Discourse Analysis presented to Madam Rabia AkrambyMuhammad Sajid us SalamMphil LinguisticsIslamia University Bahawalpurcupidlucid@gmail.com

OverviewWhat is Discourse Analysis?The origin of the term Discourse AnalysisImportance of Discourse AnalysisDifference between text and discourseTextual functionsCohesion and Coherence Cohesive DevicesInterpersonal functionsConventions of conversations like turn-takingCo-operative principleBackground knowledge

DA and Zelling Harris

The term discourse analysis was first employed by Zelling Harris as the name for a method for the analysis of the connected speech or writing for continuing descriptive linguistics beyond the limit of a single sentece at a time and for correlating culture and language ( Harris 1952)

The meanings of discourse

The word discourse is an elastic term,The word discourse has a complex history. It is used in a range of different ways by different theorists.Originally the word discourse comes from Latin, discursus which denoted conversations, speech.As a noun it can mean verbal communication, talk, formal speech or writing on a subject and a unit of text used by linguists for the analysis of linguistic phenomena that range over more than one sentence

Definition of Discourse Analysis

Discourse analysis is the study of how stretches of language used in communication assume meaning, purpose and unity for their users: the quality of coherence (Encyclopedic Dictionary of Applied Linguistics by Keith Johnson and Helen Johnson,1998)

Two domains of languageTEXT/ SENTENCEText is a message coded in auditory or visual mediumEssays, notices, road signs etcDISCOURSEInterpersonal activity/ transaction between speaker and hearerWritten as well as spokenInterviews, commentaries, speeches, etc

Difference between Text and DiscourseAccording to David Crystal Discourse analysis focuses on the structure of naturally occuring spoken language, as found in such discourses as conversations, interviews, commentaries and speeches.Text analysis focuses on the structure of written language, as found in such texts as essays, notices, road signs and chapters. According to Geoffery Leech and Michael Short; discourse is linguistic communication seen as transaction between speaker and hearer, as an interpersonal activity whose form is determined by its social purpose.

What do we do in Discourse Analysis?We analyze and investigate all those features of that are part of the total communicative act: context of utterance, relationships, mode of discourse and so onConversational behavior is observedConventions of conversation (turn-taking)Strategies for beginning and ending a conversationHow topics appear and disappearHow different speech acts (e.g. politeness) are performedTo establish underlying norms of conversation

Agenda of Discourse AnalysisTo establish underlying norms of conversation that people implicitly follow byConversational behavior is observedConventions of conversation turn-taking)Strategies for beginning and ending a conversationHow topics appear and disappearHow different speech acts (e.g. politeness) are performed

Two main areas of DA

It is centrally occupied with two main linguistic functions: The interpersonal Textual

Linguistic functions of DAInterpersonal

Because it focuses on the way in which we use language as a means of interacting with othersTextual

Because it also focuses on our ability to construct coherent/cohesive texts.Texts can be written or spoken

Importance of Discourse AnalysisSince it has a large agenda, it continues to have a wide appealLanguage is irreducible part of social lifeIn speech behavior not only linguists but sociologists, anthropologists and psychologists are also interested.DA is helpful in other forms of analysis like ethnography( the study of races of people)

Coherence and cohesion

Textual function

Difference between Cohesion and CoherenceCohesion in a text comes from the rules of sentence connection.Coherence means the degree to which a piece of discourse makes sense.The following is an example of both cohesion and coherence.A : Can you go to Lahore tomorrow?B: Yes, I can.In this example second sentence is linked with first in sequential order. This is cohesion. It is also coherent because B has given an appropriate response to A.

Example of coherenceIn the following example the aforementioned concept will be more clear.A: Can you go to Lahore tomorrow?B: there is a general strike.Thus two sentences are not cohesive because the second sentence is not linked to the first sentence in a grammatical sense. There is no repetition or obvious connection between the two sentences.

Cohesive DevicesPronouns or Substitution: In order to avoid repeating the same words several times in one paragraph it is replaced, most often by one, do or so.Ellipsis: It is very similar to substitution, however, it replaces a phrase by a gap. (Omission of noun, verb, or a clause on the assumption)Conjunctions: Specifies the relationship between clauses or sentences. Most frequent relations of sentences are: addition (and, moreover), temporality (afterwards, next) and causality (because, or since).Reference: The use of words which do not have meanings of their own, such as pronouns and articles.Lexical cohesion: Denotes links between words which carry meanings: verbs, nouns, adjectives. There are two types of lexical cohesion namely reiteration and collocation.

Conversational Interaction

The underlying rules of conversation that people implicitly follow(Interpersonal function)

Conversational interactionConversation is an activity where two or more people take turns at speaking.A B interaction

How B comes to know that its his or her turn? Signaling of completion point( by the speaker)Ways of signaling completion point1. by asking a question2. by giving a pause at the end of sentence.

Signaling by the listener to say something.1. B. starts to make short sounds while A is talking.2. Body shifts.3. Facial expressions.

Strategies of conversational interaction. Normal expectations Completion points are marked by the end of a sentence and a pause.1. One way to keep the turn is to avoid having those two indicators occur together. 2.Make your sentences run on by using connectors such as and, and then, so, but3. Place your pauses at points where the message is clearly incomplete.4. Preferably fill the pauses with hesitation markers such as err en; un um

Example

A: thats their favorite restaurant because they. In France they couldnt believe it that.you know that they had.that they had had better meals back home.Note: Pauses are placed before or after verbs rather than at the end of the sentences.

Example

X: I mean his other..em his later films were much more.er really more in the romantic style and tht was more what what he was.you knowem best at doing.

Note of Caution.These strategies should not be considered undesirable.These are a part of daily conversation.These make conversation work.These strategies make possible a non-cooperative discourse.

Co-operative principle

Interpersonal function

Co-operative principleThe underlying in most conversational exchanges assumption seems to be that the participants are in fact cooperating with each otherMeaningful communication takes place where people are cooperativeIt is certainly true that, on some occasions, we can experience conversational exchanges in which the cooperative principle does not seem to be in operation but in most cases this principle is observed

Supportive maxims of co-operative principle1.quantity (the right required amount of information)2.quality (say true no false)3.Relation (be relevant)4.Clarity (avoid obscurity, be brief and orderly)Conversational implicatureWhen someone violates any of the maxims, implied meaning arise

Example

A. Where is my box of chocolate?B. the children were in your room, this morning.B violates the maxims of relation because reply is not relevant to As question. It implies that children may have taken the chocolate.

Background Knowledge

Interpersonal function

Background knowledge

SchemaScript

Activity of background knowledgeBashir was on his way to school. He was worried about the math lesson. Last weak he had been unable to control the class.It was unfair of the math teacher for leave him incharge.After all, it is not a normal part of a clerks duties

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