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Digital Television Systems

Digital television is a multibillion-dollar industry with commercial systems now beingdeployed worldwide. In this concise yet detailed guide, you will learn about thestandards that apply to fixed-line and mobile digital television, as well as the underlyingprinciples involved, such as signal analysis, modulation techniques, and source andchannel coding.

The digital television standards, including the MPEG family, ATSC, DVB, ISDTV,DTMB, and ISDB, are presented to aid understanding of new systems in the market andreveal the variations between different systems used throughout the world. Discussionsof source and channel coding then provide the essential knowledge needed for designingreliable new systems.Throughout the book the theory is supported by over 200 figures andtables, whilst an extensive glossary defines practical terminology.Additional backgroundfeatures, including Fourier analysis, probability and stochastic processes, tables ofFourier and Hilbert transforms, and radiofrequency tables, are presented in the book’suseful appendices.

This is an ideal reference for practitioners in the field of digital television. It willalso appeal to graduate students and researchers in electrical engineering and computerscience, and can be used as a textbook for graduate courses on digital television systems.

Marcelo S. Alencar is Chair Professor in the Department of Electrical Engineering,Federal University of Campina Grande, Brazil. With over 29 years of teaching andresearch experience, he has published eight technical books and more than 200scientific papers. He is Founder and President of the Institute for Advanced Studies inCommunications (Iecom) and has consulted for several companies and R&D agencies.

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Cambridge University Press978-0-521-89602-3 - Digital Television SystemsMarcelo Sampaio de AlencarFrontmatterMore information

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Digital Television Systems

MARCELO SAMPAIO DE ALENCARFederal University of Campina Grande






cambridge university pressCambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo, Delhi

Cambridge University PressThe Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK

Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York

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© Cambridge University Press 2009

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exceptionand to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,no reproduction of any part may take place withoutthe written permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published 2009

Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge

A catalog record for this publication is available from the British Library

ISBN 978-0-521-89602-3 hardback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence oraccuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred toin this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on suchwebsites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.






ForSilvana, Thiago, Raphael and Marcella






Contents

List of figures page xiiiList of tables xviiiList of contributors xxPreface xxiAcknowledgments xxiii

1 Fundamentals of digital television 1

1.1 Digital television 11.2 High-definition television 11.3 The digital programming platform 31.4 Interactivity 5

1.4.1 Interactive services 61.4.2 Television on mobile phones 8

1.5 Return channel for digital television 91.6 Digital television standards 11

1.6.1 The DVB-T standard 131.6.2 The ATSC standard 151.6.3 The ISDB-T standard 171.6.4 The ISDTV standard 191.6.5 The DTMB standard 201.6.6 Ultrahigh-definition television 22

1.7 Television receivers 22

2 Audio and video coding 25

2.1 Introduction 252.2 Source coding 272.3 The source coding process 282.4 Signal sampling 29

2.4.1 Sampling of the video signal 312.5 The quantization process 322.6 Development of the model for the quantizer 35

2.6.1 Quantization of a Gaussian signal 372.6.2 Quantization of the video signal 38






viii Contents

2.7 The encoding process 382.8 Video encoding standards 41

2.8.1 The MPEG-1 standard 412.8.2 The MPEG-2 standard 412.8.3 The MPEG-4 standard 422.8.4 The H-264 standard 43

3 Fundamentals and standards of video and audio compression 44

3.1 An overview of audio and video compression 443.2 General concepts and fundamentals 453.3 The MPEG-4 standard 46

3.3.1 The MPEG-4 Visual standard 503.3.2 The MPEG-4 video encoding process 54

3.4 ITU-T H.264/AVC 573.4.1 History of H.264 583.4.2 Comparison of H.264/AVC standard with other standards 64

4 Channel coding for digital television 65

4.1 Introduction 654.2 Cyclic codes 65

4.2.1 Bose–Chaudhury–Hocquenghem (BCH) codes 674.2.2 Reed–Solomon (RS) codes 684.2.3 Low-density parity-check (LDPC) codes 69

4.3 Decoding cyclic codes 704.3.1 Algebraic decoding 70

4.4 Soft-decision decoding 744.4.1 The decoding of LDPC codes 74

4.5 Convolutional codes 754.5.1 Basic concepts 754.5.2 Non-recursive convolutional codes 764.5.3 Recursive systematic convolutional (RSC) codes 804.5.4 Representation of convolutional codes 834.5.5 Decoding convolutional codes 86

4.6 Concatenated codes 864.7 Error correction in digital television standards 87

4.7.1 Digital Video Broadcast Terrestrial (DVB-T) system 874.7.2 Digital Video Broadcast Satellite (DVB-S) system 894.7.3 Digital Video Broadcast Satellite (DVB-S2) system 894.7.4 Digital Video Broadcast Cable (DVB-C) system 904.7.5 Digital Video Broadcast Hand-held (DVB-H) system 904.7.6 Advanced Television Systems Committee (ATSC) 904.7.7 Integrated Services Digital Broadcasting (ISDB) 914.7.8 International System for Digital Television (ISDTV) 91






Contents ix

4.7.9 Chinese Digital Television Terrestrial Broadcasting(DTMB) system 91

4.7.10 Data Over Cable Service Interface Specification (DOCSIS) 924.7.11 Digital Multimedia Broadcasting (DMB) 93

5 Digital and analog transmission systems 94

5.1 Introduction 945.2 Amplitude modulation (AM) 94

5.2.1 Random signals and AM 965.2.2 Digital AM signal 995.2.3 Suppressed carrier amplitude modulation (AM-SC) 1015.2.4 AM-VSB modulation 1015.2.5 Amplitude demodulation 1025.2.6 Performance of AM 103

5.3 Quadrature amplitude modulation (QUAM) 1045.3.1 Single sideband amplitude modulation (AM-SSB) 1055.3.2 Quadrature amplitude demodulation 1075.3.3 Performance evaluation of SSB 1085.3.4 Digital quadrature modulation (QAM) 108

5.4 Angle modulated systems 1105.4.1 Angle modulation with random signals 1115.4.2 Angle modulation with digital signal 115

6 Advanced Television Systems Committee standard (ATSC) 118

6.1 Introduction 1186.2 Overview of the system 122

6.2.1 Source encoding and compression 1236.2.2 Multiplexing of services and transport 1246.2.3 Transmission system 1246.2.4 Basic features of the video system 125

6.3 Transmission modes 1266.3.1 Terrestrial transmission mode (8-VSB) 1266.3.2 Terrestrial transmission mode (16-VSB) 1326.3.3 Satellite transmission mode 132

6.4 Standard for interactivity 1346.4.1 Java TV 136

7 Digital video broadcasting (DVB) 137

7.1 Introduction 1377.1.1 Application fields of the DVB technologies 137

7.2 System features 1397.2.1 Baseband processing – MPEG-2 139






x Contents

7.2.2 DVB transmission 1417.3 Transmission standards 144

7.3.1 DVB-T 1447.3.2 DVB-H 1477.3.3 DVB-S2 1497.3.4 DVB and Internet 150

7.4 Interactivity 1517.4.1 DVB-RCT 152

7.5 Middleware 1537.5.1 Multimedia Home Platform (MHP) 153

8 International Services Digital Broadcasting for TerrestrialTelevision Broadcasting (ISDB) 155

8.1 Introduction 1558.2 ISDB transmission 1558.3 The transmission process 1588.4 The channel encoding 161

8.4.1 Remultiplexing of the transport stream 1628.4.2 Outer coding 1628.4.3 Division of the transport stream in hierarchic layers 1638.4.4 Power dispersion 1638.4.5 Delay correction 1648.4.6 The byte interleaver 1648.4.7 Inner coding 165

8.5 Modulation 1668.5.1 OFMD 1668.5.2 Mapping 1688.5.3 Time interleaving 1738.5.4 Frequency interleaving 1758.5.5 Frame composer 175

9 International System for Digital Television (ISDTV) 178

9.1 Introduction 1789.2 Reference model for a terrestrial DTV system 1809.3 Source coding 181

9.3.1 Video coding 1829.3.2 Audio coding 1849.3.3 Data coding 188

9.4 Transport layer 1899.4.1 MPEG-2 Systems Layer 191

9.5 Transmission and reception 1939.5.1 BST-OFMD 194

9.6 Middleware 1969.6.1 Ginga middleware 196






Contents xi

9.7 Interactivity channel 1989.7.1 WiMAX 200

10 Digital terrestrial television multimedia broadcasting (DTMB) 202

10.1 Introduction 20210.2 Scrambler 20310.3 Forward error correction (FEC) code 204

10.3.1 Low-density parity-check (LDPC) codes 20410.4 Signal constellation and mapping 20510.5 Interleaving 20610.6 Frame structure 207

10.6.1 Frame header 20710.6.2 Frame body 208

10.7 Time-domain synchronous orthogonal frequency divisionmultiplexing (TDS-OFDM) 20910.7.1 System model for TDS-OFDM 209

10.8 Post-baseband processing 21110.9 Receiver design 211

Appendix A Evolution of television standards 213

A.1 The beginning of image broadcasting 213A.2 The beginning of color broadcast 214A.3 The PAL standard 215A.4 The SECAM standard 217A.5 The NTSC standard 218

Appendix B Signal analysis 219

B.1 Introduction 219B.2 Fourier transform 219B.3 Properties of the Fourier transform 224B.4 The Nyquist theorem 229B.5 Fourier transform in two dimensions 231B.6 Discrete Fourier transform (DFT) 232B.7 Discrete cosine transform (DCT) 233B.8 The Hilbert transform 234B.9 Useful Fourier transforms 235

B.10 Two-dimensional Fourier transforms 241B.11 Use of the radiofrequency spectrum 242

Appendix C Random signals and noise 245

C.1 The autocorrelation function 245C.1.1 Properties of the autocorrelation function 246






xii Contents

C.2 The power spectral density 246C.2.1 Properties of the power spectral density 247

C.3 Linear systems 249C.3.1 Expected value of output signal 249C.3.2 The response of linear systems to random signals 250

C.4 Analysis of the digital random signal 252C.4.1 Autocorrelation of the digital signal 253C.4.2 Spectrum of the digital signal 254

C.5 Noise 255C.5.1 Noise in modulated systems 258

Glossary 259References 268Index 279






Figures

1.1 Set of standards in a digital television system for landbroadcasting (Graciosa, 2006) 2

1.2 Comparison of aspect ratios 4:3 and 16:9 21.3 Basic structure of the elements of

middleware (MC/MCTFINEP/FUNTTEL, 2004) 41.4 Set-top box model 51.5 Model of interactive digital television system 61.6 Model for a generic system of interactive services (Reimers, 2005b) 101.7 Standard options for digital television 121.8 DVB standard architecture 141.9 DVB standard scheme (TELECO, 2006) 141.10 Architecture of the ATSC standard 161.11 Scheme of the ATSC standard (TELECO, 2006) 161.12 Architecture of the ISDB standard 181.13 Scheme of the ISDB standard (TELECO, 2006) 181.14 Architecture of the ISDTV standard 201.15 Architecture of the DTMB standard 212.1 Generic communication system 262.2 Generic model for a source encoding system 292.3 Pulse amplitude modulation: (a) original signal; (b) sampled signal;

(c) pulse train 302.4 (a) Signal spectrum; (b) Spectrum of the PAM signal 302.5 Quantization scheme 322.6 Signal to quantization noise ratio (SQNR) 332.7 The non-uniform quantizer 342.8 Curves of compression and expansion 352.9 Characteristic function of the quantizer 362.10 Quantization noise spectrum for an input Gaussian signal 372.11 Flowchart of an APCM 392.12 Flowchart of a DPCM 402.13 ADPCM encoder 402.14 ADPCM decoder 403.1 Components of a typical image/video transmission system 463.2 MPEG-4 documents 48






xiv List of figures

3.3 Rectangular and arbitrarily shaped VOP 533.4 MPEG-4 encoding process using GMC 543.5 MPEG-4 encoding tools 553.6 Motion vector distribution example on a frame 563.7 Bidirectional prediction scheme 573.8 The NAL 613.9 Boundary filtering order 623.10 Block organization inside a macroblock 633.11 Zig-zag scanning and alternative scanning 644.1 Binary encoder for a (n, k , d) cyclic code employing a shift-register

with n − k stages 674.2 Flow chart of the BM algorithm 724.3 BCE of rate 2/3 774.4 Non-recursive (FIR) non-systematic encoder of rate 1/2 774.5 Encoder for a binary RSC code of rate 1/2 804.6 Encoder for a binary recursive non-systematic convolutional code

of rate 1/2 804.7 This structure shows an implementation of a rational transfer function 824.8 State diagram for the encoder illustrated in Figure 4.4 844.9 Trellis diagram for the encoder shown in Figure 4.10 854.10 Non-systematic FIR encoder, used to construct the trellis in Figure 4.9 854.11 The sequence of labels (11 10 01 10 00 01 11) is indicated by thick lines 864.12 Serial concatenation coding scheme 895.1 AM modulator 955.2 Random modulating signal m(t) 955.3 Modulated carrier for AM 955.4 Spectrum analyzer (©Agilent Technologies, Inc. 2008. Reproduced with

permission, courtesy of Agilent Technologies, Inc.) 975.5 Power spectral density the (a) message, and (b) modulating signals 985.6 Power spectral density of an AM signal 985.7 Example of a binary ASK signal 975.8 Constellation for a 4-ASK signal 995.9 BEP for an M -ASK 1005.10 Spectra of a VSB modulated signal 1025.11 Block diagram of an AM demodulator 1045.12 Block diagram for the quadrature modulator 1055.13 Block diagram for the SSB modulator 1065.14 Procedure to obtain the cross-power spectra 1075.15 Block diagram of a QUAM demodulator 1085.16 Constellation diagram for the 4-QAM signal 1095.17 Constellation diagram for the 16-QAM signal 1115.18 BEP for an M -QAM modulation scheme 1115.19 Spectrum for the white Gaussian modulating signal 114






List of figures xv

5.20 Spectrum of an FM signal with a low modulation index, for a Gaussianmodulating signal 116

5.21 Spectrum of an FM signal for a Gaussian modulating signal, with a highmodulation index 116

5.22 Constellation for a PSK signal 1175.23 BEP for an M -PSK 1175.24 BEP for an M -FSK 1186.1 Flowchart of the ATSC standard 1226.2 Encoding system for digital television 1256.3 Organization of the functionalities in the transmission/receiver pair 1266.4 Block diagram of the 8-VSB transmitter 1286.5 The 8-VSB data frame 1286.6 Nominal occupation of the 8-VSB channel 1296.7 Data scrambling polynomial 1306.8 Convolutional interleaving scheme 1306.9 Pre-encoder, encoder, and mapping of 8-VSB symbols 1316.10 Interleaver for the trellis code 1316.11 Nominal response of the 8-VSB channel (with filter) 1336.12 16-VSB transmitter functional block 1336.13 16-VSB mapping table 1346.14 Satellite transmission mode flowchart: LNA is low-noise amplifier;

LNB is low-noise block converter; HPA is high-power amplifier 1357.1 Block diagram of the encoder for DVB-T 1427.2 Randomized packages 1437.3 Reed–Solomon packages 1447.4 Data structures after interleaving 1447.5 QAM mapping 1467.6 Structure of the DVB-H receiver 1507.7 Architecture of DVB services over IP networks 1527.8 General model of an interactive DVB system 1537.9 Architecture of the MHP platform 1548.1 Flowchart of the ISDB-T system 1578.2 Band allocation for complete or partial transmission 1598.3 Layout of the carriers and segments in the frequency band 1598.4 Example of layer distribution in the frequency band 1598.5 Flowchart of the channel encoding 1628.6 Example of the remultiplexed transportation stream 1638.7 MPEG-2 TSP and TSP protected by the RS code 1648.8 Flowchart of the shift register 1658.9 Flowchart of the byte interleaver 1668.10 Flowchart of the convolutional encoder of rate = 1/2 and k = 7 1678.11 Flowchart of the modulation process 1688.12 Orthogonality between the carriers in the OFDM system 1688.13 OFDM guard interval 169






xvi List of figures

8.14 Mapping scheme 1708.15 DQPSK constellation 1718.16 Bit interleaving and DQPSK modulator 1718.17 QPSK constellation 1728.18 Bit interleaving and QPSK modulator 1728.19 Bit interleaving and 16-QAM modulator 1728.20 16-QAM constellation 1738.21 Bit interleaving and 64-QAM modulator 1738.22 64-QAM constellation 1748.23 Time interleaving 1758.24 Frequency interleaving 1768.25 Configuration of a segment for differential modulation in mode 1 1778.26 Generator of the pseudo-random sequence. 1789.1 ISDTV inauguration ceremony (Source: Ricardo Stuckert/Agência Brasil) 1819.2 Block diagram of the terrestrial DTV reference model 1829.3 Block diagram of the H.264 encoder 1849.4 Block diagram of the H.264 decoder 1849.5 Spatial arrangement for mono, stereo, Dolby surround, and surround 5.1

audio 1869.6 Block diagram of generic audio coding system 1879.7 Block diagram of the MPEG-2 AAC encoder 1889.8 Flow diagram of the data coding, transport layer, and interactivity channel 1899.9 Block diagram of the transport layer 1919.10 Block diagram of MPEG-2 systems layer 1939.11 Simplified block diagram of the transmission and reception subsystem 1949.12 Arrangement of segments in the channel bandwidth 1969.13 Ginga middleware architecture 1989.14 Simplified diagram of the interactivity channel 1999.15 Interactivity channel subsystem 20010.1 The transmission system diagram 20410.2 The structure of the convolutional interleaver 20710.3 Frame structure of DTMB 20810.4 Signal frame format for TDS-OFDM 20810.5 TDS-OFDM transmitter and receiver 212B.1 Pulse function 220B.2 Plot of the magnitude of the Fourier transform of the pulse function 220B.3 Impulse function and its Fourier transform 221B.4 Constant function and its transform 222B.5 The sine function 222B.6 Plot of the magnitude of the Fourier transform of the sine function 223B.7 Band-limited signal f (t) and its spectrum 230B.8 Impulse train used for sampling 230B.9 Sampled signal and its spectrum 231B.10 Basis functions for DCT 233






List of figures xvii

B.11 Signal function 234C.1 Example of a random process and its corresponding probability density

function 243C.2 Power spectral density and the autocorrelation function for a band-limited

signal 245C.3 Area under the curve of the autocorrelation function 245C.4 A linear system fed with a random input signal 247C.5 A linear system and input–output relationships 248C.6 A linear system and its correlation measures 249C.7 Autocorrelation for the digital signal 252C.8 Power spectral density for the random digital signal 254C.9 Power spectral density and the autocorrelation function for white noise 254C.10 Power spectral density for a constant signal 254C.11 Differentiator circuit 255C.12 Low-pass noise 255C.13 Quadratic noise 256






Tables

1.1 Interactive services and business models for digital TV in somecountries (CPQD, 2005) 9

1.2 Specifications for terrestrial broadcasting (TELECO, 2006) 121.3 Set of specifications of the DVB standard for the interactivity

channel (Reimers, 2005b) 153.1 MPEG-4 Visual profiles of natural video sequences 513.2 MPEG-4 Visual profiles of artificial video sequences 513.3 Levels of the H.264/AVC standard 603.4 Rules of choice of the parameter boundary strength (BS) 633.5 Comparison of the average output bit rate saving of the main encoders 654.1 Galois field GF(24) generated by p(X ) = X 4 + X + 1 694.2 Galois field GF(23) generated by p(X ) = X 3 + X + 1 704.3 Evolution of the BM algorithm for the input sequence

s0, s1, s2, s3 = 1, 1, α5, 1 744.4 Evolution of the BM algorithm for the input sequence

s0, s1, s2, s3 = α4, α3, α3, α4 754.5 Parameters of punctured convolutional codes 894.6 The three LDPC codes specified by DTMB 936.1 Standardized video formats 1276.2 Limitations in the compression of formats of the ATSC standard 1276.3 Interleaved partial sequences for trellis encoding 1327.1 Frame adaptation parameters 1477.2 Specifications of the DVB interactive channel 1538.1 Number of system carriers 1578.2 Parameters of the OFDM segment 1588.3 Parameters of the transmitted signal 1608.4 Data rate for one segment 1618.5 Data rate for the system 1618.6 Dimensions of the multiplex frame 1638.7 Delays in TSPs 1658.8 Convolutional encoder, rate 1/2 1678.9 Bit delay values 1708.10 Normalization factor 1748.11 Delay adjustment made by the interleaver 176






List of tables xix

9.1 ISDTV technical overview 18210.1 LDPC parameters and associated performance (BER < 3 × 10−6) 20610.2 System payload data rates in megabytes per second for the signal frame of

4200 symbols 20610.3 System payload data rates in megabytes per second for the signal frame of

4375 symbols 20710.4 System payload data rates in megabytes per second for the signal frame of

4725 symbols 20710.5 The frame structures 20910.6 The frame structure possibilities 210A.1 Color formation on television 215A.2 Technical information about the PAL standard 216A.3 Technical information about the SECAM standard 217A.4 Technical information about the NTSC standard 218B.1 Standardization organizations 240B.2 Frequency bands 241B.3 Permitted power levels (a) radio; (b) television 241B.4 Frequency allocation for VHF television 241B.5 Frequency allocation for UHF television 242






Contributors

Professor Valdemar Cardoso da Rocha Jr.Federal University of Pernambuco.

Professor José Ewerton Pombo de FariasFederal University of Campina Grande.

Professor Mylène Christine Queiroz de FariasFederal University of São Paulo.

Professor Marcelo Menezes de CarvalhoFederal University of São Paulo.

Jean Felipe Fonseca de OliveiraFederal University of Campina Grande.

Jeronimo Silva RochaFederal University of Campina Grande.

Paulo Ribeiro Lins JúniorFederal University of Campina Grande.

Mozart Grizi Correia PontesFederal University of Campina Grande.






Preface

The book presents the historical evolution of television. It also introduces the basicconcepts of digital television, including signal analysis, modulation techniques, sourcecoding, probability and channel coding. The digital television standards, including theMPEG family, the ATSC, DVB, ISDTV, DTMB and ISDB standards are discussed.Several appendices, with topics including Fourier analysis, probability and stochasticprocesses, tables of Fourier and Hilbert transforms, tables of radiofrequency anda glossary complement the book. Many illustrations and graphics help the readerunderstand the theory.

Digital television is a new topic in the educational market; it evolved from theamalgamation of different areas, such as source coding, modulation, transmissiontechniques, channel coding, signal analysis and digital signal processing.

In commercial terms, digital television is a driving force of the economy and itsdeployment throughout the world generates a huge market as the analog television setsare replaced by the new HDTV devices.

It is important to realize that the media industry, which deals with enormous sumsof money each year, relies on equipment to produce and distribute its series, moviesand shows. The employment market in this area requires information technologyprofessionals and engineers.

Few books have been published covering all the subjects needed to understandthe subsystems that form the digital television network. This book is aimed atsenior undergraduate students, graduate students, engineers and information technologyprofessionals in the areas of electrical engineering and computer science. It can be used asa textbook for a course on digital television. The reader is expected to have a backgroundin calculus and signal analysis.

Chapter 1 presents the fundamentals of digital television. It is self-contained, andconcisely describes the most important television standards, in terms of percentage ofthe world population affected.

An overview of audio and video coding standards is presented in Chapter 2, whichcovers the basics of the subjects. In Chapter 3 the coding standards for compression ofaudio and video are discussed, with emphasis on the MPEG series of standards.

Channel coding for digital television is the subject of Chapter 4, which presents themost important algorithms used to protect the television signal from noise and otherdisturbances during transmission.






xxii Preface

Digital and analog modulation techniques are presented in Chapter 5. The ATSCstandard, used in the USA and other countries, is the subject of Chapter 6. Chapter 7introduces the DVB standard, which was developed in Europe and now has been adoptedby more than a hundred countries.

Chapter 8 discusses the Japanese digital television standard, ISDB. The Brazilianstandard, ISDBT, is the subject of Chapter 9, and Chapter 10 presents the DTMB standard,developed in China.

The book includes three appendices. Appendix A relates, in a concise manner, theevolution of television since its inception. The basics of signal analysis, which is neededto understand the book, are presented in Appendix B. Random signals and noise are thesubjects of Appendix C.The book also has a glossary of the terms frequently encounteredin the sphere of digital television.






Acknowledgments

The author would like to acknowledge the help of Dr. Phil Meyler, Publishing Director,Engineering, Mathematical and Physical Sciences of Cambridge University Press, whoagreed to publish the book and helped with all phases of the work, and Miss SarahMatthews, Assistant Editor (Engineering), and Eleanor Collins, Production Editor, ofCambridge University Press who saw the book through all its production stages andgave precise and helpful suggestions, along with corrections for the manuscript.

The author also wishes to thank Mr. Marcus André Matos, who helped with thetranslation of selected parts of the book and revised the manuscript, and JeronimoSilva Rocha, Paulo Ribeiro Lins Júnior, Jean Felipe Fonseca de Oliveira, Carlos DaniloMiranda Regis, Pedro Leonardo Falcão Costa, Daniel Cardoso de Morais, Raíssa BezerraRocha, Gilney Christierny Barros dosAnjos, Roana d’Ávila Souza Monteiro andAntonioRicardo Zaninelli do Nascimento, for the preparation of graphs, figures, tables anddiagrams for the book.






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