Dimensions of Culture

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• Power Distance

• Gender Orientation

• Uncertainty Avoidance

• Collectivism-Individualism

• High-Low Context Language

• Time Orientation

Organizational, ethnic, and international cultures can be described along several dimensions:

Power DistanceThe way in which a culture deals with inequalities among people; the emotional distance between superiors and subordinates

High Power Distance• Fear to express disagreement with

superiors• Autocratic or paternalistic decisions• Inequalities expected and desired• Less powerful polarized between

dependent and counter- dependent• Unilateral obedience and respect• Hierarchical relationships• Wide salary ranges• Privilege and status expected and

popular• Might makes right• Skills-wealth-power-status go together• Power based on family, friends, force• Change occurs by revolution at top• Religion stresses power, stratification

& power struggles

Low Power Distance• Consultative relationship with superiors• More worker interdependence• Readily approach and contradict

superiors• Mutuality and shared initiatives• Decentralization and democratization• Narrow salary range & low income

differential• Limited privilege and status symbols• Legitimate power exercise• Separation of skills-wealth-power-status• Large middle class• Self conscious & minimize appearance of

power• Workers have higher education & skills• Change by revision of rules• Pluralism by majority vote• Religion stresses equality

Gender Orientation

Feminine (modesty)• Good working relationships,

cooperation, employment security• Roles merged or overlap for sexes• Value caring for others• Preservation of resources• People & relationships are important• Sympathy for weak & poor• Small and slow are beautiful• More women in elected positions• Failing is an accident• Work to live• Use intuition & strive for consensus• Resolve conflict by negotiation &

compromise• Religion stresses complementarity of

sexes

Masculine (assertive)• High earnings• Recognition for good job• Personal accomplishments• Assertive, decisive, ambitious, tough• Fight back & win conflicts• Strive to be best; high performance

ideal• Failure is a disaster• Support for strong, big, fast, beautiful• Live to work• Economic growth priority• Small government budget to poor

countries• Large defense spending• Religion stresses male prerogative

Behaviors more associated with gender stereotypes

Uncertainty Avoidance

Risk and uncertainty increase as situations become more complex, options and probabilities vague, & more oriented toward long term future

Uncertainty Avoidant (Risk Averse)• Avoid ambiguity• High need for structure & rules, law &

order• “what is different is dangerous”• Seek the right answer from authorities• Be busy and work hard• Time is money• Precision & punctuality are important• Resist innovation & deviancy• Motivate by security, esteem, &

belonging• Precise instructions and detailed job

descriptions• Avoid multiple bosses• Mistrust foreigners & minorities• Conservatism, parochialism,

ethnocentrism, fundamentalism

Uncertainty Acceptant (Risk Takers)• Value strategic planning & innovation• Curious about differences• Open-ended learning & discussion• Experts admit not knowing• Minimal & general rules, laws &

structures• Change rules if they cannot be followed• Motivate by achievement, esteem, &

belongingness• Citizen competence vs. authority• Institutions are positively perceived• Tolerance & acceptance of diversity,

minorities, regionalism, & internationalism

• Avoid imposing on other groups• Relativism & empiricism• Sanctions against emotions &

aggression

Individualism-CollectivismDegree to which the person is responsible to self or the larger group or society

Individualism• Individual interests prevail over group• Loose individual ties; everyone for him-

herself• More time for personal/family

development• Free to use individual approaches to job• Personal accomplishment from job• Regard for “I”, assertiveness, self

respect, privacy, confrontation, truth & conflict

• Social conversation is mandatory• Regulate behavior by guilt & conscience• Low context communication• Mutual employer-employee relationship• Honest & direct feedback• Hiring based on skills & rules• Management techniques & training

developed almost exclusively• Restrained state involvement• High GNP per capita

Collectivism• Group interests prevail over individual• Family, extended family, clan, labor union,

organization & community responsibilities• Regard for “we” as source of identity,

protection, loyalty, & dependency• Social presence rather than conversation• Deviation from norm considered weak or

bad character• Behavior regulated by shame or loss of

face• Hiring based on nepotism• Workers prefer anonymity & teamwork• In-group/out-group distinction for favors• High context communication• Relationship prevails over task• Opinions determined by group membership• Harmony & consensus• Laws & rights differ by group• Confined living & working spaces• Low GNP

High-Low Context

The amount and specificity of information verbally related to words & nuance; nonverbally related to voice & gestures

High Context• Shared culture & common

background• Meaning from how something is

said; covert & implicit• Reserved reactions• Communication faster, more

economical & satisfying than low context communication

• “We” is emphasized over “I”• High commitment• Bluntness viewed as rude;

patience & indirectness valued• Arab cultures, Brazil, China, Japan,

Korea, India, Mexico

Low Context• Diverse cultures, backgrounds, &

experiences• Information is detailed, specific, &

explicit to avoid miscommunication; overt & explicit

• Reactions on surface• Meaning determined by what is said

rather than how it is said• Low commitment• Straight talk, assertive, honesty

valued• USA, Australia, Canada, Switzerland,

New Zealand, Russia, South Africa

Time Orientation

Time orientation consists of:

• Monochronic vs. Polychronic

• Past vs. Present vs. Future

• Short term vs. Long term

Time Orientation: Monochronic vs. Polychronic

Monochronic (sequential)• Do one thing at a time• Concentrate on job• Schedule events• Time segmentation• Promptness• Sequential events• Responsible for present performance• Clear priorities• Short-term transient relationships• Time is money; don’t waste it• Conflict resolved by first-come-first-

served• Rational cause-effect thinking,

premises & conclusions• Developmental lifecycle, birth to

death

Polychronic (synchronous)• Multi-tasking• Easily distracted & interrupted

(extraverted)• Involvement with people• Permanent long-term relationships

periodically renewed• Completion of transactions• How past is used in present to make a

better future• Uncertain future• Conflict resolved by meeting several

needs by coordinated processes• Time is a friend with fresh opportunities• Variable appointments & plans• Products are self-renewing &

transgenerational

Time Orientation: Past, Present, Future

Cultures may differ in their emphasis on periods of time, & whether those periods are separate or integrated. Past implies replication of previous patterns & traditions as a guide for present & future. Present focuses on knowable present. Future implies expectancy of advancement, improvement, progress, planning, & changing forthcoming events.

P PR F

United States Sweden, Australia, Netherlands

China, Britain, Belgium, Italy Japan & Germany France

Time Orientation: Short vs. Long

Short-term (Static & past-present)• Respect for traditions, social &

status obligations• Social pressure to keep up• Small savings & little

investment• Reciprocal favors & gifts• Quick results expected• Concern for “face”• Concern for “truth”

Long-term (Confucian)(Dynamic & future oriented)• Adaptations of traditions to modern

context• Thrift (sparing resources)• Large savings• Investments• Relationships ordered by status• Perseverance toward slow results• Subordinate self for larger purpose• Sense of shame• Concern with virtue

International Rankings on Cultural Dimensions

Power Distance(US=40)

Malaysia (1)Guatemala (2)Panama (3)Philippines (4)Mexico (5)

Austria (53)Israel (52)Denmark (51)New Zealand (50)Ireland (49)

Low

IndividualCollective

(US=1)

USA (1)Australia (2)Gr. Britain (3)Canada (4)Netherlands (5)

High

Guatemala (53)Equador (52)Panama (51)Venezuela (50)Colombia (49)

Low

Gender Orientation

(US=15)Masc.

Japan (1)Austria (2)Venezuela (3)Italy (4)Switzerland (5)

High

S. Africa (53)Sweden (52)Norway (51)Netherlands (50)Denmark (49)

Low

UncertaintyAvoidance

(US=43)

Greece (1)Portugal (2)Guatemala (3)Uruguay (4)Salvador (5)

High

Singapore (53)Jamaica (52)Denmark (51)Hong Kong (50)Sweden (49)

High

Low

Long-TermOrientation

(US=17)

China (1)Hong Kong (2)Taiwan (3)Japan (4)Korea (5)

High

Low

Pakistan (23)W. Africa (22)Philippines (21)Canada (20)Gr. Britain (19)

Self & Organization Cultural RatingsFor each of the dimensions below, rate yourself (X) and your organization (O)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10Low High

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10Fem. Masc.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10Low High

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10Collectivism Individualism

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10Low High

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10Monochronic Polychronic

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10Past Future

Power Distance

Gender Orientation

Uncertainty Avoidance

Relatedness

Context

Time Orientation

Present