disaster risk reduction in drought cycle management: a learning companion
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Disaster Risk Reduction inDrought Cycle Management: A Learning CompanionOxfam Disaster Risk Reduction and Climate ChangeAdaptation Resources
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1. About this Companion
This Companion aims to support Oxam sta to integrate
disaster risk reduction (DRR) into programmes where
drought is a signicant hazard. In East Arica, this work
is commonly called drought cycle management (DCM).
For more on this approach, please see the Oxam DCM
bries available on the Intranet and rom [email protected].
uk. I you need denitions and more inormation on key
terminology used in DRR, please see the rst Companionin this series:An Introduction to Disaster Risk Reduction.
2. What is drought cycle management?
Droughts have traditionally been viewed as one-o
disasters requiring an emergency response. Typically,
emergency responses ocused on the delivery o ood
aid and lie-saving humanitarian support including
rehabilitating boreholes, emergency vaccination
campaigns and so on. Following a drought, agencies
tended to move onto rehabilitation programmes, such
as restocking, and then back to normal development
activities in various sectors such as health and education.However, given the requency o droughts in many regions,
development work is increasingly disrupted and oten
undermined by the shit to emergency response.
Learning Objectives
After reading this Companion, you should:
knowwhatDCMisandhowitcanbeusedfor
programming in dry land areas;
understandtherangeofinterventionsthatare
appropriatefordifferentstagesofthedroughtcycle;
understandtheimportanceofpromotingriskreductioninyourworkondroughtcycle
management;
knowhowDRRrelatestoOxfamsOne
ProgrammeApproachandhowitcanbe
integratedacrossdepartmentsinprogramming
for dry land areas;
understandtheimportanceofinformation
managementsystemsinDCMandhowto
developthem;
understandtheimportanceofadvocacyin
applyingDRRapproacheswithindroughtcycle
management; and
knowwheretogotolearnmore.
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Oxfams DCM learning: Wajir Pastoral
Development Programme, Kenya
The periods when the Wajir Pastoral Development
Programme is not involved with drought response
or recovery are ew and ar between. From 1996
to date, a response- and/or recovery-related
programme has been ongoing in Wajir, in relation
to either drought or food and interspersed withconfict and human health issues (excluding a short
respite in 20023). Concentrating on development
and mitigation activities has, thereore, been very
dicult. This reinorces the notion that we cannot
look at the drought cycle in discrete phases; rather,
we must nd ways to increase DRR eorts at all
stages but particularly as part o our response
and recovery eorts.
During the late 1980s and 1990s, drought became
increasingly accepted as a normal occurrence in pastoral/
dryland areas and not a rare or intrinsically disastrous event.
The DCM model emerged rom this thinking and improved
programmes that recognised the cyclical nature o drought.
The DCM model acts as a guide to development agencies
supporting pastoral communities in planning or and
responding to droughts. By putting the drought cycle asthe central reerence point, it ensures that appropriate
interventions are implemented beore, during and
ater droughts. This ultimately reduces the risks and
consequences o drought.
Below: Pastoralists in Wajir migrating in search of new pasture. Photo: Brendan Cox/Oxfam
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Itprovidesacommonframeworkagainstwhich
humanitarian, development and advocacy work can be
aligned to reinorce each other.
ItisanexcellenttoolformainstreamingDRRactivitiesin
the pastoral/dryland livelihood context, as the DCM model
reduces the prominence o traditional relie activities,
and emphasises the need or disaster mitigation and
preparedness activities.
Themulti-sectoralnatureofthemodelisverycompatiblewith a livelihoods approach to addressing pastoral
development. By considering the multi-aceted ways in
which drought aects pastoralists lives, it is easier to
consider cross-sectoral linkages.
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3. Why integrate the drought cycle management
model into programming for dryland areas?
The DCM model conceptualises drought as a cycle
o our warning phases: normal, alert, emergency,
and recovery. There are clear advantages in viewing
drought as a cyclical process rather than an isolated
event preceded and ollowed by normal development
activity. Some o the benets o integrating the model into
programming are as ollows:
Themodelimprovesthetimeliness,appropriateness,and
ultimately, the eectiveness o work by ensuring that activities
are matched to the current stage o the drought cycle.
MITIGATION
PREPAREDNESS
RECONSTRU
CTION
RELIEFASSISTANCE
NormalA
lertAlarm
Emergency
Recovery
Information
Community Development
Contingency Planning
Capacity Building
Infrastructural Development
Animal health interventions
Human health interventions
Emergency water supply systems
Supplementary feeding of
vulnerable groups
Strategic stockpiling
of cereals and grains
Rehabilitation of
critical boreholes
Livestock Marketing
Animal health
Human health
Supplementary
feeding of livestock
Restocking
Rehabilitation of
dams
Capacity building
Infrastructural
development
Food for work
Cash for workNatual Resource
Mangement
Interventions
The Original Drought Cycle Management Model. The DCM Model is widely understood within Eastern Arica and
provides many benets to mangers and experts. Users o the model recognise that representing drought (and
associated responses) as our distinct phases is a simplication. But the DCM model remains a well-accepted concept
that ts well with programmers and pastoralists own understanding o the drought cycle.
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4. Why use disaster risk reduction approaches
alongside drought cycle management?
Climate change adaptation and DRR are corporate
priorities or Oxam, because Oxam recognises that it
will be unable to ull its mission to overcome poverty and
suering unless i can address the impact o disasters
and climate change on peoples livelihoods.
Many arid and semi-arid land areas are already eelingthe impact o climate change as it increases the severity
and unpredictability o droughts and foods. In addition,
high levels o poverty among pastoral populations and the
deteriorating terms o trade have meant that communities
in the drylands are increasingly vulnerable and at risk rom
food, confict, livestock and human disease, and landslides.
The DCM model ollows a simple logic easily understood
and accepted by both pastoralists and sta in drought-
prone areas. While Oxam has committed to integrate the
DCM model into all pastoral programmes, the ailure to
implement this commitment means that relie interventions
can be late and inappropriate or example, when ood
relie arrives months ater malnutrition rates have peaked.
In addition, while the DCM approach has a specic
ocus on vulnerability to drought, it is oten only applied
in preparedness response and recovery, rather than to
address the underlying causes o vulnerability and risk.
Thereore, many programme managers are unable to
determine whether, in the long-term, their programme
reduces vulnerability to drought. For example, in Wajir,
Oxam ound that the installation o new boreholes
to provide water or livestock resulted in a shit in
traditional herding patterns. This caused overgrazing and
degradation o pastures normally used at the end o the
dry season, thus urther undermining pastoralists ability
to cope during a prolonged dry season or drought.
5. How to integrate disaster risk reduction in
drought cycle management programming
DRR is not a radically new concept, but it is a valuable
way o analysing humanitarian, development and
advocacy programmes to improve their quality and
eectiveness in targeting the most vulnerable people.
Taking a DRR approach does not mean that you have
to establish new or distinct projects, since risk is mosteectively reduced when DRR principles are internalised
into wider programming. DRR should be considered at each
stage o the programme cycle. Please see the Companion:
An Introduction to Disaster Risk Reduction or more on this.
To support programme sta to use the DCM model in
practice, Oxam has identied the ollowing issues that
should be considered when attempting to build a greater
risk reduction ocus into a more comprehensive DCM
approach:
5.1 Identication: assessing and analysing levels of
risk
Risk is made up o the interaction between hazards,
vulnerabilities and capacities. Generally, it is understood
in the ollowing ormula:
Risk = Hazard x Vulnerability
Capacity
Thereore, assessments o risk require analysis o
hazards, vulnerabilities and capacities.
There are a variety o dierent methodologies or
analysing risk. Some o these are described in more
detail in the CompanionAn introduction to Disaster Risk
Reduction.
Men who sold sick livestock as part of an Oxfam de-stocking programme. This was part of a range of measures to minimise the impact of the
failure of the short rains in 2008. Photo: Jane Beesley/Oxfam
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However, whichever methodology is used, the essential
outputs o this process should include an understanding
o:
therangeandrelativeimportanceofhazardsaffecting
the target population;
thepriorityrisksexpressedbythecommunity;
thegroupsmostlikelytobeseverelyaffected;
whysomegroupsaremoreaffectedthanothers
(including a capacity analysis o all stakeholders,especially the community itsel);
whysomegroupsarelessabletocopethanothers;
howOxfamscurrentprogrammesneedtochangeto
reduce disaster impact and increase communities
capacity to deal with hazards;
theadditionalactivitiesrequiredtoreducerisksand
vulnerability and build communities capacity to cope and
respond;
whichactivitiescanbecarriedoutbyOxfamandwhich
by others; and
anactionplan(forexample,acommunity-baseddisaster
management plan CBDM).
5.2 Design: drought-proong programme planning
A key aspect o integrating DCM into programmes in arid
and semi-arid land areas is learning to drought-proo
programme work. This means that all programme teams
need to consider how all interventions will continue or
be modied in the (very likely) event o a drought. As a
minimum this will entail ensuring that:
projectproposalsincludeoptionsforarangeofactivities
at dierent stages o the drought cycle;budgetsincludecontingencyamountsforadditional
or expanded activities that may be required during the
drought;
projectstaff havetheskillsandtrainingrequiredto
implement both development and humanitarian activities
as circumstances dictate; and
informationfromspecialisedexternalorinternalearly
warning systems is incorporated into programme
decision-making, even where the programmes ocus
is not working directly on response to hazards. For
example, an education project will still need early
warning inormation about drought or foods to implementcontingency plans accordingly.
Working within the drought cycle supporting livestock markets in Turkana, Kenya
Oxfamslong-standingTurkanaprogrammeinKenyaidentiedastrategicneedtoimproveaccesstolivestock
markets.Fundingwassecuredtosupportthedevelopmentoflocallivestockmarketingassociations(LMAs),
constructfournewlivestockmarkets,anddeveloplinkswithlivestocktradersfromoutsidethearea.The
objectivewastoensurethatlocalstakeholdersinthelivestocksectorwereactivelyinvolvedinmajorlivestock
interventionsandinmakinglivestockmarketswork.
Theprojectfacedmanydifculties,asChristopherEkuwom,OxfamsLivestockProjectOfcerinTurkana
explains:Aswewerecompletingtheconstructionofthemarketsitbecameclearthatadroughtwas
developing.Thismeantwehadtodelaytheopeningofthemarketsassomuchlivestockhadlefttheareain
searchofpasture.ThedroughtalsoforcedOxfamtoshiftitspriorities.Wereallocatedthefundingtoundertake
emergencyde-stocking.Justwhenthedroughtendedandmarketconditionsreturnedtonormal,theareawas
hitbyanoutbreakofPPR(goatplague).Thismeantlivestockwerequarantined,soagainthemarketswere
unabletooperate.Soagainwereallocatedprojectfundingtoundertakeanemergencyvaccinationcampaign.
Butthistime,theLMAswerestrongerandplayedakeypartintheemergencyresponse,collaboratingwellwith
localstructures.Finally,OxfamandtheLMAsmanagedtoopenthemarketsassoonasthequarantinewas
lifted.TheactivityofLMAsthroughtheemergencyperiodwaskeyforkeepingthemvibrantandforbeingabletoswitchbacktodevelopmentactivitiesassoonastheconditionspermitted.
TheLMAsarenowrecognisedaskeystakeholdersintheareaandhavegainedfurtherlegitimacyfrom
pastoralists.Thishasgivenpastoralistsaccesstoinformationandaleveloforganisationabsentbefore.The
fourmarketsrunbyLMAsaimedtolinkproducerstohigher-valueterminalmarketsinLodwarandbigger
centres.Despitethedelaystotheiropening,thesaleyardsarenowvaluableassetsandareinregularuse,
raisingsalesincomeforpastoralists.
TheprojectwasnotinitiallyconceivedwithDRRinmind.However,severaldisastersstruckduringtheproject
thatforcedOxfamtomodifyprojectstoincorporateaDRRapproachthathasultimatelyreducedthedisaster
risktothetargetpopulation.Thisexamplehighlightshowimportantstructuralproblems,suchasalackof
markets,canbeaddressedinawaythatadaptstothedifferentstagesofthedroughtcycleandsupportsnotonlycommunitiesresiliencetorecurrentdroughtsandotherhazardsbutalsotheirabilitytorespond.
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5.3 Implementation: DRR in practice
Preparedness
Establishmentandcapacitybuildingofdisaster
management committees and other structures
Developmentofcontingencyplansbyallstakeholders
Supportingdevelopmentof earlywarninginformation
policy
Livelihoods
Facilitatinglivestockde-stockingbeforeconditionand
prices decline
Restockinginrecoveryperiods,butidentifying
appropriate breeds or crop varieties
Improvingaccesstomarkets
Foodorcashforworkideallygearedtowardsrisk
reduction
Cashorsocialtransferprogrammesthatcontinueuntil
other income sources are established
Financialservices:savings,credit,insurance
Advocacyonkeypolicyissuese.g.landuseplanning,environmental protection
WASH
Maximisingthenumberandreliabilityofwatersources,
e.g. rehabilitating boreholes, construction o water
catchment systems, training water user associations
Ensureconsistentpromotionofhygieneandsanitation
that continues ater emergency response and is
appropriate to pastoral liestyles.
Health and education
HIVpreventionactivitiesLobbyingforservicesforpeopleaffectedbyHIV
Lobbyforcontinuedimmunisationcampaigns
Provisionofmobileoralternativeeducationsystems
5.4 Implementation: incorporating advocacy
Marginalisation is a primary actor in the vulnerability o
pastoral and other drought-aected populations. This
is because communities such as pastoralists generally
lack the means to hold the powerul to account, so too
oten their rights are not addressed relative to the rest
o the population. Too many governments only ocus
on drought-aected populations during the emergency
stage when welare indicators or the media spotlight
highlight a crisis. The DCM model is a useul means to
ensure that authorities consider communities rights at all
stages o the drought cycle. This involves ensuring that
humanitarian, development and campaign programming
all aim to:
helppastoraliststobuildordeveloptheirown
organisations, through which they can represent
themselves and their values, and come to understand,
articulate and claim their rights; and
workwithotherstoinuencethoseinpowertobecome
more responsive to pastoralists needs and concerns.
Harvesting sorghum in Mali. The seeds for drought resistantsorghum were provided by Oxfam. Photo: Dave Clark/Oxfam
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Pastoralists engaging with politicians in Wajir
Withanilliteracyrateofabout80percent(WajirDistrictDevelopmentPlan,20028),pastoralistsinWajirare
poorlyinformedandnotwellrepresentedinkeydecision-makingforums.
Despitesomeadvancesinpro-pastoralistpolicy,thereisstillawidespreadlackofrmcommitmentstodevelop
thepastoralareasaccordingtothewishesandaspirationsofpastoralcommunities.Forexample,service
provisionineducation,health,veterinaryservices,trade,andwater,andoverallresourceallocationfailto
considerpastoralistsvulnerabilityandwayoflife.
Until2007,theWajirprogrammefocusedonsupportingmembershiporganisations(suchaspastoral
associationsandwomenssavingsgroups),civilsocietyorganisations,andthedistrictgovernment(Pastoral
SteeringCommittee).However,asignicanttrendinWajiroverthepastvetotenyearshasbeenthegrowing
strengthofclanpoliticsandthegrowinginuenceofthepoliticalclass(MPs,councillorsandothers).Partof
thereasonforthiswastheincreasedavailabilityofdevolvedfundsandthediversionofresponsibilityforthese
fundsfromlineministriestoelectedrepresentatives.Unfortunately,whiletheseactorshavesignicantpowerfor
good,inmanyinstancestheywereunderminingtheeffortsoftheotherthreegroups.
Strategiescurrentlybeingemployedtosupportpastoraliststohaveagreatervoiceandinuenceoverpolitical
decision-makinginclude:
1. Strengthening constituency advocacy groups and pastoral associations, by:
increasingtheirawarenessonarangeofissues,includingbasicrights,devolvedfundsandtheirmanagement,
policydevelopment,andthedistrictplanningprocess;
encouragingdebateaboutthequalityofleadership,bothwithincommunityorganisationsandinthedistrictasa
whole(includingattentiontoissuesofequityandexclusionfromagenderandgenerationalpointofview);and
strengtheningnegotiationandrepresentationskills,tohelppeoplemaketheircaseandpresenttheirarguments.
2. Engaging directly with political leaders, for example by:
organisingregulareventsatwhichcommunitiesandleaderscanmeetanddebate;
briengpoliticalleadersaboutdevelopmentactivitiesandpriorities;and
involvingpoliticalleadersinprogrammeactivities(suchasevaluations).
3. Encouraging transparency in the use of district resources, for example by:
documentingtheimpactofdevolvedfundsanddisseminatingthisinformationwidely;
doingthesamewithrespecttoNGOandpastoralistassociationfunds,inordertosetanexample;and
encouragingmoretransparentsystemsofmanagementfordevolvedfunds.
Women dancing at the Museum
Centre in Ololosokwan,
Tanzania. The centre was
developed by the villagewomens groups with support
from the village government.Because of the project, the
village government also gave
women rights over land, anovel concept in Masai society.
Photo: Geoff Sayer/Oxfam.
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5.5 Monitoring and evaluation: improving information
management systems
Good inormation is central to DCM programming, both
to identiy the drought cycle stage and to review and
assess the appropriateness o interventions. The ollowing
recommendations will ensure the quality o inormation
management systems:
Improve external context monitoring. Moving rom aproject-based monitoring and evaluation system to a
comprehensive inormation management system helps
programme sta to understand how the external context
aects their programming activities. For example,
this might include collecting data to show changes in
community wealth status (wealth ranking), access to and
usage o productive assets, inrastructure and resources
(resource mapping), and changes in policies or laws.
Collecttherightinformation. Most programmes already
collect too much inormation. Programmes must
examine what decisions they need to infuence and
what inormation is required to do this. Only collect theinormation needed. The table below highlights potential
components and intervals or gathering data.
EnsureinformationsystemsaredrivenbyafewSMART
indicators. A single strategy with shared goals and
objectives is a key element o the One Programme
Approach. Progress in achieving these goals and
objectives should be measured using a minimum number
o agreed targets and indicators. The indicators should
clearly relate to the programme logic and should include
reerence to vulnerability and coping capacity. Having
similar indicators which require dierent data or settingtoo many indicators make it less likely that data will be
gathered and that monitoring and evaluation will give the
inormation needed to inorm decision-making.
Increasethecapacitytouse,analyseandrespondto
information. Oten, it is not the quantity o inormation
that is usually a problem, but the critical gap is oten in
the quality and use o this inormation. The purpose o
collecting data should be to inorm programme decision-
making, and it is vital to ensure that systems are in place
to make this happen.
Createalearningorganisation.Recording and sharing
inormation between sta within programmes andbetween dierent area or country programmes is
essential.
Baseline context
assessment
Repeat context
monitoring
Early warning
Emergency needs
assessment
Project monitoring
Project impactevaluations
Programme
monitoring reviews
Documentation or
advocacy
Inrequent (e.g. every
ve years or when
context changes
Periodic (annual to
every three years)
Continuous (at regular
intervals)
As required (annual)
Continuous
Periodic (annual orbi-annual)
Periodic (every six
months)
As required
No standard ormat, but could use PCVA, RVPA, or HEA. 1 See the
LearningCompaniononDRRAnalysisformoreinformationonthese
tools and methods.
This provides a regular update to the baseline context assessment.
Frequency depends on the size o the survey.
Should be led by government bodies, with agencies working to improve
the quality o inormation and analysis not duplicating eorts.
Undertaken during alert/emergency phases as required. Should be
used to ne tune existing contingency plans.
Project monitoring should ocus on tracking process indicators (e.g.
activities and outputs). Sector-specic surveys can add to overall
context monitoring and be used to assess wider impacts (nutrition,
water quality, KAP2 survey etc.).
These ocus on data collected at outcome and impact level and
usually provide recommendations which can be incorporated into
uture project planning.
These are critical opportunities to analyse the inormation collected
through monitoring in order to review progress against indicators, the
outcomes o evaluations or impact assessments in order to identiy
opportunities to improve programme quality.
A good inormation management system should provide data which
strengthens lobbying and advocacy eorts.
Component of a comprehensive information system
5.6 DRR and the One Programme Approach
Activities to eectively manage drought risk and
response all under the remit o both Humanitarian and
Development departments. This oten makes it dicult to
implement DCM programming e ectively, as almost all
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programmes tend to organise themselves into separate
departments with distinct work plans, projects, and
resources. By ollowing the principles o Oxams One
Programme Approach, some o the problems
encountered can be overcome.
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Key questions to consider when implementing a OneProgramme Approach include:
Doestheprogrammehaveacommonvisionandstrategy
that is widely accepted by both Humanitarian and
Development department sta?
Domanagementstructuresandsystemsreinforceor
undermine the One Programme Approach?
Arerolesandresponsibilitiesclearbetweendepartments,
eld and head oces, and individuals?
Aregoodleadersinplacethatwilltakeresponsibilityfor
leading delivery and change?
7. Further readingMany o the documents listed below are available on
the Oxam Intranet or online. I you are having diculty
locating a resource, please email [email protected] to
request a copy.
BartonD,MortonJandHendyC(2001)Lessonsfor
DroughtContingencyPlanninginthePastoralLivestock
Sector: an Overview. In: Morton J (ed.) Pastoralism,
Drought and Planning: Lessons from Northern Kenya and
Elsewhere. National Resources Institute, Chatham
HECA (2008) Drought Cycle Management: Concepts
and practical guidance in integrating drought cycle
management into pastoral programming in the Horn and
East Africa a series o bries or practitioners
IIRR/AcaciaConsultantsLtd./Cordaid(2004)Drought
Cycle Management a toolkit for the drylands for the
Greater Horn
Useful websites
www.aridland.go.ke
www.droughtnet.org
www.livestock-emergencies.net
www.nri.org/work/pastoralists.htmwww.oxam.org.uk/resources/learning/pastoralism
www.proventionconsortium.org
www.undp.org/drylands
The HECA Regional Pastoralist Programme is the primary
source of expertise in DCM for Oxfam. You can contact
Helen Bushell at [email protected]. For more advice
on integrating DRR into your programme, please contact
your regional Food Security, Livelihoods or DRR Advisor or
the PPT Adaptation and Risk Reduction team in Oxford
Men sitting atop the earthen bank of Nalapatui water pan, which was created with Oxfam support. Nalapatui pan allows the Turkana herding
groups to exploit dry season grazing on the western border of the district without crossing into Uganda for water. Photo:Crispin Hughes/Oxfam.
6. Summary of key learning from this
companion
DCMprovidesacommonframeworktoalign
humanitarian,developmentandadvocacywork
andimprovestheeffectivenessofinterventions
byensuringthatactivitiesarematchedtothe
currentstageofthedroughtcycle.
DCMcanbecombinedwithDRRapproaches
toensurethatprogrammesarereducing
vulnerabilitytodroughtandotherhazards.This
shouldincludehazardsthatwillbecomemore
frequentorwidespreadduetoclimatechange.
Planningshouldtakeintoaccountthedrought
cycleandconsiderhowallinterventionscanbe
adaptedfordifferentconditions.
Informationmanagementsystemsthatcapture
datarelatingtotheexternalcontextand
communitiesvulnerabilitiesandcapacitiesare
essentialtoinformprogrammedecision-making.
Advocacytoensurethatgovernmentsrespond
appropriatelytotheneedsofcommunitiesatall
stagesofthedroughtcycleisacrucialpartofa
DRRapproach.
1 Participatory Capacity and Vulnerability Assessment (PCVA), Risk Vulnerability and Poverty Assessment (RVPA) and Household Economy Analysis (HEA). Theassessment should provide inormation that can be used to set and track overall programme indicators.
2 Knowledge, Attitude and Practice
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Disaster Risk Reduction and Climate Change Adaptation arecorporateprioritiesforOxfamGB.TheLearningCompanionsareaseto articles, which provide accessible and practical guidance to Oxam sta wishing to integrate DRR and Climate Change adaptation
approaches into programming. To nd out about other resources on Disaster Risk Reduction and Climate Change Adaptation, and to give us
your eedback on these resources, please contact the Programme Resource Centre. Email: [email protected]
Pastoralists herd their cattle ready or vaccination at the launch o the Oxam supported Cattle Vacination Campaign in the Gao region, Mali.
Photo: Dave Clark/Oxam
OxfamisaregisteredcharityinEnglandandWalesNo202918andScotlandSCO039042.Inhouse4087