dickson k.w. chiu phd, smieee text: antoniou & van harmelen: a semantic web primer (chapter 7)

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CSIT600f: Introduction to Semantic Web

Ontology Engineering

Dickson K.W. ChiuPhD, SMIEEE

Text: Antoniou & van Harmelen: A Semantic Web Primer

(Chapter 7)

Dickson Chiu 2005 CSIT600f 05b-2

Lecture Outline

1. Introduction2. Constructing Ontologies Manually3. Reusing Existing Ontologies4. Using Semiautomatic Methods5. On-To-Knowledge SW Architecture


Methodological Questions

How can tools and techniques best be applied?

Which languages and tools should be used in which circumstances, and in which order?

What about issues of quality control and resource management?

？ Many of these questions for the Semantic Web have been studied in other contexts E.g. software engineering, object-oriented

design, and knowledge engineering


Lecture Outline



Main Stages in Ontology Development

1. Determine scope2. Consider reuse3. Enumerate terms4. Define taxonomy5. Define properties6. Define facets7. Define instances8. Check for anomalies

Not a linear process!


Determine Scope Many possible correct ontology of a specific

domain An ontology is an abstraction of a particular domain, and

there are always viable alternatives What is included in this abstraction should be

determined by the use to which the ontology will be put by future extensions that are already anticipated

Basic questions to be answered at this stage are: What is the domain that the ontology will cover? For what we are going to use the ontology? For what types of questions should the ontology provide

answers? Who will use and maintain the ontology?


Consider Reuse

With the spreading deployment of the Semantic Web, ontologies will become more widely available

We rarely have to start from scratch when defining an ontology There is almost always an ontology

available from a third party that provides at least a useful starting point for our own ontology


Enumerate Terms

Write down in an unstructured list all the relevant terms that are expected to appear in the ontology Nouns form the basis for class names Verbs (or verb phrases) form the basis for

property names Traditional knowledge engineering tools

(e.g. laddering and grid analysis) can be used to obtain the set of terms an initial structure for these terms


Define Taxonomy

Relevant terms must be organized in a taxonomic hierarchy

Opinions differ on whether it is more efficient/reliable to do this in a top-down or a bottom-up fashion

Ensure that hierarchy is indeed a taxonomy:

If A is a subclass of B, then every instance of A must also be an instance of B (compatible with semantics of rdfs:subClassOf


Define Properties

Often interleaved with the previous step The semantics of subClassOf demands that

whenever A is a subclass of B, every property statement that holds for instances of B must also apply to instances of A

It makes sense to attach properties to the highest class in the hierarchy to which they apply

While attaching properties to classes, it makes sense to immediately provide statements about the domain and range of these properties

There is a methodological tension here between generality and specificity:

Flexibility (inheritance to subclasses) Detection of inconsistencies and misconceptions


Define Facets: From RDFS to OWL

Cardinality restrictions Required values

owl:hasValue owl:allValuesFrom owl:someValuesFrom

Relational characteristics symmetry, transitivity, inverse properties,

functional values


Define Instances

Filling the ontologies with such instances is a separate step

Number of instances >> number of classes

Thus populating an ontology with instances is not done manually Retrieved from legacy data sources (DBs) Extracted automatically from a text corpus


Check for Anomalies

An important advantage of the use of OWL over RDF Schema is the possibility to detect inconsistencies In ontology or ontology+instances

Examples of common inconsistencies incompatible domain and range definitions

for transitive, symmetric, or inverse properties

cardinality properties requirements on property values can

conflict with domain and range restrictions


Lecture Outline



Existing Domain-Specific Ontologies

Medical domain: Cancer ontology from the National Cancer Institute in the United States

Cultural domain: Art and Architecture Thesaurus (AAT) with

125,000 terms in the cultural domain Union List of Artist Names (ULAN), with

220,000 entries on artists Iconclass vocabulary of 28,000 terms for

describing cultural images Geographical domain:

Getty Thesaurus of Geographic Names (TGN), containing over 1 million entries


Integrated Vocabularies

Merge independently developed vocabularies into a single large resource

E.g., Unified Medical Language System integrating 100 biomedical vocabularies The UMLS meta-thesaurus contains 750,000

concepts, with over 10 million links between them The semantics of a resource that integrates

many independently developed vocabularies is rather low But very useful in many applications as starting

point


Upper-Level Ontologies

Some attempts have been made to define very generally applicable ontologies

CYC - with 60,000 assertions on 6,000 concepts

IEEE Standard Upperlevel Ontology (SUO)


Topic Hierarchies

Some “ontologies” do not deserve this name: simply sets of terms, loosely organized in a hierarchy

This hierarchy is typically not a strict taxonomy but rather mixes different specialization relations (e.g., is-a, part-of, contained-in)

Such resources often very useful as starting point Example: Open Directory hierarchy, containing

more then 400,000 hierarchically organized categories and available in RDF format


Linguistic Resources

Some resources were originally built not as abstractions of a particular domain, but rather as linguistic resources

These have been shown to be useful as starting places for ontology development E.g., WordNet, with over 90,000 word

senses


Ontology Libraries

Attempts are currently underway to construct online libraries of online ontologies

Rarely existing ontologies can be reused without changes

Existing concepts and properties must be refined using rdfs:subClassOf and rdfs:subPropertyOf

Alternative names must be introduced which are better suited to the particular domain using owl:equivalentClass and owl:equivalentProperty

We can exploit the fact that RDF and OWL allow private refinements of classes defined in other ontologies


Lecture Outline



The Knowledge Acquisition Bottleneck

Manual ontology acquisition remains a time-consuming, expensive, highly skilled, and sometimes cumbersome task

Machine Learning techniques may be used to alleviate knowledge acquisition or extraction knowledge revision or maintenance


Tasks Supported by Machine Learning

Extraction of ontologies from existing data on the Web

Extraction of relational data and metadata from existing data on the Web

Merging and mapping ontologies by analyzing extensions of concepts

Maintaining ontologies by analyzing instance data

Improving SW applications by observing users


Useful Machine Learning Techniques for Ontology Engineering

Clustering Incremental ontology updates Support for the knowledge engineer Improving large natural language

ontologies Pure (domain) ontology learning


Machine Learning Techniques for Natural Language Ontologies

Natural language ontologies (NLOs) contain lexical relations between language concepts They are large in size and do not require

frequent updates The state of the art in NLO learning

looks quite optimistic: A stable general-purpose NLO exist Techniques for automatically or semi-

automatically constructing and enriching domain-specific NLOs exist


Machine Learning Techniques for Domain Ontologies

They provide detailed descriptions Usually they are constructed manually The acquisition of the domain

ontologies is still guided by a human knowledge engineer

Automated learning techniques play a minor role in knowledge acquisition

They have to find statistically valid dependencies in the domain texts and suggest them to the knowledge engineer


Machine Learning Techniques for Ontology Instances

Ontology instances can be generated automatically and frequently updated while the ontology remains unchanged

Fits nicely into a machine learning framework

Successful ML applications Are strictly dependent on the domain

ontology, or Populate the markup without relating to any

domain theory General-purpose techniques not yet

available


Different Uses of Ontology Learning

Ontology acquisition tasks in knowledge engineering Ontology creation from scratch by the

knowledge engineer Ontology schema extraction from Web

documents Extraction of ontology instances from Web

documents Ontology maintenance tasks

Ontology integration and navigation Updating some parts of an ontology Ontology enrichment or tuning


Ontology Acquisition Tasks

Ontology creation from scratch by the knowledge engineer

ML assists the knowledge engineer by suggesting the most important relations in the field or checking and verifying the constructed knowledge bases

Ontology schema extraction from Web documents ML takes the data and meta-knowledge (like a meta-ontology)

as input and generate the ready-to-use ontology as output with the possible help of the knowledge engineer

Extraction of ontology instances from Web documents This task extracts the instances of the ontology presented in

the Web documents and populates given ontology schemas This task is similar to information extraction and page

annotation, and can apply the techniques developed in these areas


Ontology Maintenance Tasks

Ontology integration and navigation Deals with reconstructing and navigating in

large and possibly machine-learned knowledge bases

Updating some parts of an ontology that are designed to be updated

Ontology enrichment or tuning This does not change major concepts and

structures but makes an ontology more precise


Potentially Applicable Machine Learning Algorithms

Propositional rule learning algorithms Bayesian learning

generates probabilistic attribute-value rules First-order logic rules learning Clustering algorithms

They group the instances together based on the similarity or distance measures between a pair of instances defined in terms of their attribute values


Lecture Outline



On-To-Knowledge Architecture

Building the Semantic Web involves using the new languages described in this course a rather different style of engineering a rather different approach to application

integration We describe how a number of Semantic

Web-related tools can be integrated in a single lightweight architecture using Semantic Web standards to achieve interoperability between tools


Knowledge Acquisition

Initially, tools must exist that use surface analysis techniques to obtain content from documents Unstructured natural language documents:

statistical techniques and shallow natural language technology

Structured and semi-structured documents: wrappers induction, pattern recognition


Knowledge Storage

The output of the analysis tools is sets of concepts, organized in a shallow concept hierarchy with at best very few cross-taxonomical relationships

RDF/RDF Schema are sufficiently expressive to represent the extracted info Store the knowledge produced by the

extraction tools Retrieve this knowledge, preferably using a

structured query language (e.g. RQL)


Knowledge Maintenance and Use

A practical Semantic Web repository must provide functionality for managing and maintaining the ontology:

change management access and ownership rights transaction management

There must be support for both Lightweight ontologies that are automatically generated from

unstructured and semi-structured data Human engineering of much more knowledge-intensive

ontologies Sophisticated editing environments must be able to

Retrieve ontologies from the repository Allow a knowledge engineer to manipulate it Place it back in the repository

The ontologies and data in the repository are to be used by applications that serve an end-user

We have already described a number of such applications


Technical Interoperability

Syntactic interoperability was achieved because all components communicated in RDF

Semantic interoperability was achieved because all semantics was expressed using RDF Schema

Physical interoperability was achieved because all communications between components were established using simple HTTP connections


On-To-Knowledge System Architecture

dickson k.w. chiu phd, smieee text: antoniou & van harmelen: a semantic web primer (chapter 7)

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