DIGITAL CAPITAL

Praise for Digital Capital

As digital communications becomes evermore central to everyday life, work andleisure, their impact on inequality becomesincreasingly profound. Is there a new ‘digitalcapital’ acquired by those who gain mostfrom these technologies? The authors,established experts in this field, address thisproblem with a thorough and informedanalysis of the concept, and its implicationsfor policy and understanding.

Peter Golding, Professor, Northumbria andNewcastle Universities, UK

Taking their inspiration from Bourdieu’sanalysis of capital, Ragnedda and Ruiuextend the concept theoretically to thedigital. Digital capital is operationalisedthrough the creation of an index thataccounts for differences in digital skills andcompetencies. Digital capital is then related toother forms of capital – economic, social andcultural – showing how digital capital worksas a bridging capital allowing those witheconomic and cultural resources to use thedigital to acquire ever greater advantage. Thisspeaks to an important new wave of researchon the ‘third level of the digital divide’ thatseeks to measure outcomes. This is a highlycogent and important book both theoreticallyand empirically that should be of interest

to sociologists of class and inequality as wellas communication scholars seeking tounderstand the digital divide.

John Downey, Professor of Comparative MediaAnalysis and Head of Communication and Media,

Loughborough University; Vice-President, EuropeanCommunication Research & Education Association

Ragnedda and Ruiu build the field ofBourdieusian analysis of digital inequalitiesin their timely scholarship that speaks tokey issues in the emergent field ofdigital divide studies: theory, methodologyand implications. The authors push thefield forward by conceptualising andoperationalising digital capital, thusintegrating important theoretical insightswith replicable empirical examination.Meeting this challenge allows their work tomake real impact concerning the implicationsof digital inequalities for theorists, academics,policy-makers and practitioners.

Laura Robinson, Associate Professor,Santa Clara University

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DIGITAL CAPITAL

A Bourdieusian Perspective onthe Digital Divide

MASSIMO RAGNEDDA AND

MARIA LAURA RUIU

Northumbria University, UK

United Kingdom – North America – Japan – IndiaMalaysia – China

Emerald Publishing LimitedHoward House, Wagon Lane, Bingley BD16 1WA, UK

First edition 2020

© 2020 Massimo Ragnedda and Maria Laura RuiuPublished under exclusive licence by Emerald Publishing Limited.

Reprints and permissions serviceContact: permissions@emeraldinsight.com

No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrievalsystem, transmitted in any form or by any means electronic,mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise withouteither the prior written permission of the publisher or a licencepermitting restricted copying issued in the UK by The CopyrightLicensing Agency and in the USA by The Copyright ClearanceCenter. Any opinions expressed in the chapters are those ofthe authors. Whilst Emerald makes every effort to ensure thequality and accuracy of its content, Emerald makes norepresentation implied or otherwise, as to the chapters’suitability and application and disclaims any warranties,express or implied, to their use.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication DataA catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN: 978-1-83909-553-5 (Print)ISBN: 978-1-83909-550-4 (Online)ISBN: 978-1-83909-552-8 (Epub)

CONTENTS

List of Figures ix

List of Tables xi

About the Authors xiii

Introduction 1

1. Defining Digital Capital 91.1 The Concept of Capital in Bourdieusian Terms 101.2 Do We Need a New Capital? 151.3 Digital Capital as a Specific Capital 191.4 Defining Digital Capital 291.5 The Influence of Digital Capital Over the Three

Levels of Digital Divide 34

2. Operationalising Digital Capital 392.1 Identifying an Empirical Model 402.2 Measuring Digital Capital 462.3 How to Use Digital Capital Index to Investigate

Digital Inequalities 552.4 Testing Digital Capital Index 58

3. Implications 673.1 Fostering Life Chances: The Importance to

Monitor Digital Capital 683.2 Digital Inclusion Policies 72

Conclusions 77

vi i

Appendix: Measuring Digital Capital 81

References 97

Index 121

vi i i Contents

L IST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 First Section of the Bridge between Offlineand Online Experience. 24

Figure 1.2 Second Section of the Bridge. 26

Figure 1.3 Examples of Interaction between Capitals. 27

Figure 1.4 Double Loop Process. 33

Figure 1.5 Convertibility, Effort, Accumulation andBenefits of Digital Capital. 34

Figure 2.1 Constitutive Components of Digital Capital. 42

ix

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L IST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 Types of Access Included in Digital Capital. 43

Table 2.2 Competences Included in Digital Capital. 44

Table 2.3 Digital Capital per Age Cohort. 60

Table 2.4 Digital Capital per Annual Income. 61

Table 2.5 Digital Capital per Education Level. 62

Table 2.6 Digital Capital Index per Residential Area. 62

Table 2.7 Digital Capital per Gender. 63

xi

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ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Massimo Ragnedda (PhD) is a Senior Lecturer in MassCommunication at Northumbria University, Newcastle (UK),where he conducts research on the digital divide and digitalmedia. He is vice chair of Digital Divide Working Group,(IAMCR) and co-convenors of NINSO (Northumbria Internetand SocietyResearchGroup).Hehas authored12bookswithhispublications appearing in numerous peer-reviewed journals andbook chapters in English, Spanish, Italian and Portuguese texts.His last books include Mapping the Digital Divide in Africa(co-edited with Bruce Mutsvairo), Amsterdam University Press(2019); Digital Inclusion. An international Comparative Anal-ysis (co-edited with Bruce Mutsvairo), Lexington (2018);Theorizing the Digital Divide (co-edited with G Muschert),Routledge (2018); The third Digital Divide: a Weberianapproach to Digital Inequalities (2017), Routledge.

Maria Laura Ruiu has been recently awarded her secondDoctorate in Social Sciences, Curriculum in Arts, Media andCommunication (Northumbria University, Newcastle uponTyne). Her research interests fall into environmental andmedia sociology with specific focus on climate changecommunication, social capital and digital media. She is authorof several publications that have appeared in peer-reviewedjournals. She has been actively involved (as a team member) inseveral international cooperation and research projects.

xi i i

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INTRODUCTION

What is digital capital? How can it be measured? And whatimpacts might it have on policy-makers working to reducedigital inequalities? The attempt to discuss both the theoreticaland empirical implications of these questions is at the veryheart of this book. More specifically, the aims of this book arethreefold. First, to dig deeper into the concept of DigitalCapital and clarify its theoretical framework and criticalcontribution, and second to propose a model to measuredigital capital and third to discuss some policy implications ofthis theoretical and empirical tool. In order to fulfil these aimswe first need to shed light onto the overall questions sur-rounding this work: is there a need to introduce a new capitalin our theoretical baggage? Is not the plethora of capitalcommonly used by social scientists and media scholars suffi-cient to describe the different resources/materials used in oureveryday life to achieve specific goals? In fact, someone couldquestion the necessity to introduce a new specific capital,instead of including both the digital or technological compo-nents to existing ‘capital’ such as, e.g. economic (that mighthelp explain different access to the ICTs) or cultural capital(different technological skills). Furthermore, even if weintroduce a new capital in our research toolkit, can weempirically measure it? Finally, what would be the impacts ofthis theoretical and empirical model for policy-makers andstakeholders who monitor citizens’ digital inclusion level?

1

This book proposes both a deeper conceptualisation ofdigital capital as a specific capital and its operationalisationfor empirical exploration and measurement. By conceptualis-ing and providing some guidelines for future research on themeasurability of digital capital as a specific capital, we arecontributing to the lively debate on digital technologies andtheir impacts on our everyday life. Furthermore, this bookalso provides policy-makers with a tool that might facilitatethe development and monitoring of initiatives addressed totackle both digital and social inequalities. As we shall seethroughout the book, the theorisation of this new concept isbased on a preliminary definition provided by Ragnedda andRuiu (2017) and further reinforced by Ragnedda (2018).However, this book will show some advances in terms ofcombining both empirical and theoretical approaches toanswer the above-mentioned questions about the legitimacy ofusing a new capital in an extra economic way and con-textualising its theoretical contribution in a Bourdieusianperspective. Measuring digital capital means taking intoaccount its multidimensionality, which is not only representedby the material resources that enable the physical access toICTs but also by the interiorised competences and attitudesthat contribute towards increasing the individual level ofdigital capital. As we shall see, the individual level of digitalcapital influences both qualities and types of online activitiesand also the benefits and tangible outcomes we get fromaccessing and using the Internet. This interpretation alsosuggests that digital capital can become a valuable tool toexplore and tackle the multidimensionality of digitalinequalities and their related levels of digital divide (Rag-nedda, 2017). As highlighted throughout the book, given itsbi-dimensionality (which includes both physical access anddigital competences), digital capital interacts with theinequalities in accessing (first level of digital divide),

2 Digital Capital

inequalities in using (second level) and inequalities in terms ofbenefits and tangible outcomes (third level). In this vein, thisbook shows how the constitutive elements of digital capitaldialogue with the first two levels of digital divide byfacilitating/hampering access to and use of ICTs. Furthermore,it also highlights the bridging nature of this capital that is alsoconnected to the third level of digital divide by producingdifferent tangible outcomes deriving from the interactionbetween digital capital, different digital experiences and off-line capitals. In this direction, this book suggests that theidentification and quantification of digital capital is essentialto understanding how the individual level of digital capital cancontribute towards expanding (or by contrast narrowing)digital inequalities, which in turn play a role in (re)producingsocial inequalities. Therefore, the utility of this capital isexpressed not only in terms of providing scholars with a toolfor investigating the intertwined relationships between socialand digital inequalities but also informing policy-makersabout the digital accumulated experience of people in soci-ety and how this could impact individuals’ everyday life. Thisis particularly important in policy-making that aims toaddress digital/social inequalities through inclusive initiativesthat are tailored upon individuals’ needs. In fact, in order toboth enhance a high-quality online experience (shrinking thesecond level of digital divide) and foster users’ capacities tobenefit from the use of ICTs (mitigating the third level ofdigital divide) the investigation of both competences or accessis vital to increase citizens’ life chances and, in the long run, toreduce social inequalities.

The digital age has triggered the rise of inequalities that arein part a reflection of the traditional offline inequalities. Thisbook shows the need to introduce a new capital as a theo-retical tool to shed light onto the inequalities in the digital age.This is supported by the need for developing a model to

Introduction 3

measure both the quality and quantity of digital experiencesand the benefits that users can earn from accessing and usingthe Internet. In order to fill this gap in the literature, we arealso attempting to operationalise digital capital as a cumula-tive and transferable capital, simultaneously specific andintertwined with the other five forms of capitals, namely social(Bourdieu, 1983; Coleman, 1990; Putnam, 1995), political(Mouzelis, 1995; Syed & Whiteley, 1997), economic (Bour-dieu, 1983), personal (Becker, 1996; Dei Ottati, 1994) andcultural capitals (Bourdieu, 1983). This work provides, then,both a theoretical and an empirical tool for measuring digitalcapital, which can be applied for replication and comparisonin different social, cultural and geographical contexts. Boththe theorisation and operationalisation of this new capital areessential to understanding its interaction with other capitalsand its contribution towards digital and social inequalities.

As shown by the first chapter of this book, the theorisationof this new capital is drawn from the definition of digitalcapital as a set of both digital competencies and digitaltechnologies. In this book we move one step forward byoperationalising digital competences by using the EuropeanDigital Competence Framework for Citizens (Carretero,Vuorikari, & Punie, 2017), and digital technologies, by refer-ring to the literature with a focus on the way users access anduse ICTs. Chapter one takes into account the bi-dimensionalityof digital capital, which is not only represented by the physicaland material access to digital devices (Van Deursen & VanDijk, 2019) but also by those digital competences that facilitatethe digital experience and, in turn, transform such experienceinto externally observable outcomes. The two constitutiveelements of digital capital – digital competences and digitalaccesses – can be accumulated and transferred from one arenato another, to increase what Max Weber (1949) defined asindividual life chances. Cumulability and transformability are,

4 Digital Capital

according to Bourdieu, constitutive components of any capital(Ignatow & Robinson, 2017: 952). For this reason, theBourdieusian capital lens adopted in this book provides aframework for conceptualising and measuring digital inequal-ities. Digital capital, therefore, can be at the same time accu-mulated over time (thanks to the cumulability of bothtechnologies and competences) and converted into social,political, economic, personal and cultural capitals (thanks tothe outcomes deriving from the digital performance). Theresults of this accumulation are visible both on the onlinerealm, by influencing the second level of digital divide, and inthe offline realm, by increasing the third level of digital divide.In this vein, one of the driving ideas of this book is that in adigital reliant society, where an increasing number of servicesand resources have moved online, the level of digital capital isvital to confidently use the Internet and to be able to capitalisethe use of ICTs for improving life chances. What this bookargues is that in order to efficiently operate and move in theinformation age (Castells, 2011) or information society(Feather, 2013) and be both digitally and socially included,individuals need a certain level of digital capital. In Bour-dieusian terms, therefore, digital capital is required to inhabitand operate successfully within the digital arena and to get themost out of it. However, since the difference between onlineand offline is blurring and since social and digital inequalitiesare so firmly intertwined, digital capital is increasinglyimportant in individual everyday life, where, first, the access toICTs and, then, the competences in using them are vital ele-ments to operate in a digital enabled society. Digital capital,therefore, sounds particularly relevant in several specific fieldsof human life, such as job-related activities, social networking,leisure and welfare services, in which digital access and digitalcompetences are increasingly a necessity, and not a simpleoption. Digital capital, as we shall see, like other kinds of

Introduction 5

capital, is unequally distributed and, as such, tends to reinforceand influence social inequalities. It is a concept that willbecome vital for digital sociologists and for those scholars whoinvestigate digital inequalities and their effects on the societyand everyday life. Digital capital is a concept usurped byeconomic studies to highlight the nature of ‘assets’ physical/intangible to invest in everyday life, to foster individuals’capacity to move up on the social ladder by confidently andproperly using digital technologies. The conceptualisation hereproposed, moved away from the ‘economic’ theorisation pro-posed, among the others, by Tapscott, Lowy, and Ticoll (2000)and Roberts and Townsend (2015) who have used the notionof digital capital to describe the resources upon which thedevelopment of new products and services rely in the digitaleconomy. In our approach, digital capital is an importantnotion that helps shed light onto the multidimensionality andintersectionality of digital inequalities and offers an importantconceptual and empirical tool to measure digital divide.

However, both the conceptualisation and itsoperationalisation/applicability require a deep analysis anddiscussion. In order to respond to these questions and shedlight onto the measurability of digital capital as a specificcapital, the book is structured into three chapters that respondto three different necessities. First, the need to provide scien-tific support to the theorisation and conceptualisation of thisnew concept. Second, the need to operationalise digital capitalby developing a model that could be replicated in differentcontexts. Finally, the need to reflect upon its implication forpolicy-making. More specifically, the first chapter presents therelevant literature that contributed towards defining theconcept of digital capital, thereby extending Bourdieu’s fieldtheory. This chapter digs deeper into the theorisation of thisconcept, by explaining how and why digital capital should beconceived as a specific capital, and not as a mere subset or

6 Digital Capital

special category of other capitals. The proposed notion ofdigital capital should be seen as an attempt to integrate theexisting approaches of ‘capitals’ into one comprehensiveconceptualisation which can enable to better grasp the inter-twined relationship between social and digital inequalities.After providing a definition of digital capital, the methodo-logical approach is described. In the second chapter, we shalllook at its constitutive components, by explaining and dis-cussing the reasons why specific components are essential tomeasuring digital capital. Furthermore, in this chapter wereport and discuss some empirical data that were used to testthe validity of the Digital Capital Index. Finally, the thirdchapter discusses the implications of this new concept and itsrelated empirical application on policies and initiatives (bothpublic and private) addressed to tackle digital inequalities. Weshall specifically pay attention to policy-making approaches indealing with digital inclusion and why this model might beuseful to tackle both digital and social inequalities. Thischapter envisages policy-makers to use this model for moni-toring the level of digital inclusion, both at micro and macrolevel. At the same time, it might be used to develop policiestailored on those who need them the most. Finally, the con-clusions highlight future directions for research in this field.This conclusive chapter shall reflect upon the major findings asa whole, and points towards the future needs of the field. Itwill draw together the comparative points not otherwisearticulated in the different chapters.

Introduction 7

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