disasters and their effects on children

Advances in Pediatrics 57 (2010) 7–31

ADVANCES IN PEDIATRICS

Disasters and Their Effects on Children

Julia Lynch, MDa, Joe Wathen, MDb, Eric Tham, MDb,Patrick Mahar, MDb, Stephen Berman, MDc,*aMilitary Infectious Disease Research Program, US Army, Medical Research and MaterialCommand (US Army, MRMC), 504 Scott Street, Fort Detrick, MA 21702, USAbDepartment of Pediatrics, Emergency Medicine, University of Colorado, The Children’s Hospital,13123 East 16th Avenue, B251, Aurora, CO 80045, USAcDepartment of Pediatrics, General Academic Pediatrics, The Children’s Hospital,University of Colorado, Aurora, CO, USA

The recent magnitude 7.0 Mw earthquake in Haiti on January 12, 2010,created one of the most severe humanitarian disasters in modern recordedtimes. According to the most recent estimates, 222,570 people died during

the earthquake, with an additional 600,000 injured, and more than 1 millionbeing internally displaced persons [1]. Some statistical models estimated that110,000 of the injured were children [2]. These estimates rival the 230,000who perished during the Asian tsunami of 2004. Although the destruction ofthe Asian tsunami occurred in more than 14 countries, the deaths and destruc-tion of the January earthquake were centered on the tiny island of Hispaniolain the country of Haiti with the epicenter in Leogane, which is 25 km from thecapital of Port-au-Prince.

Although there was an overwhelming desire by physicians and otherhealth professionals to respond to this tragedy, many of the immediateresponders were poorly prepared to perform medical procedures withoutthe support of modern facilities [3]. This included having to performmany amputations without the use of anesthesia or sedation in the imme-diate aftermath of the earthquake. In this article, we review disaster defini-tions, classifications, and measures of severity; describe the phases ofa disaster; review the 10 World Health Organization emergency reliefmeasures; discuss the role of international relief organizations; and presentkey issues that medical volunteers faced in Haiti. The key message of thisarticle is to understand that although it is not possible to predict disastersof this magnitude, planning and preparation can help mitigate some of themorbidity and mortality that occur in the aftermath of such disasters. Thismessage has been clearly stated by Benjamin Franklin: ‘‘Failing to plan isplanning to fail.’’

*Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected]

0065-3101/10/$ – see front matter� 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.yapd.2010.09.005

mailto:[email protected]

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http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.yapd.2010.09.005

8 LYNCH, WATHEN, THAM, ET AL

DEFINITIONSThe World Health Organization and the Pan American Health Organization(WHO/PAHO) define a disaster as an event that most often occurs suddenlyand unexpectedly, resulting in loss of life, harm to the health of the popula-tion, destruction of community property, and damage to the environment.The disaster disrupts the normal pattern of life, causing suffering and anoverwhelming sense of helplessness and hopelessness. The impact on thesocioeconomic structure of a region and environment often requires outsideassistance and intervention. Although there are many definitions for disaster,there are 3 common factors. First, there is an event or phenomenon thatimpacts a population or an environment. Second, a vulnerable condition orcharacteristic allows the event to have a more serious impact. For example,the large number of collapsed buildings, including schools and hospitals,caused by earthquakes were related to substandard building practices inboth China and Haiti. The damage from the 2009 earthquake in Tokyoand the 2010 earthquake in Chile had far less loss of life in large part becauseof the high quality of construction. Identifying these factors has practicalimplications for communities’ preparedness and provides a basis for preven-tion. Third, local resources are inadequate to cope with the problems createdby the phenomenon or event.

Disasters affect communities in multiple ways. Their impact on the healthcare infrastructure is multifactorial. They can cause an unexpected numberof deaths. In addition, the large number of wounded and sick often exceedsthe local community’s health care delivery capacity. The community’s capacityto care for those affected is often reduced because professionals, clinics, andhospitals have been affected or destroyed. This will have long-term conse-quences leading to increased morbidity and mortality. Before the January 12earthquake in Haiti, there were only 11 hospitals in Port-au-Prince. The earth-quake damaged or destroyed at least 8 of these hospitals. The remaining healthfacilities were quickly overwhelmed by large numbers of survivors requiringa wide range of care, particularly for trauma injuries. To help with immediatehealth care needs, field hospitals were established by a variety of groups(Fig. 1). The 2010 earthquake in Haiti demonstrates how a disaster becomesmuch more devastating when the preexisting medical system is already inade-quate and poorly functional. This makes integrating and organizing outsideassistance more fragmented and chaotic.

The disaster can have adverse effects on the environment that will increasethe risk for infectious transmissible diseases and environmental hazards. Thiswill affect morbidity, premature death, and future quality of life. There canbe shortages of food, with severe nutritional consequences. All these condi-tions lead to a sense of hopelessness and inability to think that the futurewill be better. This means that people no longer visualize their future bymaking plans such as finishing school, getting married, and working. This‘‘foreshortened future’’ affects the psychological and social behavior of thecommunity.

Fig. 1. Field hospital Haiti 2010. These are pictures taken by the team that went to Haiti fromTCH. This was their field hospital.

9DISASTERS AND THEIR EFFECTS ON CHILDREN

CLASSIFICATION OF DISASTERSDisasters can be divided into those caused by natural forces and those causedby humans, as shown in Box 1.

Natural forces include earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions, hurricanes,fires, tornados, and extreme weather conditions. They can be classified as rapid-onset disasters such as earthquakes or tsunamis, and those with progressiveonset, such as droughts that lead to famine. Natural events, usually sudden,can have tremendous effects. For instance, in December 2004, more than230,000 people died in southern Asia as a result of a tsunami, and in February2010, more than 220,000 people died following an earthquake inHaiti. Althoughsimilar types of disasters have predictable patterns of disruption, as shown inTable 1, the degree of severity and type of response is affected by local features.

Disasters caused by humans are those in which major direct causes are iden-tifiable intentional or nonintentional human actions. They can be subdividedinto 3 main categories: technological disasters, terrorism, and complex human-itarian emergencies.

Box 1: Types of disasters

Natural disasters

� Hurricanes or cyclones

� Tornadoes

� Floods

� Avalanches and mud slides

� Tsunamis

� Hailstorms

� Droughts

� Forest fires

� Earthquakes

� Epidemics

Human-provoked disasters

Technological/industrial disasters� Leaks of hazardous materials� Accidental explosions� Bridge or road collapses, or vehicle� Collisions� Power cuts

Terrorism/International violence� Bombs or explosions� Release of chemical materials� Release of biologic agents� Release of radioactive agents� Multiple or massive shootings� Mutinies� Intentional fires

Complex emergencies� Conflicts or wars� Genocide


Technological disasters are most often industrial events resulting fromunregulated industrialization and inadequate safety standards. Examplesinclude the radioactive leak in the Chernobyl nuclear station in Ukraine(1986) and the toxic gas leak in a Bhopal factory in India (1984). Both of thesedisasters were associated with many deaths as well as long-term health effects inthe affected population. The threat of terrorism has also increased owing to the

Table 1Frequent effects of disasters

Disaster typeComplexemergency Earthquake

Strongwinds Floods

Gradualfloods

Mudslides

Volcaniceruptions

EffectImmediate deaths Numerous Numerous Few Numerous Few Numerous NumerousSevere lesions Numerous Numerous Moderate Few Few Few FewIncreased risk

for transmissiblediseases

This risk applies to ALL significant disasters, and increases with overcrowding and deterioration of sanitary conditions

Damage to healthcenters

Moderate; can besevere if healthcenters are militarytargets

Severe Severe Severe butlocalized

Severe(only forequipment)

Severe butlocalized

Severe

Damage to watersupply

Severe Severe Slight Severe Slight Severe butlocalized

Severe

Food shortage Severe May result from economic andlogistic factors

Frequent Frequent Not frequent Notfrequent

Significant populationdisplacements

Frequent Frequent; increasedlikelihood in severelydamaged urbanareas

Not frequent Frequent

11

DISA

STERSAND

THEIR

EFFECTS

ON

CHILD

REN


spread of technologies involving nuclear, biologic, and chemical agents as wellas the use of explosives and firearms. Explosive or blast events are the mostcommon type of terrorist event causing morbidity and mortality. The termcomplex humanitarian emergency describes the situation resulting from eitheran international or civil war. War often results in a staggering loss of civilianlives. There is a disruption of the basic societal infrastructure, including fooddistribution, water, electricity, sanitation, and health care. In addition, theability to carry out an emergency relief response is hindered by a lack of secu-rity as well as political instability.

Both natural disasters and complex emergencies can force many people toleave their homes. The specific job of the office of the United Nations HighCommissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) is to register and assist displaced pop-ulations and individuals. This office recognizes 2 categories of affected people:refugees and internally displaced persons (IDP).

Refugees flee their countries because of war, violence, famine, or well-founded fear of persecution for political, ethnical, religious, or nationalityreasons. A person recognized as a refugee is entitled to certain protectionsunder the terms of international humanitarian laws. IDPs leave their homesfor similar reasons but do not cross the boundaries of their countries. Theseindividuals do not receive the same kind of legal protection, so helping themcan be much more difficult. The current worldwide number of IDPs can bemonitored by accessing information available at http://www.internal-displacement.org.

PHASES OF DISASTERSBecause relief interventions in emergencies evolve as a continuum, it is usefulto prioritize activities and resources according to 4 phases: planning, response,recovery, and mitigation/prevention. Planning comprises all the activities andactions taken before a disaster. Base the planning on the analysis of the com-munity’s or organization’s risk for exposure to specific types of disasters. Plansshould take into account the frequency of occurrence of each type of disaster,the anticipated magnitude of effect, the likelihood that there will be anadvanced warning, characteristics of the populations most likely to be affected,the amount and types of resources available within the community or organi-zational structure, and the ability to function independently without additionaloutside resources for periods of time.

The response phase includes all activities and actions taken during andimmediately after a disaster. This includes notification of the organizationsinvolved in disaster response, setting up of initial communication networks,initial search and rescue, disposal of the dead, damage assessment, evacuation,sheltering, and other multiple activities. The response phase is characterized byinitial chaos, high crude mortality rate (CMR), and hopefully, rapid assess-ments of the situation by specialized response teams. The response phase isoften complicated by the lack of functional communications and central orga-nization. The response phase lasts until the initial casualties have been either

http://www.internal-displacement.org

http://www.internal-displacement.org


rescued or acknowledged as lost, and enough resources have been made avail-able to allow the population to assess damages and begin planning restorationand recovery. This phase can last hours to weeks. During the first few daysfollowing a disaster, local communities must usually rely on their ownresources and disaster plans.

The recovery phase is the period in which the affected organization orcommunity works toward reestablishing self-sufficiency. This is the period ofnew community planning, rebuilding, and reestablishment of governmentand public service infrastructure. The health status of the affected populationbegins to return to predisaster conditions and the outside support servicesare gradually withdrawn.

During the mitigation and prevention phase, all aspects of emergencymanagement are scrutinized for ‘‘lessons learned,’’ and the lessons are thenapplied in an effort to prevent the recurrence of the disaster itself or to lessenthe effects of subsequent events. Mitigation includes preventive and precau-tionary measures such as changing building codes and practices, redesigningpublic utilities and services, reviewing mandatory evacuation practices andwarning policies, and educating members of the community. Mitigation andplanning are continuous processes, as lessons learned from a previous disasterare included in planning for the next one.

SEVERITY OF A DISASTERAs was demonstrated in Haiti, the more fragile the pre-event health status ofthe affected population and inadequate the predisaster infrastructure, themore severe the disaster. Disaster severity will, therefore, vary according toits magnitude and the vulnerability of the population. When assessing theoutcome of a disaster, public health officers describe its severity by the numberof human lives lost using the CMR. CMR is usually defined as the number ofdeaths per 10,000 inhabitants per day. In developing nations, the referenceCMR value varies from 0.4 to 0.7 deaths per 10,000 people per day. ACMR above 1 death per 10,000 people per day is considered a humanitarianemergency. To assess the progression of a disaster and the effectiveness ofrelief interventions, measure the CMR over several appropriate time intervals.For example, during the month following the massive movement of Rwandanrefugees to Eastern Zaire, the CMR in that region was 40 to 60 times above the

Table 2Crude mortality rate: baseline and after humanitarian disaster

Date Origin Host country CMR crisis CMR baseline

1991 Somalia Ethiopia 4.7 0.61991 Iraq Turkey/Iraq 4.2 0.21994 Rwanda Zaire 34.0 0.6

Data from Toole MJ. Mass population displacement—a global public health challenge. Infect Dis Clin NorthAm 1995:9(2):353–66.


corresponding reference value. The CMR is usually highest during the initialphase of a disaster (Table 2).

The immediate mortality in any type of disaster is not higher in a specific agerange; instead, it usually reflects the age distribution of the overall population.However, later the mortality rate is disproportionately higher among the youn-gest and oldest people. Fig. 2 shows this phenomenon related to a refugee crisisin Northern Iraq in 1991. Although children aged 0 to 5 years accounted foronly 18% of the total refugee population, they accounted for 64% of the overallrefugee mortality rate.

The most vulnerable groups include children, especially those displacedfrom their families; women who are pregnant, lactating, or live without theirspouse; individuals living in households headed only by women; disabled indi-viduals; and the elderly. In addition to disproportionately high mortality rates,children displaced from their family are at high risk for a number of adverseconsequences, including rape, torture, robbery, and exploitation in child labor,

18%

33%

42%

7%

64%

5%

8%

23%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

Population

distribution

Deaths

distribution

0 to 5 years

6 to 14 years

15 to 44 years

45 years or more

Fig. 2. Mortality rate per age group: refugee crisis Northern Iraq (1991). (Data from TooleMJ. Mass population displacement—a global public health challenge. Infect Dis Clin NorthAm 1995;9(2):353–66.)


child trafficking, and child soldiering. Additionally, because of certain physicaland physiologic characteristics, infants and children are more vulnerable to therelease of toxic substances and the overcrowding associated with the displace-ment of large populations. Consequently, in all disaster response planning, it iscritical to attempt to reunite children with their families as soon as possible andpay special attention to reducing their vulnerability.

Trauma is often the leading cause of mortality from the immediate impact ofa disaster. After the initial impact phase, there are 5 leading medical problemsthat have consistently been found to be the major causes of mortality in post-war or post–natural disaster settings: diarrhea and dehydration, measles,malaria, respiratory infections, and malnutrition. Unique features in eachdisaster (eg, climate, topography, preexisting social structure, and physicalconditions) affect the proportion of deaths associated with each of these, aswell as other causes. Fig. 3 shows the number of natural and complex disastersin the world between 1985 and 1995. Malnutrition, although not identified asa significant immediate cause of death, is the most important factor correlatedto the high mortality rates attributable to transmissible diseases. A studyincluding 41 displaced populations (Fig. 4) showed a clear correlation betweenthe CMR (ie, death from all causes) and the prevalence of malnutrition.

ESSENTIAL EMERGENCY RELIEF MEASURESAt a World Health Organization conference, international relief experts identi-fied 10 essential emergency relief measures to consider when responding toa disaster. Each of these measures is described in the following sections. Theseinterventions are not intended to be implemented in strict order; rather,priority for each intervention should be suited to the particular needs relatingto each individual emergency situation. The immediate goal for any interven-tion in humanitarian emergencies is to reduce the number of deaths. Although

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995

Complex Disasters Natural Disasters

,

Fig. 3. Number of natural and complex disasters worldwide, 1985–1995.

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

<5% 5-9.9 % 10-19.9 % 20-39.9 % >or=40 %

Malnutrition Prevalence

CM

R

Fig. 4. Effects of malnutrition on mortality rates during disasters. Malnutrition ¼ <80%weight/height WHO reference population; CMR ¼ crude mortality rate (deaths per 1,000individuals/month) in relation to malnutrition prevalence.


both conflict and natural disasters can result in immediate deaths, there aremany preventable deaths that occur in later phases of a disaster over a longertime period. Interventions that are based on speculations rather than on accu-rate information obtained in the place of the disaster are likely to waste timeand valuable resources, ultimately increasing the suffering of the affected pop-ulation. Unpredicted effects may require urgent attention. For example,compromise of a water supply system is unlikely to be a predicted effect ofa storm-related mudslide. However, if the regional system for water pumpingor purification is in the mudslide zone, the shortage of safe water becomes thekey issue that must be addressed to prevent disease and excessive mortality inthe affected population. Resources need to match both the need and the timeframe to be useful. For example, trauma is likely to be the major cause of deathimmediately after an earthquake. If trauma surgery teams and field hospitalsarrive a week after the earthquake, most of the trauma-related deaths willalready have occurred and very little benefit will be obtained from this high-cost resource.

Do a Rapid Assessment of the Emergency Situation and the AffectedPopulation
An assessment should accurately define what is needed, so that limitedresources will be efficiently used to minimize morbidity and mortality as well


as reduce the likelihood of additional problems/complications during subse-quent phases of response.

National level
Assessments are typically done by expert teams focused on promptly definingthe event magnitude, the environmental conditions and infrastructure damage,the major health and nutrition needs of the affected population, and the localresponse capacity.
Community level
In the immediate aftermath of a disaster, the initial response will primarilycome from local resources. Communities must be prepared to do a local assess-ment of disaster impact. Health care professionals should be prepared to assessthe health issues in their community, and understand how information will beshared with higher levels of authority, to contribute to regional or nationalassessments.
Assessments need to be an ongoing process so that the quality and specificity ofdatawill improve during the rescue and recovery phases.This is especially impor-tant whenever anymajor change occurs, such as an aftershock earthquake. Infor-mation gathered through these assessments should be used by the resourcemanagers to determine the allocation of resources in any large-scale disaster.

Provide Adequate Shelter and Clothing
Shelter and clothing is essential as exposure to the climatic conditions indisaster situations can increase caloric requirements and lead to death.
Community level
Find short-term shelters for all homeless individuals, particularly focusing onvulnerable populations. Shelters should be appropriate for the climate and focuson providing a safe environment from subsequent events related to the disaster.After an earthquake, shelters should be established in locations that would nothave potential for further damage from collapsing buildings or falling debrisfrom anticipated aftershocks. During times of flooding, it is important that shelterfor the displaced individuals is located in an area that is not at risk of rising flood-waters. Displaced victims will not use these shelters if they do not feel safe. Keepindividuals within their communities and family networks asmuch as possible. Ingeneral, it is recommended to direct resources to rebuilding within the commu-nity, rather than building large camps or temporary settlements outside thedisaster area. Schools are often used as emergency shelters following a disaster;however, it is important for children to return to as normal a routine as possibleas early as possible. This means that schools should be reopened as soon aspossible and teachers should be trained to understand stress reactions and recog-nize when additional help is needed.
Provide Adequate Nutrition
Large-scale bulk food requirements are typically calculated based ona minimum of 2000 kcal per person per day.


Community level
Communities must plan to distribute food equitably and include vulnerablegroups. As global food resources improve, establish targeted supplementaland therapeutic feeding programs for malnourished individuals.
Provide Elementary Sanitation and Clean Water
The estimated minimum requirement for water is 3 to 5 L per person per dayof clean water.
Community level
Reestablish supplies of clean water and effective sanitation and waste disposalservices as soon as possible. Consider how to address the needs of vulnerablegroups related to access, safety, and security in the planning process.
Set Up Diarrhea Control Program
An increase in diarrheal disease is a predictable outcome of disasters because ofinfrastructure and health care services disruption.
Community level
Rapidly implement community-based education on appropriate householdsanitation measures, diarrhea prevention, and household case management,particularly for young children with diarrhea. Health care centers should antic-ipate the needs for additional cases of dehydration, using appropriate low-coststrategies (oral rehydration solution/oral rehydration therapy [ORS/ORT]) andrecognize possible cases of cholera and dysentery.
Immunize Against Measles and Provide Vitamin A Supplements
Measles has been a major source of mortality among crowded, displaced pop-ulations in which malnutrition is prevalent. Therefore, measles immunization isthe only vaccine that is routinely considered for use as a preventive measureimmediately following a disaster. Because vitamin A deficiency is commonand contributes to measles-related mortality, consider mass distribution ofvitamin A for vulnerable populations.
National level
National and international agencies must work together to determine if measlesimmunization or vitamin A distribution is necessary following a particularevent. If necessary for all or part of the affected population, national authoritiesshould establish the central logistics (eg, cold chain, personnel, materials) tomanage a mass immunization/distribution campaign.
Community level
Health officers must immediately assess the available cold chain as part of itshealth care assessment. Health care professionals must monitor for cases ofmeasles and develop a plan for mass immunization and/or mass distributionof vitamin A to the vulnerable groups in their community.


Reestablish and Improve Primary Medical Care
Immediate casualties (rescue phase) of a sudden impact disaster are likely toinclude a limited number of trauma victims. In most disasters in fragile commu-nities, the larger number of disaster-related deaths (ie, deaths above the baselineCMR) will be a result of preventable causes of mortality in the weeks andmonths following the impact. These casualties can largely be prevented bycommunity health education and access to appropriate primary care.
Community level
Health professionals should know the emergency transport and responsesystems in their community. Health care interventions during the rescue phaseshould include minimizing loss of life caused by the direct impact of the event(eg, trauma, drowning). After the rescue phase, health care resources should befocused on reestablishing and improving the access and quality of primary care,particularly for the most vulnerable groups.
Set Up Disease Surveillance and Health Information Systems
Effective health information and disease surveillance systems are necessary tomonitor effectiveness of health interventions and reassign priorities.
National level
Health authorities should use available information to define initial priorities inthe use of limited resources. They should develop specific surveillance guide-lines for each disaster to track relevant disease/mortality trends.
Community level
Every health care delivery setting should immediately implement a simple buteffective health information collection system based on established WHO,PAHO, or governmental guidelines. Health care professionals should knowhow to share this information regularly with regional and/or federal healthauthorities.
Organize Human Resources
The initial shock of an event can make it difficult for a disaster-affected popu-lation to effectively respond in a quick and organized fashion. Having a prede-fined emergency plan with clearly identified leaders can help the localcommunity to cope until more external resources arrive.
Community level
Have an emergency plan and predefined community leaders for the following:
� Conducting rescue operations� Conducting assessments (eg, health services, transportation, food, sanitation/water systems)

� Organization of food and water distribution, and the sanitary program� Health services management� Corpses and gravesite management


� Identification of unaccompanied minors and other extremely vulnerable indi-viduals (eg, elderly or persons with a disability) and plans for caring for theseindividuals.

Coordinate ActivitiesNational level
In a large-scale disaster there will be many national and international agenciesattempting to assess, develop plans, and establish priorities for funding atnational and regional levels. Most effective relief efforts require effective collab-oration among many agencies, each bringing their own expertise and experi-ence. However, all of these agencies will ultimately depend on accurateassessments from the affected communities to make appropriate decisions.
Community level
Develop local emergency plans that link into regional and national plans andagencies. Understand the mechanisms for communicating information (eg,assessments, surveillance data) during disasters. Build relationships with keyindividuals within and outside the community before a disaster occurs.
INTERNATIONAL RELIEF ORGANIZATIONSWhen local resources are insufficient, assistance from multiple national orperhaps multinational organizations will be needed. Each involved organiza-tion has its own institutional structure and culture, in addition to other features,such as capacity for response, technical and logistic resources, and thematic orregional approach.

Several international agencies may have activities in the country before theevent. In response to the disaster, these agencies may retarget their resourcesin the country to emergency relief. Effective coordination and cooperationamong involved organizations are essential but very difficult to achieve inthe chaotic situation of a massive emergency. There are 2 major types of orga-nizations that can get involved in assistance when a disaster occurs: govern-mental and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs).

GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS
National Ministries These are agencies at the national ministry level that have authority for disasterplanning and response. Nations should establish a health disaster coordinatorwithin the Ministry of Health (MoH). The health disaster coordinator notonly coordinates health-related relief efforts in the event of a disaster, butalso continuously updates emergency plans and conducts preparedness trainingfor health care professionals.
The Pan American Health Organization
PAHO is an international public health agency serving as the Regional Officefor the Americas of WHO. It provides health policy guidance and technicalassistance in disaster planning and response. More information is available atwww.paho.org.
http://www.paho.org


World Health Organization
WHO provides technical advice and develops health policies relating to disas-ters. More information is available at www.who.int.
SUMA
SUMA (Humanitarian Supply Administration System, developed by PAHO)facilitates the reception, inventory, and rapid distribution of essential humani-tarian supplies and equipment. In the event of a disaster, PAHO can sendSUMA-trained staff to the affected country to assist in managing the inflowof supplies.
United Nations
The UN is a multinational organization that functions mainly through itssubagencies, which are independently funded. More information is availableat: www.un.org.
The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)is mainly responsible for providing needed food, supplies, and other material,but it also plays a central role in protecting and advocating for displaced pop-ulations. More information is available at www.unhcr.org.
World Food Program
The World Food Program (WFP) coordinates the delivery of food to regionsin need around the world. More information available at www.wfp.org.
United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund
The United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF) wascreated by the UN General Assembly to advocate and protect children’s rights,to help fulfill their basic needs, and to provide opportunities for maximizing thedevelopment of their potential. When an emergency occurs, UNICEF focuseson ensuring that basic needs of women and children are fulfilled and on pro-tecting their basic rights. More information is available at www.unicef.org.
Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs
In 1998, the Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) wasestablished by the reorganization of the UN Department of HumanitarianAffairs (DHA). Its mission was expanded to include the coordination ofhumanitarian response, policy development, and advocacy. OCHA’s tasksare done through the Inter Agency Permanent Committee that includesmultiple participating organizations, such as UN agencies, funds, andprograms, the Red Cross, and NGOs. More information is available athttp://ochaonline.un.org.
Foreign Organizations That Provide Help in Case of Disaster
Table 3 identifies some of the governmental agencies of developed countriesthat provide funding and technical help to countries affected by humanitarianemergencies.
http://www.who.int

http://www.un.org

http://www.unhcr.org

http://www.wfp.org

http://www.unicef.org

http://ochaonline.un.org

Table 3Foreign agencies for disaster assistance

US Agency for InternationalDevelopment - Office for ForeignDisaster Assistance (OFDA)

http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/humanitarian_assistance/disaster_assistance/

Canadian International DevelopmentAgency (CIDA)

www.acdi-cida.gc.ca

European Commission HumanitarianOrganization (ECHO)

http://ec.europa.eu/echo/about/actors/specialised_agencies_en.htm

United Kingdom Department forInternational Development (DFID)

www.dfid.gov.uk

Japan International CooperationAgency (JICA)

http://www.jica.go.jp/worldmap/english.html


PAHO and WHO have developed guidelines to assist disaster-affected coun-tries in managing donor offers from various agencies, according to the 1999PAHO publication Humanitarian Assistance in Disaster Situations: A Guide forEffective Aid.

Military Help
Both local and foreign military can be mobilized to assist in the response tonatural disasters or complex emergencies. Certain unique features make mili-tary organizations useful in a disaster.
Advantages
Speed: Few organizations are capable of implementing a large logistic
response as rapidly as the military.Security: The military can secure a specified environment, population, and

material.Transportation: Their fleet of planes and helicopters, as well as land and naval

equipment, enable them to transport resources readily.Logistics: They have experience in maintaining supply lines in problematic envi-

ronments and situations.Command, control, and communication: They have a well-defined and respon-

sive organizational structure.Self-sufficiency in the field: When military arrive to the region where the event

has occurred, they are capable of fulfilling the needs of their own personnel.Specialized units: They often have specifically trained and equipped units.

These include engineers who can provide technical assistance and preven-tive medicine teams capable of rapidly performing epidemiologic evalua-tions and surveillance, outbreak investigations, vector control, and waterpurification and treatment.

Field hospitals and capacity for medical evacuation: Hospitals can be helpful incertain circumstances. See the WHO-PAHO guidelines for the use of fieldhospitals in sudden-impact disasters (as mentioned above).

Shortcomings
Despite all the advantages mentioned previously, the use of the military canhave significant shortcomings and limitations in some situations.


http://www.acdi-cida.gc.ca



http://www.dfid.gov.uk

http://www.jica.go.jp/worldmap/english.html


Medical care: Field hospitals are designed for the care of soldiers wounded incombat (ie, for the care of wounds suffered by healthy adults). Duringa disaster, primary care and preventive interventions for women andchildren are major needs.

Logistics: Supplies available in the military response system may not be appro-priate for a disaster in terms of prevailing diseases or types of food.

Political objectives: The military are an asset of governments; in addition,certain humanitarian objectives can be subordinated to other political orstrategic goals. The presence of the army in certain scenarios can causetension in certain groups of the population and compromise relief workerswho, for their own safety and function, wish to be considered neutral.

Cost: Military activities are expensive.

NONGOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONSNGOs are nonprofit organizations working on a full-time basis in assistance forappropriate development. Thousands of NGOs, both international and national,are functioning throughout theworld.MostNGOs are small agencies focusing onvery specific development projects (eg, providing education, working tools, ortraining in sustainable development). Only a few of them have the resourcesrequired for supporting activities targeted to promote development and torespond to disasters in multiple countries or regions. Although NGOs mayreceive contributions from individuals,most of their funds come from the govern-ments of industrialized countries. These governments distribute their money forassisting projects through contracts with NGOs. Unlike the InternationalCommittee of the Red Cross (ICRC), some NGOs maintain a ‘‘right to inter-fere.’’ This means they can operate across borders without written approval oftheir hosts. Although usually looking for the neutrality of the ICRC, someNGOs may be more willing to report any perceived injustice. They performwell in emergencies within their area of specialty (eg, water provision, food distri-bution), but most cannot achieve self-sufficiency in an emergency setting and relyon UN, military, or other agencies for security, transportation to remote sites,communication, support of logistics, or medical care for their own personnel.NGOs have an enhanced ability to provide person-to-person assistance becausethey are likely to have a predisaster relationship with the affected communitiesand understand the local culture and public health issues. They can also shifteasily from disaster relief to development, and are willing to make a long-termcommitment to community development and rebuilding.

International Committee of the Red Cross
The ICRC is a hybrid agency: neither private nor controlled by a government. Anumber of its characteristics are unique; itsmission is defined by the internationalhumanitarian law passed by the 1949 Geneva Convention and the two 1977protocols. The ICRC gets involved mainly when civil disturbances are present;it has the right and duty to intervene across borders when national or interna-tional conflicts break out, regardless of whether a ‘‘state of war’’ has beendeclared. The ICRCbrokers relief assistance duringwar, assures legal protection


for victims, andmonitors thewayPrisoners ofWar aremanaged. Also, the ICRCplays a critical role in reuniting families. The ICRC strives to preserve itsneutrality, which is essential for its mission and enables its members to workunarmed in war regions under the control of any of the involved parties. TheICRC provides a complete account of its activities to all the parties involved inthe conflict. It will refuse to participate in any activity that can be seen as showingfavoritism. This may include transportation in vehicles belonging to one of theparties or joining efforts with groups that have their own interests. The ICRCis usually self-sufficient and can use its own resources for air lifts, communication,and logistics. It will participate only if all parties involved in the conflict sign anagreement recognizing and showing respect for its neutrality and mission. TheICRC is related to but independent from the Red Cross and the Red CrescentSocieties national agencies. These organizations provide assistance primarily tovictims of disasters orwarswithin their ownnations.They have a similar commit-ment with neutrality, provision of assistance based only on the need, and inde-pendence from national governments.

Coordinating the activities of all these organizations poses a tremendouschallenge. Following a natural disaster the host nation’s government/agenciesand military are likely to have operational command. Most nations nowhave defined governmental authorities responsible for global disaster planningand response, as well as coordinators for individual sectors such as health.External agencies or governments play a supportive role in providing technicalassistance and resources.

In complex emergencies related to a conflict, the armed forces or govern-ment authorities will have the command of operations, including the coordina-tion of humanitarian help. The coordination in this scenario can be particularlydifficult if the hostile groups are stationed nearby and try to block assistance ofcivilians. In this context, humanitarian help can be used as a political and stra-tegic instrument.

MEDICAL VOLUNTEERINGFollowing a disaster, many pediatricians and other health professionals volun-teer for a limited time. During the initial response phase, the greatest pediatricneeds include air transport teams, surgical teams (a surgeon, operating room[OR] nurse, anesthesiologist, and critical care pediatrician), as well as pediatri-cians with training and experience in emergency medicine and critical care.Volunteers may have to be self-sufficient for a period of time in terms offood, water, and shelter. Volunteers should work through an establishedNGO or governmental agency rather than simply ‘‘show up’’ to help.

Volunteers should be prepared to respond quickly, as the quicker theresponse teams can provide appropriate care, the more effective they can beat saving lives and limiting morbidity. Part of preparation is anticipating thetypes of injuries that will be seen with different types of disasters. Whensending a response team into a disaster during the acute response phase, it isimportant to have the personnel with the ability to treat the most likely injuries


seen with the specific type of disaster. In a major earthquake like the one inHaiti in January 2010, one would expect most of the casualties to be secondaryto traumatic injuries related to collapsed buildings. Therefore, a team should beprepared to have personnel and supplies that can be used to treat crush injuriesand a large number of open wounds, along with a variety of orthopedicinjuries. In a disaster involving an explosion (large industrial accident orterrorist attack), the pattern of injuries would include many of the same trau-matic injuries as seen in an earthquake, but would also include a large numberof burns and blast injuries such as blast lung. Personnel required in this type ofdisaster should include those with training in caring for burns as well as expe-rience with other traumatic injuries.

In the first days following the Haiti earthquake, there were a large number ofcomplex orthopedic injuries that required emergent treatment. These includedopen fractures, traumatic amputations, and crush injuries. The treatment ofthese injuries included fracture reductions, wound debridement, and amputa-tions. Thus, it was essential to have personnel with the training to performthe needed procedures. Personnel with training in emergency medicine, generalsurgery, and orthopedics are best suited to be part of the initial response teamwhen a large number of traumatic injuries are expected.

Supplies that were essential in caring for these patients included plastersplinting/casting supplies, wound dressing supplies, and medications for paincontrol and sedation. When caring for open wounds, the ability to appropri-ately irrigate and clean wounds can greatly reduce subsequent secondary infec-tions of these wounds. Response teams should come prepared with suppliesthat would be able to provide pressure irrigation of wounds with either cleanwater or saline, antibiotic ointments, and large supplies of wound dressings.A large number of the orthopedic injuries can be treated with casting or splint-ing. Plaster casting material is far superior in this setting because casts made offiberglass cannot be easily removed without a cast saw, whereas patients/fami-lies can be instructed to remove a plaster cast by soaking it in water. Adequatesedation for painful procedures such as amputations and fracture reductionscan be safely obtained using either ketamine intravascularly or intramuscularly.Ketamine is the ideal sedative in this situation, as the safety profile is such thatit can be used when minimal monitoring equipment is available because itcauses minimal respiratory or cardiovascular effects. Procedural sedationwith ketamine is a basic skill set of pediatric emergency medicine–trained physi-cians and can provide adequate sedation and analgesia for most of the proce-dures that will be needed during the response phase.

Box 2 provides a list of pediatric equipment that, if possible, should bebrought in. An article in the New England Journal of Medicine by the Israeli mobilehospital reviews the ethical dilemmas encountered in Haiti when the need forcare far exceeded the capacity [4].

Among the recommended equipment, elements for proper airway manage-ment in children are crucial. A major challenge of any disaster response isgathering, organizing, and moving supplies to the affected area. Resource

Box 2: Recommended equipment to bring for pediatricemergencies in disaster situations

Airway Management/Breathing� Tongue blades� Suctioning machine (portable, battery powered)� Suction catheters: Yankauer, 8, 10, 14F� Simple face masks: infant, child, adult� Pediatric and adult masks for assisted ventilation� Self-inflating bag with 250-mL, 500-mL, and 1000-mL reservoir� Optional for intubation� Laryngoscope handle with batteries (extra batteries AA, laryngoscope bulbs)

Miler blades: 0, 1, 2, 3 Macintosh blades 2, 3

Endotracheal tubes, uncuffed: 3.0, 3.5, 4.0, 4.5, 5.0, 6.0; cuffed: 7.0, 8.0

Laryngeal mask airways

Stylets: small, large

Easycap (ETCO2 analyzer), 2 sizes

Adhesive tape to secure endotracheal tube (ETT)

Circulation/intravascular access or fluid management� IV catheters: 18-, 20-, 22-, 24-gauge� Butterfly needles: 23-gauge� Intraosseous needles: 15- or 18-gauge, or Eazy IO device� Boards, tape, tourniquet IV� Pediatric drip chambers and tubing� 5% dextrose in normal saline and half normal saline� Isotonic fluids (normal saline or lactated Ringer’s solution)� Medications: epinephrine, atropine, sodium bicarbonate, calcium chloride,lidocaine, D25, D10

Miscellaneous� Broselow tape� Nasogastric tubes: 8, 10, 14F� Splints and gauze padding� Rolling carts with supplies such as abundant blankets� Warm water source and portable showers for decontamination� Thermal control (radiant cradle, lamps)� Geiger counter (if suspicion of radioactive contamination)� Personal protective equipment (PPE)� Pain\Sedation medications: ketamine, morphine, ketoralac


� Other potential medications: albuterol, keflex, ancef, Ceftriaxone, Diazepam� Surgical equipment for amputations, incision and drainage of wounds, lacera-tion repairs

� Headlamps with replacement batteries� Scissors� Plaster for casting, not fiberglass (hard to remove)

Monitoring equipment� Sphygmomanometer/Blood pressure cuffs: premature, infant, child, adult� Portable monitor/defibrillator (with settings <10)� Pediatric defibrillation paddles� Pediatric electrocardiogram (ECG) skin electrode contacts (peel and stick)� Pulse oxymeter with reusable (older children) and nonreusable (small children)sensors

� Device to check serum glucose and strips to check urine for glucose, blood, etc.


management within the hospital and other facilities or agencies may prove tobe a decisive factor in whether a mass casualty event can be handled.

Communication in a disaster situation is essential among disaster relief teammembers as well as with coordinating groups and logistical support personnelin home countries. Modern technology has provided many different types ofcommunication devices, which have different advantages and disadvantages.Radios are useful for short-range communications when a disaster reliefteam is separated. However, they are limited by range and will not allowcommunication with the other teams or organizations that are a long distanceaway. Satellite phones are ideal for communication with the team as well aswith the home country. They provide a reliable method of communicationwhen telephone services are not working or there is no infrastructure, becausethey rely on orbiting satellites to transmit data. However, they are a scarceresource as well as an expensive resource. The main drawback for manyportable satellite phones is that the phone’s antenna needs an unobstructedview of the sky. Cellular phones are an ideal method for communication.Voice calls can be made to team members as well as to coordinate in thehome country. E-mail and SMS texting are other methods of communicatingthrough the cellular network. Haiti was the first disaster where social mediawas widely used. For example, our team from The Children’s Hospital wasable to arrange the evacuation of a patient via a Blackhawk helicopter to theUSNS Comfort through SMS texting and electronic mail alone. With the avail-ability of smart phones such as the RIM Blackberry and the Apple I-phone,access to the mobile Internet has allowed the use of the Internet for communi-cation using electronic e-mail or other social media. Because the voice cellularcircuits in Haiti were congested during the day, we communicated with team


members as well as the United States almost exclusively via SMS text messagingand e-mail through our smart phones.

However, cellular technology is dependent on a cellular infrastructure andnetwork that has survived a disaster. Another disadvantage of cellular phonesis that different countries have different cellular standards that are not compat-ible with each other. For example, although the countries of Haiti and theDominican Republic are on the same island of Hispaniola, each country hasa different cellular standard. Haiti uses the GSM (Global System for MobileCommunications) standard, and the Dominican Republic uses the CDMA(Code Division Multiple Access) standard. We encountered relief workersfrom the Dominican Republic who could not communicate in Haiti becausethey did not have the right equipment for Haiti.

The availability of the Internet through various means including satellitelinks and data over cellular networks has allowed for many novel methodsof communication over the Internet. There are traditional methods such aselectronic mail. Web blogs also allow relief workers as well as those affectedby the disaster to reach out to the world. Other social media tools such as Face-book and the microblogging service Twitter allow almost instantaneousupdates from the field. Haitians and relief workers were able to keep their fami-lies and loved ones up to date using social media tools such as Facebook andTwitter.

One of the most novel uses of social media was the adoption of the Ushahiditechnology to Haiti (http://haiti.ushahidi.com/main). Ushahidi was originallydeveloped for people to report ethnic violence in Kenya so it could be tracked.Using an instance of Ushahidi developed specifically for Haiti, Haitians couldsend a Creole text message on their cellular phones to the Ushahidi phonenumber asking for help. The message would be translated to English by trans-lators, mapped, and assigned to a relief organization such as the US military,the United Nations, or other NGOs to complete the task (http://haitirewired.wired.com/profiles/blogs/ushahidi-amp-the-unprecedented).

Mental Health Considerations
Disaster response providers, especially those coming from developed countriesto disasters occurring in developing counties, are often thrust into a high-stresssituation with exposure to situations they may have never experienced before.The degree of destruction and death will likely be much greater than what thehealth care providers are accustomed to dealing with in their daily lives. Theemotional impact of large-scale destruction, suffering, and death will elicitdifferent responses in different people, but all volunteer providers should recog-nize how their experiences can affect their well-being both emotionally andphysically. The emotional stress experienced by disaster response providershas been well documented after events such as 9/11 and Hurricane Katrina[5–8]. The affect of stress is amplified by the long hours of intense work expe-rienced during the response to a disaster. Environmental conditions (such asextreme heat/cold/rain/flooding), lack of sleep, and inadequate nutrition impair
http://haiti.ushahidi.com/main

http://haitirewired.wired.com/profiles/blogs/ushahidi-amp-the-unprecedented

http://haitirewired.wired.com/profiles/blogs/ushahidi-amp-the-unprecedented

Table 4Common stress reactions

Behavioral Physical Psychological/Emotional Thinking Social

� Increase or decreasein activity level

� Substance use orabuse (alcohol or drugs)

� Difficulty communicatingor listening

� Irritability, outbursts ofanger, frequent arguments

� Inability to rest or relax� Decline in job performance;absenteeism

� Frequent crying� Hypervigilance orexcessive worry

� Avoidance of activitiesor places that trigger memories

� Becoming accident prone

� Gastrointestinal problems� Headaches, otheraches and pains

� Visual disturbances� Weight loss or gain� Sweating or chills� Tremors or muscletwitching

� Being easily startled� Chronic fatigue orsleep disturbances

� Immune system disorders

� Feeling heroic, euphoric,or invulnerable

� Denial� Anxiety or fear� Depression� Guilt� Apathy� Grief

� Memory problems� Disorientationand confusion

� Slow thoughtprocesses; lackof concentration

� Difficulty settingpriorities or makingdecisions

� Loss of objectivity

� Isolation� Blaming� Difficulty in givingor accepting supportor help

� Inability to experiencepleasure or have fun

Adapted from The US Department of Health and Human Services, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), and Center for Mental Health Services(CMHS). Available at: http://mentalhealth.samhsa.gov/publications/allpubs/SMA-4113/default.asp. Accessed September 2, 2010.

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a provider’s ability to deal with the stressful situation. Crisis response workersand managers, including first responders, public health workers, constructionworkers, transportation workers, utilities workers, and other volunteers, arerepeatedly exposed to extraordinarily stressful events. This places them athigher than normal risk for developing stress reactions [9].

It is important for all disaster response providers to recognize the potentialemotional stress they will be entering before arriving on scene. Stress preventionand management needs to be considered and addressed from the start of thedeployment to prevent problems. By anticipating stressors and individuals’responses to these stressors, the response team and individuals can potentiallyprevent a crisis within the team of care providers. The US Department of Healthand Human Services, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Adminis-tration (SAMHSA), and Center for Mental Health Services (CMHS) have pub-lished a guide focusing on general principles of stress management and offerssimple, practical strategies that can be incorporated into the daily routine ofmanagers and workers. It also provides a concise orientation to the signs andsymptoms of stress. This can be found online at http://mentalhealth.samhsa.gov/publications/allpubs/SMA-4113/default.asp.

Although most people are resilient, the stress response becomes problematicwhen it does not or cannot turn off; that is, when symptoms last too long orinterfere with daily life. Table 4 provides a list of the common stress reactions.

SUMMARYDisasters are, to a great extent, beyond our control and inevitable; however, wecan be better prepared for the consequences and thus reduce the degree ofhuman suffering. As Vernon Law [10] has said, ‘‘Experience is a hard teacher.She gives the test first and the lessons afterwards.’’ Knowledge and under-standing are needed for more effective preparation and planning. Pediatricianshave a special role in the planning and preparation process to ensure that theneeds of children are adequately considered in this process. Pediatric volun-teers should be prepared for their experiences from the standpoint of training,available materials and resources, and mental health considerations.

Acknowledgments
This article has been adapted from the American Academy of Pediatricsmanual on disaster training for developing countries entitled ‘‘Pediatrics inDisasters.’’
References
[1] ReliefWeb.Haiti: Earthquake Situation Report #25. Available at: http://www.reliefweb.int/
rw/rwb.nsf/db900sid/EGUA-836R39?OpenDocument&;RSS20&RSS20¼FS. AccessedMarch 2010.

[2] Available at: http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5hOiPk5G7TMLjYsBbZ1ajaBMS_lWg. Accessed March 2010.

[3] Sontag D. Doctors haunted by Haitians they couldn’t help. New York Times. February 12,2010.Available at: http://www.nytimes.com/2010/02/13/world/americas/13doctors.html?hp. Accessed March 2010.



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[4] Merin O, Ash N, Levy G, et al. The Israeli Field Hospital in Haiti—ethical dilemmas in earlydisaster response. N Engl J Med 2010;362(11):e38.

[5] Levenson RL Jr, Acosta JK.Observations from ground zero at theWorld TradeCenter inNewYork City, part I. Int J Emerg Ment Health 2001;3(4):241–4.

[6] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Mental health status of World TradeCenter rescue and recovery workers and volunteers—New York City, July 2002-August2004. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2004;53(35):812–5.

[7] Bills CB, Levy NA, Sharma V, et al. Mental health of workers and volunteers responding toevents of 9/11: review of the literature. Mt Sinai J Med 2008;75(2):115–27.

[8] PalmKM, PolusnyMA, Follette VM. Vicarious traumatization: potential hazards and interven-tions for disaster and trauma workers. Prehospital Disaster Med 2004;19(1):73–8.

[9] Pan AmericanHealthOrganization. Stress management in disasters.Washington, DC: PanAmerican Health Organization; 2001.

[10] Nathan, David H. TheMcFarland Baseball Quotations Dictionary. McFarland &Company;2000. ISBN 9780786408887.

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