didactica especifica ii children

7/24/2019 Didactica Especifica II Children

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TEACHING ENGLISH TO CHILDREN

Variation at primary level

English Language Teaching and attitudes to authority to teaching and to

learning vary from culture to culture. There are characteristics which young

learners share: Young learners are beginning their schooling, so that

teachers can mould their expectations.

s a group they are more di!erentiated than secondary or adult learners

They are "een and enthusiastic without inhibitions.

Their learning is lin"ed with their development of ideas and concepts.

They need physical movement.

#easons for teaching English at primary level:

The need to expose children to an understanding of foreign cultures so that

they grow up tolerant and sympathetic to others.

The need to lin" communication to the understanding of new concepts.

The need for maximum learning time for important languages

The advantage of starting with early second language instruction so that

later the language can be used as a medium of teaching.

Second language learning at a young age

$hildren have more opportunities to learn and they are learning all the time

without having the worries and responsibilities of adults. Explanations for

better learning:

The brain is more adaptable before puberty and they are not aware that

they are learning.

$hildren have fewer negative attitudes to foreign languages and cultures

and they are better motivated.

$hildren%s language learning is more integrated with real communication.

$hildren devote more time to language learning.

The earlier they start, the more they understand.


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Teachers need the language& basic competence is essential. 'pportunities for

foreign language access vary from country to country. Teachers need

competence in primary teaching methodology. (e need to emphasi)e the

role of story, dance, and roleplay and puppet activity. They need to centre

much of their teaching on topical rather than formal organi)ation.

HAT IS GOOD !RI"AR# !RACTICE$

*t is clear that greater "nowledge and understanding of theories of child

development a learning, they ways in which children learn a foreign language

and studies of the "inds of classroom conditions which promote foreign

language learning will contribute to our understanding of good educational

practice in the teaching of English to young learners.

Ho% do c&ildren t&in' and learn$

The most well+"nown aspect of iaget-s theory holds that all children passthrough stages before they construct the ability to perceive reason and

understand in mature rational terms.

The three stages: sensori+motor birth to /0 months1, concrete operational

/0 months to // years1 and formal operation period // years onwards1 are

established by means of cognitive tas"s. The concrete operational period is

sub+divided into the pre+operational where concrete operation are being

prepared for the operational where they are established and consolidated.

iaget-s wor" was critici)ed. $hildren do not pass through stages of

development in which they are unable to learn or be taught how to reason

-logically-. #ather it was the unfamiliarity of the tas"s that led to failure.

iaget was interested in the structure of mature thin"ing while 2runer

describe the di!erent processes that are implicated in problem+ solving. 3or

iaget children do not need a teacher1

iaget and 4ygots"y di!ered in their views on the nature of language and its

e!ect on intellectual development. iaget argued that language exerts noformative e!ects on the structure of thin"ing mental actions and operations

are derived from action, not tal" 4ygots"y argued that in the beginning

speech serves a communicative function& and transforms the way in which

children thin", learn and understand. *t becomes an instrument or tool of

thought. The means by which planning and self+regulation to achieve goals

ta"es place. Thus speech comes to form what 4ygots"y referred to as the

higher mental processes. These processes are formed in social interaction.


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2oth 2runer and 4ygots"y place more emphasis than iaget on the role of

language, communication and instruction in the development of "nowledge

and understanding. 4ygots"y placed instruction at the heart of human

development, de5ning intelligence itself as the capacity to learn through

instruction. central tenet of his theory is the )one of proximal development

671, de5ned as -the distance between the actual developmental level as

determined by independent problem+solving and the level of potentialdevelopment as determined through problem+solving under adult guidance o

in collaboration with more capable peers.

This emphasi)es the social nature of "nowledge ac8uisition. *n this way, the

child internali)es the processes re8uired for wor"ing out a particular tas".

2runer introduced the concept of L99 Language c8uisition 9upport

9ystem1 e proposed that for language development there needs to be a

child component. The interactional partner provided structure or framewor"

which 2runer referred to as -sca!olding-

(eature) o* primary practice+ ,-./01-.203

/+Teacher autonomy:

;+ child+centred curriculum and methodology.


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B+#eading literature for enCoyment.

E!ective teaching occurs where a whole class listens and engages "in a

8uestion and answer session, in small groups teaching in which a high degree

of interaction is possible and in one to one setting where a child may receive

individual help and support.

Ellis suggests eight features of classroom discourse important in secondlanguage development:

The teacher%s use of language: 8uantity of inta"e concrete to abstract1, an

input rich in directives total physical response, children follow instructions in

a game1, and input rich in extending utterances teachers provide a model fo

children by expanding their utterances1. Types of activities: a need to

communicate purposeful communication1, here and now principle refers to

the need to move from the concrete to the abstract in order to support

children-s understanding of the propositional content of a message.1. The

learner-s use of language: independent control of the idea, the performance

of speech acts, and uninhibited practice. *n the third group, Ellis suggests tha

9L7 is more successful if children are free in the foreign language learning

context to initiate interaction and respond to others- use of language. To

ensure that children have the opportunity to use a range of language

teachers must include a variety of tas" types based on games, collaborative

problem+solving, or information gap activities.

ow can children be helped to learn a foreign languageD child-s

concentration span increases as they grow older. $hildren cannot concentrate

on one thing for a long period and lessons should be divided into a series of

activities lasting no longer than 5ve or ten minutes. The ability to "eep on

tas" and to ignore distractions is a symptom of the child-s intellect. 4ygots"y

argued that mature mental activity involves adaptive -self+regulation- which

develops through social interaction, helping children to discover how to pay

attention, concentrate and learn e!ectively.

(ood argues that activities or interactions are more li"ely to enable a child to

memori)e items since they are more meaningful to the child tas"s with

concrete support1

I) t&ere a 4e)t %ay to teac& primary E(L$

Two models of classroom practice which has a great inuence on the

development of a pedagogy for young learners: the classical E3L practice


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model is characteri)ed by a presentation and practice model focusing on

8uestions of language and communication, the teacher controls the input,

tas"s are design to generate discourse in speci5c items, the wor" of the

classroom is orientated towards communication practice1 and the

mainstream primary practice model more appropriate to the educational

need of children which focuses on 8uestions of curriculum content and

cognitive development, syllabus orientated to topic, the teacher creates alearning environment which facilitates language ac8uisition and

communication, the teacher provides contextual support , learners explore

topic through a se8uence of problem+solving1.

Implication) *or t&e training o* primary ELT teac&er)+

9pecialist s"ills of primary teachers:

$hoose an appropriate topic.

lan these activities in se8uence.

naly)e the language demands of these activities in terms of discourse,

s"ills, functions, structures, lexis, and pronunciation

naly)e the language needs of the pupils using the same "inds of

category

@atch these demands and needs to identify language problems.

@odify activities which may be linguistically exacting -sca!olding-1

7evelop an understanding of language processes in tal", listening,

reading and writing.

develop a wide of activity types for s"ills wor" and match these to

speci5c text types, recogni)e narrative, description or instructions1

*n terms of curriculum content and learning at primary level, teachers should

"now about: the role of di!erent determinants of curriculum design such as

curricular content, cognitive development, learning s"ills, language

development. The range of learning activities which might be described as

conventional in the young learners% classroom the relation of ELT to the rest

of the curriculum and to local education philosophy.

*s 2ritish primary practice exportableD 'ne of the most important factors to

consider in exporting aspects of primary pedagogy to other countries is the


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The communicative approach has techni8ues such as information+gap

exercises, using meaningful language. *n a content+based approach, the

purpose is learning other things, exploring the world, 5nding out information,

recording it or participating in activities for sheer enCoyment& stories, songs,

drama. "ey is attitude and motivation. $hildren learn better if they have a

positive attitude. *nterest becomes a crucial factor in deciding on classroom

practices.

The main tool is content. ctivity approach: children decide to explore

something or to do something a proCect, an activity1 to stimulate and

motivate the children. *t could be imaginative. The children need to use

language in order to carry out the activity. ccuracy is achieved through a

desire to do something well rattler than because the teacher demands it. nd

5nally, through doing activities, the children-s language and s"ills develop.

(hen designing activities, there are seven criteria: *nterest: exciting,interesting and motivating to these children1 $hallenge provide a suitable

challenge, not too diGcult, but not simple.1 urpose focus on the tas"1

Language use: need to use language to complete the activity1 Language

input oral or written1. $onceptual appropriateness develop their thin"ing1

promotion of learning combine interest activities1

Lessons planning two stages+ 3irst decide on a theme which will motivate and

interest the children. 2rainstorm- and write down ideas for activities. 9econd,

planning the series of tas"s to be done at the end of the unit.

#O6NG CHILDREN LEARNING LANG6AGES

paradox in the development of young children is their ability to establish

their 5rst language when they are unable to understand anything about the

system which they come to use with such competence. Learning language is

not easy. Hrashen argued that the early years of childhood provide a critical

period for learning languages. $hildren learn a second language in much the

same way as they learn their 5rst language. 9ocial and cognitivedevelopment depend upon children being drawn into interaction with others

and both are set on course in the very early days as parents tal" to children

while attending to their needs. The parent-s voice, facial expression and

gestures call out responses from the baby and provo"e responses from the

adult. #esearch shows how the spontaneous playing with sound is developed

around the third and fourth months, and begins to die away around the sixth

and seventh, when babies concentrate on the production of a smaller sounds


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rticulation control1. *nteraction ta"es place through gesture and facial

expression and through deliberate action. Young children communicate by

reaching and pointing. arents also use facial expressions, gesture, action,

tone of voice to support the meaning of what they say. @eaning becomes

attached to form 5rst -words- the same happens with the second language1.

s children begin to crawl or shuIe and then to wal", more information

becomes available through sight, hearing and touch. 2etween /; and /0month, children establish their 5rst words and respond. 3rom two years they

begin to put words together.

T&e )e7uence o* development o* t&e 8r)t language

articular features of the 5rst language appeared. 'ne+word utterances

communicated di!erent meanings through intonation and gesture. Then

telegraphic appeared these are "ey words, the ones which carry meaning1.

Two classes in two words utterances open and pivotal. @orphemes aregrammatical elements from which words are constructed. 2rown examined

morphemes and showed that although the development varied between

children, the route through which they developed was common to all.

$hildren use certain structures before others that are common features in the

development of a 5rst language. The development of the use of language is a

result of innate cognitive and linguistic abilities

C&ildren9) e:perience) o* t&e u)e o* language

Tal" is based on something in the environment that ta"es children-s attention

arents- tal" refers to obCects present and to distinctive action, they use

higher pitch of voice, slower and clear articulated speech, grammatical

modi5cation or simpli5cation and fre8uent repetition. This behavior helps the

child to understand. -@otherese operates as intuitive language lessons and

urges them towards communicative competence. $hanges in a child-s

competence in using language were accompanied by changes in the adult-s

tal", so that as children matured the adults adCusted their own language.

Learning to communicate t&roug& tal'ing

arents negotiate meaning to understand their children. *t is through the

construction of conversations between a child and parent, where try to

communicate particular meaning. rocess of incorporation helped to extend

children-s "nowledge of the language. *t is through established routines of

carrying on conversations about here and now events that helped children to


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recogni)e how tal" relates. $haracteristics of interaction in the home were

related to aspects of children-s use of language and level of achievement in

school. Two approaches: in one parents interacted with their children, helping

them to express their thin"ing by negotiations. $hildren tended towards

greater achievement in school. This interaction is supportive. The other was

characteri)ed by imposition by the parents of the topic under discussion, with

little recognition of the children-s attempts to contribute to the exchange andthe parents assumed tutorial role. Teachers- tal" predominates and that

opportunities for children to communicate and extend their ideas are limited.

#oung c&ildren learning to u)e a )econd language

There is a natural order through which grammatical structure develops in the

5rst and second language. There are some universal processing strategies

that both used. $hildren reconstruct rules for a second language by imposing

rules from their 5rst language on what they hear, and then try to produce tal"in the second language guided by those rules but the rules are di!erent.

;ecoming attuned to a )econd language

3rom three to seven, children use the language but they are still unable to

see it as a system with rules that can be applied. ?p to /0 months to two

years old there is a preparation of the essential basis for the development of

language. The relationships between parents and their babies is important,

from such young children develop s"ills and expectations. 2y the age, theyare able to communicate well, their articulation is developed. Jevertheless

children will need time to adCust to and become familiar with the environmen

in which the second language is used and form relations with others, so they

feel secure and con5dent and are able to ta"e part in activities.

(rom 8r)t to )econd language

$hildren developed s"ills and strategies in learning to use their 5rst language

that can be apply to learn the second. $hildren, have well+developedstrategies for learning language to assist them in ac8uiring a second

language. Hnowledge of the children-s 5rst language should alert teachers to

features of the second language. They might o!er appropriate information

through their responses, repeating phrases that give clues to help children

change their expectations.

C&ildren9) )trategie) in learning language


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3irst children learn through imitation and repetition. Then they combine

words, showing creativity in the production of -telegraphic speech-. Through

such and repetition, children recogni)e how utterances arc structured and

understand rules. $hildren also imitate and repeat short phrases attached to

through imitation phrases are learned and continue to be used as unanaly)ed

wholes that are formulaic. $hildren-s use of formulaic speech, that is is an

important strategy. *mitation, repetition and formulaic speech lead toincorporation.

T&e teac&er9) role in promoting )econd language development

Teachers are involved in helping children to ac8uire a second language, they

need to examine their tal" with children and consider to what extent they are

providing children with conditions similar to those through which the 5rst

language develops. $onditions in -schools cannot be the same as those at

home, if only because of the greater -number of young children with whomthey must tal".

THIN5ING TO LEARN

Young children are powerful learners. They begin communicating using their

body language, gestures and smiles. The thin"ing child learns to master the

ac8uisition of language. $hildren are curious, creative and able to as" and

respond 8uestions. eg: (hy do people dieD1 Heeping a child-s early

8uestioning spirit alive is the "ey important to success in learning. Toencourage a thin"ing child you can introduce them to complex and abstract

ideas. ll children are born with potential, and we cannot be sure of the

learning limits of any child. owever, many children fail to ful5l their

potential. The causes of failure are diGcult to diagnose. @any causes stem

from cognitive confusion. $hildren su!er from this when confronted with

messages and demands which seem to ma"e no sense. They fail because

they can%t overcome bloc"s to learning and they haven%t learnt how to learn.

$hildren need help to achieve their potential and to identify ways in which

they can become e!ective learners. ll children are at potential in their

learning with the capability of exploring experiences and of creating new

ways of exploring. ll children are also at ris" of not seeing new ways, not

"nowing how to travel or missing new opportunities.

There are two approaches to teaching, thin"ing and learning s"ills& one is to

develop a program to teach thin"ing s"ills and the other is to teach thin"ing

and learning s"ills through all areas of the curriculum


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A )peci8c program

*n the past, speci5c subCects were identi5ed as those that develop the ability

to learn. 3or example Latin, but those students who learned became good at

it, and "nowledgeable about grammar, history, but they did not become

better thin"ers and learners. *t is said that @aths is good for logic and good

lessoning, but there is no evidence that mathematicians are better thin"ers.

There is a research which that suggests that children cognitive development

can be enhanced through an approach to 9cience Education. *t showed that

levels of success can be raised through speci5c programmes, li"e creative

thin"ing courses, philosophy program and instrumental enrichment.

Or t&in'ing acro)) t&e curriculum$

This approach infuses the teaching of thin"ing s"ills into all aspects of the

curriculum. This involves children in active learning situations that extendtheir higher order thin"ing processes. Lower levels of thin"ing involve

"nowledge, comprehension and application& and higher levels involve

analysis, synthesis and evaluation. These levels represent the complexity and

challenge thin"ing about any topic. The learning child is a thin"ing child.

9uccessful learning involves helping children to move on to higher levels of

thin"ing. These are metacognitive control. Thin"ing is seen as an information

processing capacity that involves input, output and control. *t is through the

exercise of control that higher levels of thin"ing can be developed.@emory is trained by ma"ing patterns out of the information given, and

repeating them until they become internali)ed. These patterns can be

processed in di!erent ways: verbally listening and repeating the

information1, visually seeing visual patterns or pictures1, logically seeing a

pattern of logical or mathematical relation1, physically physical

representation of body gesture1, musically melody, rhythm1, personally

lin"ing information to personal experiences1, socially learning with and from

others1.

"ultiple intelligence)+ umans are uni8ue in their ability to process

information.

Lingui)tic or ver4al intelligence: speci5c areas of the brain are

responsible for di!erent aspects of language use. Thin"ing involves the use o

words and concepts, and cognitive development is lin"ed to conceptual

development. 'ne way of helping children to develop their thin"ing is to


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organi)e concepts using concept mapping. There are other ways: explaining

their opinions, giving instructions, doing crosswords and word games, writing

letter and poetry.

Vi)ual


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"etecognitive Intelligence orintraper)onal intelligence+is the most

important aspect of human intelligence. *t is the access to our own thoughts

and emotions, to what we thin" and feel.

t 5ve, they are beginning to distinguish appearance and reality. They

develop metacognition through understanding more about the mind and

brain, di!erent elements of personality, what they believe. This is a "ey facto

in the success of learning, in "nowing how to plan, predict, remember, and

5nd out. ctivities: "eeping a diary, understanding your feelings and moods.

&at doe) re)earc& Into learning tell u)

!iagetemphasi)ed the view that thin"ing was an activity. (e should allow

children to have thin"ing time. To encourage children to higher levels of

thin"ing, we need to challenge their ideas

;runer+emphasi)ed the role of the teacher. *t was not enough to let childrenthin" wor" and play on their own. They need someone to sca!old their

learning, to lead them on to higher levels.

Vygot)'y+found that social interaction was the "ey to success in learning.

(e *earn more in collaboration with others parents or other children1 than we

can by ourselves. (e all have a )one of proximal development, referring to

our potential for learning, given assistance by others. The role of the teacher

is to try to reali)e this potential in students.

Lingui)tic t&eori)t)+emphasi)ed the value of tal" in the development of

thin"ing. (e need to give children the opportunity to articulate their ideas,

through tal" and writing. The act of creating and communicating meaning

forces us to thin" and rethin" what we want to say.

Curriculum re)earc&+explored the way children construct their own

theories. $hildren are blan" slates on which to write, or empty vessels to 5ll.

Cognitive re)earc&+focused attention on the complex nature of thin"ing.The mind has been li"ened to a community of intelligences. (e have a multi+

mind. (e all have di!erent thin"ing and learning styles.

!)yc&ologi)t): emphasi)ed the "ey role of self+esteem and our sense of

mastery over what we thin" and do. (e are better motivated when we thin"

we are going to do well, when we are con5dent in our abilities. (e need to

build a sense of can doM in our children


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!&ilo)op&er)+children share natural sense of wonder about the world.

Through the use of reason, they can translate their curiosity into ideas,

theories and hypotheses about the way the world wor"s.

=6ESTIONING

*t is at home that a child 5rst learns the power of as"ing 8uestions, they are

usually -partners in dialogue- with their parents. (hen these children enteredschool their conversations fell. Teachers initiated most conversations and

as"ed most 8uestions, children get fewer turns, as" fewer 8uestions, ma"e

fewer re8uests for information, use less elaborated sentences. They are

tal"ed at, rather than tal"ed with. Teachers use 8uestions in order to

motivate, to test "nowledge, and to promote reection, analysis or en8uiry.

Kuestions are supposed to o!er intellectual challenge, to encourage students

to thin". #esearch shows that most 8uestions teachers use are closed, factua

8uestions with "nown right answers, ma"ing low levels of cognitive demandthat do not encourage children to persist in their thin"ing and learning.

Teachers as" *ots of 8uestions. The more the children were 8uestioned the

less initiative they showed in their responses. good 8uestion provides an

intellectual challenge, which stimulates the -cognitive conict- and help

children move on to a more advanced stage in their development. good

8uestion provides sca!olding to new learning.

6nproductive 7ue)tion):

/+ 9tupid 8uestions: are thoughtless. They triviali)e what is emotionally and

intellectually complex and provo"e a thoughtless response.

;+ Too complex 8uestions: too big or too abstract to be tac"led. 7o you

believe in NodD1 *t could be productive to create a context, and to have

moved from the "nown to the un"nown.


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demand less complex and thus lower- levels of thin"ing. 'ne strategy is to

as" 8uestions that ma"e increasing cognitive demands on students, to move

from simple "nowledge through 8uestions that as" for explanation and

application, then analysis, synthesis and evaluation.

Good 7ue)tion): s" fewer, but better, 8uestions, see" better answers and

encourage children to as" more 8uestions. 'ne characteristic is that it avoids

the trap of a yes+no response. (hat do you thin"D (hyD1. good 8uestion

o!ers a challenging of thin"ing and invites and open+ended, thoughtful

response. They are productive for they generate something new.

T&in'ing time

*n 8uestioning we should learn to value silence. 9ome teachers wait only one

second for an answer. *f the answer isn%t forthcoming within a second,

teachers tend to interrupt by repeating the 8uestions, or as"ing another

8uestion or another child. *ncreasing thin"ing time, wait timeM, can result in:

students giving longer answer, o!ering to answer, willing to as" more

8uestions and their responses become more thoughtful and creative.

-1 !au)ing+means giving time, thin"ing time, and opportunities for re+

thin"ing and re+stating an idea.

>1 !rompting and pro4ing: gives verbal encouragement, by -reecting

bac"- to chee" whether we have understood, what the student has said.

robing: encourage deeper exploration.

Jon+verbal reinforcement includes eye contact, facial signals, and body

gestures.

?1 !rai)ing+gives positive feedbac", supporting the hesitant, rewarding the

ris"+ta"es and valuing every contribution.

=ue)tioning )'ill): they are seven: using the appropriate level for the class

distributing 8uestions around the class, prompting and giving clues, singpupil-s responses in a positive way, timing 8uestions and pauses between

8uestions, ma"ing progressively cognitive demands through se8uences of

higher+order 8uestions, using written 8uestions.

Alternative) to 7ue)tion)Teachers who model thoughtfulness will

encourage their children to exhibit more thoughtful behavior. Teachers who

o!er their own thoughts and ideas will create an environment in which

speculation, hypothesis and argument can ourish.


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igher order thin"ing involves imposing meaning, 5nding structure in

apparent disorder.

Thin"ing is tal"ing it through with yourself when you have a problem. Hinds: a

speculative statement erhapsO1, a reective statement You seem to beO1

a state+of+mind statement * don-t understand1, a re8uest for information *%d

li"e to hear what you thin" about1, an invitation to thin" * want you to thin"1.

Encouraging c&ildren to 7ue)tion: if we want pupils to be active and

adventurous thin"ers we need to encourage them to as" 8uestions. s

children become older this becomes less easy. There are two ways of trying to

establish a climate of en8uiry for teachers to: model a 8uestioning mind by

thin"ing aloud and as"ing good 8uestions, value and provide opportunities fo

students to as" 8uestions. *f children, themselves, identify what they want to

"now by as"ing a 8uestion, then they are much more li"ely to value and

remember the answer.

/+ ssessing the ability to 8uestion: one way is to give them an obCect and

as" them to list 8uestions about the obCect. nother way is to ta"e a subCect

of study and as" many 8uestions as they can about the topic. third way is

to choose a text and to create 8uestions about it.

Creating a 7ue)tion) cla))room+ there can be problems in creating and

en8uiring classrooms. The 8uestions of children can be challenging and

unsettling. 2ut teachers don%t have all the answers, but is "een to helpchildren to be independent, creative and curious. $lassrooms activities design

to create 8uestions for thin"ing:

9tudy 8uestions: help them identify what is signi5cant in their learning.

#eading review 8uestions: as" your pupils to as" 8uestions about the story

they are reading or listening to.

otseating: a student chooses a character and the others brainstorm

8uestions to as" the child+in+role.

Twenty 8uestions: students choose an obCect, and the others have ;P

8uestions to 5nd out the answer. 'nly -Yes- or -Jo answers are allowed.

Kuestion and answer: students devise 8uestions to 5t a given answer.

2loc"busters: create a board of letters and the students devise 8uestions for

each letter on given theme.


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ny 8uestionsD 9tudents as" or write down any 8uestion and each 8uestion is

given to an -expert- partner to answer.

*nterview 8uestions: 7ecide on someone to interview and devise 8uestions.

Kuestion your classroom: devise 8uestions to stimulate thin"ing and

discussion about obCects.

Heep a 8uestions box, board or boo": create 8uestions, store them in a box,

choose one and discuss it.

DISC6SSING

Tal' and t&oug&t

4erbal thin"ing can be regarded as the internali)ation of speech. 4ygots"y

argues that a better approximation to verbal thought lies in egocentric

speech. 3rom an early age, children develop theories about what they "nowand experience. These ideas become the basis of their actions and

responses. They help the children to anticipate, comprehend event and

create order out of what would seem to be random.

"odelling1 recreating t&e %orld in %ord)

'ne way of helping this construction of understanding is to tal" with

ourselves about our experiences, to model the world as we understand it in

words. 4ocali)ation gives substance to thin"ing.

Examples of talking things trough:

7e5ne the problem: say what the situation is, where you are, and where you

hope to get.

lan a course of action: tal" through a step+by+step approach to a problem,

outlining what one hopes to achieve and the stages one hopes to go through.

@onitoring the situation: to chec" the progress of a plan by as"ing.

#eviewing the outcome: to verify that the tas" has been achieved by testing

the results.

Self- questioning: ll successful learners have metacognitive s"ills that

involve developing an awareness of their own learning. *f children are made

aware of their own learning then they are in a better position to improve it.

2y modelling examples of tal"ing things through we can show children ways


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in which they can articulate their ideas. (e learn more by 8uestioning

ourselves.

T&oug&t and dialogue

$hildren need opportunities to en8uire into their own views and ways of

thin"ing and through dialogues with others, to discover di!erent perspectives

and points of view. *t is through dialogue that the private world of the self isextended, and we are able to overcome the egocentricity of thought by being

helped to 5nd more reective ways of thin"ing. (hat di!erence a learning

conversation from ordinary tal" day to day chat1 is that it involves higher

order thin"ing. learning conversation contributes to understanding. *t helps

them express ideas. 9ome strategies that teacher uses to encourage

students to articulate their thin"ing through dialogue: de5ning the purpose of

the activity, inviting opinions about the topic, 8uestioning the topic,

summari)ing, evaluating outcomes and reviewing the whole process.

&at i) di)cu))ion$

*t can be informal situation where tal" between people occurs or in a group

interaction where members Coin together to address a 8uestion of common

concern, exchanging di!erent points of view. This is called community of

en8uire. The central function of discussion is the improvement of "nowledge,

understanding andQor Cudgment. $onditions: tal" and listen to one another,

respond to what others say and try to develop "nowledge. @oral dispositions:discussion has to be order, reasonable, truthful, free to expression, e8ual

opportunities, and open+minded.

Teac&ing t&roug& di)cu))ion

*n classroom discussion, children tend to tal" directly to the teacher,

competing for attention. They need the teacher%s approval, and they tend to

be fearful of ta"ing ris"s. Teachers have di!erent roles:

s an expert: sustaining the attention of individuals or groups, leading themto higher levels of understanding, this means sca!olding the steps to learning

and understanding so that they achieve their potential.

s a facilitator: organi)e situations where children are wor"ing in groups.

9tudents are free to explore ideas but the teacher may intervene when

students donRt understand.


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s a participant: the purpose is to get students to tal" and listen to each

other and help them feel independent and e8ual in their responses.

COGNITIVE "A!!ING

$ognitive maps are made out of words, ideas and concept and they are

useful for learning. They relate ideas and concepts, identifying "ey words to

learn and remember. @emory is a process of ma"ing lin"s and associationbetween new information and existing "nowledge. *t depends on "ey words

and "ey concepts that are transferred from short+ term memory into long+

term memory. *t is through the lin"ing of information to existing patterns of

"nowledge that we create new forms of understanding. (e are able to assess

many memories because all we need is to remember the "ey ideas, words or

images and we recreate what we remember from these. (e transform our

perceptions into concepts that are ideas. concept is an organi)ing idea and

helps us to classify and order thought and experience. Teacher has to explainand give examples of it so that the children come to a communicative

understanding of the concept.

Concept development

4ygots"y identify two levels: concepts are developed through perceptual

and practical experience in everyday activity. The higher level are scienti5c

concepts which are theoretical and structured and depends on the use of

language and learning& they are powerful because they are applied todi!erent contexts of learning.

iaget argued that concepts are organi)ed into schemas which are mental

representation of things or ideas, and it it through this we process

information.

Concept mapping

'ne way of introducing children to the language concepts is to describe

concepts as any words that mean something li"e places, names of people,ideas. concept is a word you can picture in the mind and means something

The best way to introduce concept maps is to construct some of your own,

5rst with general topics and then with topics of studies. Listing words and

concepts is a useful activity to encourage uency and exibility of ideas and

to provide a good basis for writing and for classi5cation. *n a concept map, a

"ey word or concept is one that is lin"ed to many other and serves as a focus

point for ma"ing connections for other parts in the pattern. dvantages: "ey


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idea is de5ned, the important ideas are highlighted or nearer the center, the

lin"s between ideas are shown, visual patterning helps you to review.

The purpose: to explore what we "now, identify the "ey concepts, showing

lin"s between ideas, to help planning, to aid evaluation. $ognitive maps help

children articulate their ideas. They provide a tool for planning and assessing

They stimulate active thin"ing, develop cognitive s"ills of analysis.

(orm) o* mapping

Hierarchical:shows a hierarchy of ideas and the relationship between them.

Knowledge: it wor"s when there are a lot of facts to learn history1

Graphic organizers: provides a good focus for co+operative learning and

engage students in processing information of ideas.

$ognitive mapping a powerful aid to memory, understanding and conceptdevelopment. $oncepts are organi)ing ideas that helps us ma"e sense of the

world and a child%s learning is develop through organi)ing ideas into

framewor" of understanding. Nraphic organi)ers help students to represent

thin"ing in visual form to relate new information to prior "nowledge. @apping

can ta"e many forms. $ognitive mapping provides a focus for group

discussion and a means to facilitate co+operative learning.

DIVERGENT THIN5ING

(e become creative when we are able to loo" at things from a new

perspective. ny learning that is not routine needs creativity. $reativity will

be needed to help develop, adapt and apply understanding. (hen "nowledge

is complete, we have no need to process it& there is no need to thin" things

through. To develop new ideas and design solution to problems re8uires

creative thin"ing. *ntelligence alone is not enough to reali)e learning

potential.

Creativity@ intelligence plu) ac&ievement

$reativity leads to di!erent learning styles and levels of achievement.

high creativity S high intelligence: children exercise themselves control and

freedom.

high creativity S low intelligence: they are in conict with themselves and

with the school environment.


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low creativity S high intelligence: they are addicted to school achievement.

low creativity S low intelligence: they are engaged in defensive social

activities.

A))e))ing creative t&in'ing+ we become creative when we can vary and

extent the focus of attention when we are able to see and thin" of

possibilities beyond the given information. (e have di!erent capacities forcreative thin"ing and these are expanded through practice. Three "inds of

tests:

drawing test: where students are as"ed to create a design from a simple

drawn shape. *t is useful for uency, exibility, originality and elaboration.

4isuali)ation test: students are as"ed of a given drawing and try to list as

many items the drawing may represent.

4erbal test: to generate creative ideas from a given verbal stimulus.

Developing creative t&in'ing+ creativity can be trained and develop, it ha

to do with serious and sustained e!ort.

$o#T is the most creative thin"ing programme which consists of a number of

tools applicable to many teaching situations:

$3: $onsider all factors: aims to expand the focus of attention.

3*: 3irst important priorities: directs the attention to priorities. Jot all

factors are of e8ual importance. 7eciding on priorities re8uire planning,

analysis or evaluation.

@*: lus, minus, interesting points: aims to force us into thin"ing about any

situation before coming to a Cudgment. *t involves listing all the good, bad

and interesting points.

$9: $onse8uences and 9e8uel: invites children to speculate and to predict

along a time scale into the future.

N': ims, goals and obCectives: identify the purpose of our thin"ing and

learning. *t explains the distinction between aims, goals and obCectives.

$: lternative, possibilities and choices: encourage children to loo" for

alternatives, to be alert to the multiplicity of possibilities and support the

belief that they always have a choice.


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'4: 'ther points view: it re8uires the ability to listen to the others point

view and to understand their feeling and ideas.

!rovocation+ a provocative statement stimulates creative thought, response

or discussion.

COO!ERATIVE LEARNING

eer tutoring means that children wor" in a structured way with a more able

partner. 3or 4ygots"y, social interaction has a central role in a child%s

education. *t is through being with others that we learn, could be parents,

friends, siblings, teacher. (ith others, we can do more and achieve more than

we can do on our own. $hildren learn best when they wor" with others. The

best condition is when children have a challenge that extends their cognitive

range. The challenge doesn%t have to be too diGcult or too easy. This

potential exists in the )one of proximal development and in the s"ills, ideas

and experiences of the social context in which he is immersed. 9o the teache

has to provide the social and cognitive framewor" for learning.

Learning in pair)+eer tutoring bene5ts:

. The tutor: the helping child. lthough they are teaching things they have

mastered, they gain intellectual bene5ts from putting their s"ills and

"nowledge into words, 5nding new meanings. *t also helps the child to

understand more about the process.

.The tutee: the child who is helped. e is given extra individual attention,

with regular feedbac" on his e!orts. Nood teaching involves giving help when

the learner faces diGculty. $hild tutor is ready to o!er help and give speci5c

concrete suggestions. $hildren are not so good as adults at sca!olding the

learning process of others, they "now less about the process of learning.

. The teacher: the mediator of the learning. 9he needs to support both the

tutor and the tutee, to ensure that a positive relationship is being developed.

aired reading: > 9teps: /+ the tutee selects a boo". ;+ the tutoring child

chec"s if the boo" is within the tutee%s competence.


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aired writing: aving a response friend to share the 5rst draft of a piece of

writing can be useful for correcting mista"es. 2ut children need guidance on

how to be a good writer and how to be a good response friend. 9o children

need opportunities to teach and to learn from each other. They bene5t from:

/+ e8ual partners in terms of age and ability. ;+ tutor partners, who are more

able, such as older students or adults.


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with a teacher who focuses on their particular needs. $ognitive coaching can

be summed up as teaching for transfer, see"ing to teach the indiviaul

students transferable s"ills of learning.

Cognitive apprenti)&ip+encourages students to be engaged in the

disciplined and productive mental word. Three "ey element: challenging

tas"s: re8uire mental e!ort, contextuali)ed tas"s: have a purpose and

coached tas"s: assist learning.

$ognitive coaching isn%t time+consuming. The ideal is to ma"e cognitive

coaching part of the routine.

There are di!erences between good and poor learners. Nood learners tend to

focus on tas"s, as" 8uestions about their learning, solve problems, and

persevere when they fail. oor learners tend to: lac" the ability to concentrate

on tas"s, lac" a purpose of learning, and give up easily. The aim for teachers

is to device ways in which poor learners can practice the strategies of good

learner.

There are six strategies to be e!ective for poor learners:

Focus and follow through: the aim is to help children to ta"e more time, to

attend more and to hold the focus of attention long enough to allow thin"ing

processes to wor". *n focusing we try to direct the student%s attention to the

important feature of the problem or learning situation. 3ocusing is part of

cognitive coaching when it ma"es a cognitive demand on the child. *t ma"esa cognitive intervention by creating a perceptual focus on the elements of the

situation and conceptual demands for articulated response.

#eciprocal teaching: is a "ind of interactive game between the teacher and

the learner in which each ta"es it in terms to lead in teaching the other. Teach

is to learn twice, the best way for children to learn a process is to get them to

teach it. *t consists of four activities: summari)ing, 8uestioning, clarifying and

predicting. Summarizing:is important in speci5c teaching contexts, such as reading. *t

is a way of synthesi)ing the meaning of a complex message. *t is useful as a

process of review, as evaluation. The ability to provide a good summary is an

advance high order s"ill. *t involves cognitive processes such as: Cudging with

ideas are important, applying rules for condensing information and practicing

the communication of "ey ideas. 9ummari)ing can be spo"en or written.


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Explaining:it needs to have clear structure comprehensible for the others1

clear and appropriate language, varied voice using gestures1, and uency

pacing is important1.

!odelling:needs to be structured for understanding so that it can be

transformed into images and verbal guides to subse8uent performance. *t

involves performing an action that can be processed in the learnerRs mind. *t

is a means of assisting performance.

ositi"e feed#ack: on performance is a powerful means of assisting learning

3eedbac" can ta"e many forms such as teacher response, test data, self+

assessment.

$oaching refers to a range of strategies used to assist learning. The aim is to

create independent learners who have the capacity to coach themselves and

other.

REVIEING

Sel*1e)teem+ is not related to family education& it comes from relationships

with those who play a signi5cant in the child%s life. *t is formed by the person

assessment of the self+picture which are reected bac" from other. 9elf+

esteem is a sense of self+respect. 9elf+esteem by itself is not enough for it can

encourage self+satisfaction. (hat is needed is to lin" self+esteem to self+

awareness and to create in children mastery orientation.

"a)tery orientation+refers to a sense of self competence that children

develop from an early age and moulds their approach to learning. $hildren

who are mastery oriented are curious, they want to learn and develop the

resilience to cope with failure and frustration. The styles of helpless or

mastery oriented behavior is not related to intelligence but is a personality

characteristic, a way of viewing one+self and one%s capacity to be e!ective

with people and circumstances.

There are three ways in which teaching children to learn can help enhanceself+esteem and mastery orientation: personali)ed learning related learning

to personal interests1, reviewing achievement identify their areas of success

and see where and how they can improve1, self+ assessment encourage self+

regulation to increase control of the learning process1.

!er)onalied learning+is collaborative approaches to learning in which

students are encourage to lin" the content of the curriculum with their own


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personal concerns. The teacher tries to personali)e the topic by helping the

students appreciate how the topic is relevant to their lives. The teacher sells

the topic and gets the students involved by brainstorming.

Revie%ing ac&ievement+it is a time to assess how the child is doing, to

recogni)e achievement, to establish needs and show that these needs are

understood and discuss the next step in learning. *n review sessions daily,

wee"ly, termly and annual1 the aim is to help the child become better learner

The review encourages children to spea" freely about their learning

experiences.

Sel*1a))e))ment+one aim is to help children move from an external point o

reference to internal one. *t is useful for helping children discover what they

are good at and to help them identify areas of wea"ness so that they can

begin to thin" about ways to improve.

There are tools for independent learning: inner meaning having a purpose

about learning1, self+regulation plan your wor"1, feeling of competence

feeling con5dent1, feeling of challenge how to deal with diGculty1,

communicating the ability to communicate1, setting target setting personal

goals1, being aware of self+change "nowing that you can change1.

Creating a learning environment

(ays to create e!ective communities for learning:

In t&e cla))room+ a supportive group is li"e a tribe. The themes of

identify, support and community help to create a great environment of

learning. The aim of a tribe is to develop positive peer regard, and create a

supportive climate to improve the self+image. There are rules paying

attention to another%s words and feeling, giving respect, appreciating others,

avoiding hurtful gestures, choosing when to participate in group discussion

and having the right to silence1.The "ey aim is to foster a sense of inclusion.

$ircle time: is a central activity to build a community, sitting in a circle, withthe teacher, and leading the group in a sharing activity. Everyone can see

each other%s face and tal" person to person. *t is important that the teachers

model the norms.

In t&e )c&ool: teachers and schools have clues to improve the chances of

success. 'ne "ey is the lin" between e!ective schools and teaching and

learning strategies.


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*mproving schools: a perfect school changes constantly, the "ey is the 8uality

of the changes and the way which they a!ect every individual. reas that

relate to e!ectiveness and improvement:

9chool improvement planning: schools adopt a planned approach to change

and improvement. *mprovements within the classroom depend on

improvements outside the classroom. 9chool development planning must

focus on -the total school-.

9chool ethos: is the climate of the school, and is expressed in personal

relationships. They are the expression of norms, beliefs and values. n

e!ective school has a positive ethos.

*mproving learning and teaching: a good school is -learner centered-.

Teachers should maximi)e learning opportunities for individuals providing

opportunities for independent learning, supported learning, peer learning and

extended learning. E!ective teaching is a complex activity which needs the

professional s"ills and personal 8ualities imagination, creativity, sensitivity1

the teaching and learning is e!ective when: the students show progress,

positive attitudes to school, motivation, good attendance, and teachers have

professional development, there is no sta! absence, 8uality of teaching,

monitoring student progress.

E!ective schools+ places where children succeed: indicators of 8uality and

e!ectiveness:$ompetence and character:good schools combine e!ective teaching clear

goals, good curriculum1 with sociali)ation of students positive behaviour,

good wor" habits1. Teachers focused on the needs of their children in

preparation for their adult life.

High expectations% monitoring standards and rewarding results:all students

can be motivated to learn. To maintained high standards they must be

monitored and reinforced by rewards.School leadership:e!ective leadership is essential for success. The best

leaders adapt to their local context. They set and maintain a clear direction,

facilitate the wor" of sta!, etc.

$lear goalshare with all the community, the purposes must be ta"en

seriously and translated into action. To establish priorities is important.


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$reating professional work en"ironments: sharing a sense of control, a

satisfaction from being part of the group and school.

&ositi"e students-teacher relationship:students and teacher should create

appositive relationship. *t can be formal and informal extracurricular

activities1 relationships.

'esource to facilitate teaching and learning:ade8uate resources and theiruse for the maximum e!ect

(orking in the communit): neighbours, local business, other organi)ations

will to help the school.

Sol"ing pro#lems:schools have obstacles to success, identifying their

problems and search for solutions. They tend to be solution+focused than

problem+focused.

*eing unique:innovative and open to change, they allow exibility in

planning.

didactica especifica ii children

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