DICTIONARY OF LITERARY INFLUENCES: The Twentieth Century, 19142000

John Powell Editor

GREENWOOD PRESS

DICTIONARY OF LITERARY INFLUENCES

DICTIONARY OF LITERARY INFLUENCESThe Twentieth Century, 19142000Edited by John Powell

GREENWOOD PRESS Westport, Connecticut London

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Dictionary of literary inuences : the twentieth century, 19142000 / edited by John Powell. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0313317844 (alk. paper) 1. CelebritiesBooks and readingEuropeHistory20th century. 2. Celebrities Books and readingAmericaHistory20th century. 3. Civilization, Modern20th century. 4. IntellectualsBooks and readingEuropeHistory20th century. 5. IntellectualsBooks and readingAmericaHistory20th century. I. Powell, John, 1954 II. Biographical dictionary of literary inuences. Z1039.C45D53 2004 028'.9'0904dc22 2003049318 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data is available. Copyright 2004 by John Powell All rights reserved. No portion of this book may be reproduced, by any process or technique, without the express written consent of the publisher. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2003049318 ISBN: 0313317844 First published in 2004 Greenwood Press, 88 Post Road West, Westport, CT 06881 An imprint of Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc. www.greenwood.com Printed in the United States of America

The paper used in this book complies with the Permanent Paper Standard issued by the National Information Standards Organization (Z39.481984). 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

CONTENTS

Preface Acknowledgments Introduction The Dictionary Index About the Contributors

vii xiii xv 1 573 609

v

PREFACE

This work is a continuation of the research begun with Biographical Dictionary of Literary Inf luences: The Nineteenth Century, 18001914 (Greenwood, 2001). In that volume, an international team of scholars examined the reading habits of 271 men and women who played a prominent role in shaping Western culture. In this work, 156 contributors from 19 countries have done the same for 385 of the Western worlds great cultural gures.

DESIGNThe design of the first volume was maintained, with entries arranged alphabetically and composed with an eye toward factual introduction and guidance in research. Contributors were asked to conduct their research with two principal goals in mind: rst, to provide a concise summary of literary inf luences; and second, to provide clear direction for further research. Each entry includes three components:1. An introductory section provides basic biographical data, including educational information and a concise assessment of the contribution of the subject to the development of Western culture. In order to maximize the space available for the projects goals, standard biographical information has been limited. It has been assumed that a researcher wishing to know, for instance, the titles and years of publication of an authors complete oeuvre or a detailed listing of ofces held or academic appointments, will consult a regular biographical dictionary. 2. The body of each article is devoted to an assessment of specif ic literary works and authors known to have inuenced the subject. The emphasis is factual and specic, though a succinct analysis may be included if the research warrants. As evidence regarding reading habits varies widely, so does the length and nature of the articles themselves. Ironically, advanced technologies of the twentieth century have often led to

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Preface less introspection, less information being recorded, and, in recent years, more emphasis on aural or visual inuences. 3. A bibliography includes principal archival collections, standard biographical resources, and published materials relating specically to the subjects reading. This section is necessarily uneven from entry to entry, as some gures left excellent sources for reconstructing their reading past, others almost none, and most an odd collection that requires careful reconstruction from a variety of sources.

The Literary Inuences project does not indicate that printed mediums are the only, or even the principal, means of transmitting ideas and shaping culture. Many of the cultural giants treated here never wrote a book or published a poem though a surprisingly large percentage did. All of them read, however. It is the purpose of this project to suggest the broad parameters of literary inuence, in its broadest sense, upon the full array of cultural characteristics. While a few preliminary observations will be made in the introduction about the relationship between reading and culture, this work is meant to be suggestive and foundational. On the basis of articles on men and women of inuence from widely different elds, scholars may eventually help us all to understand why, for instance, Octavio Paz and Robert Oppenheimer were both drawn to the Bhagavad-gita; or why Steven Spielberg, so militantly anticlassic in his reading, went on to produce such traditionally classic lms as Schindlers List and Saving Private Ryan.

PRINCIPLES OF SELECTIONSelecting men and women for inclusion was more difcult for the twentieth century than for the nineteenth. As in the rst volume, we began by identifying the people most responsible for the general cultural development of Europe, the Anglo-British world, and the Americas between 1914 and 2000. To be included, a gure1. must have inuenced Western culture in an important way during this time period; 2. must have exerted some inuence beyond the local or regional borders of his or her home region; and 3. must have dened his or her career by substantial achievement during the period.

Once again, choosing the top tier of entries was relatively easy. Albert Einstein, Mother Teresa, Martin Luther King Jr., and John Paul II were likely to make anyones list. The dening madness of World War II and the Cold War threat of global destruction turned many political leaders, good and bad, into gures of enormous cultural importance: Winston Churchill, Adolf Hitler, Josef Stalin, John F. Kennedy, Ronald Reagan, Margaret Thatcher, and Mikhail Gorbachev immediately come to mind. After the top rank, however, the possibilities were bewildering. Opportunities for learning and avenues of cultural expression were so much greater in the twentieth century than in the nineteenth that inuence must be measured in increasingly diverse spheres that often seem to be worlds apart from one another, though they form integral parts of a common culture. Western culture was increasingly shaped

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Preface

by nonwestern inuences, though these tended to be diffuse, noncanonical and unevenly spread. Given the reach of European imperialism in the twentieth century, two world wars, massive international migration, and a general Western openness to fresh ideas, Asian and African gures often did much to shape the thought of Western cultural gures. This inuence has been acknowledged by the inclusion of, among others, Mohandas Gandhi, Wole Soyinka, and Akira Kurosawa. The case might easily be made for more nonwestern inuence, particularly among minority and immigrant communities, and among the general population toward the end of the twentieth century. As culture evolved in the twentieth century, so did the forms of cultural inuence and the degree to which they might be embodied in the lives of individuals. The popularity of professional poets declined precipitously after World War I, and the teaching of philosophy in schools and universities was steadily eroded. Similarly, classical musicians no longer enjoyed the iconic status accorded them in the nineteenth century. On the other hand, more highly advanced and broader applications of technology enhanced the potential cultural inuence of scientists, entertainers, and those working in the media generally. In some cases, technology created new categories of inuence, including lmmaking and aviation. Professional sport ourished in the twentieth century, taking on a cultural role for which there was no precedent in the previous century. The force of religious thought and conviction declined, but unevenly, and clearly not permanently. Adding further to the difculty in selecting eminent individuals was the overwhelming inuence of the technological mediums themselves. The exploration of space profoundly affected the world in the later twentieth century, but it is not clear who exactly should get the creditscientists who developed pathbreaking but often isolated technologies, politicians who created space agencies and committed national resources, or the astronauts themselves. News reports from the most remote areas of the earth stream into homes every minute of every day, keeping Western citizens closely informed of local, national, and world affairs in a way that was impossible to imagine even 30 years ago. This access to information is of the utmost signicance in democracies that thrive upon education, but it is often difcult to isolate the essential development or achievement. I still wish I could include some one who invented television and the Internet. In choosing among representatives of the diverse ways in which Western culture has been shaped in the twentieth century, we have erred on the side of traditional notions of inuence. There are more politicians and military gures here than many might wish to see in a study of culture. Yet one need only observe the radically different cultural courses of Eastern and Western Europe to see that people like Stalin, Tito, Attlee, de Gaulle, Adenauer, and Brandt altered the cultural lives of tens of millions. High culture remains well represented, most notably among novelists and painters. I have found room for poets Rupert Brooke and Allen Ginsberg, but none for John Ashbery, recently referred to by Harold Bloom as Americas greatest living poet.1 Architects, inventors, business gures, and scientists are included but probably underrepresented, mainly because their links to print culture are less explicit. Popular culture is signicantly represented, but still in its more elite forms. Film directors have gotten the nod over actors, though cases could certainly be made for including the latter. Some athletes are includedBabe Ruth, Jesse Owens,

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Muhammad Alibut not many, and the number obviously does not represent the collective inuence of sport in modern society. Only four acts from the rock era of popular music have been treated: Elvis Presley, Bob Dylan, Bob Marley, and The Beatles. This selection understates the collective cultural power of popular music, but without pandering to simple popularity.2 The English-speaking world is undoubtedly privileged in the selections; but then the twentieth century was an age in which English was the principal international medium of intellectual, economic, political, and scientic expression. For good or ill, the United States, and to a lesser degree Britain, had more to do with changing the worldwith shaping Western culturethan the other way around. The current wave of anti-Americanism reects the reality of a widespread belief in Anglocentric cultural encroachment. On the other hand, one must not forget that some three dozen of the cultural gures associated with the United States or Britain were rst- or second-generation immigrants from countries around the world, combining their unique cultural perspectives with the freedoms and opportunities afforded in their adoptive homelands. Many others were inspired by and connected to the cultures from which their forbears had come decades earlier. The demographic landscape of Biographical Dictionary of Literary Inuences: The Twenty-rst Century will look considerably different than that of the current volume. The past 20 years have already demonstrated the increasing cultural vitality of Latin America and postcommunist eastern Europe, and a considerable number of entries from these areas are included. There are at least twice as many worthy gures who might have been included; I hope there are not many who positively should not be here. I cannot claim completeness for this work, but I believe there are enough entriesdrawn from a broad range of cultural inuencesto suggest both the inuence of literature upon our lives and the need for continued exploration of the relationship between reading and culture. By bringing together research on the literary inuences on such a variety gures, I believe that scholars will be encouraged to ask fresh questions about the sometimes surprising ways in which literature affects the lives of us all.

NATURE OF THE ENTRIESThe considerable variation in the length and content of the articles in the main reects the quality of both relevant archives and the degree to which scholars have previously undertaken research in the area. In every case, however, it has been our goal to include enough information on each gure so that the reader may (1) identify key literary inuences, (2) assess the possible impact of such reading, and (3) continue research in the most signicant published and archival resources. In each case we have encouraged contributors to identify educational and other early literary inuences, the most important specic printed works read, and key archival and secondary materials relating to literary inuences. What the entries sometimes lack in detail we hope will be made up for in suggestive context and practical bibliographical guidance. When the text refers to an individual who has his or her own entry, a crossreference is indicated by boldface type.

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NOTES1. Bloom himself has been characterized by Michael Dirda of the Washington Post as one of the three most important twentieth-century literary critics writing in English (along with F. R. Leavis and Edmund Wilson). Still, only Wilson is included in this work. Greatest Living Poet Lets Words Slide, CNN.com/Entertainment, posted 8 December 2002, http://www.cnn.com/2002/SHOWBIZ/books/12/wkd.john.ashbery.ap/index.html, accessed 9 December 2002; Dirda on Books, Washington Post Live Online, 7 June 2001, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/liveonline/01/books/dirda060701.htm, accessed 13 December 2002. 2. Elvis Presley was voted greatest rock star of all time in a 2002 ABC poll, more than 30 percentage points ahead of Jimi Hendrix. More importantly, however, 90 percent of the 1,023 adults polled believed he had a lasting impact upon culture. Poll: Elvis Greatest Rock Star of All Time, CNN.com/Entertainment, posted 15 August 2002, http://www .cnn.com/2002/SHOWBIZ/Music/08/15/ep.elvis.poll.ap/index.html, accessed 15 August 2002. On the other hand, of artists having one or more of the 20 best-selling albums of all time, only the Beatles made our list: apologies to the Eagles, Michael Jackson, Pink Floyd, Led Zeppelin, Billy Joel, AC/DC, Shania Twain, Fleetwood Mac, Whitney Houston, Boston, Alanis Morissette, Garth Brooks, Hootie and the Blowsh, Bruce Springsteen, Guns n Roses, and Elton John.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

It has been a pleasure to once again work with the editorial team from Biographical Dictionary of Literary Inuences: The Nineteenth Century, 18001914 (Greenwood, 2001). I wish to thank Derek Blakeley for his efforts on this volume, particularly in the area of Britain, Ireland, and the countries of the old British empire. Tessa Powell once again has proven her worth, and I appreciate her work in the preparation of the manuscript. I am grateful to several contributors who devoted considerable time to the project, providing numerous articles, advice, and expertise in their elds of study, among them Eric v. d. Luft, Greg Schnurr, and Yves Laberge. Any editorial shortcomings are, however, my own. The editorial team at Greenwood Press has been superb, as usual. Finally, my best thanks to the contributors, who usually found it necessary to do a great deal more work than is generally thought necessary for such articles.

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INTRODUCTION

The study of literary inuence is in some ways a very old one. It has often been practiced in relation to novelists, poets, philosophers, and men of letters generally. Because they write, it has been supposed, they are greatly inuenced by others who write. Literary inuences are less often studied in relation to painters, architects, athletes, musicians, scientists, economists, and businessmen. As they too read, and have in large measure been educated both formally and informally by literature, the impact of the printed word on these cultural gures should be explored. The relationship between their achievements and their reading will not only tell us a great deal about the history of our culture, it will inspire us with a new appreciation for the possibilities of its future. Because Western civilization in particular has prized the written word, it is not uncommon to nd studies of great men and women that pay attention to their reading. One need only note the persistence of Alexanders passion for Homer as an explanatory mechanism, well known in the ancient world and still central to our understanding of his restless energy and unbridled ambition. As Edwyn Bevan wrote at mid-century, when Aristotle came to Pella to tutor the young Macedonian prince, he brought with him a powerful forceliterature:The great literary achievements of the Greeks . . . lay already far enough behind to have become invested with a classical dignity; the meaning of Hellenic civilization had been made concrete in a way which might sustain enthusiasm for a body of ideal values, authoritative by tradition.1

Such stories regarding the power of literature are abundant. The problem is that while almost everyone agrees that reading plays a fundamental role in the transmission of knowledge and values, in the acquisition of practical and mental skills, and in the fashioning of new ideas, scholars often write as if it were a matter of little consequence. Thus, one authoritative biographer will devote many pages to a subjects reading, while another will ignore it altogether.

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Introduction

Ones reading, however, like ones physical appearance or religious attitudes, is essential in coming to appreciate the distinctive personality of a person we will never meet. For the larger purposes of this work, knowledge of the reading habits of those whom we honor as culture-builders is fundamental to understanding the entire process of cultural development. If someone today imagined that J.R.R. Tolkien had drawn his inspiration from the late Victorian revival of medieval romances and fairy stories, they might well imagine that secondhand knowledge is sufcient in transmitting truth. As Richard Follett has observed in this volume, however, Middle Earth was not inspired by the works of such predecessors as William Morris or George MacDonald. Rather, Tolkien drew his creative breath directly from the classical epics, from the Norse and Icelandic Sagas, and from Anglo-Saxon poetry. This truth about texts helps to explain the persistence of Tolkien amid the welter of fantasy rip-offs, and why we are still drawn to the cultural mirror he holds to our faces. There is no obvious solution to the determination of some to see the world as they will, regardless of the way it is, but it helps to get useful information before the public. Another problem one faces in the study of literary inuences is one of focus. Should we study the broad realm of ideas contained in published literature, literary texts, the physical books themselves, or the means of distributing them? Each of these areas will suggest important insights; taken together they create the impression of a mechanistic, rather than humanistic, enterprise, an anthropology of literature. In the nineteenth and most of the twentieth centuries, the whole work was generally considered in the context of its creation; more recently the primacy of the text alone has been fashionable. A new group of scholars is now suggesting the need for a broader eld of book studies, that will bring together specialists in book history, printing history, the book arts, publishing education, textual studies, reading instruction, librarianship, journalism, and the Internet.2 According to Jonathan Rose:It is perfectly legitimate to ask how literature has shaped history and made evolutions, how it has socially constructed race, class, and gender, this, that, and the other. But we cannot begin to answer any of these questions until we know how books (not texts) have been created and reproduced, how books have been disseminated and read, how books have been preserved and destroyed.

All of this is important for understanding the direct relationship between books and culture; it is less important for appreciating the ways in which literature inuences men and women to accomplish great things, and thus to transform their cultures. Another inescapable difculty in preparing a biographical dictionary of literary inuences is the dual nature of the result. Most researchers will probably approach the book wanting to know more about the reading habits of a particular cultural gurewhat did Michael Collins read that encouraged him to embrace physical force in the cause of Irish nationalism, what literature enabled Margaret Sanger to imagine a culture that embraced birth control? It is equally valid, however, to examine the hidden inuences at work on the familiar shapers of our culture the kind of inuence that can only be traced by a careful perusal of the index and resulting reference to a variety of entries. The search for hidden inuences invisible giants as they are called in a recent book exploring formerly famous but now forgotten Americansis enjoying a measure of popularity now.3 This avenue

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will help one better appreciate the nature of fame and the longevity of inuence. Sir Walter Scott, for instance, was clearly one of the most inuential literary gures of the nineteenth century, read right across the Western world, from Russia to the United States, and one of the principal progenitors of modern nationalistic movements.4 Many modern readers will be surprised at his inuence in the twentieth century. They will be less surprised that Charles Dickens continued to inspire readers throughout the twentieth century. And there are always surprises, unknown people who committed their thoughts to paper without much recognition, or the strange permutations of inuence among the powerful. Who would have imagined Josef Stalin as a literary inuence on Richard Wright? Ubiquitous diversity, in terms of ethnicity, opportunity, education, and means of expression, presents its own problems for a study of literary inuences in the twentieth century. Whereas there was something approaching a canon of essential literary works in the nineteenth century5the Bible, Greek and Roman classics, Shakespeare, and Sir Walter Scottit dissipated rapidly in the twentieth. Early reading experience remained important, but became more difcult to delineate. As the twentieth century progressed, early literary inuences became embedded in the mental world of children increasingly accustomed to instantaneous aural and visual impressions, often purveying the same kinds of information traditionally found in books. The difculty of unraveling the literary strand should not deter us from the important cultural exercise it entails. If one recognizes that Andrei Tarkovsky, the Soviet Unions greatest lmmaker of the postWorld War II era, was as much inuenced by nineteenth-century Russian poets as by any lmmaker, it might encourage a renewed interest in poetry and a heightened appreciation of the role it has played in cultural development. Two observations regarding literary inuences on cultural development have not changed from the rst volume. First, it was just as true in the twentieth as the nineteenth century that the motivation for reading varied widely, as did the results. Second, it remained true that individual readers responded uniquely to the written word and thus in unpredictable ways. In preparing this volume, I wish to acknowledge my debt to many biographers who have carefully ploughed the literary ground in examining the lives of their subjects. These specialized treatments are not always well known outside the discipline of their subjects work and frequently are not available in local libraries. It is also true that one would need a continuous biographical study of inuences from the beginning of written history to the present to establish all the discernible intellectual links involved in the process of cultural change. The Biographical Dictionary of Literary Inuences: The Twentieth Century nevertheless will identify a number of important links and will serve as a rst general guide for researchers, from a variety of disciplines, who seek an introduction to the reading habits and the related intellectual development of the most signicant cultural gures in the Western world during the twentieth century.

NOTES1. Edwyn Robert Bevan, Alexander III, Encyclopaedia Britannica, vol. 1 (Chicago, London, Toronto: Encyclopaedia Britannica, William Benton, 1960), p. 567. On Alexander and Homer, see Alexander, sec. 8, in Plutarch, Eight Great Lives, The Dryden Translation, rev. by Arthur Hugh Clough, ed. C. A. Robinson (New York: Holt, Rinehart, Winston, 1960).

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Introduction 2. Jonathan Rose, speech of January 27, 2001, accepting the American Printing History Association (APHA) Institutional Award for the Society for the History of Authorship, Reading & Publishing (SHARP), http://www.printinghistory.org/htm/mis/awards/ 2001-SHARP.htm, accessed 29 July 2002. 3. Mark C. Carnes, ed. Invisible Giants: 50 Americans Who Shaped the Nation but Missed the History Books (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002). 4. John Powell, ed. Biographical Dictionary of Literary Inuences: The Nineteenth Century, 18001914 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2001), p. 4. 5. Ibid., pp. 24.

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DICTIONARY OF LITERARY INFLUENCES

A

ACHEBE, CHINUA (1930 )Albert Chinualumogu Achebe was born in Nigeria of Christian parents. He attended the Government College in Umuahia from 1944 to 1947 and University College in Ibadan from 1948 to 1953. Afterward, he worked for the Nigerian Broadcasting Corporation in its radio division and began writing during his tenure there (195466). His publishing career began with Things Fall Apart (1958), which is his most famous and enduring work. He followed his first novel with four more (No Longer At Ease, 1960; Arrow of God, 1964; A Man of the People, 1966; and Anthills of the Savannah, 1988) along with several collections of short stories and essays. His support of the separatist government of Biafra during the Nigerian Civil War (196769) as a diplomat forced him into exile when the Nigerian government restored its control of the region; consequently, he has primarily lived and taught in the United States since the early 1970s. The strongest literary inuences on Achebe proved to come from two sources: his family and his European-style education. His mother and sister instilled in him a love of storytelling and traditional African culture, which was supplemented by the numerous visitors his father, a clergyman, attracted to their home. As a youth, he was entranced by works such as Sir Walter Scotts Ivanhoe and Robert Louis Stevensons Treasure Island because of their setting in exotic times and locales. His university reading, based on the European-based educational system, included works that depicted Africans as simple childlike beings who needed European caretakers in order to have an orderly society. He found this attitude depicted most vividly in Joyce Carys Mister Johnson (1939), and he wrote Things Fall Apart partially as a response to Carys novel. Despite his misgivings regarding the European attitudes toward Africans, he particularly admired the works of William Butler Yeats, whose poem The Second Coming inspired the title of his rst novel. Yeatss use of simple, direct language as well as the passion and intensity of his verse impressed Achebe, and he later sought to imbue his own works with similar simplicity and

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Adams, Gerald

depth. Combining these elements with his own gifts as a writer quickly made Achebe one of the leading voices in African literature.

ArchivesChinua Achebe Papers: Houghton Library, Harvard University. Contains manuscripts of Achebes main publications from Arrow of God (1964) to Anthills of the Savannah (1988), and of a few later occasional writings down to 1993; with some publishers correspondence.

Printed SourcesAchebe, Chinua. Home and Exile (New York: Anchor Books, 2001). Includes three lectures in which he discusses, among other things, literary inuences on his works. Achebe, Chinua, and Bernth Lindfors (eds.). Conversations with Chinua Achebe. Literary Conversations Series (Oxford, Miss.: Mississippi University Press, 1997). Interviews. Ezenwa-Ohaeton. Chinua Achebe: A Biography (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997).

Joseph E. Becker

ADAMS, GERALD (1948 )Gerry Adams was born in West Belfast, Northern Ireland, the eldest of ten children. Educated at St. Marys Grammar School in Belfast (196165), he left at 17 to become a barman but soon devoted himself to the Republican movement, by most accounts serving as an ofcer in the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA). Arrested in 1971, he was released in 1972 to serve on an IRA delegation to England before being interned again in 1973. Upon his release in 1977 Adams became vice president of Sinn Fin, the political counterpart to the IRA. He used his position to encourage the strategy of supplementing IRA violence with politics by contesting elections in Northern Ireland and the Irish Republic. In 1983, Adams became president of Sinn Fin and was elected to Parliament in Westminster for the West Belfast seat (198392, 1997 ). Apparently convinced that the goal of a united Ireland could be signicantly advanced through political means, Adams attempted to publicly distance himself and his party from the IRA. In 1988 Adams began a dialogue with John Hume of the Social Democratic and Labor Party, the largest Nationalist party in Northern Ireland. These discussions eventually led to meetings with representatives of the Republic of Ireland and the British government, and, in 1994, to permission for Adams to enter the United States. Soon after Adamss much publicized visit to America, the IRA announced a cease-re. Despite a revival of violence in 1996 and delays in decommissioning the IRAs stockpile of weapons, Sinn Fin participated in the all-party talks that eventually produced the Good Friday Agreement in 1998. Although Adams is not one of his partys representatives to the Northern Irish Assembly, he remains the president of Sinn Fin and the most visible international spokesman for Irish Republicanism. A frequent contributor to various newspapers in Ireland and the United States, Adams has also written a number of ction and nonction books including Pathway to Peace (1988), Cage Eleven (1990), The Street and Other Stories (1992), Free Ireland: Towards a Lasting Peace (1995), and An Irish Voice: The Quest for Peace (1997). In his autobiography, Before the Dawn (1996), Adams cites Irish Republican literature

2

Addams, Jane

among his most important early inuences; he specically mentions Charles Kickhams Knocknagow, or the Homes of Tipperary (1873) and the writings of labor leader James Connelly.

ArchivesNeither Gerry Adams nor Sinn Fin have placed their materials in an archive. Linen Hill Library, Belfast, has an extensive collection of materials on The Troubles.

Printed SourcesAdams, Gerry. Before the Dawn: An Autobiography (New York: William Morrow & Co., 1996). . Selected Writings (Dingle: Brandon Press, 1994). . Signposts to Independence and Socialism (Dublin: Sinn Fin Publicity Dept., 1988). Kenna, Colm. Gerry Adams: A Biography (Cork: Mercier Press, 1990). OBrien, Brendan. The Long War: The IRA and Sinn Fin, 1985 to Today (Dublin: OBrien Press, 1993). Sharrock, David, and Mark Devenport. Man of War, Man of Peace?: The Unauthorised Biography of Gerry Adams (London: Macmillan, 1997).

Padraic Kennedy

ADDAMS, JANE (18601935)Addamss tombstone in the family plot close to her birth house in Cedarville, Illinois, reads: Hull House and The Womens International League for Peace and Freedom. She was the rst American woman to win a Nobel Prize for Peace (1931). Basing Hull House on Londons Toynbee Hall, Addams and her colleagues developed need-based social reform work in Chicago. Their model shaped the national Social Settlement Movement, Addams becoming the preeminent woman leader. She had access to Presidents Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson. Founder of the Womens Peace Party and presider at the rst International Congress of Women at the Hague, Netherlands (1915), she formed the Womens International League for Peace and Freedom, serving as president from 1919 to 1929. She helped establish the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (1909) and the American Civil Liberties Union (1920). Eleven books, hundreds of articles for ladies magazines, and countless speeches informed American understanding of immigrants, urban life, social reform, labor unionization, womens suffrage, and peace issues. John Huy Addams, her father, shaped her in the democratic principles of Abraham Lincoln and a nondogmatic, Quaker approach to religion. At Rockford Female Seminary (187781), Addams studied Greek, Latin, and German, absorbing the life wisdom of Socrates and the Greek tragedians, Isaiahs prophetic vision of peace, and the Sermon on the Mount as the ethical bases for life. Reading Thomas Carlyles On Heroes, Hero-Worship, and the Heroic in History (1841), she vowed in college essays that her life would have noble purpose and meaning as did Goethes, Savonarolas, Frederick the Greats, and Dantes; her reective postcollege letters to Ellen Gates Starr (cofounder of Hull House) most often quote Carlyle. John Ruskins studies of art and architecture informed her experience of Europe, and his Unto This Last (1859), in its critique of industrial culture and vision of social reform for England,

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Adenauer, Konrad

was the basis of much of her literary analysis of the United States. William Morris was the essential inuence on the settlements arts and crafts program. With Josiah Royce (The Spirit of Modern Philosophy) Addams shared central tenets of the Progressive Movement. Intellectual contemporaries were the philosophical pragmatist, William James, and John Dewey, educational reformer, who served on Hull Houses board of directors overseeing the Jean Piagetbased kindergarten and the extensive adult continuing education program. Taking the massive study of London by Charles Booth as inspiration, Addamss edition of Hull House Maps and Papers became the rst American sociological study of a neighborhood. Count Lev Tolstoy, the father of modern pacism, was a spiritual example. Addamss international peace activities brought her into close communion with the British Fabian Socialists, especially Sydney and Beatrice Webb. She quoted H. G. Wellss pessimism about human nature, and Norman Angells The Fruits of Victory sounded her conviction that war psychology was fatal to social living. Her philosophical book, Peace and Bread in Time of War (1922), shared the insights of James G. Frazers The Golden Bough on ancient myths as the origins of culture. Twenty Years at Hull-House (1910), combined autobiography with a narrative of programs after the style of Henry Thoreaus Walden.

ArchivesJane Addams Hull-House Museum, University of Illinois at Chicago. College themes, essays published in the Rockford Seminary Magazine, and copies of correspondence with Ellen Gates Starr. Swarthmore College Peace Collection, Swarthmore, Pa., Jane Addams Collection, Papers from 1838 (bulk 18801935). Donated by Addams and her heirs.

Printed SourcesAddams, Jane. Democracy and Social Ethics. 1902. Reprint, with an introduction by Anne Firor Scott (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1964). Chambers, Clarke A. Jane Addams. In Leonard Unger (ed.), American Writers: Supplement I, Part 1 (New York: Charles Scribners Sons, 1979). Davis, Allen F. American Heroine: The Life and Legend of Jane Addams (London: Oxford University Press, 1973). Farrell, John C. Beloved Lady: A History of Jane Addams Ideas on Reform and Peace (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1967). Hurt, James. Walden on Halsted Street: Jane Addams Twenty Years at Hull-House, The Centennial Review 23, 2 (Spring 1979), 185207. Levine, Daniel. Jane Addams and the Liberal Tradition (Madison: State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1971). Schmider, Mary Ellen Heian. Jane Addams Aesthetic of Social Reform (Ph.D. diss., University of Minnesota, 1983). In-depth analysis of nonction prose reecting literary inuences, esp. Carlyle and Ruskin.

Mary Ellen Heian Schmider

ADENAUER, KONRAD (18761967)Konrad Adenauer emerged after the Second World War as the central gure in West Germanys economic and political recovery. His career in politics began as a member of the Cologne City Council, and in 1917 he became Lord Mayor of the city. Subsequently, he became president of the Prussian State Council and German

4

Adenauer, Konrad

Council of Cities and chairman of the Rhineland Provincial Committee. When the Nazis came to power in 1933, Adenauer, who had not hidden distaste for them, lost his positions, and was forced to go into exile. The day after the Allied capture of Cologne on May 8, 1945, the Americans asked him to be mayor again, but the British took control of the city and dismissed him. Adenauer then set to work forming a new political party combining Protestants and Catholics into the Christian Democratic Union (CDU). After the Western occupying powers agreed to merge their zones to form a new state in 1948, Adenauer was appointed president of the Parliamentary Council, which hammered out a provisional constitution for West Germany while sustaining the long-term objective of a reunited Germany. After the rst West German elections, the CDU and its Bavarian sister party, the Christian Social Union (CSU), emerged as the dominant political force with Adenauer elected chancellor on September 15, 1949. As chancellor, Adenauers primary focus was a sovereign, democratic West German state rmly anchored in the West. For this West Germany joined the Council of Europe and the International Ruhr Authority. The achievement of national sovereignty, close ties with the free West, reconciliation with France, and the consolidation of social market economy all are landmarks that are inseparably linked with the name of Konrad Adenauer. When it came to rearmament, the memory of World War II created intense fear, among some, of any German national army. On the other hand, the perceived threat of war from the East made pacist pleas unacceptable. However, Adenauers position prevailed. In his memorandum of August 29, 1950, Adenauer announced West Germanys willingness to contribute to a European armed force. Normalized relations between Germany and the Western powers were formalized in 1954. As a politician, Adenauer had a long track record as a Francophile and remained sincerely committed to the idea of an integrated Europe. Adenauer also negotiated a compensation agreement with Israel in recognition of the horror perpetrated by Adolf Hitler and Germany on the Jews. Adenauers political career declined after 1961 when the CDU-CSU had to form a coalition with the Free Democratic Party (FDP), and the FDP made it a condition that Adenauer retire in 1963. After retiring, Adenauer traveled and nished his memoirs until his death in 1967. As a participant in German cultural life, Adenauers contributions are often submerged in the shadow of his political success. Throughout his life, Adenauer demonstrated his belief in the importance of a German cultural heritagethough with a clear preference for Western Europe. Raised in a Roman Catholic family, Adenauer demonstrated at an early age an interest in poetry and literature. His early exposure to classical literature combined an emphasis on Homer and Virgil with a traditional methodology, emphasizing the memorization of lengthy passages. On the one hand, Adenauer generally rejected works delving into irrationality, socially critical works, such as those of Heinrich Bll, and generally those linked with expressionism and neo-romanticism. Rather, Adenauer favored classical writers throughout his life, including Ernst Moritz Arndt, Heinrich Heine, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Friedrich Schiller, and Theodor Storm. Adenauers artistic interests, in comparison, drifted primarily into the sixteenth century and to the gure of Domenicos Theotocopoulos, better known as El Greco. After the Second World War, Adenauer believed Hitlers rise to power to be in many ways a consequence of Germanys departure from its Christian heritage and from its tradition as a tolerant land of diverse thinkers and poets. In foreign policy, Adenauers sense of

5

Aitken, William Maxwell, First Baron Beaverbrook

religious conviction, combined with a strongly sentimental attachment to elements of classical German literature, no doubt inuenced his political commitment to a West German state anchored in the West. In domestic policy, Adenauer stressed the need to return to Germanys Judeo-Christian heritage as the cultural-intellectual foundation capable of inhibiting any revival of German militarism. Consequently, Adenauer did not perceive the rise of Hitler as a consequence of German longterm sociocultural factors, but a short-term deviation from those traditions during the heyday of National Socialism. Adenauers critics, however, have emphasized the prominence of nationalistic and militaristic elements in works read in his youth as an explanation for his political and social conservatism in his domestic policies.

ArchivesStiftung Bundeskanzler Adenauer Haus (Rhndorf, Germany) is the primary depository for materials relating to all aspects of Adenauers life. However, the Bundesarchiv (Koblenz, Germany) and the Auswrtiges Amt (Bonn, Germany) hold vast collections of government documents from Adenauers tenure as chancellor.

Printed SourcesAdenauer, Konrad. Erinnerungen 19451953 (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1965). . Briefe 19451955, 5 vols. (Berlin: Siedler Verlag, 198395). . Teegesprche 19501963, 4 vols. (Berlin: Siedler Verlag, 198492). . Memoirs 19451953, 4 vols. (Chicago: Henry Regnery, 1965). Akten zur Auswrtigen Politik der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 194952, 2 vols. (Mnchen: R. Oldenbourg Verlag, 1989). Akten zur Vorgeschichte der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 19451949, 5 vols. (Mnchen: R. Oldenbourg Verlag, 197585). Die Kabinettsprotokolle der Bundesregierung. 19491957, 14 vols. (Boppard am Rhein: Harald Boldt Verlag, 19822000). Khler, Henning. Adenauer: Eine Politische Biographie (Berlin: Propylen, 1994). Der Parlamentarische Rat 19481949. Akten und Protokolle, 4 vols. (Boppard am Rhein: Harald Boldt Verlag, 197589). Schwarz, Hans-Peter. Adenauer. 18761967, 2 vols. (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1986, 1991). Weymar, Paul. Adenauer. His Authorized Biography (New York: Dutton & Co., 1955).

David A. Meier

AITKEN, WILLIAM MAXWELL, FIRST BARON BEAVERBROOK (18791964)William Maxwell Aitken, the son of a Scottish Presbyterian minister, was born in Maple, Ontario. He spent his youth in Newcastle, New Brunswick. Aitken attended the local school, but failed to gain university entrance. He briey clerked with a law rm before succeeding in insurance and bond sales. By the age of 30 Aitken had brought about the merger of Canadas largest steel manufacturing concerns, riding the Canadian economic boom to millionaire status. In 1910 he relocated to London and became immersed in the Conservative Party. He made his mark as a politician, a newspaper proprietor, and a historian. Although Aitken sat in the Commons from 1910 to 1916 and then ascended to the Lords, he was most known for his personal associations and intrigues, particularly

6

Aitken, William Maxwell, First Baron Beaverbrook

for his behind-the-scenes involvement in the accession of both David Lloyd George (in 1916) and Bonar Law (in 1923) to the position of prime minister. During World War I he served as Britains minister of information (191718). During World War II long-term friendship with Winston Churchill led to service as minister for aircraft production (194041), minister of supply (194142), minister of war production (1942), and Lord Privy Seal (194345). In 1916 Beaverbrook acquired controlling interest in the Daily Express. He founded the Sunday Express in 1921 and in 1929 purchased the Evening Standard. He attempted to use his newspapers to exert political inuence, with mixed results; however their modernized style of presentation set new standards. The Daily Express achieved the largest circulation of any newspaper in the world under his personal management. Beaverbrook also collected and greatly restricted access to the papers of major political gures. He utilized them to write controversial histories that have strongly inuenced the historical interpretation of World War I and postwar events. His most noted works include Politicians and the Press (1925), Politicians and the War (2 vols., 1928 and 1932), Men and Power, 19171918 (1956), and The Decline and Fall of Lloyd George (1962). Beaverbrooks identity as a Canadian, a supporter of Empire, and an entrepreneur remained predominant inuences throughout his life. He saw himself as an outsider who championed merit. His fathers occupation also profoundly (and ambivalently) affected Beaverbrook. He described himself as a child of the manse and made frequent biblical references: King David intrigued him and he wrote an unpublished life of Jesus. His father was well read and enjoyed a large library. Robert Louis Stevenson and Walter Scott were Beaverbrooks favorite childhood authors. As an adult, he was too impatient to sit down for long with a book or even a newspaper. Secretaries provided summations of important works (Taylor 1972, 9). Beaverbrook kept abreast of breaking news at all times, installing ticker tape in his homes. He calculated his historical interpretation, access to the documents he controlled, and his editorial policies in terms of their immediate contribution to his current political goals. The campaigns of Lord Northcliffe, owner of the Daily Mail, initiated Beaverbrooks belief that newspapers offered him his greatest opportunity for political inuence. Beaverbrook sustained intimate friendships with a number of authors, including Rudyard Kipling and Churchill, with whom he exchanged drafts and comments. He also submitted his work to politicians who played a role in events he wrote about, seeking their clarication. Beaverbrook prided himself on his hospitality toward developing talent and cultivated writers as protgs. Some inuenced him in return: Arnold Bennett perhaps most strongly.

ArchivesBeaverbrook Collection, Harriet Irving Library, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton. Canadian correspondence. Beaverbrook Papers, House of Lords Records Ofce, London. Correspondence, draft manuscripts of published works, unpublished works, newspaper clippings, and library.

Printed SourcesChisholm, Anne, and Michael Davies. Lord Beaverbrook: A Life (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1993). Taylor, A. J. P. Beaverbrook (London: Hamilton Hamish, 1972).

Anne Kelsch

7

Akhmatova, Anna Andreevna

AKHMATOVA, ANNA ANDREEVNA (18891966)Anna Akhmatova was born near Odessa, but grew up outside of St. Petersburg in Tsarskoe Selo. In her Autobiographical Prose, Akhmatova claimed to have learned to read from Lev Tolstoys Grammar and to speak French by the age of ve (Akhmatova 1994, 2). She attended school in Tsarskoe Selo and later in Kiev at the Fundukleyevskaya Gymnasium. In 1907 Akhmatova published her rst poem and enrolled in the Faculty of Law at the Kiev College for Women. She withdrew from Kiev College a year later to study literature and history in St. Petersburg, where she met her rst husband, the Acmeist poet, Nikolay Gumilyov. Between 1910 and 1912 she and Gumilyov traveled to Paris, Switzerland, and Northern Italy. In 1912 Akhmatova published her rst volume of poetry, entitled Evening; her second book of verse, Rosary, appeared in 1914. Three more volumes of poetry came out before she was banned from publishing in 1922. Once silenced, Akhmatova turned her attention to the study of the works of Pushkin and produced three valuable critical studies. She also worked as a translator from French, English, and Italian. Her only son, Lev, was arrested and spent 18 years in prison. Despite years of forced silence, Akhmatova emerged as one of the major voices of Acmeism and published more than a dozen volumes of verse, which included two of her best known works: Requiem and Poem without a Hero. As a student in Tsarskoe Selo, Akhmatova attended lectures by the Symbolist poet Innokenty Annensky, one of her earliest artistic inf luences (Reeder 1994, 9). In My Half Century she wrote, I find my own origin in Annenskys poems (Akhmatova 1992, 111). Ketchian sees the inf luence as structural; Akhmatovas verse shows dual-layered correspondences with Annensky, which often hail back to their common source, Alexander Pushkin (Ketchian 1986, 123). Moreover, Pushkins inf luence can be seen in her method of borrowing lines, images, and similes from other writers and transforming them to make them her own (Reeder 1994, 184). Several scholars have noted that Akhmatova conducted conversations in this way with a variety of authors (Nayman 1991, 25; Reeder 1994, 183; Ketchian 1986, 121). Byron, Shelley, Keats, Joyce and Eliot are connected with the cycles of Cinque and The Wild Rose in Flower and with Poem Without a Hero, no less than Virgil and Horace, Dante, Baudelaire and Nerval (Nayman 1991, 99). Among the few books she kept with her were the Bible, Dante, a complete Shakespeare, and the collected Pushkin (Nayman 1991, 93).

ArchivesRussian Academy of Sciences Institute of Russian Literature (Pushkin House) in St. Petersburg, Russia. The Moscow Central Archive contains 21 notebooks from her last decade. Russian National Library in St. Petersburg, Russia.

Printed SourcesAkhmatova, Anna. Autobiographical Prose: Sketches, Notes, Diary Entries, and Lectures. In Konstantin Polivanov (ed.) and Patricia Beriozkina (trans.), Anna Akhmatova and Her Circle (Fayetteville, Ark.: The University of Arkansas Press, 1994). Includes contemporaries of Akhmatova. . My Half Century, Ronald Meyer (ed.), (Ann Arbor, Mich.: Ardis, 1992). Includes diary entries, notebook excerpts, prose works on Pushkin, book reviews, public addresses, and correspondence. Chukovskaya, Lidia. Zapiski ob Anne Akhmatovoi, 2 vols. (Paris: YMCA Press, 1976, 1980).

8

Ali, Muhammad Haight, Amanda. Anna Akhmatova. A Poetic Pilgrimage (New York and London: Oxford University Press, 1976). Ketchian, Sonia. The Poetry of Anna Akhmatova: A Conquest of Time and Space, F. D. Reeve (trans.), (Mnchen: Verlag Otto Sagner, 1986). Nayman, Anatoly. Remembering Anna Akhmatova, Wendy Rosslyn (trans.), (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1991). Nayman, a poet and translator, was Akhmatovas literary secretary in her later years. Reeder, Roberta. Anna Akhmatova. Poet and Prophet (New York: St. Martins Press, 1994).

Erika Haber

ALI, MUHAMMAD (1942 )Muhammad Ali became heavyweight champion of the world in 1964, at age 22, when he defeated title holder Sonny Liston. Undefeated until February 1978 when he lost the title to Leon Spinks, Ali reclaimed his title during a rematch seven months later. Ali remained undefeated until his retirement in 1981, with 56 wins, including 37 knockouts. Heroically battling Parkinsons disease, during the 1990s he became one of the most popular and widely recognized sports gures in the world. Cassius Marcellus Clay Jr.who adopted the name Muhammad Ali in 1964 when he joined the Nation of Islam (Black Muslims)was born in Louisville, Kentucky, to Cassius Marcellus Clay Sr., a sign painter, and Odessa Gray Clay, a domestic worker. Ali attended segregated elementary and secondary schools in Louisville. He started boxing at age 12. By the time he graduated from high school in 1960, he had fought 108 amateur bouts. He had also won six Kentucky Golden Gloves championships, two National Golden Glove tournaments, and two National Amateur Athletic Union titles. Also in 1960, he won the gold medal at the Olympics in Rome, Italy, as a light-heavyweight. In 1967, three years after winning the world heavyweight title, Ali was convicted of draft evasion for refusing to be inducted into the armed forces during the Vietnam War due to his religious beliefs. As a result, his boxing license was revoked and he was stripped of his title. Although the Supreme Court reversed his conviction on June 28, 1971, granting him the status of conscientious objector, Ali was forced to ght Joe Frazier to regain his title. In his autobiography, Ali revealed that he developed his self-promotional I am the greatest! tactic after reading about Gorgeous George, a wrestler whose bragging and playful intimidation of opponents drew record crowds. Although his primary focus was physical development, after retirement he wished to learn as much as he could, because I know nothing compared to what I need to know. As a devout Muslim, he was profoundly inuenced by the teachings of Elijah Muhammad and the Koran, the foundation of his Islamic faith. Alis colorful personal life and tumultuous professional career have inspired numerous writers to document his rise from poverty to celebrity, focusing on his love for his people, his generosity, and his refusal to compromise principles, regardless of the consequences.

ArchivesMuhammad Ali Center, Louisville, Kentucky.

Printed SourcesAli, Muhammad, and Richard Durham. The Greatest: My Own Story (New York: Random House, 1975). Includes a chronology of key events (194272) and Alis ght record (196075).

9

Allende, Isabel Early, Gerald (ed.). The Muhammad Ali Reader (Hopewell, N.J.: Ecco Press, 1998). Collected articles from various sources. Hauser, Thomas. Muhammad Ali: His Life and Times (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1991). Collected interviews. Remnick, David. King of the World: Muhammad Ali and the Rise of an American Hero (New York: Random House, 1998). Traces Alis career from 1962 to the late 1990s. Schulberg, Budd. Loser and Still Champion: Muhammad Ali (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1972). Focuses on Alis career following his ght with Joe Frazier. Torres, Jose. Sting Like a Bee: The Muhammad Ali Story (London, New York: Abelard-Schuman, 1971). Biography told from the perspective of a former boxer. Includes preface by Norman Mailer.

Durthy A. Washington

ALLENDE, ISABEL (1942 )Isabel Allende was born in Lima, Peru to Chilean parents, her father a diplomat. Her formal education ended when she graduated from high school in Santiago, Chile at 16 years old. When she was two, her parents divorced and she and her mother moved in with her maternal grandparents, where her grandmother Mem introduced her to the art of storytelling. Her mother remarried another diplomat, so Allendes adolescent years were spent in Bolivia, the Middle East, and Europe. After high school she worked as a secretary for the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations in Santiago. She left the UN to begin a career in print and broadcast journalism writing a column for a feminist magazine, Paula, and hosting a weekly TV show. She also wrote short stories for children and collaborated in writing and producing plays. Chilean politics shaped the rest of her career. When the military dictatorship of Augusto Pinochet Ugarte seized control of Chilean government in 1973, Allende joined church-sponsored groups to provide food and aid to the needy and families of victims of Pinochets regime. She aided her compatriots in escaping military persecution until 1975, when she ed Chile for Caracas, Venezuela, with her rst husband, Michael Fras, and two children, Paula and Nicols. In political exile, she wrote her rst four novels, Casa de los espiritus/The House of Spirits (Plaza & Jans, 1982; Knopf 1985), De amor y de sombra/Of Love and Shadows (Plaza & Jans, 1984; Knopf 1987), Eva Luna (Knopf, 1988). On January 8, 1981, she began House of Spirits as a farewell letter to her 100-year-old grandfather, who was still in Chile and dying. Allende has additionally written three other novels, a memoir, an autobiography, and a collection of short stories translated in more than 30 languages, the rst woman to share bestseller status with her Latin American male counterparts. Her writing follows the Latin American tradition of blurring the lines between reality and dreams through magical realism. A member of the rst generation of Latin American readers who had access to other Latin American writers, Allende cites as her greatest inuences the great writers of the Latin American boom of literature; among these she specically credits Pablo Neruda and Gabriel Garca Mrquez. As an adolescent she secretly read One Thousand and One Nights, a book that introduced her to the world of imagination and eroticism. Her ction is inuenced by an oral tradition of women telling storiesher mother, her grandmother, and the maidsin addition to radio novellas blasting all day in the kitchen (Crystall and Kuhnheim, 1992). Addition-

10

Amado, Jorge

ally, she has read English and Russian novelists. In the 1970s, she read European and North American feminists whose ideas affected her life and her work. Because writing is an organic process for Allende, she writes in her native language, Spanish. Now a resident of the United States, Allende says English has inuenced her writing style. In The Stories of Eva Luna (Atheneum, 1991), she uses more precise language, shorter sentences, and less ornamentation. In Daughter of Fortune (Knopf, 1999) and Portrait in Sepia (HarperCollins 2000), Allende connects Latin American and North American story and myth.

ArchivesDaily letters to and from her mother are known to exist, but are not yet available for research. See, however, Isabel Allende n.d., http://www.isabelallende.com, accessed July 30, 2002. Traces literary inuences, explains her writing process, lists professional accomplishments, and contains 32 photos from the authors private album.

Printed SourcesAllende, Isabel. Paula, Margaret Sayers Peden (trans.), (New York: Harper, 1994). Allendes autobiography chronicles her vigil over her daughter Paulas terminal illness and documents the authors writing and personal life. Crystall, Elyse, Jill Kuhnheim, and Mary Layoun. An Interview with Isabel Allende, Contemporary Literature 33, 1 (1992), 584601.

Jill E. Eichhorn

AMADO, JORGE (19122001)Jorge Amado was born on the cacao farm Auricdia, in the rural area of Ferradas, district of Itabuna, in the northeastern state of Bahia, Argentina. He grew up in Ilhus; at 11 he was sent to the Jesuit college in Salvador. He studied law at the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, where he graduated in 1935, but he never became a practicing lawyer. Fascinated by Russia, the Russian revolution, and Russian literature, he became a militant of the Brazilian Communist Party, and as such was elected to Congress. He was strongly inuenced by the novels of such Russian writers as Aleksandr Fadeyev (The Rout, 1927), Aleksandr Seramovich (The Iron Flood, 1927), Isaak Babel (Red Cavalry, 1926), Ilya Ilf and Yevgeny Pietrov (The Twelve Chairs, 1928), and Ilya Ehrenburg (The Extraordinary Adventures of Julio Jurenito and His Disciples, 1922). He also read Jews without Money (1930) by Michael Gold, who became his close friend afterward. Mark Twain and Charles Dickens brought to his attention the idea of the deprived childhood as raw material for his early ction. One of the rst books that excited his social conscience was David Coppereld, which especially inuenced Captains of the Sands (1937), a novel that depicts the lives of homeless children living on the streets of Salvador, his most popular novel. Critics prefer The Two Deaths of Quincas Wateryell (1961) for its magical realism and The Violent Land (1943), a well-structured historical novel and probably his nest narrative. The novels that exerted more inuence upon Brazil and the entire world are Gabriela, Clove and Cinnamon (1958), and Dona Flor and Her Two Husbands (1966). Both were made into successful movies, television series, and soap operas. The lm version of Dona Flor (1976) is still the most popular Brazilian movie ever made. These novels helped create a worldwide stereotypical image of Brazil as being an

11

Andric , Ivo

exotic tropical country with spicy ingredients of a folk saga tempered with lusty mulattas, carnival, sex, and Latin machismo. Amados 25 novels have been translated into 49 languages and have been published in 55 countries.

ArchivesFundao Casa de Jorge Amado built in 1987, and located in Pelourinho, on the historic side of Salvador, maintains a large collection of materials (mainly books, photos, videos, and posters).

Printed SourcesBrower, Keith H. et al. (eds.). Jorge Amado: New Critical Essays (New York: Garland, 2001). A comprehensive account of his major works and facets by selected scholars. Candido, Antonio. Poesia, documento e histria. In Brigada ligeira e outros escritos (So Paulo: Editora da Unesp, 1992). Remarkable insights into Brazilian ction of the 1930s, and on Amados rst novels, especially on The Violent Land, by the most reputable Brazilian critic of today. Duarte, Eduardo de Assis. Jorge Amado: romance em tempo de utopia (Natal: UFRN, 1995). A former Ph.D. dissertation is the best source for Amado as a leftist writer. Includes an extensive bibliography and an interview with the novelist. Galvo, Walnice Nogueira. Amado: respeitoso, respeitvel. In Saco de Gatos (So Paulo: Duas Cidades, 1976). A sharp criticism on Amados works, especially on Tereza Batista: Home from the Wars, from a feminist perspective, by one of Brazils prominent scholars. Lima, Lus Costa. Jorge Amado. In Afrnio Coutinho (ed.), A literatura no Brasil. 2nd ed., vol. 5 (Rio de Janeiro: Sul Americana, 1970). A restrictive reading of Amados novels. Tavares, Paulo. Criaturas de Jorge Amado, 2nd ed. (Rio de Janeiro: Record, 1985). The most comprehensive list of characters taken from his ction published up to 1983. Includes 4,910 entries on characters, animals and birds used as proper names, and places used as settings for his novels.

Gentil de Faria

, IVO (18921975) ANDRICIvo Andric was born in the Bosnian town of Travnik. After the death of his father, the two-year-old Andric was sent to live with relatives in Vis egrad, the setting of his most famous novel, The Bridge on the Drina. Andric completed elementary school in Vi s egrad and studied at the gymnasium in Sarajevo (190312), where he became associated with the nationalist movement, Young Bosnia. He enrolled in 1912 at the University of Zagreb, the following year at the University of Vienna, and then, in spring 1914, at Jagiellonian University in Krakw. After the start of World War I he was arrested in Croatia for his connections with Young Bosnia, whose members had carried out the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, and he was held under guard until 1917. After the war, Andric edited a journal of South Slavic literature, in which he published his own writings. He entered the Yugoslav Foreign Ministry in 1920 and served at posts throughout Europe over the next two decades. He completed his doctorate in 1924 at Karl Franz University in Graz, submitting the dissertation, The Development of Spiritual Life in Bosnia under the Inuence of Turkish Rule, a critical assessment of Islamic inuence in his homeland. Andric s nal diplomatic post was as ambassador to Berlin (193841). He resigned in protest against his governments close relations with Nazi Germany

12

Angelou, Maya

and returned to Belgrade. During the war he devoted himself to writing three novels: The Bridge on the Drina, Bosnian Chronicle, and The Woman from Sarajevo. All three books were published after the liberation in 1945. Andric supported the communist regime established after the war by Josip Broz Tito. In 1946 he became a member of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and was elected rst president of the Yugoslav Writers Union. In 1950 he was elected to the Federal Assembly, and in 1954 he became a member of the Communist Party. In 1961 he became the rst Yugoslav writer to win the Nobel Prize for Literature. Andric once remarked on the various literary inuences that shaped his style: Chinese verses, Scandinavians and Poles, French, German, and Russian writers. . . . How could it be possible to extract from that, and far more that has not been mentioned, something that should be called a decisive inuence? (Hawkesworth 1984, 41). His rst loves as a reader had been Serbian historical novels and the adventures of Jules Verne, Sir Walter Scott, and Cervantes, which he read in German translation while a student. Andric mastered the classical languages, German, French, and Italian before he left the gymnasium, and he read widely in those languages. Among his favorite authors as a student were Thomas Mann, whom Andric appreciated for his contemplation of the power of legend and the irrational; Marcus Aurelius, from whom he gained a stoic outlook and an afnity for reective literary prose; and Walt Whitman, whom Andric admired for his celebration of universal brotherhood. Particularly inuential was Sren Kierkegaard. When he was arrested at the start of World War I, Andric was allowed just one volume in his cell: Kierkegaards Either-Or (1843). Andric found resonance in Kierkegaards awareness of paradox as a source of passion in life and the melancholy brought by reection on the divergence of the real and possible. Andric also counted among his inuences nineteenth-century and contemporary writers in Slovene and his native Serbo-Croatian. Most important were the Montenegrin poet Petar Petrovic Njegos and the nineteenth-century collector of Serbian folk songs, Vuk Karadz ic . Proof of Andric s love of reading is the fact that he donated the stipend from his Nobel Prize to purchase books for school libraries in Yugoslavia.

ArchivesPersonal Fund of Ivo Andric , Archive of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Belgrade, Serbia.

Printed SourcesHawkesworth, Celia. Ivo Andric : Bridge between East and West (London: Athlone, 1984). elimir B. The Man and the Artist: Essays on Ivo Andric Juric ic , Z (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1986). Mukerji, Vanita Singh. Ivo Andric : A Critical Biography (Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland & Co., 1990).

Bruce R. Berglund

ANGELOU, MAYA (1928 )Maya Angelou was born Marguerite Johnson in St. Louis, Missouri. Her parents were Bailey Johnson, a doorkeeper and naval dietitian, and Vivian Baxter Johnson, a nurse and real estate agent. Her childhood, which she recounts poetically in the

13

Angelou, Maya

rst of her ve autobiographies, I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, was spent primarily in Stamps, Arkansas, where she was sent to live when her parents divorced. Angelou attended public schools in Arkansas and California, and she studied music, drama, and dance privately. At the age of sixteen, she had her son, Guy, and began supporting the two of them with a series of jobs, including being a cook, a waitress, a streetcar conductor, and, briey, a madam. In more recent years, Angelou has been an actress, a singer, a playwright and director, a dance teacher, a civil rights activist, and a lecturer. Her primary literary contribution has been in the eld of autobiography; she has also produced ve volumes of poetry, as well as several plays and screenplays. Her most prominent themes are the triumph of the human spirit over adversity and the transforming power of art. In 1993, she received national attention when she read her poem On the Pulse of Morning at the presidential inauguration of Bill Clinton. She has been visiting writer and lecturer at UCLA, the University of Kansas, and Wichita State University. Since 1981, she has been a professor at Wake Forest University. In I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, published in 1970, Angelou recounts her early reading of contemporary African American writers. She recalls that she and her brother, Bailey, a prominent gure in this and other works, reject a scene from Shakespeare to memorize, fearing that their strong-willed grandmother would be furious when she discovered the author was white. Instead, the brother and sister choose James Weldon Johnsons The Creation. Angelou also describes the healing function of reading during her childhood: she is sent back to Stamps after having been raped by a mothers boyfriend in St. Louis, and having responded by remaining mute for ve years. During this time, she was tutored by a Mrs. Flowers, a woman she refers to as the aristocrat of Black Stamps. She read the classics under the tutelage of Mrs. Flowers, and she describes learning from her that the wonderful, beautiful Negro race survives in exact relationship to the dedication of our poets (including preachers, musicians, and blues singers). She pays homage to her African American literary forbears in some of her titles, including that of her rst book, which is taken from Paul Laurence Dunbars poem Sympathy; the title of her fourth book, The Heart of a Woman, comes from a poem by Harlem Renaissance writer Georgia Douglas Johnson. In interviews, Angelou has acknowledged her debt to writers such as Frances Ellen Watkins Harper, Zora Neale Hurston, and James Baldwin. Angelou herself became involved with the Harlem Writers Guild when she was inspired by the social activist writer John Killens to move to Brooklyn in 1958. This group of writers included John Henrik Clarke and Paule Marshall, as well as Baldwin. Angelou was encouraged to write I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings by Baldwin and Jules Feiffer, who had heard her stories of her Arkansas childhood. In Order Out of Chaos: The Autobiographical Works of Maya Angelou, Dolly McPherson places Angelou in a tradition of African American autobiography, beginning with The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudau Equiano, or Gastavus Vassa, The African and continuing through Frederick Douglass, Paul Robeson, Zora Neale Hurston, Malcolm X, Anne Moody, James Weldon Johnson, and Julius Lester. In an interview with McPherson, Angelou draws comparisons with her autobiographical writing and that of Maxine Hong Kingston. Angelous life and writing also have been shaped by her involvement in the civil rights movement and social reform. In 1959, she worked as the coordinator for Martin Luther Kings Southern Christian Leadership Confer-

14

Apollinaire, Guillaume

ence and shortly thereafter lived in Egypt and Ghana, writing about and agitating for social change. Her fth book, All Gods Children Need Traveling Shoes, is dedicated to Julian Mayeld and Malcolm X; in it, she recounts her growing appreciation for her African home.

ArchivesZ. Smith Reynolds Library, Wake Forest University, Department of Rare Books: houses many of Angelous manuscripts and drafts.

Printed SourcesElliot, Jeffrey M. (ed.). Conversations with Maya Angelou (Oxford: University of Mississippi Press, 1989). McPherson, Dolly A. Order Out of Chaos: The Autobiographical Works of Maya Angelou (Camden Town, London: Virago Press, 1991). Tate, Claudia (ed.). Black Women Writers at Work (New York: Continuum, 1983).

Linda A. Barnes

APOLLINAIRE, GUILLAUME (18801918)As part of the avant-garde in French literature at the turn of the twentieth century, Guillaume Apollinaire represents the last of the traditional lyric poets and the rst of the modern literary iconoclasts. An enigmatic gure, Apollinaire both courted and scorned intellectualism, perhaps stemming from the secrecy surrounding his illegitimate birth on August 26, 1880. At the age of twenty in 1900, Apollinaire moved to Paris, where he spent the last eighteen years of his life. While there, he cultivated the friendship of artists such as Pablo Picasso, Andre Derain, and his lover, Marie Laurencin. Although best known as an avant-garde poet, he cultivated a reputation as a defender of modern painting and a promoter of new styles in literature and the graphic arts. He continuously used elements of his own life in his literature, so that there was, indeed, no real separation between man and writer. Each poem and story was a commemoration of an event in his life, but he was also acutely aware of the effect his work could have on society. However, his lifestyle only served to further alienate him from the French people he tried so hard to call his own. He had always considered himself rst and foremost a Frenchman, but his fellow franais often thought otherwise. Disenchanted, he joined the French army, rst in artillery on April 4, 1915, and then in infantry, where he was wounded in March 1916; in total, he spent 11 months on the front, and his celebrated quote, Ah Dieu! Que la guerre est jolie, risqu fort de ne pas etre si simple has often been misinterpreted. In other words, although he did not comprehend the reason for the brutality, it, unfortunately, became second nature for him just as it did for every other soldier. The war led to a more questioning Apollinaire, and at 37 at the end of the war, he used the war as a playing eld with which to comment on the crisis among young people. This questioning in turn led to the creation of Le poete assassine, a collage of 18 stories detailing a mans life from his birth to his career as a poet to his death at the hands of a mob. The collection of short stories was often broken, and the narrative changes in tone from humorous to serious, yet leaving no doubt regarding his political leanings, since his point of view regarding the Germans remains uid from beginning to end. In stories such as Cas du brigadier, the allies fared well, while

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the German soldier met his fate. Apollinaire intended this work to represent his desire to act as the reconciling party between modernism and traditionalism, and Apollinaire only added one story to this collection of short stories once the war began. Apollinaire was a French nationalist from the beginning of his career, more because it was tied to his attraction to naturism, and he died a French nationalist. His war poetry demonstrates not only an enthusiasm for war, but an emphasis on the future of society. Although the combination of his prewar nationalism and the nationalist tendencies of the prewar French avant-garde did not guarantee his acceptance in French society, it did cement his celebrity as a literary genius. Ronald St. Onge contends that the metamorphosis of Apollinaires political thought led him from a youthful espousal of anarchistic ideals to a manifestation of chauvinistic zeal in his later years (St. Onge 1971, 516). His family background, his schooling and literary tastes, as well as his political ideologies could have led him to further his anarchistic ideals, yet he remained independent and open to all ideas, including the coinage of some of his own. His position as both an avant-garde artist and a critic caused problems with some of the Nationalist traditionalists, and by defending avant-garde methods and art, he was often attacked and accused of being a Jew or an indel. With the themes of metamorphism and mimesis, transformation and mimesis, dedoublement and disguise, Apollinaire established himself as poet, art critic, author, and master of many tasks.

ArchivesGuillaume Apollinaire. La Bibliotheque Nationale de France. Le Cabinet des Manuscrits. Musee Guillaume Apollinaire. Stavelot, France.

Printed SourcesAdamson, Walter L. Apollinaires Politics: Modernism, Nationalism, and the Public Sphere in Avant-garde Paris, Modernism/Modernity 6, 3 (1999), 3356. Barry, David. The Creative Vision of Guillaume Apollinaire: A Study of Imagination (Saratoga, Calif.: Anma Libri, 1982). Bates, Scott. Guillaume Apollinaire (New York: Twayne Publishers, Inc., 1967). Bohn, Willard. Apollinaire and the Faceless Man: The Creation and Evolution of a Modern Motif (Rutherford, N.J.: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1991). . From Sign to Signature in Apollinaires Le Cheval. In Understanding French Poetry: Essays for a New Millennium, Stamos Metzidakis (ed.), (New York: Garland Publishing, 1994), 5170. Pierre, Roland. Guillaume Apollinaire et LAvenir, Europe: Revue litteraire Mensuelle 421 (1964), 15565. St. Onge, Ronald. Reections of the Political World in the Works of Guillaume Apollinaire (Ph.D. diss., Vanderbilt University, 1971).

Jennifer Harrison

ARENDT, HANNAH (19061975)Fleeing from Germany in the 1930s, Hannah Arendt became one of the Wests leading political scientists and opponents of totalitarianism. She was born in Hannover, Germany, as Johanna, the daughter of Martha Cohn and Paul Arendt, both educated and prosperous Jews from Knigsberg, Prussia. In 1910 they returned to Knigsberg, where Arendt began her schooling in Frau Steins kindergarten and

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Frau Sittzniks elementary school. Her father died of tertiary syphilis in 1913 after two years in the Knigsberg Psychiatric Hospital. Her mother remarried in 1920. Arendt was always close to her mother but had uneasy and uncertain relationships with her stepfather, Martin Beerwald, and two stepsisters, one of whom committed suicide in 1932 at the age of 30. Mother and daughter ed to Berlin as soon as World War I erupted. Arendt attended the girls lyceum in the Berlin suburb of Charlottenburg. She began to appreciate the art of Kthe Kollwitz and the leftist politics of Konrad Schmidt, Eduard Bernstein, Joseph Bloch, Rosa Luxembourg, and Karl Liebknecht. After the war, back in Knigsberg, she briey attended the Luiseschule, the girls gymnasium, until expelled for insubordination. Nevertheless, two subsequent years as a special student at the University of Berlin earned her the opportunity to take the Abitur examination, and thus she received her Luiseschule diploma in 1924. By then she already had read Sren Kierkegaard, Karl Jaspers, and Immanuel Kant and had studied theology under Romano Guardini at Berlin. She learned of the philosopher Martin Heidegger in 1923 from her friend Ernst Grumach, who attended Heideggers earliest lectures at the University of Marburg. Through her lifelong friend, Anne Mendelssohn Weil, a descendant of both Moses and Felix Mendelssohn, Arendt learned about Rahel Varnhagen. Almost immediately upon matriculating at Marburg in 1924, Arendt began a love affair with her teacher, Heidegger. She also studied under Rudolf Bultmann and met fellow student Hans Jonas at Marburg, then after spending a semester in 1925 at Freiburg im Breisgau to learn from Heideggers mentor, Edmund Husserl, transferred to Heidelberg to become the protg of Jaspers, under whom she studied Friedrich Nietzsche, August Strindberg, Vincent Van Gogh, Max Weber, and Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling. There she met Karl Frankenstein, Erich Neumann, Benno Georg Leopold von Wiese, and Erwin Loewenson, and studied German Romanticism under Friedrich Gundolf. Directed by Jaspers, she wrote her doctoral dissertation in 1929 on The Concept of Love in St. Augustine. In the 1930s she showed increasing interest in Bertolt Brecht, the Zionist Kurt Blumenfeld, Karl Marx, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, and Walter Benjamin. The rise of Adolf Hitler pushed her toward political philosophy. She was arrested in the spring of 1933, but was released after eight days, and escaped to France via Czechoslovakia and Switzerland. She was naturalized American in 1951.

ArchivesThe Manuscript Division of the Library of Congress contains 25,000 items in 38 linear feet of Arendts correspondence, articles, lectures, speeches, book manuscripts, subject les, transcripts of trial proceedings, notes, and printed matter pertaining to [her] writings and academic career. The co-executors of her literary estate were Lotte Kohler and Mary McCarthy.

Printed SourcesAlte Synagoge Essen. Hannah Arendt: Lebensgeschichte einer deutschen Jdin (Essen: Klartext, 1995). Clment, Catherine. Martin and Hannah: A Novel, Julia Shirek Smith (trans.), (Amherst, N.Y.: Prometheus Books, 2001). Ettinger, Elzbieta. Hannah Arendt/Martin Heidegger (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995).

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Armstrong, Louis Kristeva, Julia. Hannah Arendt, Ross Guberman (trans.), (NewYork: Columbia University Press, 2001). McGowan, John. Hannah Arendt: An Introduction (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1998). May, Derwent. Hannah Arendt (Harmondsworth, England: Penguin, 1986). Prinz, Alois. Beruf Philosophin, oder die Liebe zur Welt: die Lebensgeschichte der Hannah Arendt (Weinheim: Beltz & Gelberg, 1998). Taminiaux, Jacques. The Thracian Maid and the Professional Thinker: Arendt and Heidegger, Michael Gendre (trans.), (Albany: SUNY Press, 1997). Villa, Dana Richard. Arendt and Heidegger: The Fate of the Political (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1996). Young-Bruehl, Elisabeth. Hannah Arendt: For Love of the World (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982).

Eric v.d. Luft

ARMSTRONG, LOUIS (19011971)Louis Armstrong was born in New Orleans, Louisiana, on August 4, 1901. His mother and father separated shortly after his birth, leaving him in the care of his maternal grandmother for several years. At age six, Louis attended the Fisk School for boys. By the middle of the fth grade, he had dropped out of school. From an early age, Louis worked selling newspapers, hoping to make a few coins for necessities. While working with the Karnofsky brothers on a junk wagon, Louis entertained the children in the streets, playing a tin horn purchased for him by Alex Karnofsky. In later years, Armstrong often recalled the kindness and warmth demonstrated to him by the Karnofskys, especially their assistance with the purchase of his rst cornet. On New Years Eve 1913, Louis was arrested for ring his stepfathers revolver. He was sent to the Colored Waifs Home. At the home, he received his rst formal music instruction from Peter Davis. Davis rewarded Louiss dedication by appointing him leader of the homes band. After his release, Louis earned money by delivering coal and playing cornet in the local honky-tonks. He developed a close relationship with Joe King Oliver (18851938), a highly recognized cornetist. In Louis Armstrong, In His Own Words: Selected Writings, Armstrong describes Olivers inuence, stating: He was a Creator, with unlimited Ideas, and had a heart as big as a whale when it came to helping the underdog in music, such as me (Armstrong 1999, 174). After Oliver left for Chicago in 1918, Armstrong took his place in Kid Orys band. In August of 1922, Armstrong received an invitation from Papa Joe to join his Creole Jazz Band in Chicago, making his rst recordings the following year. Armstrongs career spanned more than 50 years, with performances in many countries throughout the world. He was a brilliant trumpet player, bringing many new ideas to jazz improvisation. As a vocalist, he exuded warmth and charisma to audiences worldwide. Armstrong had a deep desire to communicate his innermost thoughts with everyone he came in contact with. He was a prolic writer whose works include two autobiographies, memoirs, notebooks, letters, and numerous magazine articles. In his introduction to Louis Armstrong, in His Own Words: Selected Writings, Thomas Brothers discusses some of Armstrongs purposes for writing. According to Brothers, writing helped Armstrong stay in touch with distant

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Armstrong, Louis

friends and admirers. In addition, writing enabled him to supply professional writers with material that they could use for publicity purposes. Brothers believes that Armstrong writes because he sees himself as a writer. Writing was a hobby for Armstrong, and his portable typewriter became his off-stage passion (Armstrong 1999, viiix). When questioned in a radio interview about carrying a dictionary and a book of synonyms and antonyms while traveling, Armstrong explains, I didnt get much education when I was young, you know, so Im still learning (Armstrong 1999, xi). Despite Armstrongs lack of a formal education, he had a great interest in reading. According to Joshua Berrett, editor of The Louis Armstrong Companion: Eight Decades of Commentary, Armstrongs home in Corona, Queens housed a library of books covering such topics as diet, poetry, biography, history, and race relations. Armstrongs collection also included special presentation copies from Langston Hughes (Famous American Negroes), Richard Avedon, Truman Capote, and others, including a physicist who had been inspired by Louiss trumpet (Berrett 1999, 102). In his autobiography Swing That Music, Armstrong endorses two books on jazzLe Jazz Hot by Hugues Panassie and On the Frontiers of Jazz by Robert Gofn. He describes these texts as being carefully written and very interesting to anyone who wants to study modern music (Armstrong 1936, 104). Not only was Armstrong a reader, but he also cared deeply about how the written word was communicated. In Swing That Music, Armstrong states I especially want to make this rst book on swing truly helpful to students and amateurs and young musicians everywhere (Armstrong 1936, 117). In another chapter, he explains that the language of swing contains more than 400 words not commonly understood. Armstrong tells his readers: I hope this book will help to explain it a littleit is the real reason I have tried to write it and kept on after I found out what hard-going writing was for a man who has lived all of his life mostly with a trumpet, not a pencil, in his hand (Armstrong 1936, 78).

ArchivesHogan Jazz archives, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana. Institute of Jazz Studies, Rutgers University, Newark, New Jersey. Louis Armstrong archives, Queens College, Flushing, New York. Music Division, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.

Printed SourcesArmstrong, Louis. Louis Armstrong, in His Own Words: Selected Writings, Thomas Brothers (ed.), (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999). . Satchmo: My Life in New Orleans, Dan Morgenstern (intro.) [1954] (New York: Da Capo Press, Inc., 1986). . Swing That Music (London: Longmans, Green and Co., 1936). Bergreen, Laurence. Louis Armstrong: An Extravagant Life (New York: Broadway Books, 1997). Berrett, Joshua (ed.). The Louis Armstrong Companion: Eight Decades of Commentary (New York: Schirmer Books, 1999). Giddons, Gary. Satchmo, produced by Toby Byron/Multiprises (New York: A Dolphin BookDoubleday, 1988). Gofn, Robert. Horn of Plenty: The Story of Louis Armstrong, James F. Bezou (trans.), (New York: Allen, Towne & Heath, Inc., 1947).

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Arp, Jean Meryman, Richard. Louis ArmstrongA Self Portrait (New York: The Eakins Press, 1966). Miller, Marc. H. (ed). Louis Armstrong: A Cultural Legacy (New York: Queens Museum of Art, in association with University of Washington Press, Seattle and London, 1994).

Marianne Wilson

ARP, JEAN (18871966)Jean Arp was born of mixed French and German descent in Strasbourg, the capital of Alsace-Lorraine. He was privately tutored in his youth and from 1905 to 1907 studied at the Strasbourg School of Arts and Crafts and the Weimar School of Art. Upon graduation he was accepted into the Academie Julian in Paris but rejoined his family in Weggis, Switzerland, in 1910 to study and paint in relative seclusion. In 1911 he exhibited at the Moderne Bund along with Henri Matisse and Pablo Picasso, and the following year traveled to Munich where he met Vassily Kandinsky. Arp exhibited with the artists of der Blaue Reiter, as well as with the Expressionists at the First Autumn Salon in Berlin. Obtaining exemption from military service during the First World War, Arp completed his rst true abstracts in the form of paper cut-outs, wood reliefs, and organic, biomorphic compositions of string on canvas. His experiments in whimsical abstraction led him to become a founding member of the dadaist movement that sprang from Hugo Balls organization of artists and philosophers in Zurich. Arp participated in the rst Surrealist exhibition at the Gallery Pierre in 1925, but in the decade that followed directed his efforts toward more simplied freestanding sculpture. Following a period of seclusion during the Second World War, Arp traveled to the United States where he completed a wood relief for the Graduate Center at Harvard University. Up until the time of his death, Arp traveled and sculpted extensively, and was honored with a retrospective of his work at the Museum of Modern Art in 1958. He was awarded the International Prize for Sculpture at the Venice Biennale (1954) and was the recipient of the Grand Prix National des Arts (1963), the Carnegie Prize (1964), and the G