ASMARIN 2014 601 2037MEILENA 2014 601 2023MERLI V ISKA 2014 601 2022RIA MAYA LESTARI MANURUNG 2014 601 2009SEPTY RIANI PANGINDOMAN 2014 601 2038YULITA ARIDIANA 2014 601 2026SRI WAHYUNI 2014 601 2024

ADVISORS : PROF. DR. INDAWAN SYAHR, M.PD

DR. MAGDAD HATIM, M.HUM

DISCOURSE ANALYSIS AND GRAMMAR

OUTLINE

IntroductionReferencesConjunctionTheme and RhemeSubstitution and EllipsisTense and Aspect

INTRODUCTION

Discourse analysis and grammar study familiar terms like :clause , pronoun, adverbial and conjunction and attempt to relate them to a less familiar set of terms : theme, rheme , reference and anaphoric in order to make link between grammar and discourse.

GRAMMATICAL COHESION AND TEXTUALITY

Spoken and written discourses display grammatical connections between individual clauses and utterances.

These grammatical links can be classified under three broad types :

Reference or co- reference Ellipsis/ substitution Conjunction

REFERENCES

The term reference is traditionally used in semantics to define the relationship between a word and what it points to in the real world, but in Halliday and Hasan’s (1976) model it simply refers to the relationship between two linguistic expressions

Reference as an act by which a speaker (or writer) uses language to enable a listener (or reader) to identify something.

Reference is cohesion created when "an item in one sentence refers to an item in another sentence" (Johnstone 118).

REFERENCES

(SITUATIONAL)EXOPHORIC

TO PRECIDING(TEXT ANAPHORA)

TO FOLLOWING(TEXT CATAPHORA)

(TEXTUAL)ENDOPHORIC

EXOPHORIC REFERENCES(Looking outward- outside the text).

The referent is not in the immediate context but is assumed by the speaker/writer to be part of a shared world, in terms of knowledge and experience.

Examples of exophora can be words like I, mine, you, and we, which point to things (the speakers or the speakers' possessions) in the environment in which a text occurs.

ENDHOPORIC REFERENCES

References to elements in the text are called Endophoric references.

Endophoric referencing can be divided into two areas:

1. Anaphoric2. Cataphoric

ANAPHORIC (backward references)• Refers to any reference that “points backwards”

to previously mentioned information in text. Usually items such : as he/she or them ,it, this , can be decoded without major difficulty.e.g. Tom likes ice cream but Bill can’t eat it.

The teacher asked Ahmad to read so he read.

CATAPHORIC (forward references)• Refers to any reference that “points forward” to

information that will be presented later in the text.e.g. When I met her, Mary looked ill.

Here is the news. The Prime Minister . . ….

CONJUNCTION

Conjunction acts as a cohesive tie between clauses or sections of text in such a way as to demonstrate a meaningful pattern between them.

Conjunctions are not a way of simply joining sentences. Their role in the text is wider than that, because they provide the listener/reader with information for the interpretation of the utterance; that is why some linguists prefer to describe them as discourse markers.

TYPES OF CONJUNCTION

Elaboration• means one clause that

expands another by elaborating on it (or some portion of it) by restating in other words, specifying in grater detail, commenting, or exemplifying (Halliday, 1985: 196)

• i.e., in other words, that is, for example, by the way, anyway, or rather, and in short.

Extension• means one clause

expands another by extending beyond it by adding some new element, giving an exception to it, or offering an alternative (Halliday, 1985: 197)

• i.e., and, moreover, nor, but, however, instead, alternatively, and or.

Enhancement• means one clause

expands another by embellishing around it by qualifying it with some circumstantial feature of time, place, cause or condition (Halliday, 1985: 197).

• i.e., finally, secondly, next, meanwhile, likewise, therefore, nevertheless, and in that respect.

Sub Types of Conjunction

Additive• acts to

structurally coordinate or link by adding to the presupposed item divided into positive and negative

• i.e., and, also, moreover, in addition, nor, etc

Causal• Some cause

expressions are general, others relate more specifically to result, reason or purpose.

• i.e., in consequence, on account of this, for that purpose, etc.

Adversative• It is

conjunction which relates two clauses that state contras each other. It acts also to indicate contrary to expectation

• i.e., but, yet, on the other hand, however, etc.

Temporal• i.e., then,

next, afterwards, just then, before that, in the end, at once, soon, next time, next day, meanwhile, at this moment, etc.

THEME AND RHEME

M. A. K. Halliday (1985a:39), Theme functions as the ‘starting point for the message’ the element which the clause is going to be ‘about’ and rheme is the rest of the message, which provides the additional information added to the starting point.

Gerot and Wignell (1994:103)Theme as the element(s) which come(s) first in the clause, and the rest of the clause is called rheme.

Thornbury (2005: 38) What the sentence is about (its topic) and what the writer or speaker wants to tell you about the topic (the comment)

Theme/ topic Rheme/ comment

Our dog, Rufus limped into the room.

His back paw was red with infection

but he forgot all about it.

When he was distracted by the snarling cat

he began to chase her

but his paw prevented him.

It was throbbing painfully.

He whimpered

and (he) turned to Sammy for comfort and attention.

THEME TYPES

IDEATIONAL

TEXTUAL

INTERPERSONAL

UNMARKED

Theme = Subject

MARKEDTheme ≠ Subject

The Ideational or Topical Theme is usually but not always the first nominal group in the clause. Topical Themes may also be nominal group complexes, adverbial groups, and prepositional phrases or embedded clauses.

Topical themes serves as participant, circumstance, process.

IDEATIONAL THEME

EXAMPLE

Unmarked Topical Theme:John went up the hill. (Nominal Group as Theme)John and Jill went up the hill. (Nominal Group Complex

as Theme)(What John and Jill did) was go up the hill. (Embedded

clause)

Marked Topical Theme:Someday, you will understand that. (Adverbial as Theme)At Hotel, Marry and John will stay. (Prepositional Phrase

as Theme)Jasmine, I love the smell of. (Complement as Theme)

TEXTUAL THEME

The Textual themes serve primarily to relate one clause (complex) with a preceding one and are typically realized by conjunction and continuatives.

Example :Continuatives as Theme (well, right, OK, now,

anyway, of course, etc)e.g.: Well, anyway, we arrived on time.

Connective as Theme (moreover, furthermore, on the other hand, etc)e.g.: Moreover, Mr. Johnson, the problem itself is simply too complex to solve now.

INTERPERSONAL THEME

Interpersonal theme functioning to code the speaker’s or writer’s personal judgment on meaning. They may be Modal Adjuncts, Vocatives, Finite or WH-elements.

Example : Perhaps, we can wait until next week. (Modal

Adjunct as Theme) Dearly beloved, we are gathered here today.

(vocative as theme) What tremendously easy questions you ask!

(WH-elements as theme)

SUBSTITUTION AND ELLIPSIS

Are used when “a speaker or writer wishes to avoid the repetition of a lexical item and draw on one of the grammatical resources of the language or replace the item.”

SUBSTITUTION

Is the replacement of a word or phrase with a “filler” word ( such as one, so, or do ) to avoid repetition.

Substitution

Nominal Verbal Clausal

( one / ones ) ( do / so ) ( so / not )

NOMINAL SUBSTITUTION

When a noun phrase is elided or substitute.

By using “ One and Ones” E.g. 1. This car is mine, but

that one is yours.2. Let’s go and see the

birds. Ones are on the tree.

VERBAL SUBSTITUTION

When a verb phrase is elided or substitute.By using “Do”

E.g. Did Marry take that letter? She might have done.

Do / Do not and auxiliaries.She can drive the car, but I cannot.She wrote the homework, but I did not.

CLAUSAL SUBSTITUTION

When the entire clause or a large part of it is elided or substitute.

By using “So or Not”E.g. Do you need a lift? If so, wait for me; If not I’ll see you there.

ELLIPSIS

Ellipsis (zero substitution) is the omission of elements normally required by the grammar which the speaker/writer assumes are obvious from the context and therefore need not be raised.

Ellipsis is distinguished by the structure having some missing elements.

Ellipsis

Nominal Verbal Clausal

NOMINAL ELLIPSIS• Means the omission of a noun head in a

nominal groupE.g. Nelly liked the green tiles: I preferred the blue.

VERBAL ELLIPSIS• Define as a verbal group whose structure

does not fully express its systematic features.E.g. What have you been doing?

Swimming

CLAUSAL ELLIPSIS

Represents the omission of a part of the clause of elements or all of it.E.g. If you could be back here at five

thirty, I’d like you to be back here at five thirty.

If you could, I’d like you to be back here at five thirty.

TENSE AND ASPECT

Tense- related to time when activity or state occur.

Aspect in a language comments upon some characteristic of the activity or state

TENSE

PAST PRESENT FUTURE

ASPECT

PROGRESSIVE PERFECT

PAST PRESENT FUTURE

THANK YOU