonds or conflict diamonds by Africanparamilitary groups.[86] The diamond supply chain is controlled by a limited number of powerful businesses, andis also highly concentrated in a small number of locations around the world.

Only a very small fraction of the diamond ore consists of actual diamonds. The ore is crushed, during which careis required not to destroy larger diamonds, and then sorted by density. Today, diamonds are located in thediamond-rich density fraction with the help of X-ray fluorescence, after which the final sorting steps are done byhand. Before the use of X-rays became commonplace,[68] the separation was done with grease belts; diamondshave a stronger tendency to stick to grease than the other minerals in the ore.[32]

Historically, diamonds were found only in alluvial deposits in Guntur and Krishna district of the Krishna Riverdelta in Southern India.[87] India led the world in diamond production from the time of their discovery inapproximately the 9th century BC[4][88] to the mid-18th century AD, but the commercial potential of thesesources had been exhausted by the late 18th century and at that time India was eclipsed by Brazil where the firstnon-Indian diamonds were found in 1725.[4] Currently, one of the most prominent Indian mines is located atPanna.[89]


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Siberia's Udachnaya diamond mine

Unsustainable diamond mining inSierra Leone (http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Development_Cooperation_Handbook/Stories/Unsustainable_Growth)

Diamond extraction from primary deposits (kimberlites and lamproites)started in the 1870s after the discovery of the Diamond Fields in SouthAfrica.[90] Production has increased over time and now an accumulatedtotal of 4,500,000,000 carats (900,000 kg) have been mined since thatdate.[91] Twenty percent of that amount has been mined in the last fiveyears, and during the last 10 years, nine new mines have startedproduction; four more are waiting to be opened soon. Most of thesemines are located in Canada, Zimbabwe, Angola, and one in Russia.[91]

In the U.S., diamonds have been found in Arkansas, Colorado, Wyoming,and Montana.[92][93] In 2004, the discovery of a microscopic diamond inthe U.S. led to the January 2008 bulk-sampling of kimberlite pipes in a remote part of Montana.[93]

Today, most commercially viable diamond deposits are in Russia (mostly in Sakha Republic, for example Mirpipe and Udachnaya pipe), Botswana, Australia (Northern and Western Australia) and the Democratic Republicof Congo.[94] In 2005, Russia produced almost one-fifth of the global diamond output, reports the BritishGeological Survey. Australia boasts the richest diamantiferous pipe, with production from the Argyle diamondmine reaching peak levels of 42 metric tons per year in the 1990s.[92][95] There are also commercial depositsbeing actively mined in the Northwest Territories of Canada and Brazil.[80] Diamond prospectors continue tosearch the globe for diamond-bearing kimberlite and lamproite pipes.

Political issues

In some of the more politically unstable central African and west Africancountries, revolutionary groups have taken control of diamond mines,using proceeds from diamond sales to finance their operations. Diamondssold through this process are known as conflict diamonds or blooddiamonds.[86] Major diamond trading corporations continue to fund andfuel these conflicts by doing business with armed groups. In response topublic concerns that their diamond purchases were contributing to warand human rights abuses in central and western Africa, the UnitedNations, the diamond industry and diamond-trading nations introducedthe Kimberley Process in 2002.[96] The Kimberley Process aims to ensurethat conflict diamonds do not become intermixed with the diamonds notcontrolled by such rebel groups. This is done by requiring diamond-producing countries to provide proof that the money they make from selling the diamonds is not used to fundcriminal or revolutionary activities. Although the Kimberley Process has been moderately successful in limitingthe number of conflict diamonds entering the market, some still find their way in. Conflict diamonds constitute23% of all diamonds traded.[97] Two major flaws still hinder the effectiveness of the Kimberley Process: (1) therelative ease of smuggling diamonds across African borders, and (2) the violent nature of diamond mining innations that are not in a technical state of war and whose diamonds are therefore considered "clean".[96]

The Canadian Government has set up a body known as Canadian Diamond Code of Conduct[98] to helpauthenticate Canadian diamonds. This is a stringent tracking system of diamonds and helps protect the "conflictfree" label of Canadian diamonds.[99]

Synthetics, simulants, and enhancements


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Synthetic diamonds of various colorsgrown by the high-pressurehigh-temperature technique

Colorless gem cut from diamondgrown by chemical vapor deposition

Gem-cut synthetic silicon carbide setin a ring

Synthetics

Synthetic diamonds are diamonds manufactured in a laboratory, asopposed to diamonds mined from the Earth. The gemological andindustrial uses of diamond have created a large demand for rough stones.This demand has been satisfied in large part by synthetic diamonds,which have been manufactured by various processes for more than half acentury. However, in recent years it has become possible to producegem-quality synthetic diamonds of significant size.[13] It is possible tomake colorless synthetic gemstones that, on a molecular level, areidentical to natural stones and so visually similar that only a gemologistwith special equipment can tell the difference.[100]

The majority of commercially available synthetic diamonds are yellowand are produced by so-called High Pressure High Temperature (HPHT) processes.[101] The yellow color iscaused by nitrogen impurities. Other colors may also be reproduced such as blue, green or pink, which are aresult of the addition of boron or from irradiation after synthesis.[102]

Another popular method of growing synthetic diamond is chemical vapordeposition (CVD). The growth occurs under low pressure (belowatmospheric pressure). It involves feeding a mixture of gases (typically 1to 99 methane to hydrogen) into a chamber and splitting them tochemically active radicals in a plasma ignited by microwaves, hotfilament, arc discharge, welding torch or laser.[103] This method is mostlyused for coatings, but can also produce single crystals several millimetersin size (see picture).[85]

As of 2010, nearly all 5,000 million carats (1,000 tonnes) of syntheticdiamonds produced per year are for industrial use. Around 50% of the133 million carats of natural diamonds mined per year end up inindustrial use.[100][104] The cost of mining a natural colorless diamondruns about $40 to $60 per carat, and the cost to produce a synthetic,gem-quality colorless diamond is about $2,500 per carat.[100] However, a purchaser is more likely to encounter asynthetic when looking for a fancy-colored diamond because nearly all synthetic diamonds are fancy-colored,while only 0.01% of natural diamonds are.[105]

Simulants

A diamond simulant is a non-diamond material that is used to simulatethe appearance of a diamond, and may be referred to as diamante. Cubiczirconia is the most common. The gemstone Moissanite (silicon carbide)can be treated as a diamond simulant, though more costly to producethan cubic zirconia. Both are produced synthetically.[106]

Enhancements

Diamond enhancements are specific treatments performed on natural orsynthetic diamonds (usually those already cut and polished into a gem), which are designed to better the


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gemological characteristics of the stone in one or more ways. These include laser drilling to remove inclusions,application of sealants to fill cracks, treatments to improve a white diamond's color grade, and treatments to givefancy color to a white diamond.[107]

Coatings are increasingly used to give a diamond simulant such as cubic zirconia a more "diamond-like"appearance. One such substance is diamond-like carbonan amorphous carbonaceous material that has somephysical properties similar to those of the diamond. Advertising suggests that such a coating would transfer someof these diamond-like properties to the coated stone, hence enhancing the diamond simulant. Techniques such asRaman spectroscopy should easily identify such a treatment.[108]

Identification

Early diamond identification tests included a scratch test relying on the superior hardness of diamond. This test isdestructive, as a diamond can scratch another diamond, and is rarely used nowadays. Instead, diamondidentification relies on its superior thermal conductivity. Electronic thermal probes are widely used in thegemological centers to separate diamonds from their imitations. These probes consist of a pair of battery-powered thermistors mounted in a fine copper tip. One thermistor functions as a heating device while the othermeasures the temperature of the copper tip: if the stone being tested is a diamond, it will conduct the tip'sthermal energy rapidly enough to produce a measurable temperature drop. This test takes about 23 seconds.[109]

Whereas the thermal probe can separate diamonds from most of their simulants, distinguishing between varioustypes of diamond, for example synthetic or natural, irradiated or non-irradiated, etc., requires more advanced,optical techniques. Those techniques are also used for some diamonds simulants, such as silicon carbide, whichpass the thermal conductivity test. Optical techniques can distinguish between natural diamonds and syntheticdiamonds. They can also identify the vast majority of treated natural diamonds.[110] "Perfect" crystals (at theatomic lattice level) have never been found, so both natural and synthetic diamonds always possesscharacteristic imperfections, arising from the circumstances of their crystal growth, that allow them to bedistinguished from each other.[111]

Laboratories use techniques such as spectroscopy, microscopy and luminescence under shortwave ultravioletlight to determine a diamond's origin.[110] They also use specially made instruments to aid them in theidentification process. Two screening instruments are the DiamondSure and the DiamondView, both produced bythe DTC and marketed by the GIA.[112]

Several methods for identifying synthetic diamonds can be performed, depending on the method of productionand the color of the diamond. CVD diamonds can usually be identified by an orange fluorescence. D-J coloreddiamonds can be screened through the Swiss Gemmological Institute's[113] Diamond Spotter. Stones in the D-Zcolor range can be examined through the DiamondSure UV/visible spectrometer, a tool developed by DeBeers.[111] Similarly, natural diamonds usually have minor imperfections and flaws, such as inclusions of foreignmaterial, that are not seen in synthetic diamonds.

Screening devices based on diamond type detection can be used to make a distinction between diamonds that arecertainly natural and diamonds that are potentially synthetic. Those potentially synthetic diamonds require moreinvestigation in a specialized lab. Examples of commercial screening devices are D-Screen (WTOCD / HRDAntwerp) and Alpha Diamond Analyzer (Bruker / HRD Antwerp).

Stolen diamonds


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Occasionally large thefts of diamonds take place. In February 2013 armed robbers carried out a raid at BrusselsAirport and escaped with gems estimated to be worth $50m (32m; 37m euros). The gang broke through aperimeter fence and raided the cargo hold of a Swiss-bound plane. The gang have since been arrested and largeamounts of cash and diamonds recovered.[114]

The identification of stolen diamonds presents a set of difficult problems. Rough diamonds will have a distinctiveshape depending on whether their source is a mine or from an alluvial environment such as a beach or river -alluvial diamonds have smoother surfaces than those that have been mined. Determining the provenance of cutand polished stones is much more complex.

The Kimberley Process was developed to monitor the trade in rough diamonds and prevent their being used tofund violence. Before exporting, rough diamonds are certificated by the government of the country of origin.Some countries, such as Venezuela, are not party to the agreement. The Kimberley Process does not apply tolocal sales of rough diamonds within a country.

Diamonds may be etched by laser with marks invisible to the naked eye. Lazare Kaplan, a US-based company,developed this method. However, whatever is marked on a diamond can readily be removed.[115][116]

See alsoList of diamondsList of minerals

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BooksC. Even-Zohar (2007). From Mine to Mistress: Corporate Strategies and Government Policies in theInternational Diamond Industry (http://www.mine2mistress.com) (2nd ed.). Mining Journal Press.G. Davies (1994). Properties and growth of diamond. INSPEC. ISBN 0-85296-875-2.M. O'Donoghue, M (2006). Gems. Elsevier. ISBN 0-7506-5856-8.M. O'Donoghue and L. Joyner (2003). Identification of gemstones. Great Britain: Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 0-7506-5512-7.A. Feldman and L.H. Robins (1991). Applications of Diamond Films and Related Materials. Elsevier.J.E. Field (1979). The Properties of Diamond. London: Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-255350-0.J.E. Field (1992). The Properties of Natural and Synthetic Diamond. London: Academic Press.ISBN 0-12-255352-7.W. Hershey (1940). The Book of Diamonds (http://www.farlang.com/diamonds/hershey-diamond-chapters/page_001). Hearthside Press New York. ISBN 1-4179-7715-9.S. Koizumi, C.E. Nebel and M. Nesladek (2008). Physics and Applications of CVD Diamond(http://books.google.com/?id=pRFUZdHb688C). Wiley VCH. ISBN 3-527-40801-0.L.S. Pan and D.R. Kani (1995). Diamond: Electronic Properties and Applications(http://books.google.com/?id=ZtfFEoXkU8wC&pg=PP1). Kluwer Academic Publishers.ISBN 0-7923-9524-7.


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Look up diamond inWiktionary, the freedictionary.

Wikiquote has quotationsrelated to: Diamond

Wikimedia Commons hasmedia related to Diamond.

Pagel-Theisen, Verena (2001). Diamond Grading ABC: the Manual. Antwerp: Rubin & Son.ISBN 3-9800434-6-0.R.L. Radovic, P.M. Walker and P.A. Thrower (1965). Chemistry and physics of carbon: a series ofadvances. New York: Marcel Dekker. ISBN 0-8247-0987-X.M. Tolkowsky (1919). Diamond Design: A Study of the Reflection and Refraction of Light in a Diamond(http://www.folds.net/diamond/index.html). London: E. & F.N. Spon.R.W. Wise (2003). Secrets of the Gem Trade: The Connoisseur's Guide to Precious Gemstones(http://www.secretsofthegemtrade.com). Brunswick House Press.A.M. Zaitsev (2001). Optical Properties of Diamond: A Data Handbook (http://books.google.com/?id=msU4jkdCEhIC&pg=PP1). Springer. ISBN 3-540-66582-X.

External linksProperties of diamond: Ioffe database (http://www.ioffe.ru/SVA/NSM/Semicond/Diamond/index.html)"A Contribution to the Understanding of Blue Fluorescence on theAppearance of Diamonds" (http://lgdl.gia.edu/pdfs/W97_fluoresce.pdf). (2007) Gemological Institute ofAmerica (GIA)Tyson, Peter (November 2000). "Diamonds in the Sky"(http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/diamond/sky.html). RetrievedMarch 10, 2005.Have You Ever Tried to Sell a Diamond?(http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/198202/diamond)

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