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Differential Cost Analysis for
Operating Decisions
CHAPTER 7
© 2012 Cengage Learn ing. All Rights Reserved. May not be c opied, sc anned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, ex c ept for use as permi tted in a l icense
d is tributed wi th a c erta in produc t or serv ic e or o therwis e on a password-protected websi te for c las s room use.
PowerPoint Presentation by
LuAnn BeanProfessor of AccountingFlor ida Institute of Technology
Managerial Accounting 11E
Maher/Stickney/Weil 2
CHAPTER GOAL
This chapter explains how managers can use differential analysis to examine the effects on profits. Differential analysis helps managers answer relevant questions such as:¯What activities differ between the alternatives?¯How does that difference affect costs and profits?
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DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS: Definition
Is the analysis of differences among particular alternative
actions.
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EXAMPLE: Ullman Educational Media
Ullman Educational Media (UEM) is a company that produces tutorial videos for primary and preschool use. UEM developed the following estimates:
LO 1
Continued
Units made and sold 800 per monthMaximum production and sales capacity 1,200 units per month
Selling price $ 30
UEM
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ACTIVITY & COSTSUllman Educational Media provides the following
information about activities and costs:
LO 1
Continued
VC per unit FC per month
Manufacturing $ 17 $ 3,060Marketing and Administrative 5 1,740
Total costs $ 22 $4,800
UEM
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LO 1
EXHIBIT 7.2
UEM
Profit decreasesby $1,000.
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CASH FLOW
Differential analysis focuses on cash flow because ¯Cash is the medium of exchange in business¯Cash is a common objective measure of the costs
and benefits of alternatives
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Pricing Decisions
LO 2
CustomerDemands
Competitors’ Actions
Cost of Products
Will raising prices lose customers
to a competitor or cause them to
substitute cheaper goods?
MANAGERS WANT TO KNOW!
Managers must consider
competitors actions both
nationally and internationally.
Internal focus on continuous improvements
is key to cutting costs.
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SPECIAL ORDERS
Ullman has an opportunity for a one-time only special order to sell 100 units at $25 each. The regular price is $28. Should they accept the special order?
LO 2MANAGERS WANT TO KNOW!UEM
Continued
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LO 2
EXHIBIT 7.3Yes! Since
normal operations should be used to cover FC, not special
orders, this special order
adds $300 to the bottom line.
UEM
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LO 2
EXH
IBIT
7.5
Full cost, used for long run decisions, is the total
cost of producing and selling a unit.
UEM
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PRICING DECISIONSUse of full cost in pricing decisions is justified
because ¯In the long run, prices must cover all costs to
survive¯Long term contractual agreements must cover all
costs¯Prices in regulated industries are often based on
full cost¯Although full cost + profit may be used initially,
short term adjustments may reflect market conditions.
LO 2
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PRODUCT LIFE CYCLE: Definition
Covers the time from initial research and development to time support to customer is
withdrawn.
LO 2
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Predatory pricing: Definition
Is when a business deliberately prices below its costs to drive out competitors.
LO 2
Dumping: Definition
Occurs when a foreign company sells a product in the U.S. at a price below the
market value in the country of its creation.
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What is target cost?
Target cost is the target price less the target profit.
LO 3
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LO 3
EXH
IBIT
7.5
Value engineering is a systematic evaluation of
all aspects of the business.
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Customer cost ActivitiesCost to acquire customer Promote product; campaign to
win lost customers; run advertising campaign
Cost to provide goods and services Process order; deliver product; process returns
Cost to maintain customers Bill customers; process payments; issue refunds
Cost to retain customers Follow-up calls
USING ACTIVITY-BASED COSTING: Analyze Profitability
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THEORY OF CONSTRAINTSThe theory of constraints (TOC) acknowledges
that businesses often have constraints or limits on what can be done. TOC encourages managers to identify where constraints arise and to develop methods to manage them. Three factors predominate:
1. Throughput contribution2. Investments3. Other operating costs
LO 6
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BOTTLENECK: Definition
Is an operation in which the work to be performed equals or exceeds the available capacity.
LO 6
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MANAGING THE BOTTLENECK
¯Recognize that the bottleneck resource determines throughput contribution of product
¯Search for, find bottleneck¯Resource with large quantities of inventory waiting to be
worked on
¯Subordinate all non-bottleneck resources to the bottleneck resource
¯Increase bottleneck efficiency, capacity¯Repeat 4 steps for any new bottleneck
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MAKE-OR-BUY
The make-or-buy decision is one where the firm must decide whether to meet its needs internally or to acquire goods or services externally. Both cost and non-quantitative factors are considered.
LO 7
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JOINT PRODUCTS
In some circumstances, multiple products can be produced from a single production process. The question for management is: What is the effect of additional processing/production on profits?
LO 8MANAGERS WANT TO KNOW!
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SPLITOFF POINT: Definition
Is the point up to which all costs are joint and after which additional processing costs are identified with other products.
LO 8
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ADD OR DROP
Managers must decide when to add or drop products; when to open or abandon sales territories. The differential principle involved can be stated:
If differential revenue from selling exceeds differential costs of product, the product is profitable and the firm should continue production.
LO 9MANAGERS WANT TO KNOW!
Click the button to skip Example
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INVENTORY MANAGEMENT
Inventory has a direct affect on profit and must be carefully managed. Key questions for managers are:
1. How many units should be on hand for use or sale?
2. How often should the firm order an item and what is the optimal order size?
LO 10MANAGERS WANT TO KNOW!
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JUST-IN-TIME (JIT)
JIT is a philosophy, not a tool, that dovetails with total quality management (TQM) in that TQM requires reliable processing systems and disallows defective units. Flexible manufacturing that reduces both setup and inventory levels also enhances JIT.
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LINEAR PROGRAMMING
¯Linear programming: (a) finds the product mix that will maximize profits given the constraints, (b) provides opportunity costs of constraints, and (c) allows for sensitivity analysis.
LO 11
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ECONOMIC ORDER QUANTITY (EOQ)
¯The economic order quantity (EOQ) model is a mathematical model that gives the optimal amount of goods to order when demand reduces inventory to a level called the “reorder point.”
LO 12
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Capital Expenditure Decisions
CHAPTER 8
Managerial Accounting 11E
Maher/Stickney/Weil
PowerPoint Presentation by
LuAnn BeanProfessor of AccountingFlor ida Institute of Technology
© 2012 Cengage Learn ing. All Rights Reserved. May not be c opied, sc anned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, ex c ept for use as permi tted in a l icense
d is tributed wi th a c erta in produc t or serv ic e or o therwis e on a password-protected websi te for c las s room use.
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CHAPTER GOAL
This chapter explains how the differential principle applies to long-term decisions where the focus is on changes in operating capacity over several future time periods. Present value analysis, also called discounted cash flow (DCF), provides analysts with the appropriate technique.
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1Explain the reasoning behind the separation of the investing and financing aspects of making long-term decisions.
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
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CAPITAL BUDGETING: Definition
Involves deciding which long-term investments to take
involving capital (long-term) assets.
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2Explain the role of capital expenditure decisions in the strategic planning process.
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
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STRATEGIC PLANNING
In strategic planning, an organization decides on major programs and the resources to devote to them. Strategic planning provides the context for capital expenditure decisions.
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BENEFITS: Long-Term Investments
¯Reducing potential to make mistakes improves product
¯Making goods, delivering services that competitors cannot
¯Reducing cycle time to make product¯Permanently reducing costs to provide such an
advantage that competitors cannot afford to enter market
LO 2
Click the button to skip Exercise 6
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EXERCISE 6
Press “Enter” or click left mouse button for answer.
“If an investment does not fit with an organization’s strategic plan, it is probably not a good idea, even if the net present value (NPV) is positive.” Under what conditions would
this statement be true? False?
LO 2
The statement is generally true for projects that fit the strategic plan. In certain special cases, a firm might depart from its strategic plan.
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Environmental accounting presents a major challenge for companies. What are
some of the benefits?Benefits include
providing cash flow benefits by reducing fines, legal costs and
cleanups.
LO 2
MANAGERIAL APPLICATION
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3Describe the steps of the net present value method for making long-term decisions using discounted cash flows, and explain the effect of income taxes on cash flows.
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
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DISCOUNTED CASH FLOW (DCF): Definition
Aids in evaluating investments involving cash flows over time
where there is a significant difference between cash payment
and receipt.
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What is the discount rate?
The discount rate is the interest rate that analysts
use in computing the present value of future
cash flows.
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ELEMENTS OF DISCOUNT RATE
The choice of a discount rate should consider the following¯A pure rate of interest that reflects the productive
capability of capital assets¯A risk factor reflecting the riskiness of the project¯An increase reflecting inflation expected to occur
over the life of the project.
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RISK-FREE RATE: Definition
Is the pure interest rate plusexpected inflation.
LO 3
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What is the realinterest rate?
The real interest rate is the pure interest rate plus a premium for risk but no
increase for inflation.
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NOMINAL INTEREST RATE: Definition
Includes all three factors: pure interest, risk premium, and
expected inflation.
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If the present value of future cash inflows exceeds the present value offuture cash outflows for a proposal, The firm should accept the project
with the largest NPV.Reject any negative PV.
LO 3
DECISION RULEEstimate the amounts of future cash inflows and future cash outflows in each period foreach alternative
Discount the future cash flows to the present using the project’s discount rate.
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CASH FLOW VARIETIES
¯Initial cash flows: ¯Occur at beginning of project
¯Periodic cash flows¯Occur during life of project
¯Terminal cash flows¯Occur at end of project
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EXAMPLE: JEP Realty Syndicators
JEP Reality Syndicators, Inc. (JEP) is considering acquisition of computer hardware with a 5-year life. Disposal of current hardware occurs in Year 0 with no gain or loss and no tax consequences.
LO 3
Continued
Cost $ 100,000
Market value of present equipment $ 10,000
Scrap value $ 5,000
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LO 3
EXHIBIT 8.1Projected cash flows
over life of project.
JEP
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LO 3
EXHIBIT 8.2
JEP
Depreciation is subtracted before
tax
Year 0 & Year 1
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LO 3
EXHIBIT 8.2
JEP
Pretax net cash inflow (outflow) – tax payable
= Net cash inflow (outflow) X PV factor
(12%) = NPV
Year 0 & Year 1
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JEP
EXHIBIT 8.2
+ + + + +=
LO 3
Projected cash flows over life of project is
positive $12,469.
>>>ACCEPT 52
WARNING! The only time analysisneed recognize working capital occurs
when cash sits idle as conditionof investment.
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4Explain how spreadsheets help the analyst to conduct sensitivity analyses of capital budgeting.
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
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THREE ESTIMATES for Calculating NPV
The calculation of NPV for a proposed project requires three types of projections¯Amount of future cash flows¯Timing of future cash flows¯Discount rate
Note: errors in predicting amounts of future cash flows will likely have the largest impact.
LO 4
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LO 4JEP
EXHIBIT 8.3
= $350,000 in revenues
+ + + +
Base case
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LO 4JEP
EXHIBIT 8.3
+ + + ++
Amount of future cash flows
= $344,000in revenues,
less than projected
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LO 4JEP
EXHIBIT 8.3
= $350,000 in revenues, not received as expected.
+
Timing of future cash flows
+++
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LO 4JEP
EXHIBIT 8.3
+ + +
Discount rate changed to 13%
+ = $350,000 in revenues, but discount rate changed.
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Which change had the greatesteffect on NPV?
LO 4
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5Describe the internal rate of return method of assessing investment alternatives.
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
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INTERNAL RATE OF RETURN (IRR): Definition
Is the discount rate that equates the NPV of the series to 0.
(Also called the time-adjusted rate of return.)
LO 5
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LO 5
DECISION RULE
Net Present Value Method Internal Rate of Return Method1. Compute the investment’s net present value, using the organization’s cost of capital adjusted for project-specific risk as the discount rate (hurdle rate).2. Undertake the investment if its net present value is positive. Reject the investment if its net presentvalue is negative.
1. Compute the investment’s internal rate of return.2. Undertake the investment if its internal rate of return is equal to or greater than the organization’s cost of capital adjusted for project-specific risk (hurdle rate). If not, reject the investment.
The decision to accept or reject an investment proposal can be made using either the internal rate of return method or the net present value method under most circumstances.
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LO 5
EXHIBIT 8.4
JEP’s hurdle rate
is 12%. Should they accept this project?
JEP
Click the button to skip Exercise 15
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EXERCISE 15
Press “Enter” or click left mouse button for answer.
Some people claim, “The IRR is more difficult to compute than the NPV of a project. The IRR method can never give
a better answer then the NPV method.” Why do you suppose that so many people use the IRR method?
LO 5
The IRR decision is easier because it is easier to compare (and understand) interest rates (IRR) than to compare net present values
(NPV).
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6Explain why analysts will need more than cash flow analysis to justify or reject an investment.
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
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JUSTIFYING INVESTMENTSInvestments in computer-integrated manufacturing are
often difficult because of difficulties in applying discounted cash flow methods ¯Hurdle rate too high
¯Should be cost of capital¯Bias toward incremental projects¯Uncertainty about operating cash flows¯Exclusion of benefits that are difficult to quantify
¯More flexibility¯Shorter cycle and lead times¯Reduction of non-value-added costs
LO 6
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LONG-TERM INVESTMENTS
Three types of long term capital investments are: ¯Replacement and minor improvements¯Expansion¯Strategic moves
LO 6
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7 Explain why the capital investment process requires audits.
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
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AUDITINGAuditing to compare estimates of capital
budgeting projects to actual results provides advantages: ¯Audits identify which estimates were wrong to
correct in future¯Managers can use audits to reward good planning¯Audits create environment that removes the
temptation to inflate estimates and benefits
LO 7
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8 Identify the behavioral issues involved in capital budgeting.
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
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BEHAVIORAL ISSUESPlanners have a desire to implement a project,
meet performance measures. This can influence their objectivity in making estimates. Additionally, conflicts may arise between criteria used to evaluate individualprojects and criteria used to evaluate an organization’s overall or unit performance.
LO 8