Disconnect Switches• There are many purposes for disconnect switches in substations and power lines. • They are used to isolate or deenergize equipment for maintenance purposes, transfer load from one source to another in planned or emergency conditions, provide visual openings for maintenance personnel, and other reasons. • Disconnect switches usually have low current interrupting ratings compared to circuit breakers. • Normally, power lines are first deenergized by circuit breakers (due to their high current interrupting ratings), followed by the opening of the air disconnect switches for isolation.

Substation Switches• There are many types of substation disconnect switches, such as vertical break and horizontal break types. Disconnect switches are normally gang operated.• The term gang is used when all three phases are operated with one operating device. Air disconnect switches are usually opened and closed using control handles mounted at the base of the structure. • Sometimes, motor operator mechanisms are attached to the control rods to remotely control their operation. A vertical-break switch is shown in Figure 4-32 and a horizontal- break switch is shown in Figure 4-33.

Substation Switches ……

Line Switches

• Line disconnect switches are normally used to isolate sections of line or to transfer load from one circuit to another. • The picture in Figure 4-35is an example of a typical subtransmission line switch.

Lightning Arresters• Lightning arresters are designed to limit the line-to-ground voltage in the event of lightning or other excessive transient voltage conditions. • Some of the older gap-type lightning arresters actually short-circuited the line or equipment, causing the circuit breaker to trip. • The breaker would then re-close when the transient overvoltage condition was gone. • The arrester clamped or limited the high-voltage transient and prevented the equipment.

Lightning Arresters …….• For example, suppose an 11 kV lightning arrester is installed on a 7.2 kV line to neutral system. The lightning arrester will conduct if the line-to-neutral voltage exceeds approximately 11 kV. • The newer lightning arresters use gapless metal oxide semiconductor materials to clamp or limit the voltage. • These newer designs offer better voltage control and have higher energy dissipation characteristics.

Arresters fall into different energy dissipation classes:

1. Station class2. Distribution class3. Intermediate class4. Secondary class

Lightning Arresters …….

Electrical Bus• The purpose of the electrical bus in substations is to connect equipment together.• A bus is a conductor, or group of conductors, that serves as a common connection between two or more circuits. The bus is supported by station post insulators. These insulators are mounted on the bus structures. • The bus can be constructed of 3–6 inch rigid aluminum tubing or wires with insulators on both ends, called a “strain” bus.• The buswork consists of structural steel that supports the insulators that support the energized conductors. • The buswork might also include air disconnect switches. Special bus configurations allow for transferring load from one feeder to another and to bypass equipment for maintenance.• Figure 4-38 is an example of typical buswork found in substations.

Electrical Bus ……

Capacitor Banks• Capacitors are used to improve the operating efficiency of electric power systems and help transmission system voltage stability during disturbances.• Capacitors are used to cancel out the lagging current effects from motors and transformers. Capacitors can reduce system losses and help provide voltage support. • Another benefit of capacitors is that they can reduce the total current flowing through a wire, thus leaving capacity in the conductors for additional load.• Capacitor banks can be left online continuously to meet steady-state reactive power requirements or they can be turned on or off to meet dynamic reactive requirements. • Some capacitor banks are switched seasonally (i.e., to accommodate air conditioning load in the summer) and others are switched daily to accommodate industrial loads.

Capacitor Banks……• Capacitor banks can be switched manually, automatically, locally or remotely.• For example, system control center operators commonly switch substation capacitor banks on and off to meet load requirements or system stability reactive demand requirements.

Substation Capacitor Banks

• Figure 4-39 shows a typical substation capacitor bank. The vertical circuit breakers on the far right of the picture provide the switching function of these substation capacitor banks.

Substation Capacitor Banks

Distribution Capacitor Bank• Capacitor banks are installed on distribution lines to reduce losses, improve voltage support, and provide additional capacity on the distribution system.• The closer a capacitor is installed to the actual inductive load itself, the more beneficial it is. • For example, if capacitors are installed right at the motor terminals of an industrial load, losses are prevented in the lines feeding the motor, distribution, transmission and generation losses are prevented.

Distribution Capacitor Bank……

Reactors• Reactor is another name for a high-voltage inductor. They are essentially one-winding transformers. • Reactors are used in electric power systems for two main reasons. First, reactors are used in a shunt configuration (i.e., line to ground connections), to help regulate transmission system voltage by absorbing surplus reactive power (VARs) from generation or line charging.• Line charging is the term used to describe the capacitance effects of long transmission lines since they are essentially long skinny capacitors (i.e., two conductors separated by a dielectric—the air).

Reactors …….

Figure: Transmission line model

Reactors ……• Second, they are connected in series to reduce fault current in distribution lines.• Reactors can be open-air coils or coils submerged in oil. Reactors are available in either single-phase or three-phase units.

Shunt Reactors—Transmission

• The electrical characteristics and performance of long, high-voltage transmission lines can be improved through the use of shunt reactors. • Shunt reactors are used on transmission lines to help regulate or balance reactive power flowing in the system. • They can be used to absorb excess reactive power. Reactors are normally disconnected during heavy load conditions and are connected during periods of low load.

Reactors ……• Reactors are switched online during light load conditions (i.e., late at night or early morning) when the transmission line voltage tends to creep upward. • Conversely, shunt capacitors are added to transmission lines during high-load conditions to raise the system voltage.• Another application of shunt reactors is to help lower transmission line voltage when energizing a long transmission line. • For example, suppose a 200 mile, 345 kV transmission line is to be energized. The line-charging effect of long transmission lines can cause the far-end voltage to be on the order of 385 kV. • Switching on a shunt reactor at the far end of the line can reduce the far-end voltage to approximately 355 kV.• This reduced far-end voltage will result in a lower transient voltage condition when the far-end circuit breaker is closed, connecting the transmission line to the system and allowing current to flow.

Reactors ……• Once load is flowing in the line, the shunt reactor can be disconnected and the load will then hold the voltage in balance.• Figure 4-41 showsa 345 kV, 35 MVAR three-phase shunt reactor used to help regulate transmissionvoltage during lightload conditions andduring the energization of long transmission lines.

Series Reactors—Distribution• Distribution substations occasionally use series reactors to reduce available fault current. • Distribution lines connected to substations that have several transmission lines or are near a generation plant might have extremely high short-circuit fault current available if something were to happen out on the distribution line. • By inserting a series reactor on each phase of each distribution line, the fault current decreases due to the fact that a magnetic field has to be developed before high currents flow through the reactor. • Therefore, the circuit breaker tips the series reactor before the current has a chance to rise to full magnitude. Otherwise, the high fault current could cause excessive damage to consumers’ electrical equipment.

Assignment # 2

1. Collect the data of generation plants installed in Pakistan. Also note the generation and distribution capacity in term of voltage and power in these grid.

2. Collect data for atleast 10 generation plants. Data includes:

• Rating of the generator unit (power and voltage)• Types • Cost of generation for 1 unit