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GROUP MEMBERS.

1) ANUM JAVAID.

2) HAFIZ SHABBIR AHMED.

3) AZHAR JAVEED.

4) FOUZIA MALIK.

5) ALEENA MALIK

What is “discourse”?What is “discourse”?

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1) IN LINGUIStIcS, A UNIt Of LANGUAGE LONGER thAN A SINGLE SENtENcE IS cALLEd dIScORSE. discourse

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(2) Continious stretch of language (written or spoken)larger than a sentence.

ACCORDING TO COOK

•"Novels,as well as short conversation or might be equally rightfully named discourses."

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Where from the word Discourse Where from the word Discourse came?came?

• Originally the word "Discourse" comes from latin discursus which denotes• 'conversation or speech.

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DEFINITION OF DISCOURSE

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1: Archaic : the capacity of orderly thought or procedure : rationality

2 : verbal interchange of ideas; especially : conversation

3: formal and orderly and usually extended expression of thought on a subject .

Discourse

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4: connected speech or writing

5: A linguistic unit (as a conversation or a story) larger than a sentence

6: obsolete : social familiarity

7: A mode of organizing knowledge, ideas, or experience that is rooted in language.

THE COOPERATIVE PRINCIPLE.

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Specific maxims

• Grice presented 4 maxims in the form of guidelines for how to communicate successfully.

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Maxim of Quantity.

Make your contribution as informative as is required.

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Maxim of Quality.

Try to make your contribution one that is true.

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Relation.Be relevant.

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Maxim of manner:Be clear.Avoid ambiguity.

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Features of Discourse:

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1.Cohesion

2.Coherence

Cohesion:

Cohesion means links and ties with in the text.

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Coherence

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Coherence in linguistics is what makes a text semantically meaningful.

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Link in discourse studies

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Link in discourse studies are divided in to two groups:

1.Formal.

2.CONTEXTUAL.

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Formal-

which refers to fact that are present in the analyzed text.

contextual – referring to the outside world ,the knowledge which is not included in the communicative product itself.

Types of cohesiv

e devices.

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cohesive devices

Five types of cohesive devices are given below:

• 1)Substitution:

• 2)Ellipsis:

• 3)Reference:

• 4)Conjunction:

• 5) Lexical cohesion:

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1)Substitution:

• In speaking and in writing, we try to avoid repeating words, phrases or clauses. We use substitute forms to do this.

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My axe is too blunt. I must get a sharper one.

Ellipsis

• It is omission of noun, verb or a clause on the assumption that it is understood from the linguistic context.

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Teacher :Go.Student :ok.

Reference

•The use of words which do not have meanings of their own , such as pronouns and articles.

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Denzi " How do you like my new car?"-

Marry : " It is a nice car , which I am also thinking of buying".

ConjunCtion.

•Specifies the relationship between clauses or sentences.

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Ali could not go to school because he was sick.

Lexical cohesion

• Lexical cohesion refers to the ties created between lexical elements, such as words groups, and phrases .(Halliday 537).

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Difference between discourse and text

analysis.

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Discourse analysis focuses on the structure of naturally spoken language as found in conversation interviews, commentaries and speeches.

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Text analysis focuses on the structure of written language as found in such test as essays,notices, road signs and chapters.

Seven criteria of discourse.

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1) Cohesion.

2) Coherence.

3)Intentionality.

4) Acceptability.

5) Informativeness.

6)Situationality.

7) Intertextuality.

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1) Cohesion

Grammatical relationship between parts of a sentence essential for its interpretation.

2) Coherence

The order of statements relates one another by sense.

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3)Intentionality

The message has to be conveyed.

4) AcceptabilityIndicates that the communicative product needs to be satisfactory in that the audience approves it.

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5) In formativeness

Some new information has to be included in the discourse.

6)Situationality

Circumtances are important in which the remark is made.

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7) Intertextuality

Reference to the world outside the text or the interpreters schemata.

Types of Discourse.

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1.Written discourse .

2.spoken discourse.

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The distinction between speech and writing is often referred to as channel (D. Hymes) or medium .

Distinction between Written Distinction between Written and Spoken Discourse.and Spoken Discourse.

Spoken and written Spoken and written discoursediscourse differ for differ for many reasons. Spoken discourse has to many reasons. Spoken discourse has to be understoodbe understood immediatelyimmediately; ; written written discourse can be referred to discourse can be referred to many timesmany times..

I. General Differences.I. General Differences.• 1. Grammatical intricacy1. Grammatical intricacy• 2. Lexical density2. Lexical density• 3. Nominalization3. Nominalization• 4. Explicitness4. Explicitness• 5. Spontaneity5. Spontaneity• 6. Repetition and hesitations.6. Repetition and hesitations.

1. Grammatical Intricacy

Sentences in spoken discourse are short and simple, whereas they are longer and more complex in written discourse.

2. Lexical DensitySpoken discourse is less lexically dense than written discourse. Content words tend to be spread out over a number of clauses, whereas they seem to be tightly packed into individual clauses.

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3. Nominalization.3. Nominalization.

The use of a verb as a noun.

Written discourse has a high level of nominalization: i.e. more nouns than verbs.

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movement (from move)

reaction (from react)

4. Explicitness4. Explicitness

• It means something which is stated more clearly and in detailed.

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Writing is more explicit than speech.

Spoken is more doubtful.

Spontaneity

written discourse is organized and less spontaneous

Spoken discourse contains more uncompleted and reformulated sentences.

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we can change the topic in spoken discourse.

7. Repetition and Hesitation.

a. Spoken discourse contains more repetition and hesitations,

b. Spoken discourse has many pauses and fillers, such as ‘hhh’, ‘er’ and ‘you know’.

caTegories of Discourse.

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Some of the important categories of discourse are given below.

1.Narrative2.Exposition

3. Descriptive4. Argumentative5. Process6. Exemplification7. Cause and Effect

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NarrativeNarrative discourse means stories, folktales, novels, dramas, and even narrative long poems such as epics. These include short stories, novels, and stage plays.

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DescriptiveDescriptive writing has a great deal of description, often through using the five senses so that a reader has a fuller idea of what a thing is.

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ArgumentativeThis category includes discourse based on logic and philosophy, and also includes speeches and papers.

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ProcessProcess discourse includes a process of making something or doing something. These include manuals and recipes.

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Cause and EffectThis category includes essays where causes and effects of things are discussed, such as scientific journals.

Discourse analysis.

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What is Discourse analysis?

• Discourse analysis is sometimes defined as the analysis of language 'beyond the sentence.

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How many meanings language have?

Language have two types of meanings

1.Surface meaning.

2.Deep meaning.

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1.Surface meaning. What is said

2.Deep meaning. What is unsaid.

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Black is my favourite colour.

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Teacher is going school but suddenly car punctured& call her students.

Starting point of Starting point of Discourse analysis.Discourse analysis.

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The first modern linguist who commenced the study of relation of sentences and coined the name discourse analysis which afterwards denoted a branch of applied linguistics,was Zellig Harris.A significant contribution to the evolution of discourse analysis has been made by British and American scholars.

Inter pretating Discourse.

Conversation on the forms & structure.

Example.

Written text in English which appears to break rules of English language

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Different people interpret with different methods.

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What ever appears to us should be interpreted as it said.

Context or background

knowledge.

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Context & background gives clear interpretation.

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Context plays important role in the discourse interpretation.

Factors which pays attention when we receive message.(paralinguistic features).

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a. Face to face interaction.

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b. Quality of voice

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Written message.

Receiver’s relationship with participants.

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In somehow discourse is impossible without context.

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Thank u so much FOR BEING SO ATTENTIVE.