1.INTRODUCTION.Adisasteris anaturalorman-madehazardthat has come to fruition, resulting in an event of substantial extent causing significant physical damage or destruction, loss of life, or drastic change to theenvironment. In contemporary academia, disasters are seen as the consequence of inappropriatelymanaged risk. These risks are the product of hazards and vulnerability. Hazards that strike in areas with low vulnerability are not considered a disaster, as is the case in uninhabited regions.Developing countries suffer the greatest costs when a disaster hits more than 95 percent of all deaths caused by disasters occur in developing countries, and losses due to natural disasters are 20 times greater (as a percentage ofGDP) in developing countries than in industrialized countries.Researchers have been studying disasters for more than a century, and for more than forty yearsdisaster researchhas been institutionalize theUniversity of Delaware's Disaster Research Center. The studies reflect a common opinion when they argue that all disasters can be seen as being human-made, their reasoning being that human actions before the strike of the hazard can prevent it developing into a disaster. All disasters are hence the result of human failure to introduce appropriatedisaster managementmeasures. Hazards are routinely divided into natural or human-made, although complex disasters, where there is no single root cause, are more common indeveloping countries. A specific disaster may spawn a secondary disaster that increases the impact. A classic example is anearthquakethat causes atsunami, resulting in coastalflooding.

2. WHAT IS DISASTERS?A disaster is a serious disruption of the functioning of a society, causing widespread human, material or environmental losses which exceed the ability of the affected society (or community) to cope with using only its own resources.Disasters are often classified according to their speed of onset(slow or sudden), or according to their cause (natural, made-made or complex). Disasters may take many forms and may occur as the result of one or another range of events, both natural and man-induced. The duration of these events may range from a few seconds to many years. The severity of the effects of a disaster depends on the degree to which man has created an environment susceptible to damage that is, an environment in which life and property are at risk.

3. WHAT IS HAZARDS?Hazards are dangerous conditions or events with potential for injury, loss of life, and/or damage to property, agriculture or environment. They can be categorised in various ways. One method of categorization is their nature of origin:1. Natural hazards with meteorological, geographical, biological or extra-terrestrial (space) origins;2. Unnatural hazards with human-caused or technological origins. A hazard is a rare or extreme event in the natural or human=made environment that adversely affects human life, property or activity to the extent of causing a disaster.4. Disaster ManagementDisaster management can be defined as the organization and management of resources and responsibilities for dealing with all humanitarian aspects of emergencies, in particular preparedness, response and recovery in order to lessen the impact of disasters.Types of disastersThere is no country that is immune from disaster, though vulnerability to disaster varies. There are four main types of disaster. Natural disasters.These disasters include floods, hurricanes, earthquakes and volcano eruptions that can have immediate impacts on human health, as well as secondary impacts causing further death and suffering from floods causing landslides, earthquakes resulting in fires, tsunamis causing widespread flooding and typhoons sinking ferries Environmental emergencies.These emergencies include technological or industrial accidents, usually involving hazardous material, and occur where these materials are produced, used or transported. Large forest fires are generally included in this definition because they tend to be caused by humans. Complex emergencies.These emergencies involve a break-down of authority, looting and attacks on strategic installations. Complex emergencies include conflict situations and war. Pandemic emergencies.These emergencies involve a sudden onset of a contagious disease that affects health but also disrupts services and businesses, bringing economic and social costs.Any disaster can interrupt essential services, such as the provision of health care, electricity, water, sewage/garbage removal, transportation and communications. The interruption can seriously affect the health, social and economic networks of local communities and countries. Disasters have a major and long-lasting impact on people long after the immediate effect has been mitigated. Poorly planned relief activities can have a significant negative impact not only on the disaster victims but also on donors and relief agencies. So it is important that physical therapists join established programmes rather than attempting individual efforts.5. CAUSAL FACTORSNatural disasters are caused when natural hazards occur in vulnerable areas, resulting in substantial damage, disruption and possible casualties and leaving the affected communities unable to function normally. While most natural hazards may be unavoidable, the damage they cause can be minimised. Some common causal factors play a large role in determining the severity and magnitude of a disaster. The following causal factors are general in nature, and are not ranked. They may be more or less applicable to any given society and contributes to determining the vulnerability of a society to disasters. POVERTY- the single most important factor that increases the vulnerability of people to disaster is poverty. Impoverished people who lack education, usually lack the economic and political clout to cope with hazards. UNGOVERNED POPULATION GROWTH can lead to settlements in hazardous areas, susceptibility to disease, competition for scarce resources and civil strife. RAPID URBANISATION AND MIGRATION rapid population growth and migration are related to the major phenomenon of rapid urbanisation. An inevitable consequence of rapid urbanisation, can lead to man-made disasters. TRANSITION IN CULTURSL PRACTICES all societies are in a continual state of transition and change. These transitions are often extremely disruptive and uneven, leaving gaps in social coping mechanisms and technology. ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION many disasters are either caused or exacerbated by environmental degradation. Deforestation leads to rapid rain runoff, which leads to flooding. And the destruction of mangrove swamps leading to the creation of drought conditions is a natural phenomenon. Man-made contributions to drought conditions include: poor cropping patterns, overgrazing, poor conservation techniques, and to an extent unchecked urbanisation. LACK OF AWARENESS AND INFORMATION disasters can also occur when people who are vulnerable, have not been educated on how to get out of harms way or take protective measures at the onset of a disaster event. WAR AND CIVIL STRIFEare regarded as hazards or extreme events that produce disasters. The factors like scarce resources, religious or ethnic intolerance, and ideological differences are the by-products of the other casual disaster factors6. DISASTER MANAGEMENT PLANLocal, regional, national and (where necessary) international organisations are all involved in mounting a humanitarian response to disasters. Each will have a prepared disaster management plan. These plans cover prevention, preparedness, relief and recovery.Disaster preventionThese are activities designed to provide permanent protection from disasters. Not all disasters, particularly natural disasters, can be prevented, but the risk of loss of life and injury can be mitigated with good evacuation plans, environmental planning and design standards. In January 2005, 168 Governments adopted a 10-year global plan for naturaldisaster risk reduction calledthe Hyogo Framework. It offers guiding principles, priorities for action, and practical means for achieving disaster resilience for vulnerable communitiesDisaster preparednessThese activities are designed to minimise loss of life and damage for example by removing people and property from a threatened location and by facilitating timely and effective rescue, relief and rehabilitation. Preparedness is the main way of reducing the impact of disasters. Community-based preparedness and management should be a high priority in physical therapy practice managementDisaster reliefThis is a coordinated multi-agency response to reduce the impact of a disaster and its long-term results. Relief activities include rescue, relocation, providing food and water, preventing disease and disability, repairing vital services such as telecommunications and transport, providing temporary shelter and emergency health care.Disaster recoveryOnce emergency needs have been met and the initial crisis is over, the people affected and the communities that support them are still vulnerable. Recovery activities include rebuilding infrastructure, health care and rehabilitation. These should blend with development activities, such as building human resources for health and developing policies and practices to avoid similar situations in future.Disaster management is linked with sustainable development, particularly in relation to vulnerable people such as those with disabilities, elderly people, children and other marginalised groups.Myths and Realities of Disaster Assistancesummarises some of the common misunderstandings about disaster management.7. TYPOLOGY OF DISASTERS7.1 EARTH-QUAKECausal PhenomenaSlippage of crustal rock, along a fault or area of strain and rebound, would result in a new pattern of alignment.General Characteristics and EffectsTremors in the earth caused by waves on and below the earths surface would result in: Surface faulting Tremors, vibrations Aftershocks Liquefaction Tsunamis LandslidesPredictability Probability of occurrence can be determined but not the exact timing of a possible disaster. A weather forecast is based on the monitoring of seismic activity, historical incidence and observations.Factors Contributing to Vulnerability Location of settlements in seismic areas; Structures which are not resistant to ground motion; Dense collections of building with high occupancy; Lack of access to information about earthquake risks.Typical Adverse Effects Physical damage in the form of loss of structures or infrastructure. Fires, dam failures, landslides flooding may occur; Casualties particularly near the epicentre or in highly populated areas or where buildings are not resistant; Public health issues become an area of concern as fracture injuries a widespread problem. Secondary threats due to flooding, contaminated water supply, or breakdown in sanitary conditions can be another likely set of problems; Water supply problems are likely to arise due to damage of water systems, pollution of open wells and changes in the water table.Possible Risk Reduction Measures Hazard mapping; Public awareness programmes and training; Assessing and reducing structural vulnerability; Land use control or zoning, building codes; Insurance.Specific Preparedness Measures Earthquakes warnings and preparedness programmes.Typical Post-Disaster Needs Search and rescue measures; Emergency medical assessment survey; Relief assistance; Repair and reconstruction; Economic recovery.Impact Assessment Tools Earthquake scales, earthquake damage and usability forms.7.2 TSUNAMICausal PhenomenaFault movement on the sea floor, accompanied by an earthquake. A landslide occurring underwater or above the sea, and then plunging into the water.Volcanic activity either underwater or near the shore.General Characteristics and Effects Tsunami waves are barely perceptible in deep water and may measure 160 km between wave crests; May strike shore in crashing waves or may inundate the land; Flooding effect depends on shape of shoreline and tidal movements.Predictability The Tsunami Warning System in the Pacific monitors seismic activity and offers warning well in advance of the imminence of disaster.Factors Contributing to Vulnerability Location of settlements in low-lying coastal regions; Lack of tsunami-resistant buildings; Lack of timely warning systems and evacuation plans; Lack of awareness about the destructive force of tsunamis.Typical Adverse Effects Physical damage happens as the force of water can raze everything in its path through damage to structure and infrastructure largely results from flooding ; Free-floating debris can result in major injuries and water can be contaminated by salt water or sewage making drinking water available; Land may be rendered infertile due to salt water incursion.Possible Risk Reduction Measures Protection of buildings along coast, houses on stilts; Building barriers such as breakwater.Specific Preparedness Measures Hazard mapping, planning evacuation routes; Establish warning systems; Community education.Typical Post-Disaster Needs Warning and evacuation; search and rescue; medical assistance; food, water and shelter.Impact Assessment Tools Aerial surveys of coastal areas, damage surveys, evaluation of warning systems and evacuation plans.

7.3 VALCANOESCausal Phenomena Magma pushed upward through volcanic vent by pressures and effervescence of dissolved gases.

General Characteristics and Effects Types of volcanoes are cinder cones, shield volcanoes, composite volcanoes and lava domes; Magma flowing out onto surface is lava while ejected solid particles are tephra; Damage results from the type of material ejected such as ash, pyroclastic flows (blasts of gas containing ash and fragments), mud, debris, and lava flows.Predictability Study of the geological history of volcanoes, mainly located in a clearly defined volcanic belt, along with seismic activity and other observations, may indicate an impending volcano. No reliable indicator has been discovered and precursory signs do not always occur.Factors Contributing to Vulnerability Settlements on the flanks of volcanoes; Settlements in the historical paths of mud or lava flows; Structures with roof designs not resistant to ash accumulation; Presence of combustible materials; Lack of evacuation plan or warning systems.Typical Adverse Effects Casualties take place in the form of death from pyroclastic flows. Mud flows and possibly lava flows and the release of toxic gases. Injuries from falling rock; burns; respiratory difficulties from gas and ash;

Possible Risk Reduction Measures Land-use planning for settlements around volcanoes; Protective structural measures.Specific Preparedness Measures National volcanic emergency plans; Volcano monitoring and warning system; Training for government officials and community participation in search and rescue, fire fighting.Typical Post-Disaster Needs Warning and evacuation; medical assistance, search and rescue measures; provisions for food, water and shelter; relocation of victims; provision of financial assistance.

Impact Assessment Tools Aerial and ground surveys to assess damage; evaluation of evacuation plans and emergency responses.

7.4 LANDSLIDESCausal PhenomenaDownslope transport of soil and rock resulting from naturally occurring vibrations, changes in direct water content, removal of lateral support, loading with weight and weathering, or human manipulation of water courses and slope composition.General Characteristics and EffectsLandslides vary in types of movement (falls, slides, topples, lateral spread, flows), and may be a secondary consequence of heavy storms, earthquakes, and volcanic eruptions. Predictability Frequency of occurrence, extent and consequence may be estimated and areas of high risk determined by use of information on area geology, geomorphology, hydrology, climatology and vegetation.Factors Contributing to Vulnerability Settlements built on steep slopes, softer soils, cliff tops; Roads, communication lines in mountain areas; Buildings with weak foundations; Buried pipelines, brittle pipes; Lack of understanding of landside hazard.Typical Adverse Effects Physical damage of anything on top of or in the path of a landslide. Indirect effects may include loss of productivity of agricultural or forest lands flooding, reduced property values; Casualties have occurred due to slop failure. Catastrophic debris slides or mud flows have killed thousands of people.Possible Risk Reduction Measures Hazard mapping; Legislation and land use regulation; Insurance.Specific Preparedness Measures Community education; Monitoring, warning and evacuation systems.Typical Post-Disaster Needs Search and rescue (use of earth removal equipment); Medical assistance; Emergency shelter for the homeless.Impact Assessment ToolsDamage Assessment Forms.

7.5 TROPICAL CYCLONESCausal PhenomenaHeat and moisture forms a low pressure centre over oceans in tropical latitudes where temperatures are over 26oC. Wind currents spin and organise around deepening pressure toward the centre and moving along the track pushed by trade winds. When winds reach a gale force of 117 km per hr. The depression becomes a tropical cyclone. General Characteristics and EffectsWhen the cyclone strikes land, high wilds, exceptional rainfall and storm surges cause damage with secondary flooding and landslides.Predictability Tropical cyclones can be tracked from their development but accurate landfall forecasts are usually possible only a few hours before disaster strikes as unpredictable changes in course can occur.Factors Contributing to Vulnerability Settlements located in low coastal areas (direct impact); Settlements in adjacent areas (heavy rains floods); Poor warning system; Lightweight structures, bad construction, poor masonry; Infrastructural elements, fishing boats and maritime industries.7.6 FLOODSCausal PhenomenaNaturally occurring flash, river and coastal flooding from intense rainfall or inundation associated with seasonal weather patterns. Human manipulation of watersheds, drainage basins and floodplains.General Characteristics and Effects Flash floods leading to accelerated runoff, dam failures, breakdown of ice jams; River floods resulting in a slow and usually seasonal building in river systems; Coastal floods which are associated with tropical cyclones, tsunami waves and storm surges; Other contributing factors include the depth of water, duration velocity, rate of rise, frequency of occurrence and seasonality.

Predictability A flood forecast depends on seasonal patterns, drainage basin capacity, flood plain mapping and air and land surveys. A prior word of warning about seasonal floods can be provided well in advance of an actual disaster but such forewarning is not possible in the case of storm surges, flash floods or tsunamis.Factors Contributing to Vulnerability Location of floodplain settlements; Lack of awareness of flood hazards; Reduction of absorptive capacity of land; Non-resistant buildings and foundations; High risk infrastructural elements; Unprotected food stocks and standing crops, livestock; Fishing boats and maritime industries.Typical Adverse Effects Physical damage structure damaged by washing away, becoming inundated, collapsing, impact of floating debris. Landslides from saturated soils. Damage greater in valleys than open areas. Casualties and public health deaths from drowning but few serious injuries. Possible outbreaks of malaria, diarrhea and viral infections. Water supplies contamination of wells and groundwater possible. Clean water may be unavailable. Crops and food supplies harvests and food stocks may be lost to inundation. Animals, farm tools and seeds might be lost.Possible Risk Reduction MeasuresFlood control measures would include provision for dikes channels, dams, flood-proofing, erosion control, floodplain mapping, land use control.Specific Preparedness Measures Flood detection and warning systems; Community participation and education; Development of master plan for floodplain management.Typical Post-Disaster NeedsSearch and rescue; medical assistance; disaster assessment; short-term food and water supplies; water purification; epidemiological surveillance; temporary shelter.Impact Assessment ToolsDamage assessment forms; aerial surveys.

7.7 DROUGHTSCausal Phenomena Rainfall deficit. El Nino (incursion of warm surface waters into the normally colder waters of the South American Pacific); human-induced changes in ground surface and soil; higher sea surface temperatures; higher levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide and soil; higher sea surface temperatures; higher levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide and greenhouse gases.General Characteristics and Effects The reduction of water or moisture availability is temporary and significant. Meteorological drought is the reduction in rainfall and hydrological and drought is the reduction in water resources; Agricultural drought is the impact of drought on human activity and it is influenced by various factors like the presence of irrigation systems; moisture retention capacity of the soil; the timing of the rainfall; and the adaptive behaviour of the farmers.Predictability A dry spell is considered normal in all weather systems. Rainfall and hydrological data must be carefully analysed along with other contributing factors to make an accurate disaster forecast.

Factors Contributing to Vulnerability Location in an arid area where dry conditions are increased by drought; Farming on marginal lands, subsistence farming; Lack of agricultural inputs that can help improve yields; Lack of seed reserves; Areas dependent on other weather systems for water resources; Areas of low soil moisture retention; Lack of insight into the problem and an accompanying lack of resource allocation in the face of a drought hazard.Typical Adverse EffectsReduced income for farmers; reduction of spendingfrom agricultural sector; increase in price of staple foods, inflation, deterioration of nutritional status, famine, illness, death, reduction of drinking water sources, migration, breakup of communities , loss of livestock.Possible Risk Reduction MeasuresA system which would forewarn people of the imminence of drought or famine. Specific Preparedness MeasuresIt includes development of inter-institutional response plans.Typical Post-Disaster NeedsMeasures to maintain food security: price stabilisation, food subsidies, employment creation programmes, general food distribution, supplementary feeding programmes, special programmes for livestock and pastoralists, complementary water and health programmes rehabilitation measures.Impact assessment ToolsNutritional surveys, socio-economic surveys, monitoring of rainfall and hydrological data, satellite imagery.

8. MAN-MADE DISASTERSThese are disasters resulting from man-made hazards (threats having an element of human intent, negligence, or error; or involving a failure of a man-made system), as opposed to natural disasters resulting from natural hazards. Man-made hazards or disasters are sometimes referred to as anthropogenic.

8.1 Sociological hazardsCrimeCrime is to breach to rules or laws for which some governing authority (via mechanisms such as legal systems) can ultimately prescribe a conviction. Individual human societies may each define crime and crimes differently. While every crime violates the law, not every violation of the law counts as a crime; for example: breaches of contract and of other private law may rank as offenses or as infractions. Modern societies generally regard crimes as offenses against the public or the state, distinguished from torts (offenses against private parties that can give rise to a civil cause of action).In context, not all crimes provide man-made hazards.

ArsonArson is the criminal intent of setting a fire with intent to cause damage. The definition of arson was originally limited to setting fire to buildings, but was later expanded to include other objects, such as bridges, vehicles, and private property. Arson is the greatest cause of fires in data repositories. Sometimes, human-induced fires can be accidental: failing machinery such as a kitchen stove is a major cause of accidental fires.Civil disorderCivil disorder is a broad term that is typically used by law enforcement to describe forms of disturbance. Although civil disorder does not necessarily escalate to a disaster in all cases, the event may escalate into general chaos. Rioting has many causes, from antipathy over low minimum wages to racial segregation. TerrorismTerrorism is a controversial term with varied definitions. One definition means a violent action targeting civilians exclusively. Another definition is the use or threatened use of violence for the purpose of creating fear in order to achieve a political, religious, or ideological goal. Under the second definition, the targets of terrorist acts can be anyone, including civilians, government officials, military personnel, or people serving the interests of governments.Definitions of terrorism may also vary geographically.September 11 attacks, which are in multiple categories of manmade disaster: terrorist attack, air disaster, arson, and structural collapse.WarWar is conflict between relatively large groups of people, which involves physical force inflicted by the use of weapons. Warfare has destroyed entire cultures, countries, economies and inflicted great suffering on humanity. Other terms for war can include armed conflict, hostilities, and police action. Acts of war are normally excluded from insurance contracts and disaster planning.8.2 Technological hazardsIndustrial hazardsIndustrial disasters occur in a commercial context, such as mining accidents. They often have an environmental impact. The Bhopal disaster is the worlds worst industrial disaster to date, and the Chernobyl disaster is regarded the worst nuclear accident in history. Hazards may have longer-term and more dispersed effects, such as dioxin and DDT poisoning.

Structural collapseStructural collapses are often caused by engineering failures. Bridge failures may be caused in several ways, such as under-design (as in the Tay Bridge disaster), by corrosion attack (such as in the Silver Bridge collapse), or by aerodynamic flutter of the deck (as in Galloping Gertie, the original Tacoma Narrows Bridge). Failure of dams was not infrequent during the Victorian era, such as the Dale Dyke dam failure in Sheffield, England in the 1860s, causing the Great Sheffield Flood.Power outageA power outage is an interruption of normal sources of electrical power. Short-term power outages (up to a few hours) are common and have minor adverse effect, since most businesses and health facilities are prepared to deal with them. Extended power outages, however, can disrupt personal and business activities as well as medical and rescue services, leading to business losses and medical emergencies. Only very rarely do power outages escalate to disaster proportions, however, they often accompany other types of disasters, such as hurricanes and floods, which hampers relief efforts.Electromagnetic pulses and voltage spikes from whatever cause can also damage electricity infrastructure and electrical devices.FireBush fires, forest fires, and mine fires are generally started by lightning, but also by human negligence or arson. They can burn thousands of square kilometers. If a fire intensifies enough to produce its own winds and weather, it will form into a firestorm.Casualties resulting from fires, regardless of their source or initial cause, can be aggravated by inadequate emergency preparedness. Such hazards as a lack of accessible emergency exits, poorly marked escape routes, or improperly maintained fire extinguishers or sprinkler systems may result in many more deaths and injuries than might occur with such protections.8.3. Hazardous materialsRadiation contaminationWhen nuclear weapons are detonated or nuclear containment systems are otherwise compromised, airborne radioactive particles (nuclear fallout) can scatter and irradiate large areas. Not only is it deadly, but it also has a long-term effect on the next generation for those who are contaminated. Ionizing radiation is hazardous to living things, and in such a case much of the affected area could be unsafe for human habitation.A number of military accidents involving nuclear weapons have also resulted in radioactive contamination.CBRNsCBRN is catch-all initialism for chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear. The term is used to describe a non-conventional terror threat that, if used by a nation, would be considered use of a weapon of mass destruction. This term is used primarily in the United Kingdom. Planning for the possibility of a CBRN event may be appropriate for certain high-risk or high-value facilities and governments. Examples include Saddam Husseins Halabja poison gas attack, the Sarin gas attack on the Tokyo subway and the preceding test runs in Matsumoto, Japan 100 kilometres outside of Tokyo, and Lord Amherst giving smallpox laden blankets to Native Americans.

8.4 TransportationAviationAn aviation incident is an occurrence other than an accident, associated with the operation of an aircraft, which affects or could affect the safety of operations, passengers, or pilots.RailA railroad disaster is an occurrence associated with the operation of a passenger train which results in substantial loss of life. Usually accidents with freight (goods) trains are not considered disasters, unless they cause substantial loss of life or property.RoadRoad are the leading cause of death, and road-based pollution creates a substantial health hazard, especially in major conurbations. The greenhouse effect of road transport is a significant fraction of the anthropogenic warming effect, and the rapid consumption of fossil fuel accelerates the Hubbard peak.SpaceThe direct participants (astronauts or cosmonauts and ground support personnel), but also carry the potential of disaster to the public at large. Accidents related to space travel have killed 22 astronauts and cosmonauts, and a larger number of people on the ground.Accidents can occur on the ground during launch, preparation, or in flight, due to equipment malfunction or the naturally hostile environment of space itself. An additional risk is posed by (unmanned) orbiting satellites whose orbits eventually decay due to friction with the extremely thin atmosphere. If they are large enough, massive pieces travelling at great speed can fall to the Earth before burning up, with the potential to do damage.Water A Partial list of shipwrecks Ships can sink, capsize or crash in disasters. One well known sinking was that of the titanic which hit a iceberg and sank.

9. DISASTER REHABILITATIONThe word rehabilitate means to return to a good or healthy condition, state or way of living. So, disaster rehabilitation is a long haul effort and requires strength, energy and stamina. We need to understand the difference between temporary and permanent shelter, to identify the kind of people who would be interested in such long-run work, and the right kind of people and materials need to be resourced for a particular disaster area.9.1 ISSUES IN REHABILITATIONDisaster rehabilitation should be seen in a more holistic manner and the problem should be dealt in its entirety. The issues- that need the attention of policy makers, administrators, planners and professionals associated in this activity- must be identified for further consolidation. The major issues are:1. Disaster rehabilitation should be part of the total development perspective of an area. Toachieve this, the development needs, for different disaster-prone areas, should be assessed and specific planning approaches should be evolved keeping in mind things like resource endowments, population pressure and the types of disaster in the area.2. Area-specific plans should be prepared and the disaster reduction activities and socio-economic development of the area should be integrated appropriately.3. There should be a specific settlement and housing policy for the disaster areas so that the concentration of people in high the risk areas can be checked in future. Disaster-proof housing designs and technologies should be strictly enforced.4. There should be a well organized and scientific data-based system, networking and information sharing. Detailed guidelines and appropriate techniques should be evolved. The organizational and administrative network should be improved further.5. Rural development programmes should be specifically designed for disaster areas. Programmes like those of drinking water supply; construction of roads and school buildings; and housing should be planned implemented keeping in view their vulnerability to disaster.9.2 Measures required for a housing rehabilitation programme:1. Disaster Assessment: an assessment of needs and resources available in the area.

2. Rehabilitation planning: the planning process sets out a framework for the initial stages of implementation. As the project proceeds, plans may be revised or changed.

3. The Acquisition of Materials: the materials, necessary to help re-build or repair houses, are identified and acquired during this phase.

4. Public Awareness:as the programme commences, an extensive methodology for informing the public about how they can participate in the programme is carried out.

5. Construction Training:the key element of the programme is that of providing training in methods of improved disaster-resistant construction.

6. Participation:NGOs should help victims to participate more effectively in rehabilitation programmes. Special attention is given to collaborative work as families help each other as a means of reducing cost and speeding-up construction.

10. CASE STUDY 10.1 Case Study 1:: TURKEYS EARTHQUAKEBACKGROUNDA magnitude-7.2 earthquake struck 12 miles northeast of the city of Van in easternTurkey on Sunday, October 23, 2011, at 1:41 p.m. local time at the epicentre. The earthquake occurred at a depth of 12.4 miles and causingStrong shaking throughout a broad area, and significant damage to Van andNeighbouring towns. The epicentre of the quake was in the village of Tabanli at Ercis district in the easternprovince of Van. The province borders Iran on the east. The earthquake was also felt inthe Van province city center as well as the neighboring 11 provinces including Ar,Batman, Igdir, Mu, Bingl, Tunceli, Diyarbakr, Siirt, Sirnak, Mardin, and Erzurum. The HDI (Human Development Index) in the affected region (Van, Hakkari, Bitlis, Mus)is among the lowest in Turkey. The HDI is a combination of literacy rate, life expectancyand GDP (per capita). In the Van area (0.630), the HDI is equivalent to Bhutan, SolomonIslands, India or Congo, as compared to the average HDI of Turkey which is 0.810. Thedevelopment of the region poses many problems for health issues. Van Province has a population of 1.035 million The average household size is between7 and 8 persons. It has 539,619 residents living in cities, and a village population of495,799. The current version of the USGS Prompt Assessment of Global Earthquakes forResponse (PAGER) estimate is that economic losses are most likely to be in the $110billion range, and fatalities are likely to be in the 1001,000 range. Turkey is a tectonically active country that experiences frequent destructiveEarthquakes. Quakes in this region are controlled by the Arabian and Eurasian tectonicplates. The Arabian plate converges with Eurasia in a northerly direction at a rate of approximately 24 millimetres per year in this area.SITUATIONAs of 30 OCT 2011: The death toll is at 601, the number of injured 4,152,the number pulled from rubble alive 188. (AFAD)AFTERSHOCKSThere have been 1,769aftershocks since the earthquake occurred: 637aftershocks with magnitudes 2-3 850aftershocks with magnitudes 3-4 108aftershocks with magnitudes 4-5 7aftershocks with magnitudes 5-6

DAMAGE ASSESSMENT: A technical committee of 20 personnel from the government and 200technical personnel from different provinces have started preliminarydamage assessment. All disaster and emergency centers of related ministries operating 24/7. On 24 OCT 2011 the Ministry of Education indicated many schools in thearea collapsed or were seriously damaged. With the possible exception ofboarding schools, they were all empty and resulted in no casualtiesUTILITIES : Electricity and telecommunications services have been disruptedin the city of Van and the nearby town of Erci (Van). Damage to buildingshas also occurred in parts of the neighboringBitlis and Hakkari Provinces.DEPLOYED ASSETS Search and rescue, medical and first aid personnel from 48 differentprovinces and 39 different institutions have been deployed to the region. In total, 4.446 search-rescue personnel, 1,796 medical personnel, 18search dogs, 653 construction vehicles, 173 ambulances (7 of them airambulances), 11 mobile hospitals (6 of them in service), 143 generators,77 reflectors, 141 WC-shower bath containers, 44,164 tents (9,436 ofthem from abroad), 109 tents for general usage, 60 prefabricated houses,15 house containers, 2,310 Mevlana type prefabricated houses, 165,531blankets, 1,179 quilts, 37 portable kitchens, 3,051 kitchen sets, 6,915catalytic stoves, 5,792 sleeping bags, 1,000 folding beds and 1 mobileoven have been delivered to the region.

FOOD Food items have been sent by different sources, including from provinces neighbouring Van. Red Crescent is continuing to distribute hot meals three times a day to theaffected population.WATER: People in the earthquake area have been warned by the Ministry ofHealth to drink only bottled water. Many cases of diarrhea have beenreported locally.LIVESTOCK Farmers and livestock breeders will need support to resume theiractivities. The earthquake had a very high toll on livestock, cattle and sheep which is the main economy in the rural areas.THE TRC CRISIS MANAGEMENT DESKS The TRCS Crisis Management Desks in the Disaster ManagementCenter (HQ) (Ankara), the Northern Anatolia (Erzurum), the SoutheasternAnatolia (Elaz), the Eastern Anatolia (Mu), and theMediterranean (Adana) Regional Disaster Management Centers andSivas and Diyarbakir Local Disaster Management Centers arecurrently staffed. There are also 5 staff from Elaz Regional DisasterCenter.DAMAGE ASSESSMENTS 2 staff from Mu Disaster Management Center and 3 staff fromErzurum Regional Disaster Management Center have been deployedto the Van Province to conduct needs assessments. Damage assessment is being conducted through the Turkish RedCrescent Branch Offices, District Governorates, GendarmerieCommands, Security Departments in the town and cities, and isbeing coordinated from the Disaster Management Center (HQ).COMMUNITY SUPPORT The TRCS alerted all its units in Turkey in order to meet the urgentshelter and food needs of the victims, and dispatched the reliefitems from Ankara, Elaz, Erzurum, Adana, Mu and ManisaRegional Disaster Management Centers and also deployed 167 disaster specialists(including 30 volunteers), 37 vehicles. TRCS also deployedvolunteers, composed of mukhtars, clergies, police forces andteachers that were trained within the framework of the project onOrganizing Community Leaders for this kind of disaster situations. Tent camps have been established and delivery of tents to affectedfamilies has also started.HEALTH AND MEDICAL The hospital in Ercis was badly damaged in the earthquake according toreports; medical tents have been deployed toreplace the hospital. There were 179 hospital beds per 100,000 populationin Van Province as of 2007 (1851 total beds in the province), so mosthospital beds were occupied at the time of the quake. Over 1300 peoplewere injured. Patients have already been moved to Ankara and Erzurum. As part of the overall coordination provided by the Prime Ministry Disasterand Emergency Management Presidency, the Turkish Ministry of Health -Disaster and Emergency Coordination Centre (SAKOM) is coordinating thehealth response and has deployed 6 helicopter ambulances, 4 planeambulances and 201 land ambulances to the Van province. The Ministry of Health has prepared 1,700 hospital beds in Ar, Erzurum,Bitlis, Diyarbakr, Mu, Idr and Ankara for further medical evacuations. Air ambulances are transporting medical rescue teams to the earthquakeaffectedarea and are evacuating patients. Temporary tent hospitals have been established in Van and in Erci toprovide additional health services in the affected areas. Ministry of Health is continuing rapid public health assessmentof affected populations living in camps and assessment ofrelated services.SHELTERSheltering Activities: Tents, blankets, sleeping bags and heaters have beendispatched and distributed in the disaster-affected area to cover the need foremergency shelter. Turkish Red Crescent disaster response teams established three tent camps inthe Eris District of Van Two Mevlana House Camps (278 Mevlana pre-fabricated houses) are beingestablished both in Van Central Province and Ercis District. 1,968 PrefabricatedMevlana Houses have already been distributed to 48 villages which are locatedin higher altitude and colder areas. The Government has ordered TOKI (governmental agency onconstruction) to construct houses for the affected population asquickly as possible. For temporary shelter purposes containers are being manufacturedand will be dispatched to the earthquake as soon as possible. The Government has allocated 600.000 TL ($322.580,00) tothe Batman Governorship for the repair and maintenance of260 containers in its possession and delivered to the affectedareas in Van. Another 100 containers manufactured under themanagement of Kocaeli Governorship will be delivered to theaffected area on 3 November. The Ministry for EU Affairs, the EU and the Turkish Red Crescent aresigning a grant agreement for the supply of some 1,200 temporaryhousing units accommodating 6,000.

10.2 -CASE STUDY 2:: JAPAN TSUNAMIThe huge catastrophe that struck Japan in 2011 with an earthquake measuring 8.9 accompanied by 10-metre tsunami waves created devastation and destruction of unprecedented levels. The natural adversity gave no time for any preparation to the authorities even to shell out a warning to its citizens. And a sudden impact swept away the entire north-eastern coastline of Japan. Huge tidal waves swept away cars, buses, ships, boats and even houses. Over 4 million buildings were damaged, electricity supply cut and drinking water pipes were destroyed. Such huge was the impact of this natural disaster that Japans nuclear power plants were shut down so as to prevent any radiation leakage. The earthquake destroyed the Japanese economy. A calamity of such tremendous proportions requires disaster management of the highest level. And in such a case, the authorities are as helpless as the citizens themselves.Disaster management is being prepared for unforeseen circumstances. Disaster management includes managing resources and providing basic amenities to citizens in case of rain-floods, natural calamities, accidental tragedies etc. But to fight the disaster that occurred in Japan with the destructive earthquake, global efforts would be required to restore normalcy.The most important priority in managing the after effects of such a huge tragedy would be to find people who are alive and stuck in destroyed debris. The authorities alongwith international support, armed forces and with the help of civilians should consider rescue operations as the top most priority. Evacuation of people living in precarious areas should also be undertaken so as to prevent further loss of lives. All these things are easier said than done, but should be on the priority list of the disaster management authorities.Another priority and challenge would be to provide food, drinking water and shelter to millions who have become homeless by this devastation. With the help of international aid, help from armed forces and surrounding areas, it would be the responsibility of not only the Government but of every individual to help in tackling this catastrophe. Also, providing medication to the injured and avoiding the spread of an epidemic would require tremendous efforts from the disaster management teams. Communication systems, electricity and power supply are another set of major issues which need to be tackled simultaneously.Still Japan washighlywell equipped to fight such earthquakes. It is being said that if such quakewouldhave struck any other south Asian country which wasn't as equipped as Japan, the aftermath of earthquake would have been catastrophic.Restoring infrastructure, making roads, getting businesses are minor issues as compared to human life. Due to this calamity financial losses may reach figures of a billion dollars, but restoring normal life would be the biggest challenge facing the government and disaster management teams.No matter how much progress a nation makes, no matter how many differences are their amongst neighboring countries, no matter how different people are, there are times when the entire human race needs to become one. And to fight the enormous tragedy of this magnitude, it would require not only international aid and disaster management, but also prayer and hope for Japan.A M 9.0 earthquake struck off the coast of Honshu, Japan's most populous island near Sendai, the capital city of Miyagi Prefecture, on March 11, 2011 at 05:46:23 UTC (roughly 231 miles Northeast of Tokyo), registering as the most powerful earthquake to hit Japan on record. The earthquake occurred as a result of thrust plate faulting on or near the seduction zone interface plate boundaries between the Pacific and North American plates. The earthquake had been preceded by a series of large foreshocks over the previous two days, beginning on March 9th with an M 7.2 event approximately 25 miles from the March 11 earthquake, and continuing with three earthquakes greater than M 6 on the same day.The earthquake churned up a devastating tsunami that swept over cities and farmland along the northern part of Japan and threatened coastal areas throughout the Pacific. Walls of water whisked away houses and cars as terrified residents fled the coast. A ship carrying more than 100 people was reportedly swept away by the tsunami.The earthquake has killed at least 15,690 people, although the death toll is expected to rise. A tsunami warning was extended across the Pacific to North and South America. The Red Cross warned that the tsunami waves could be higher than some Pacific islands. A passenger train with an unknown number of people aboard was missing in one coastal areaThe massive earthquake and tsunami that struck Japan in March 2011, and the following release of radiation from the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power station, represent one of the greatest disasters to strike the nation of Japan in recent memory. An initial assessment of the Japanese response in four critical areas suggests important lessons for the United States as it evaluates its own capacity to deal with catastrophes. These four critical areas are: Preparedness and responseCommunicating the riskInternational assistanceCritical infrastructure The Heritage Foundations homeland security research team, in conjunction with a working group of outside experts, identified key observations, findings, and recommendations that have implications for short-term and long-term policies, and for preparing for catastrophic as well as routine disasters in the United States. The key findings and recommendations of this report are: Effective catastrophic planning, preparedness, and mitigation measures pay off. The federal government should focus on catastrophic disaster preparedness and response as well as decentralized plan execution.A culture of preparedness is a vital component of disaster response. The U.S. needs to foster a national culture of preparedness by focusing on building more self-reliant communities and individuals. Community awareness and effective risk communication may have played a more decisive role in saving lives than extensive technological protective measures, such as seawalls designed to resist flooding from tsunamis. The Department of Homeland Security should continue to focus on risk communication as part of its preparedness and response planning and exercise efforts. Communicating the risks of low-dose radiation exposure in the aftermath of a disaster is difficult; the U.S. should strengthen its communication of low-dose radiation exposure.Accepting foreign aid in the wake of a major disaster has proven to be a complex and difficult task for developed nations like the U.S. and Japan. While the U.S. has improved this process since Hurricane Katrina, it needs to further increase its capacity to accept and apply foreign aid efficiently in the event of a catastrophe. The resiliency and recovery of critical infrastructure significantly impacts the response to catastrophic disasters. It is therefore essential that the U.S. maintain its focus on the most vital critical infrastructure: the U.S.Canadian electric grid. The United States has built a robust and multifaceted regulatory infrastructure after its own nuclear accident at Three Mile Island. It will be critical that both industry and federal regulators work together to determine lessons to be learned from Fukushima and how they can best be implemented.Observation: The nation of Japan organized a massive, speedy response. Finding: Robust catastrophic planning, preparedness, and mitigation make a society more resilient to disaster. Recommendation: The federal government should focus on catastrophic disaster preparedness and response and decentralized execution. Catastrophic disasters are a game-changer in terms of preparedness and response efforts. Routine disaster preparation is insufficient to accommodate the challenges of a catastrophic or black swan disaster. The federal government should focus on catastrophic disaster preparedness and response and decentralized execution:Emphasize catastrophic disaster planning. The federal government, particularly in coordination with states and major metropolitan areas, should emphasize catastrophic disaster planning, which has languished in recent years Furthermore, it should ensure that ad hoc efforts to plan for catastrophic disaster become more integrated.Increase military preparedness. The U.S. should also place added emphasis on ensuring that adequate military forces are available to support civil authorities. The Department of Defence has cut the number of specially trained and equipped forces for dealing with radiological, biological, and chemical threats. As the deployment of Japans SDF demonstrated, military forces are a critical element of catastrophic disaster response. End over-federalization. Congress and the White House need to end the practice of placing too much emphasis on the federal governments role in dealing with routine disasters. Decentralized execution should be encouraged. The increasing use of presidential disaster declarations distracts federal agencies from preparing for catastrophic challenges and encourages states to supplant their own response capacity with federal aid. Observation: The Japanese people demonstrated a culture of preparedness. The Japanese government had, prior to the disaster, worked to ensure that [a]ll of Japans national territory is covered by early warning systems for storms, torrential rains, heavy snow, sediment disasters, tsunamis, tidal waves, high surf, inundation and floods.Generally, the Japanese population followed warnings issued before and during the alerts. For instance, 670,000 Japanese citizens participated in a national earthquake drill in September 2010.Furthermore, in the aftermath of the disaster, the Japanese people demonstrated remarkable resilience and discipline with no reports of rioting or large-scale disruptions. While municipal authorities have been inundated with volunteers, for the most part the government has avoided the problem of convergence, with citizens heeding government warnings not to rush to disaster scenes. The character and resolve demonstrated by the population generally served the nation well. The disciplined response did, however, also result in some shortfalls. In some coastal communities, residents were so confident in their response measures for tsunamis they had become complacent and were overwhelmed by the massive scale of destruction. Municipalities lacking the capacity to absorb volunteers found their existing ranks exhausted, meaning that while there were plenty of potential helpers, there was no one to lead or direct them.Thus, a large number of volunteers sat idle because they had received no call to action. Finally, because Japanese citizens were so well-prepared for known threats (earthquakes and tsunamis), they were incredibly unprepared for unforeseen disasters, such as the nuclear power plants release of low-dose radiation.Finding: A culture of preparedness is a vital component of disaster response. Recommendation: Empower a national culture of preparedness by focusing on building more self-reliant communities and individuals. Training the trainer. The Department of Homeland Security can help state and local communities develop a culture of preparedness by helping them to establish training programs for state and local leaders.Prepare the leadership of response organizations to respond together to catastrophic events. Expose political leaders, public-sector senior leadership, and senior leadership of private-sector entities with major roles in maintaining and restoring services to situations requiring them to collaborate and coordinate responses to simulated catastrophes. Employ community-based planning. Planning that includes input from the community produces not only higher quality plans, but also much higher levels of community approval and confidence in the plans.Organize community needs assessments and situational awareness networks. Community residents can often be the most important source for collecting and disseminating important information.Getting down to business. U.S. private-sector engagement has been dismal at best. While there has been some work done to effectively communicate and plan beforehand with large companies, small and medium-sized businesses are wholly unprepared for disasters. The right solution will be for the Department of Homeland Security to form relationships with these companies and encourage them to make preparations before the next disaster strikes. The government should support the Voluntary Private Sector Preparedness Accreditation and Certification Program (PS-Prep). Establish community-based mental health responses. One of the most significant and underappreciated aspects of disaster response is responding to mental health issues caused by stress and trauma. The 1996 University of Delaware Disaster Research Center report Disasters and Mental Health: Therapeutic Principles Drawn from Disaster Studies found that when community ties are strong, supportive, and responsive to the individuals physical and emotional needs, the capacity to withstand and overcome stress is heightened.2. Communicating the RiskOfficial communications that effectively identify risks to the public mitigate disasters by promoting measures and behaviors that avoid, minimize, prepare for, or respond to threats. For such risk communication to be effective it must understandable, credible, and actionable.Observation: Japan relied heavily on formal early warning systems, evacuation plans, and alerts to limit loss of life. Finding: As one assessment of the disaster concluded, soft measures, such as community awareness and effective risk communications, may have played a more decisive role in saving lives than extensive protective measures, such as seawalls designed to withstand flooding from tsunamis. Recommendation: The Department of Homeland Security should continue to emphasize effective risk communication. Continue to develop the National Terrorism Advisory System and expand the procedures and methods to create risk-communication frameworks for other homeland security-related activities, particularly for use in responding to unanticipated dangers.Develop methods and capabilities to ensure the legitimacy of government communication through social networking.Integrate risk communication in state and local train the trainer programs aimed at building community preparedness.Observation: Great confusion persists over the risks of low-dose radiation. Finding: Communicating the risks of low-dose radiation exposure and other technical matters in the aftermath of a disaster is very difficult. Recommendation: The U.S. government should strengthen its capacity to communicate the risk of low-dose radiation exposure. Press the IAEA to reform the International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale to more effectively educate the public on the actual radiation risks associated with a particular number designation.Develop more effective publicprivate partnerships in critical risk communication, such as on low-dose radiation exposure, through the Department of Homeland Securitys critical infrastructure partnership advisory council.3. International Assistance Other nations, international organizations, non-governmental agencies, and foreign philanthropists and volunteers routinely offer aid and assistance in the wake of disasters. However, it is less common for the most developed and wealthy nations to require or request foreign aid.Observation: The government of Japan has a mixed record in applying foreign aid. Finding: Accepting foreign aid in the wake of major disaster is a complex and difficult task. Recommendation: The U.S. should improve its capacity to accept foreign aid in the event of catastrophes. Implement the Government Accountability Offices (GAO) post-Katrina recommendations for improving assessment of international aid. Some progress has been made in implementing the recommendations detailed in the GAO report. Some of the recommendations remain highly relevant todayand have not been implemented. Congress should revisit Katrina recommendations pertaining to international cooperation and assistance, and should work with the Department of Homeland Security to implement them.Consider international disaster exercises to increase the ability of countries friendly with the United States to readily accept aid from one another when disaster strikes.Establish an industry-led, multinational rapid-response capability. Such a capability should be able to respond to major nuclear accidents worldwide. Nations with commercial nuclear plants could seamlessly integrate this capability into their response plans. This integration would minimize the hesitation that emerged in Japan to accept foreign technical assistance and give nuclear operators a better sense of available resources. Further, it could provide an effective mechanism to share best practices, integrate responses, and to ensure that all nations have access to the latest nuclear-response technology. This capability should be funded and controlled by the private sector using existing institutions like the Institute for Nuclear Power Operations, which has made similar recommendations, and the World Association of Nuclear Operators.4. Critical InfrastructureA nations physical assets serve as the foundation for effective governance, economic vitality, and a resilient civil society. Agriculture, food, water, public health, emergency services, government, the industrial base, information and telecommunications, energy, transportation, banking and finance, and other key assets, such as nuclear power plants, dams, government buildings, and commercial facilities, are vital to everyday life. Ensuring their resilience and recovery in the face of catastrophic disaster is critical.Observation: Parts of Japan experienced loss of critical infrastructure on a catastrophic scale. Finding: The resilience and recovery of critical infrastructure significantly affects responses to catastrophic disasters.

CASE STUDY:10.3 CASE STUDY 3:: MUMBAI FLOODS 2005The Maharashtra floods of 2005 refers to the flooding of many parts of the Indian state of Maharashtra including large areas of the metropolis ofMumbai(formerly Bombay), a city located on the coast of the Arabian Sea, on the western coast ofIndia, in which at least 1,000 people died. It happened just one month after similar flooding in Gujarat. The floods were caused by the eighth heaviest ever recorded 24-hour rainfall figure of944mm (37.2inches) which lashed the metropolis on26 July2005, and intermittently continued for the next day. 644 mm (25.4 inches) was received within the 12-hr period between 8am and 8pm. The highest 24-hour period in India was 1,168 mm (46.0 inches) in Aminidivi in the Union TerritoryofLakshadweep on 6 May2004 although some reports suggest that it was a new Indian record. The previous record high rainfall in a 24-hour period for Mumbai was 575 mm (22.6inches) in 1974. Other places to be severely affected were Raigad, Chiplun, Ratnagiri and Kalyan in Maharashtra and the southern state ofGoa. The rains slackened between the 28th and 30th of July but picked up in intensity on July 31. The Maharashtra state government declared 27 and 28 as a state holiday for the affected regions. The government also ordered all schools in the affected areas to close on August 1 and August 2. Mumbai Police commissioner Anami Narayan Roy requested all residents to stay indoors as far as possible on July 31 after heavy rains disrupted the city once again, grounding all flights for the day.OVERVIEWThe 2005 monsoon proved to be extremely erratic for Maharashtra. In the beginning, aserious deficiency of rainfall, particularly in the western Vidarbha and Marathwada, created a drought-like situation with shortage of drinking water and fodder. The situation changed dramatically in the course of a week from July 21, when unusually heavy rains lashed the coastal areas of Konkan and Western Ghats. It caused extensive flooding in Raigad and Ratnagiri districts, with many towns and villages under waters. On July 26, when the highest ever rainfall recorded in the last 100 years in the country battered the sub-urban Mumbai and Thane, Maharashtra experienced one of the worst floods in its history. The downpour was heavy in other parts of the state too, particularly in Nanded and Parbhani. Soon the Godavari was in space, flooding a large number of towns and villages. No sooner did the flooding recede in Konkan and Marathwada, their lease of water from the Koyana and Ujani dams flooded Sangli, Kolhapur, and Solapur districtsIt has indeed been a state-wide disaster, leaving a trail of destruction and devastation in many districts. People have lost enormously, and they are struggling to cope with its impact.Excessive Rainfall and Flash FloodingThe rainfall data for 24 hours from 0830 of July 26 to 0830 of July 27, provided by the Indian Meteorological Department, is presented as below:Rainfall in the city of Mumbai Santacruz(inmm.)Colaba(inmm.) shows that within a period of 18 hours, there was a precipitation of 944 mm. in Mumbai sub-urban area, a phenomenon which never occurred before. Thane district also received more than 700mm. of rains in a single day. The exceptional rainfall coincided with high tide, which brought a large area in Mumbai and Thane under massive inundation.Mumbai: It was a case of urban flash flooding. Water levels rose rapidly within three-four hours, submerging the roads and railway tracks. The traffic was completely immobilized. All the low-lying areas in the city were heavily flooded. The poor who lived in Jhugg is in these areas were the worst victims. It also hit the middle and upper class segments. All the ground floor flats were under water, and the people lost all their possessionselectronic goods, furniture, clothes and utensils. Flooding crippled the basic services and lifelines in the city. There was no electricity in Mumbai sub-urban and Thane districts. As the telephone exchanges came under water, the phones stopped working. Mobile phones were also not accessible. As a result, the people who were stranded could not access information, and were subjected to terrible hardship. The Western and Central Railways did not run their local services for a number of days. The local services on the Central line have not yet been fully restored even today. All the long-distance trains run by the Central Railways were cancelled. The tracks on the Konkan Railways are badly damaged, and it would take many days before the trains could run again on these tracks. The national and international flights at the Sahar and Santacruz were disrupted for a number ofdays.Thane: In Thane district, the flooding affected all the urban centers. Kalyan, Dombivali, Ambarnath, Ulhasnagar, and Bhiwandi, which are part of the urban agglomeration, were under flood waters. Heavy rainfall in the catchment area filled up almost all the reservoirs in Thane district. The release of water from these reservoirs caused the water levels to rise further and aggravate the flooding. Despite a respite from the rains, the water level in these towns did not reduce. The Mumbai-Goa National Highway was cut off at many points due to large tracts came underwater. As a result, the traffic on this highway was completely disrupted. The Konkan Railways had also come under submergence at many places. A number of trains were stranded at different stations. The Government made the arrangements for evacuating the passengers from these trains.THREAT TO PUBLIC HEALTH Epidemiological Surveillance in Mumbai NameofthediseaseAdmissionin EARLY24hrs. Total admissions since 29 July Number ofdeathsGastroenteritis15413181 Hepatitis27194 Entericfever,Typhoid553 Malaria624062 Dengue549 Leptospirosis5619710 Fever(Unknowncause)5971,04445Total 9063,26157The rain water caused the sewage system to overflow and all water lines were contaminated. The Government ordered all housing societies to add chlorine to their water tanks while they decontaminate the water supply. Thousands of animal carcasses floated in the flood waters, raising concerns about the possibility of disease. Reports in the media warned of the threat of waterborne diseases, and hospitals and health centers geared up to distribute free medicines to check any outbreak.On August 11, the state government declared an epidemic ofleptospirosis in Mumbai and its outskirts, later clarifying that there was no such threat anywhere in Maharashtra. 66 people have died of fever suspected to be leptospirosis. 749 people have been admitted with such fever with 41cases "unstable" and in an advanced stage of the disease. The BMC declared three zones - P South(Goregaon)ward, L ward (Kurla) and H East (Bandra-Kalina) - as criticial areas for being "hygienically sensitive". India's western coast receives high rainfall due to the presence Western Ghats which lies at about 50 km (30 miles) from the coast. The hill range runs parallel to the Indian coast at an average altitude of 1,200 metres (3,900 ft). Rain bearing clouds generally deposit much of their moisture through orographic rainfall along India's western coast which lies onthe windward side of the hills.FINANCIAL EFFECTThe financial cost of floods was unprecedented and these floods caused a stoppage of entire commercial, trading, and industrial activity for days. Preliminary indications indicate that the floods caused a direct loss of about Rs.450 crores (80 million or US$100 million). The financial impact of the floods was manifested in a variety of ways:The banking transactions across the counters were adversely affected and many branche sand commercial establishments were unable to function from late evening of26 July2005.The state government declared the 27th (and later, 28th) of July as a public holiday. ATMnetworks of several banks, which included the State Bank of India, the largest bank of India; ICICI Bank,HDFC Bank, and several foreign banks like Citibankand HSBC, stopped functioning from the afternoon of26 July2005at all the centers of Mumbai. ATM transactions could not be carried out in several parts of India on26 July2005or27 July2005due to failure of the connectivity with their central systems located in Mumbai.The Bombay Stock Exchange and the National Stock Exchange of India, the premier stockexchanges of India could function only partially. As most of the trading are eTrading, trading terminals of the brokerage houses across the country remained largely in operative. Ironically, in partial trading, sensex, the most tracked equity index of India surpassed an all time high and had closed at 7605.03 on27 July2005. The Exchanges remained closed for the following day.

EFFECT ON MUMBAI'S LINKS TO THE REST OF THE WORLDFor the first time ever, Mumbai's domestic and international airports (including Chatrapati Shivaji International Airport, Sahar and Juhu aerodrome) were shut for more than 30 hours due to heavy flooding of the runways and extremely poor visibility. Over 700 flights were cancelled or delayed. The airports reopened on the morning of28 July2005.Rediff. Within24 hours of the airports becoming operational, there were 185 departures and 184 arrivals, including international flights. Again from early morning of31st July, with increase in waterlogging of the runways and different parts of Mumbai, most of the flights were indefinitelycancelled.Rail links were disrupted, and reports on late evening of30th Julyindicated cancellation ofseveral long distance trains up to6th August, 2005.Mumbai-Pune Expressway, which witnessed a number of landslides, was closed, for the firsttime ever, for 24 hours.According toHindustan Times, an unprecedented 5 million mobile and 2.3 millionMTNLlandlineusers were hit for over four hours.According to the .in registrar (personal communication), the .in DNS servers in Mumbai hadto be reconfigured because the servers were not operational.Transport stats52 local trains damaged 37,000autorickshawsspoilt 4,000 taxis 900BESTbuses damaged 10,000 trucks and tempos groundedHuman tragedyOn28 July2005, theBBC reportedthat the death toll to be at least 430 in the state ofMaharashtra. By31 July2005this hadrisento at least 1,000.Deaths in the city were due toTotal: 406Drowning: 233Landslide: 120; 65 alonewere killed by alandslide at Saki Naka.The fire brigadearrived after 15 hours. On July 31, boulders are still being cleared and the count of thedead is rising.mandatory for large urban construction projects in northern Mumbai. Officials in the environmentministry claimed that it was not practical to impose new guidelines with retrospective effect "asthere are millions of buildings".

Destruction ofmangrove ecosystemsFig : Powai Lake, Mumbai on the verge of overflowingMangroveecosystemswhich exist along theMithi Riverand Mahim Creek are beingdestroyed and replaced with construction. Hundreds ofacresof swamps in Mahim creek have beenreclaimed and put to use for construction by builders. These ecosystems serve as a buffer betweenland and sea. It is estimated that Mumbai has lost about 40% of its mangroves between1995and2005, some to builders and some to encroachment (slums). Sewage and garbage dumps have alsodestroyed mangroves. TheBandra-Kurla complexin particular was created by replacing suchswamps.SOME PICTURES SHOWING CONDITION OF MUMBAI DURING CLOUDBURSTRECOMMENDATIONAs we all know the Mumbaiis along the shore and floodingdue to cloudburstand tsunamican damage Mumbai port considerably , wealso know that we cant avoid naturaldisastersrelatedto coast ofMumbai .I recommend theuse of geosystemsfor protection ofshore to reducedamageand protection of shore lineFeaturesGeotubes are a cost effective alternative when compared to traditional marine constructionmaterials and methods.Fabrication. Geotubes are fabricated from a high strength woven geotextile with specialhigh strength seaming techniques to resist pressures during pumping operations.They have engineering characteristics that make them ideal for geotechnical and hydraulicapplications.They can be utilized in permanent civil structures due to their composition of highlydurable polymersThey are easy to install.Minimum impact on the environment while providinga beneficial use for dredge material.Artificial geosynthetic is more durable, i.e life is very long.Time required for installation is very less.They protect chargo ships from damageThey can be easily transportable.Geotube is cost effective.No special equipment is required in the use of this disposing technique.Due to effective high volumecontainment, it is useful in sewage disposing process.RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONSFlood disaster reduction in India having a large network of rivers is a challenging task.or flood or flood mitigation Judicious combination of structural and non-structural measures is the only option fdisaster mitigation.

Capacity building for flood mitigationProper organization at project levelProper planning of flood management schemes.Setting up control rooms for proper co-ordinationNgos involvements in non-structural measures, e.g., flood fighting, flood relieProvision of adequate fund for maintenanceof existing flood management measures.

Lessons learnt from past attemptsA number of reservoirs constructed with flood cushion to provide protection tots provide immediate protection but create water logging onep the floodwaters away from development and populatedility of flood damage by keeping people and development subject toe loss burden by reducing the financial and social impact of flood through such

Strategy for flood mitigation should include :downstream areas.Flood embankmencountryside, raise the riverbed.Modify the floods in order to keareas by decreasing runoff, by increasing channel capacity or by containing, diverting orstoring floodwaters.Modify the susceptibdamage, out of the flood hazard areas or by making such developments resistant todamage.Modify thmeasures as post flood assistance and insurance.Bearing the losses, i.e. living with foods.gement approach.ent.sion works.es.g measures.Basin-wise integrated water resources manaEnforcing for specific flood space in reservoir.Minimization of ill effects created by embankmScientific approach with proper planning for anti eroDrainage improvement.Soil conservation measurFlood forecasting and warninPeoples participationRECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONAlong with rectifying above points following measures can be considered1. Firstly, the deeply embedded attitude of postponing things and not taking anythingseriously, thechalta hai & jab hoga tab dekha jayegaa attitude must be changed2. Disaster management courses and education must be encouraged. Making disastermanagement a compulsory subject for C.B.S.E students is a good move.3. Stimulate awareness of risk among national and regional planners to reflect disastermitigation measures in national development plan.4. Personal computers have a growing potential for application in developing countries asthey become more powerful and relatively inexpensive. They can be used to store andpresent geographical data employing GIS techniques for preparation of hazard maps andfor hazard modelling5 .Re-examining the urban governance, planning and service delivery framework andinstitutional arrangements for Greater Mumbai and the Mumbai Metropolitan Region(MMR) with a focus on linking urbanrenewal and development with risk mitigation.6 .Developing a structure plan for the MMR that links strategic urban services(transportation, energy, water supply, sewerage, sanitation, drainage and solid wastemanagement), land-use planning and strategic risk mitigation.

10.4 CASE STUDY4: MUMBAI 26/11BackgroundThe2008 Mumbai attacks(sometimes referred to as26/11) were more than 10 coordinated shooting and bombing attacks acrossMumbai, India's largest city, byIslamistattackers who came fromPakistan. The attackers received reconnaissance assistance before the attacks;Ajmal Kasab later claimed upon interrogation that the attacks were conducted with the support of Pakistan'sISI.The attacks, which drew widespread global condemnation, began on Wednesday, 26 November and lasted until Saturday, 29 November 2008, killing 164 people and wounding at least 308. Eight of the attacks occurred inSouth Mumbai: atChhatrapati Shivaji Terminus, theOberoi Trident,theTaj Mahal Palace & Tower,Leopold Cafe, Cama Hospital(a women and children's hospital),theNariman HouseJewish community centre,theMetro Cinema,and a lane behind the Times of Indiabuilding andSt. Xavier's College.There was also an explosion atMazagaon, in Mumbai's port area, and in a taxi atVile Parle.By the early morning of 28 November, all sites except for the Taj hotel had been secured byMumbai Policeand security forces. On 29 November, India's National Security Guards(NSG) conductedOperation Black Tornadoto flush out the remaining attackers; it resulted in the death of the last remaining attackers at the Taj hotel and ending all fighting in the attacks. Ajmal Kasab,the only attacker who was captured alive, disclosed that the attackers were members ofLashkar-e-Taiba, thePakistan-based militant organisation, considered aterrorist organisationby India, Pakistan, the United States, the United Kingdom, and the United Nations, among others. TheIndian governmentsaid that the attackers came from Pakistan, and theircontrollerswere in Pakistan.On 7 January 2009, Pakistan's Information MinisterSherry Rehmanofficially accepted Ajmal Kasab's nationality as Pakistani. On 12 February 2009, Pakistan's Interior Minister Rehman Malik asserted that parts of the attack had been planned in Pakistan.A trial court on 6 May 2010 sentenced Ajmal Kasab to death on five counts.There have been many bombings in Mumbai since the 13 coordinatedbomb explosionsthat killed 257 people and injured 700 on 12 March 1993.The 1993 attacks are believed to have been in retaliation for theBabri Mosquedemolition. On 6 December 2002, a blast in aBESTbus nearGhatkoparstation killed two people and injured 28.The bombing occurred on the tenth anniversary of the demolition of the Babri MosqueinAyodhya.A bicycle bomb exploded near theVile Parlestation in Mumbai, killing one person and injuring 25 on 27 January 2003, a day before the visit of thePrime Ministerof IndiaAtal Bihari Vajpayeeto the city.On 13 March 2003, a day after the tenth anniversary of the1993 Bombay bombings, a bomb exploded in a train compartment near theMulundstation, killing 10 people and injuring 70.On 28 July 2003, a blast in a BEST bus in Ghatkopar killed 4 people and injured 32.On 25 August 2003, two bombs exploded inSouth Mumbai, one near theGateway of Indiaand the other at Zaveri Bazaar inKalbadevi. At least 44 people were killed and 150 injured.On 11 July 2006, seven bombs exploded within 11minutes on theSuburban Railwayin Mumbai.209 people were killed, including 22 foreignersand over 700 injured.According to theMumbai Police, the bombings were carried out byLashkar-e-TaibaandStudents Islamic Movement of India(SIMI).AttacksThe first events were detailed around 20:00Indian Standard Time(IST) on 26 November, when 10 men in inflatable speedboats came ashore at two locations inColaba. They reportedly told local Marathi-speaking fishermen who asked them who they were to "mind their own business" before they split up and headed two different ways. The fishermen's subsequent report to police received little response. Chhatrapati Shivaji TerminusTheChhatrapati Shivaji Terminus(CST) was attacked by two gunmen, one of whom,Ajmal Kasab, was later caught alive by the police and identified by eyewitnesses. The attackers killed 58 people and injured 104 others. Security forces and emergency services arrived shortly afterwards. The two gunmen fled the scene and fired at pedestrians and police officers in the streets, killing eight police officers. The attackers then headed towards Cama Hospital with an intention to kill patients,but the hospital staff locked all of the patient wards. A team of theMumbai Anti-Terrorist Squad led by police chiefHemant Karkaresearched the Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus and then left in pursuit of Kasab and Khan.Leopold CafeTheLeopold Cafe, a popular restaurant and bar onColaba CausewayinSouth Mumbai, was one of the first sites to be attacked. Two attackers opened fire on the cafe on the evening of 26 November, killing at least 10 people (including some foreigners), and injuring many more. The attackers fired into the street as they fled the scene.Bomb blasts in taxisThere were two explosions in taxis caused by timer bombs. The first one occurred atVile Parle, killing the driver and a passenger. The second explosion took place at Wadi Bunder. Three people including the driver of the taxi were killed, and about 15 other people were injured. Taj Mahal Hotel and Oberoi TridentTwo hotels, theTaj Mahal Palace & Towerand theOberoi Trident, were amongst the four locations targeted. Six explosions were reported at the Taj hotel and one at the Oberoi Trident. At the Taj Mahal, fire-fighters rescued 200 hostages from windows using ladders during the first night.CNN initially reported on the morning of 27 November 2008 that the hostage situation at the Taj had been resolved and quoted the police chief ofMaharashtrastating that all hostages were freed; however, it was learned later that day that there were still two attackers holding hostages, including foreigners, in the Taj Mahal hotel. During the attacks, both hotels were surrounded byRapid Action Forcepersonnel andMarine Commandos(MARCOS) and National Security Guards(NSG) commandos.When reports emerged that attackers were receiving television broadcasts, feeds to the hotels were blocked.Security forces stormed both hotels, and all nine attackers were killed by the morning of 29 November. 32 hostages were killed at the Oberoi Trident.A number ofEuropean ParliamentCommittee on International Tradedelegates were staying in the Taj Mahal hotel when it was attacked,but none of them were injuredNariman HouseNariman House, aChabad LubavitchJewish center in Colaba known as the Mumbai Chabad House, was taken over by two attackers and several residents were held hostage.Police evacuated adjacent buildings and exchanged fire with the attackers, wounding one. Local residents were told to stay inside. The attackers threw a grenade into a nearby lane, causing no casualties. NSG commandos arrived fromDelhi, and a Naval helicopter took an aerial survey. During the first day, 9 hostages were rescued from the first floor. The following day, the house was stormed by NSG commandos fast-roping from helicopters onto the roof, covered by snipers positioned in nearby buildings. After a long battle, one NSG commando and both perpetrators were killed.According to radio transmissions picked up by Indian intelligence, the attackers "would be told by their handlers in Pakistan that the lives of Jews were worth 50 times those of non-Jews." Injuries reported on some of the bodies indicate they may have been tortured.End of the attacksBy the morning of 27 November, the army had secured the Jewish outreach center at Nariman House as well as the Oberoi Trident hotel. They also incorrectly believed that the Taj Mahal Palace and Towers had been cleared of attackers, and soldiers were leading hostages and holed-up guests to safety, and removing bodies of those killed in the attacks.However, later news reports indicated that there were still two or three attackers in the Taj, with explosions heard and gunfire exchanged.Fires were also reported at the ground floor of the Taj with plumes of smoke arising from the first floor.The final operation at the Taj Mahal Palace hotel was completed by the NSG commandos on 29 November, killing three attackers and resulting in the conclusion of the attacks. The security forces rescued 250 people from the Oberoi, 300 from the Taj and 60 people from Nariman House. In addition, police seized a boat filled with arms and explosives anchored atMazgaondock off Mumbai harbour.

Negotiations with PakistanPakistan initially denied that Pakistanis were responsible for the attacks, blaming plotters in Bangladesh and Indian criminals, a claim refuted by India, and saying they needed information from India on other bombings first. Pakistani authorities finally agreed that Ajmal Kasab was a Pakistani on 7 January 2009,and registered a case against three other Pakistani nationals. The Indian government supplied evidence to Pakistan and other governments, in the form of interrogations, weapons, and call records of conversations during the attacks.In addition, Indian government officials said that the attacks were so sophisticated that they must have had official backing from Pakistani "agencies", an accusation denied by Pakistan.Under US and UN pressure, Pakistan arrested a few members of Jamaat ud-Dawa and briefly put its founder under house arrest, but he was found to be free a few days later.A year after the attacks, Mumbai police continued to complain that Pakistani authorities are not cooperating by providing information for their investigation.Meanwhile, journalists in Pakistan said security agencies were preventing them from interviewing people from Kasab's village.Home Minister P. Chidambaram said the Pakistani authorities had not shared any information about American suspects Headley andRana, but that the FBI had been more forthcoming. An Indian report, summarising intelligence gained from India's interrogation ofDavid Headley,was released in October 2010. It alleged that Pakistan's intelligence agency (ISI) had provided support for the attacks by providing funding for reconnaissance missions in Mumbai.The report included Headley's claim that Lashkar-e-Taiba's chief military commander, Zaki-ur-Rahman Lakhvi, had close ties to the ISI.He alleged that "every big action of LeT is done in close coordination with [the] ISI." InvestigationPolice looking for attackers outside ColabaAccording to investigations, the attackers traveled by sea fromKarachi, Pakistan, across theArabian Sea, hijacked the Indian fishing trawler 'Kuber', killed the crew of four, then forced the captain to sail to Mumbai. After murdering the captain, the attackers entered Mumbai on arubber dinghy. The captain of 'Kuber', Amar Singh Solanki, had earlier been imprisoned for six months in a Pakistani jail for illegally fishing in Pakistani waters.The attackers stayed and were trained by the Lashkar-e-Taiba in a safehouse atAzizabadnearKarachibefore boarding a small boat for Mumbai.

MethodThe attackers had planned the attack several months ahead of time and knew some areas well enough for the attackers to vanish, and reappear after security forces had left. Several sources have quoted Kasab telling the police that the group received help from Mumbai residents.The attackers used at least threeSIM cardspurchased on the Indian side of the border with Bangladesh.There were also reports of a SIM card purchased in the US stateNew Jersey. Police had also mentioned thatFaheem Ansari, an Indian Lashkar operative who had been arrested in February 2008, had scouted the Mumbai targets for the November attacks. Later, the police arrested two Indian suspects, Mikhtar Ahmad, who is from Srinagar in Kashmir, and Tausif Rehman, a resident of Kolkata. They supplied the SIM cards, one in Calcutta, and the other in New Delhi. Type 86 Grenades made by China's state-ownedNorincowere used in the attacks. Blood tests on the attackers indicate that they had takencocaineandLSDduring the attacks, to sustain their energy and stay awake for 50 hours. Police say that they found syringes on the scenes of the attacks. There were also indications that they had been taking steroids. The gunman who survived said that the attackers had usedGoogle Earthto familiarise themselves with the locations of buildings used in the attacks. There were ten gunmen, nine of whom were subsequently shot dead and one captured by security forces. Witnesses reported that they looked to be in their early twenties, wore black t-shirts and jeans, and that they smiled and looked happy as they shot their victims. It was initially reported that some of the attackers were British citizens,but the Indian government later stated that there was no evidence to confirm this.Similarly, early reports of twelve gunmenwere also later shown to be incorrect. On 6 April 2010, the Home minister ofMaharashtraState, which includes Mumbai, informed the assembly that the bodies of the nine killed Pakistani gunmen from the 2008 attack on Mumbai were buried in a secret location in January 2010. The bodies had been in the mortuary of a Mumbai hospital after Muslim clerics in the city refused to let them be buried on their grounds.ArrestsAjmal Kasab was the only attacker arrested alive by police and is currently under arrest. Much of the information about the attackers' preparation, travel, and movements comes from his confessions to the Mumbai police. On 12 February 2009 Pakistan's Interior Minister Rehman Malik said that Pakistani national Javed Iqbal, who acquiredVoIPphones in Spain for the Mumbai attackers, and Hamad Ameen Sadiq, who had facilitated money transfer for the attack, had been arrested. Two other men known as Khan and Riaz, but whose full names were not given, were