discourse studies
TRANSCRIPT
DiscourseDiscourse
Definition Definition Common concernCommon concern AbstractAbstract Realised in communicationRealised in communication Realised by languageRealised by language Realised by texsRealised by texs
DiscourseDiscourse
Definition Definition Language use beyond sentenceLanguage use beyond sentence Language use in contextsLanguage use in contexts Social practiceSocial practice
Language in a social-Language in a social-semiotic perspectivesemiotic perspective
‘‘Social semiotic’ as a general ideologySocial semiotic’ as a general ideology As an intellectual stanceAs an intellectual stance As conceptual angle of the subjectAs conceptual angle of the subject
SemioticsSemiotics
A general study of signsA general study of signs A study of meanings in most general senseA study of meanings in most general sense Linguistics is a kind of semioticsLinguistics is a kind of semiotics Culture is a set of semiotic systems, a set Culture is a set of semiotic systems, a set
of systems of meanings, all of which of systems of meanings, all of which interrelate.interrelate.
ExamplesExamples
Traffic lightsTraffic lights ColoursColours Language (sounds, letters)Language (sounds, letters) Interpretation of colours (salted Interpretation of colours (salted
eggs, navy blue)eggs, navy blue)
Language as social Language as social semioticsemiotic
Used by a communityUsed by a community Based on conventionBased on convention At all levels: word, phrase, At all levels: word, phrase,
sentence, textsentence, text
TextText
Discourse is realised by textsDiscourse is realised by texts Communication happens in textCommunication happens in text Text is central to discourse Text is central to discourse
analysisanalysis What is text?What is text?
TEXT
CULTURE
Genre (Purpose)
Situation
Who is involved?
(Tenor)
Subject matter Channel
(Field) (Mode)
Register
TextText
It is a semantic unit.It is a semantic unit. Something is called a text when it Something is called a text when it
is meaningful.is meaningful. It is spoken and written.It is spoken and written. It is not a phonological or a It is not a phonological or a
graphological unit.graphological unit. It occurs in a context of situation.It occurs in a context of situation.
Context of situationContext of situation
There are three elementsThere are three elements Subject matter (field)Subject matter (field) Participants involved (tenor)Participants involved (tenor) Channel (mode)Channel (mode)
Context of cultureContext of culture
Every culture produces text types.Every culture produces text types. A text type is a genreA text type is a genre Two general purposes: Transactional Two general purposes: Transactional
and Interpersonal genresand Interpersonal genres Transactional: to get something doneTransactional: to get something done Interpersonal: for different purposes Interpersonal: for different purposes
of communicationof communication
Basic English genresBasic English genres
ProcedureProcedure DescriptiveDescriptive NarrativeNarrative RecountRecount reportreport
News itemNews item DiscussionDiscussion ExplanationExplanation ExpositionExposition ReviewReview
Text analysisText analysis
Needs linguistic analysisNeeds linguistic analysis Interpretation is based on Interpretation is based on
linguistic evidencelinguistic evidence Text analysts need the right Text analysts need the right
‘knife’ to cut the right ‘bread’‘knife’ to cut the right ‘bread’ Different ‘knives’ for different Different ‘knives’ for different
‘bread’‘bread’
Discourse analysisDiscourse analysis
How texts relate to contexts of situation and How texts relate to contexts of situation and context of culturecontext of culture
How texts are produced as a social practiceHow texts are produced as a social practice What texts tell us about happenings, what What texts tell us about happenings, what
people think, believe etc.people think, believe etc. How texts represent ideology (power How texts represent ideology (power
struggle etc.)struggle etc.)
Text & Discourse AnalysesText & Discourse Analyses(Nunan, 1993)(Nunan, 1993)
Text analysisText analysis is the study of formal linguistic is the study of formal linguistic devices that distinguish a text from random devices that distinguish a text from random sentences.sentences.
Discourse analystsDiscourse analysts study these text-forming study these text-forming devices with reference to the purposes and devices with reference to the purposes and functions for which the discourse was produced, functions for which the discourse was produced, and the context within which the discourse was and the context within which the discourse was created. The ultimate goal is created. The ultimate goal is to show how the to show how the linguistic elements enable language users to linguistic elements enable language users to communicate.communicate.
CommunicationCommunication
Exchange of meaningsExchange of meanings Happens in textsHappens in texts See the following diagram onn stratification See the following diagram onn stratification
and metafunctionsand metafunctions
Ideational
InterpersonalTextual
Discourse Semantic Level
Lexicogrammatical
Level
Phonology/
Graphology
Level
CULTURAL LEVEL
StratificationStratification
Discourse semantic levelDiscourse semantic level Leexico-grammatical levelLeexico-grammatical level Phonological / graphological levelPhonological / graphological level
All of these are related by realisationAll of these are related by realisation
MetafunctionsMetafunctions(Abstract Meanings)(Abstract Meanings)
Ideational meaningsIdeational meanings Interpersonal meaningsInterpersonal meanings Textual meaningsTextual meanings Logical meaningsLogical meanings
Ideational MeaningsIdeational Meanings
Meanings about phenomenaMeanings about phenomena About things and goings onAbout things and goings on About circumstances surrounding the About circumstances surrounding the
happenings and doingshappenings and doings Realised in wordings through Realised in wordings through
Participants, Processes and Participants, Processes and CircumstanceesCircumstancees
Centrally influenced by the field of Centrally influenced by the field of discoursediscourse
ExamplesExamples
Polar bearsPolar bears eateat fishfish
Participant:Participant:
ActorActorProcess:Process:
MaterialMaterialParticipant:Participant:
GoalGoal
Polar bearsPolar bears are are good good huntershunters
Participant:Participant:
CarrierCarrierProcess:Process:
AttributiveAttributiveParticipant:Participant:
AttributeAttribute
The MountainThe Mountain
Long ago, a great mountain Long ago, a great mountain began to rumble and began to rumble and shakeshake. People . People camecame from far and near from far and near to seeto see what what would happen.would happen.
““A great river will be A great river will be bornborn,” said one.,” said one.““A mighty dragon will A mighty dragon will come outcome out,” said another.,” said another.““A god himself will A god himself will springspring from these rocks,” said a from these rocks,” said a
third.third.Finally, a small crack Finally, a small crack appearedappeared in the mountainside. in the mountainside.
And out And out popped popped a mouse.a mouse.
Interpersonal meaningsInterpersonal meanings
Express a speaker’s attitudes and Express a speaker’s attitudes and judgementsjudgements
For acting upon and with othersFor acting upon and with others Realised in wordings through MOOD and Realised in wordings through MOOD and
modality.modality. Most centrally influenced by tenor of Most centrally influenced by tenor of
discoursediscourse
ExamplesExamples(Gerot and Wignell 1995:13)(Gerot and Wignell 1995:13)
• Declarative:Declarative: We inspect the growing plants every weekWe inspect the growing plants every week• Imperative:Imperative: Brock, get those plants inspected right now!Brock, get those plants inspected right now!
Consider the interpersonal relations between Consider the interpersonal relations between speakers.speakers.
examplesexamples
Brock, do you really expect me to believe Brock, do you really expect me to believe this crap?this crap?
Mr. Brock, I find your position unatenableMr. Brock, I find your position unatenable
Consider the degree of informality or Consider the degree of informality or formalityformality
ExamplesExamples
Mr. Brock is a Mr. Brock is a fine, upstanding employee.fine, upstanding employee. Brock is a Brock is a lazy, incompetent foollazy, incompetent fool..
Consider the Consider the attitudinal lexisattitudinal lexis which express which express affect, the degree of like and dislikeaffect, the degree of like and dislike
Examples: ModalityExamples: Modality
UnfortunatelyUnfortunately, Brock is an inspector., Brock is an inspector. FortunatelyFortunately, Brock is an inspector., Brock is an inspector.
Consider the Consider the Mood AdjunctMood Adjunct which reveal attitude or judgment. which reveal attitude or judgment.
• The crop The crop might might be inspected.be inspected.• The crop The crop shouldshould be inspected be inspected• The crop The crop mustmust be inspected be inspected
Consider Consider modal operatorsmodal operators revealing the speaker’ certainty. revealing the speaker’ certainty.
The PrayerThe Prayer
I pray you'll be our eyesI pray you'll be our eyesAnd watch us where we goAnd watch us where we goAnd help us to be wiseAnd help us to be wiseIn times when we don't knowIn times when we don't know
Let this be our prayerLet this be our prayerAs we go our wayAs we go our wayLead us to a placeLead us to a placeGuide us with your GraceGuide us with your GraceTo a place where we'll be safeTo a place where we'll be safe
Love Changes EverythingLove Changes Everything
Love, love changes everythingLove, love changes everythingHands and faces, birds and skyHands and faces, birds and skyLove, love changes everythingLove, love changes everythingHow you live and how you dieHow you live and how you die
Love can make the summer flyLove can make the summer flyOr a night seem like a lifetimeOr a night seem like a lifetimeYes, love, love changes everythingYes, love, love changes everythingNow I tremble at your nameNow I tremble at your nameNothing in the world will ever beNothing in the world will ever bethe samethe same
Love, love changes everythingLove, love changes everythingDays are longer, words mean Days are longer, words mean
moremoreLove, love changes everythingLove, love changes everythingPain is deeper than beforePain is deeper than before
Love will turn your world aroundLove will turn your world aroundAnd that world would last foreverAnd that world would last foreverYes, love, love changes everythingYes, love, love changes everythingBrings you glory, brings you Brings you glory, brings you
shameshameNothing in the world will ever be Nothing in the world will ever be
the samethe same
Love, into the world we goLove, into the world we goPlanning future, shaping yearsPlanning future, shaping yearsLove does its acts suddenlyLove does its acts suddenlyAll our wisdom disappearsAll our wisdom disappears
Love makes moves on everyoneLove makes moves on everyoneAll the rules we make are brokenAll the rules we make are brokenYes, love, love changes everythingYes, love, love changes everythingLive or perish in its nameLive or perish in its nameLove will never, never let you be Love will never, never let you be
the samethe same
Textual MeaningsTextual Meanings
Express the relation of language to its Express the relation of language to its environment (including what has been environment (including what has been spoken or written before).spoken or written before).
Realised through patterns of Theme and Realised through patterns of Theme and cohesion.cohesion.
Most centrally influenced by mode of Most centrally influenced by mode of discoursediscourse
The linguistic differences between the following spoken and The linguistic differences between the following spoken and written texts below relate primarily to differences in thematic written texts below relate primarily to differences in thematic
choices and patterns of cohesion.choices and patterns of cohesion.
This is yer phone bill and you hafta go to This is yer phone bill and you hafta go to the Post Office to pay it – uh, by next the Post Office to pay it – uh, by next Monday – that’s what this box tells ya – or Monday – that’s what this box tells ya – or they’ll cut yer phone off!they’ll cut yer phone off!
All phone bills must be paid by the date All phone bills must be paid by the date shown or service will be discontinued. shown or service will be discontinued.
The relationship between context, The relationship between context, meanings and wordingsmeanings and wordings
Context TextContext Text Semantics LexicogrammarSemantics Lexicogrammar (meanings) (wordings)(meanings) (wordings)
Field Ideational TransitivityField Ideational Transitivity(what is going on) (Processes, Participants,(what is going on) (Processes, Participants, CircumstancesCircumstances
Tenor Interpersonal Mood and ModalityTenor Interpersonal Mood and Modality(Social relations) (Speech roles, attitudes)(Social relations) (Speech roles, attitudes)
Mode Textual Theme, CohesionMode Textual Theme, Cohesion(Contextual coherence)(Contextual coherence)
GenreGenre
It has communicative purposeIt has communicative purpose It has generic structure (particular stages; It has generic structure (particular stages;
distinctive beginnings, middles and endsdistinctive beginnings, middles and ends It has linguistic featuresIt has linguistic features
ProcedureProcedure
Tujuan Komunikatif Teks:Tujuan Komunikatif Teks: Memberi petunjuk cara Memberi petunjuk cara
melakukan sesuatu melalui melakukan sesuatu melalui serangkaian tindakan atau serangkaian tindakan atau langkah.langkah.
Struktur Teks:Struktur Teks:· · Tujuan kegiatan atau judul;Tujuan kegiatan atau judul;· Bahan-bahan;· Bahan-bahan;· Langkah-langkah· Langkah-langkah. .
ProcedureProcedure
Ciri Kebahasaan:Ciri Kebahasaan:
· · pola kalimat pola kalimat imperativeimperative, , misalnyamisalnya, Cut, Don’t mix, , Cut, Don’t mix, dsbdsb..
• action verbsaction verbs, misalnya , misalnya turn, put, don’t, mixturn, put, don’t, mix, dsb., dsb.• connectivesconnectives untuk mengurutkan kegiatan, untuk mengurutkan kegiatan,
misalnya misalnya then, while, then, while, dsbdsb..
· · adverbialsadverbials untuk menyatakan rinci waktu, tempat, untuk menyatakan rinci waktu, tempat, cara yang akurat, misalnyacara yang akurat, misalnya for five minutes, 2 for five minutes, 2 centimetres from the topcentimetres from the top, dsb., dsb.
DescriptiveDescriptive
Tujuan Komunikatif :Tujuan Komunikatif : Mendeskripsikan ciri-ciri seseorang, suatu benda atau tempat Mendeskripsikan ciri-ciri seseorang, suatu benda atau tempat
tertentu. tertentu. Struktur Teks:Struktur Teks: * * Pengenalan bendaPengenalan benda, orang atau sesuatu yang akan , orang atau sesuatu yang akan
dideskripsikandideskripsikan.. * * DeskripsiDeskripsi: : menggambarkan ciri-ciri benda tersebut,misalnya menggambarkan ciri-ciri benda tersebut,misalnya
berasal dari mana, warnanya, ukurannya, kesukaannya dsb. berasal dari mana, warnanya, ukurannya, kesukaannya dsb. Deskripsi ini hanya memberikan informasi mengenai benda atau Deskripsi ini hanya memberikan informasi mengenai benda atau orang tertentu yang sedang dibahas saja, misalnya deskripsi orang tertentu yang sedang dibahas saja, misalnya deskripsi tentang ‘tentang ‘My Dog’My Dog’. Ciri-ciri ‘anjing saya’ tersebut dapat berbeda . Ciri-ciri ‘anjing saya’ tersebut dapat berbeda dengan anjing yang laindengan anjing yang lain..
DescriptiveDescriptive
Ciri KebahasaanCiri Kebahasaan::• nounsnouns tertentu, misalnya tertentu, misalnya teacher, teacher,
househouse,,my my rabbitrabbit, , dsb.dsb.• simple present tensesimple present tense..• detailed noundetailed noun phrasephrase untuk memberikan untuk memberikan
informasi tentang subjek, misalnya informasi tentang subjek, misalnya SheShe a a sweet young lady.sweet young lady.
• berbagai macam berbagai macam adjectivesadjectives, yang , yang bersifat bersifat describing, numbering, describing, numbering, classifying, classifying, mis: mis: two strong legs, two two strong legs, two white fangs, white fangs, dsb.dsb.
• relating verbsrelating verbs untuk memberikan untuk memberikan informasi tentang subjek, misalnya, informasi tentang subjek, misalnya, My My mum is realy coolmum is realy cool, , It has very thick fur, It has very thick fur, dsbdsb..
RecountRecount
Tujuan komunikatifTujuan komunikatif:: Melaporkan peristiwa, kejadian atau kegiatanMelaporkan peristiwa, kejadian atau kegiatan dengan tujuan memberitakan atau menghibur.dengan tujuan memberitakan atau menghibur.Struktur teks:Struktur teks: * * PendahuluanPendahuluan (orientasi) (orientasi), yaitu memberikan , yaitu memberikan
informasi tentang apa, siapa, di mana dan kapan;informasi tentang apa, siapa, di mana dan kapan; * * Laporan (rentetan) peristiwaLaporan (rentetan) peristiwa, kegiatan yang , kegiatan yang
terjaditerjadi, yang biasanya disampaikan secara berurut;, yang biasanya disampaikan secara berurut; * * KomentarKomentar pribadipribadi dan/atau ungkapan penilaian dan/atau ungkapan penilaian
(jika ada(jika ada
RecountRecount Ciri kebahasaanCiri kebahasaan::
* * nounsnouns dan dan pronounspronouns sebagai kata ganti orang, hewan atau sebagai kata ganti orang, hewan atau benda yang terlibat, misalnya benda yang terlibat, misalnya DavidDavid, , the monkeythe monkey, , we we dsbdsb..
* * actionaction verbsverbs atau kata kerja tindakan, misalnya atau kata kerja tindakan, misalnya go, sleep, run go, sleep, run dsbdsb..
* * pastpast tensetense, , misalnya misalnya WeWe wentwent to the zoo; She was happyto the zoo; She was happy dsb. dsb.
* * conjunctionsconjunctions dan dan timetime connectivesconnectives yang mengurutkan peristiwa, yang mengurutkan peristiwa, kejadian atau kegiatan, misalnya kejadian atau kegiatan, misalnya andand, , but,but, then, after that,then, after that, dsb. dsb.
* * adverbsadverbs dan dan adverbadverb phrasesphrases untuk mengungkap tempat, waktu untuk mengungkap tempat, waktu dan cara, misalnya dan cara, misalnya yesterdayyesterday, , at my house, slowly at my house, slowly dsb.dsb.
* * adjectivesadjectives untuk menerangkan untuk menerangkan nounsnouns, misalnya , misalnya beautifulbeautiful, , funny, funny, dsbdsb
CohesionCohesion
Resources within language that provide Resources within language that provide continuity in a text over and above that continuity in a text over and above that provided by clause and clause complex provided by clause and clause complex structurestructure
Cohesive relations are non-structural relations Cohesive relations are non-structural relations which work to help a text hang together.which work to help a text hang together.
Kinds of relationshipKinds of relationship
ReferenceReference Lexical cohesionLexical cohesion ConjunctionConjunction
ReferenceReference
Refers to systems which introduce and Refers to systems which introduce and track the identity of Participants through track the identity of Participants through texttext
Related to textual meaning, and thus to Related to textual meaning, and thus to modemode
Displays different patterns between spoken Displays different patterns between spoken and written textand written text
Two Aspects of Two Aspects of ReferenceReference Systems of referenceSystems of reference RetrievalRetrieval
System of ReferenceSystem of Reference
There are three main distinctions to make: There are three main distinctions to make: whether thewhether the
Participant is being mentioned for the first Participant is being mentioned for the first time in the text (presenting), or whether it is time in the text (presenting), or whether it is a subsequent mention (presuming)a subsequent mention (presuming)
Reference is to a generic class or to Reference is to a generic class or to specific individualspecific individual
Reference is comparative or not.Reference is comparative or not.
Systems of ReferenceSystems of Reference
genericgeneric specificspecific
presentingpresenting presumingpresuming
+ comparison+ comparison - comparison- comparison
RetrievalRetrieval
AnaphoraAnaphora: points the reader or listener ‘backwards’ to a : points the reader or listener ‘backwards’ to a previously mentioned entity, process or state of affairs.previously mentioned entity, process or state of affairs.
HomophoraHomophora: retrieval of identity with reference to the : retrieval of identity with reference to the context of culture / situation, or from within or outside the context of culture / situation, or from within or outside the text. E.g. text. E.g. When I woke up, the sun was shiningWhen I woke up, the sun was shining. ‘The sun’ . ‘The sun’ is a culturally shared knowledge.is a culturally shared knowledge.
Exophora:Exophora: retrieval from outside the text. E.g. retrieval from outside the text. E.g. That koala That koala over there is really sleepy. over there is really sleepy. Esp. in spoken text.Esp. in spoken text.
Endophora: Endophora: Retrieval from within the text. There are two Retrieval from within the text. There are two types: anaphora and cataphora.types: anaphora and cataphora.
EndophoraEndophora
Anaphora:Anaphora: Some snakes, though not venomous, are still deadly. Some snakes, though not venomous, are still deadly.
They squeeze their victim to death.They squeeze their victim to death.
Cataphora:Cataphora:It was a venomous It was a venomous oneone, , that that small green snake.small green snake.
Bridging:Bridging:We walk towards the kiosk but the windows were bolted We walk towards the kiosk but the windows were bolted
shut.shut.
Lexical CohesionLexical Cohesion
Refers to the relationships between and among Refers to the relationships between and among words in a textwords in a text
Primarily related to fieldPrimarily related to field Field tends to have specialised vocabularies and Field tends to have specialised vocabularies and
tends to engage in specialised activities.tends to engage in specialised activities. Reveals interpersonal meanings through use of Reveals interpersonal meanings through use of
attitudinal lexis and qualitative attributes.attitudinal lexis and qualitative attributes.
Categories of Lexical CohesionCategories of Lexical Cohesion
RepetitionRepetition SynonymySynonymy: : leave, departleave, depart AntonymyAntonymy: : leave, arriveleave, arrive HyponymyHyponymy (superordination): (superordination): flower, rose; flower, rose;
rose-daffodilrose-daffodil MeronymyMeronymy (whole-part relation): (whole-part relation): flower, flower,
petalspetals EquivalenceEquivalence: : the sailor was their the sailor was their daddy.daddy. NamingNaming: They call their : They call their puppy Fluffy.puppy Fluffy. SemblanceSemblance: : They could see their They could see their white capswhite caps
looking like looking like seahorses.seahorses.
ConjunctionConjunction
Conjunction is the semantic Conjunction is the semantic system whereby speakers relate system whereby speakers relate clauses in terms of temporal clauses in terms of temporal sequence, consequence, sequence, consequence, comparison and addition. comparison and addition.