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Discussion Papers In Economics And Business
Graduate School of Economics and Osaka School of International Public Policy (OSIPP)
Osaka University, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-0043, JAPAN
Being There: The Role of Mindfulness in the Entrepreneurial Process
Saddam Khalid
Discussion Paper 18-18
June 2018
Graduate School of Economics and Osaka School of International Public Policy (OSIPP)
Osaka University, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-0043, JAPAN
Being There: The Role of Mindfulness in the Entrepreneurial Process
Saddam Khalid
Discussion Paper 18-18
Being There: The Role of Mindfulness in the Entrepreneurial Process
Saddam Khalid+
ABSTRACT
The construct of mindfulness has attracted the attention of multiple scientific disciplines.
However, research on mindfulness in the field of entrepreneurship remains limited. Research
findings suggest that mindfulness through its temporal orientation and wide attentional breadth
influences different aspects of cognitions and emotions and is beneficial and cost-effective in a
dynamic rather than static environment. Extending these findings to entrepreneurship, I suggest
that mindfulness has implications in entrepreneurship because of the environment in which
entrepreneurs work and the tasks they usually perform. I propose a theoretical framework for
understanding the role of mindfulness in the entrepreneurial process.
Keywords: Mindfulness, cognitions, emotions, entrepreneurship
JEL Classification: L26, M1, M13, M10, M19
+Ph.D. Student, Graduate School of Economics, Osaka University. Email:
[email protected] TEL: 080-8344-0280
.
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Being There: The Role of Mindfulness in the Entrepreneurial Process
INTRODUCTION
The thinkers from eastern traditions have been talking about the importance of
mindfulness for many years (Conze, 1956; Hanh, 1976; Kabat-Zinn, 2005). The philosophy of
mindfulness is basically concerned with “being attentive to and aware of what is taking place in
the present (Brown & Ryan, 2003, p. 822). The effect of mindfulness on affects and cognitions
has been observed in past research and has been found to influence the organizational,
interpersonal and individual processes (Dane, 2011). For instance, evidence shows that
mindfulness is likely to increase mental and physical health, regulate the behavior (Brown &
Ryan, 2003), and enhance the quality of interpersonal relationships (see Brown, Ryan, &
Creswell, 2007). Mindfulness was also found to have an impact on judgment and decision
making (Ruedy, & Schweitzer, 2010; Weber, & Johnson, 2009), performance in cognitive skills
(Beauchemin, Hutchins, & Patterson, 2008; Gardner, & Moore, 2004), stress reduction while
working in organizations (Bazarko, Cate, Azocar, & Kreitzer, 2013), regulation of emotions
during work, and also in job satisfaction (Hülsheger, Alberts, Feinholdt, & Lang, 2013).
Entrepreneurship researchers also emphasize the importance of cognitions and emotions
relevant to entrepreneurship (Baron, 2008). However, research concerning mindfulness remained
limited in the context of entrepreneurial processes (Dane, 2011). I argue that mindfulness has an
important place in entrepreneurship because of the environments in which entrepreneurs work
and the tasks they usually perform (Baron, 2008). Since mindfulness is related to focus on
present moment phenomenon and wide attentional breadth, it was also considered costly in past
research (Dane, 2011; Tangney, Dobbins, Stuewig, & Schrader, 2017). For instance, focusing
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only on the present phenomenon is likely to have limitations and risks (Dobbins et al., 2017).
Instead, considering past and future can prove beneficial and cost-effective (Dane, 2011).
Additionally, in static environments, maintaining the wide attentional breadth may have
limitations. For instance, static environments involve relatively predictable and stable
relationships (Edwards, 1962; Nadkarni & Barr, 2008). Therefore, performing tasks in such
environments may require a narrow focus on the task at hand (Chajut & Algom, 2003;
Easterbrook, 1959). Attending a large number of stimuli in such environments may be
unnecessary and can detract from the act of performing the task (Dane, 2011). However, in
highly dynamic environments, being mindful by focusing attention on the present moment and
maintaining the wide attentional breadth can be efficacious (Dane, 2011; Kahn, 1992). For
instance, intuitions captured through mindfulness can serve the individuals to make effective
decisions in highly dynamic environments (Simon, 1987). Moreover, because of the continual
stream of unpredictable events in the dynamic environment, mindfulness is helpful to gain
maximum information by maintaining wide attentional breadth (Dane, 2011; Kahn, 1992).
Additionally, mindfulness helps individuals in the regulations of emotions and cognitions in
uncertain environments (Brown & Ryan, 2003). Entrepreneurs usually work in highly dynamic
environments including uncertainty and risk related to their work (Lichtenstein, Dooley, &
Lumpkin, 2006). Therefore, mindfulness may help entrepreneurs maintain the wide attentional
breadth to collect maximum relevant information for effective decision making and also in the
regulation of emotions and cognitions in highly dynamic environments (Brown & Ryan, 2003;
Baer, 2003; Broderick, 2005; Shapiro et al., 2006; Shepherd & Cardon, 2009).
In this article, the research is aimed at mindfulness of entrepreneurs who recognize and
exploit new business opportunities, start new ventures and take actions and decision in an
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uncertain environment (Shane & Venkataraman, 2000). I seek to develop a theoretical
framework for the understanding of the potential role of mindfulness in the entrepreneurial
process. First, I define and explain the construct of mindfulness. Second, I examine why the
mindfulness will be relevant to entrepreneurship. Third, I discuss the findings concerning the
interface between mindfulness, cognitions and emotions. Fourth, I develop a theoretical
framework concerning the role of mindfulness in key areas of entrepreneurship. In the last
section, I discuss the implications of the present theoretical framework.
THE CONSTRUCT OF MINDFULNESS
The roots of mindfulness lie in various lines of ancient Buddhist concept (Brown et al.,
2007). However, the concept recently emerges as scientific interest among different disciplines
(Dane, 2011). Series of historical and philosophical definitions of mindfulness were used to
introduce the concept (e.g., Baer, 2003; Shapiro, Carlson, Astin, & Freeman; Bishop et al., 2004;
Gunaratana, 1993; Kabat-Zinn, 2003; Ryan & Brown, 2003). Multiple writers and researchers
suggested mindfulness as a state of conscious (Hanh, 1976; Harvey, 2000; Lau et al., 2006;
Rosch, 2007). Past research also claims that it is inherited human capacity and anyone at some or
other point can be mindful (Kabat-Zinn, 2005). Past research, also argue that mindfulness has
dispositional tendencies and mindfulness states of people may vary across situations (e.g., Baer
et al., 2004; Giluk, 2009; Walach, Buchheld, Buttenmüller, Kleinknecht, & Schmidt, 2006).
Therefore mindfulness is a psychological concept which can be assessed both at trait and at the
state level (George, 1996).
In the past mindfulness was considered as a state of conscious which occurs only through
meditative techniques (Conze, 1956). Therefore, research scholars came up with techniques for
designing mindfulness such as mindfulness-based cognitive therapies (Segal, Williams, &
Teasdale, 2002) and mindfulness-based stress reduction (Kabat-Zinn, 1990). Moreover, because
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of the link between mindfulness and meditation these two terms were used interchangeably.
However, past research argues that the psychological state of mindfulness does not require
meditative techniques (Brown & Ryan, 2003). In fact, people can reach the state of mindfulness
without using meditation techniques by focusing on the events occurring in the present moment
(Giluk, 2009; Narayanan & Moynihan, 2006; Weick & Sutcliffe, 2006).
Mindfulness is defined as “receptive attention to and awareness of present events and
experiences” (Brown & Ryan, 2003). Mindful attention means that people should be aware of
here and now instead of focusing on their previous thoughts and emotions (Brown & Ryan,
2003; Herndon, 2008, p. 32). In other words during mindfulness state people give full attention
to the present moment (Thondup, 1996) or moment to moment awareness (Epstein, 1995).
Additionally, mindfulness also involves the attention to both internal and external phenomenon.
Thus, focusing on internal processes with the exclusion of external events or vice versa would be
constituted as a lack of mindfulness (Dane, 2011).
Research scholars also compared mindfulness with related constructs (absorption, flow,
mind wandering, counterfactual thinking, prospection, fantasizing etc.) to elaborate on its
uniqueness and distinction for scholarly interests (Dane, 2011). First, the focus of mindfulness is
always in the present moment phenomenon. Therefore mindfulness will be different from other
attention-related constructs that focus on the past or future (Dane, 2011). Additionally, the
mindfulness attentional breadth (the range and a number of stimuli attended to during a certain
period of time) is quite large and therefore its scope is very wide (Ansburg & Hill, 2003; Kasof,
1997; Memmert, 2007). For instance, mindfulness has the capacity to capture the events in a very
short period of time (Slagter et al., 2007). Additionally, through mindfulness individuals can
reach the intrapsychic phenomena which include intuitions (Dane & Pratt, 2009) and affects
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(Brown & Ryan, 2003) and this situation may not happen in the absence of mindfulness. In short,
according to research scholars, wide attentional breadth and temporal orientation of present
moment are distinct features of mindfulness (Dane, 2011).
HOW MINDFULNESS IS RELEVANT TO ENTREPRENEURSHIP
Past research suggested that mindfulness influences the different aspects of cognitions
and emotions in organizational work settings (Fiol, & O'Connor, 2003; Levinthal, & Rerup,
2006). Affects and cognitions have relevant implication in entrepreneurship (Baron, 2008).
Therefore, I argue that mindfulness is an important variable in the context of entrepreneurship.
Entrepreneurs usually work in a very high uncertain and unpredictable environment
(Lichtenstein, Dooley, & Lumpkin, 2006). Past research showed that emotions and cognitions
strongly influence each other in uncertain environments (e.g., Forgas, 1995, 2000; Forgas &
George, 2001). Research on mindfulness showed that in complex situations, mindfulness helps
individuals in regulating emotions and cognitions, enhance vitality and reduce anxiety (Brown &
Ryan, 2003; Baer, 2003; Broderick, 2005; Shapiro et al., 2006; Shepherd & Cardon, 2009).
Therefore, I argue that mindfulness may have special relevance in entrepreneurship. Secondly,
entrepreneurs perform different tasks in the entrepreneurial process, which are also relevant to
mindfulness. For instance, mindfulness has shown to have a strong influence on creativity and
intuitions (Lebuda, Zabelina, & Karwowski, 2016) which helps entrepreneurs in alertness and
recognizing the opportunities in the market (Isen, 1993), on interpersonal relationship quality
(Brown, Ryan, & Creswell, 2007) which helps entrepreneurs in acquiring resources, on judgment
and decision making (Weber, & Johnson, 2009) which helps entrepreneurs in making effective
strategies and decisions, and on physical and mental health (Brown, Ryan, & Creswell, 2007)
which is helpful for entrepreneurs in reducing stress and anxiety while working in uncertain
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situations (Brown & Ryan, 2003). Since mindfulness has shown to have a strong influence on
above activities, therefore I argue that it has direct implication in entrepreneurship.
AN OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH FINDINGS OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
MINDFULNESS AND COGNITIONS
Past research suggested several ways through which mindfulness influences cognitions
(Brown & Ryan, 2003). However, I briefly discuss here the findings, which are most relevant to
entrepreneurship. One way mindfulness influences the cognitions is through the process of
positive affects (Sears, & Kraus, 2009). Past research suggested that mindfulness is significantly
related to positive affects (Jislin-Goldberg, Tanay, & Bernstein, 2012) which actually help
people see things favorably compare to people suffering from negative affects (e.g., Bower,
1991; Garcia-Marques, Mackie, Claypool, & Garcia-Marques, 2004). Positive affects influence
cognitions, and the interface of the two construct helps in performing cognitive tasks effectively
(Baron, 2008).
Another way mindfulness influences the cognitions is through creativity (Lebuda et al.,
2016), the process of producing novel and useful ideas (Amabile, 1996; Sternberg & Lubart,
1996). According to past research, creativity is one of the keys factors contributing in the
entrepreneurial opportunity recognition (Baron, 2008). Mindfulness is linked with the ability to
switch perspectives (Carson & Langer, 2006; Feldman, Hayes, Kumar, Greeson, & Laurenceau,
2007), improves the working memory (Chiesa, Calati, & Serretti, 2011), helps in responding in
non-habitual fashion (Moore &Malinowski, 2009), and also reduces the fears while making
judgments (Carson & Langer, 2006) factors conducive to creativity (Baas et al., 2008; Nijstad,
De Dreu, Rietzschel, & Baas, 2010). Past research also related mindfulness to creative
achievement (Langer, 2014) and creative thinking (Davis, 2009; De Dreu, Baas, & Nijstad,
2008).
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Another way mindfulness influences the cognitions is through intuitions and heuristics
(Dane, 2011) which has important implications for tasks performance, problem-solving and
decision making (Dane, 2011; Dunne, 2015). Heuristics are useful for entrepreneurs in fast
decision making in an uncertain environment (Busenitz & Barney, 1997; Busenitz, 1999). Past
research suggested that engaging in heuristics helps an individual in problem-solving and
effective decision making while performing novel tasks (Isen, 2000). The conscious state of
mindfulness serves as a bridge between past and present by attuning individuals to their
experiences that have been distilled into the form of intuitions (Simon, 1987). Moreover, past
research also suggested that mindfulness also helps in ethical decision making (Ruedy &
Schweitzer, 2010). For instance, several causes of unethical behavior such as self-deception, self-
serving cognitions and unconscious biases are likely to be eliminated through mindful attention
(Epley and Caruso, 2004; Tenbrunsel and Messick, 2004; Bazerman et al. 2002). Insufficient
mindfulness leads to ignorance of ethical standards while making decisions (Ruedy &
Schweitzer, 2010).
Another way the mindfulness influences the cognitions is through memory (Van Vugt, &
Jha, 2011). Mindfulness helps individuals in reducing the mind wandering while performing
tasks and brings focus to the task. (Mrazek, Smallwood, & Schooler, 2012) Mindfulness was
proved to be helpful for individuals in attention enhancement (Brefczynski-Lewis, Lutz,
Schaefer, Levinson, & Davidson, 2007; MacLean et al., 2010; Slagter et al., 2007), improvement
of the visuospatial processing efficiency (Kozhevnikov, Louchakova, Josipovic, & Motes, 2009),
and the increase in the backward digit memory span (Chambers, Lo, & Allen, 2008).
Mindfulness draws on the ability to remain aware, irrespective of the apparent valence of states
or stimuli, which may alter their impact on memory (Chambers et al., 2008).
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Mindfulness also influences the cognitions through its role in coping with stress (Brown,
& Ryan, 2003). Entrepreneurs usually work in an uncertain environment with intense workload
and responsibilities and likely to suffer from stress and health issues. According to past research,
mindfulness is highly useful in reducing stress and in the improvement of health and well-being
(Brown, & Ryan, 2003; Xie, Schaubroeck, & Lam, 2008). In fact, mindfulness-based stress
reduction programs attracted the attention of organizations (Hyland, Lee, & Mills, 2015).
Additionally, mindfulness tends to improve the interpersonal relationship (Brown et al., 20017),
reduce interpersonal conflicts (Valentine, Godkin, & Varca, 2010) and helpful in negotiations
(Fiol, & O'Connor, 2003). Founders of new ventures are likely to build interpersonal
relationships, engage in conflicts and negotiations. Therefore, mindfulness will have an
important implication for entrepreneurs involved in new venture creation.
MINDFULNESS AND KEY ASPECTS OF ENTREPRENEURIAL PROCESS
Based on the above discussion, it seems clear that mindfulness has implications in the
entrepreneurial process. I discuss here some of the key aspects of the entrepreneurial process
including entrepreneurial alertness, opportunity recognition, acquisition of human and financial
resources by entrepreneurs, the uncertain and unpredictable environment in which entrepreneurs
work, and entrepreneurs coping with an intense level of stress (Shane 2003).
Mindfulness and Entrepreneurial Alertness
According to past research, alertness is the preparedness of the entrepreneurs to recognize
the opportunities when they appear (Gilad, Kaish, & Ronen, 1989; see also Kirzner, 1979).
Alertness helps individuals become aware of the opportunities which are overlooked by others
(Kirzner, 1979, 1985). Through entrepreneurial alertness, people can interpret and organize the
information necessary for opportunity development process (Gaglio and Katz, 2001). For
instance, entrepreneurial alertness includes scanning and searching for new opportunities and
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connecting the already known information and evaluation of the possible business opportunities
(Tang, Kacmar, & Busenitz, 2012). Therefore, entrepreneurial alertness needs cognitive
processes like active attention, pattern recognition and information processing for the recognition
of potential entrepreneurial opportunities when they are available (Kirzner, 1979; Tang et al.,
2012). According to past research, mindfulness helps people become alive in the present moment
and enhances the information processing in the mind of individuals (Hanh, 1976, p. 11). In
support of this claim, researchers have found that, even in extremely short intervals (measured in
milliseconds), mindfulness increases the number of stimuli that individuals notice in their
environment (Slagter et al., 2007). Additionally, mindfulness increases the attention to the
internal and external present moment phenomenon for gathering the maximum information
(Brown & Ryan, 2003). Therefore, I argue that mindfulness is helpful for entrepreneurs in
paying close attention to the opportunities when they are available. For instance, in the presence
of mindfulness, the perception becomes strong which helps individuals become attentive to the
possible opportunities in the market (Brown & Ryan, 2003; Kirzner, 1979).
Proposition 1: Mindfulness enhances the attention and information processing, thus
contributing to the process of entrepreneurial alertness
Mindfulness and Entrepreneurial Opportunity Recognition
Opportunity recognition is considered as one of the key aspects of the opportunity
development process (e.g., Ardichvili, Cardozo, & Ray, 2003; Baron, 2008; Shane, 2003).
Opportunity recognition involves cognitive cues occurring in the mind of the entrepreneurs (g.,
Bhave, 1994; Herron & Sapienza, 1992). According to past research, mindfulness influences the
cognitive processes necessary for opportunity recognition (Brown & Ryan, 2003). Therefore, it
seems reasonable to argue that this aspect of entrepreneurship is linked with mindfulness. For
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instance, there is ample empirical evidence suggested that mindfulness is significantly related to
creativity (Lebuda et al., 2016). According to neuroscience evidence, mindfulness monitors the
factors conducive to creativity (Carson & Langer, 2006). For instance, mindfulness helps in
switching the perspectives and enhance the non-habitual thinking (Carson & Langer, 2006;
Feldman, Hayes, Kumar, Greeson, & Laurenceau, 2007; Moore &Malinowski, 2009), and also it
is related to creative achievement (Langer, 2014) and creative thinking (Davis, 2009; De Dreu,
Baas, & Nijstad, 2008), the factors contribute to opportunity recognition process (Baron, 2003,
2008). Considering the role of mindfulness in above mentioned aspects, I suggest the following
proposition.
Proposition 2: Mindfulness enhances the creativity and the non-habitual thinking, thus
contributing to the process of opportunity recognition.
Mindfulness and Persuasion of Entrepreneurs in Acquiring Resources
Acquiring the financial and human resources is one of the important factors in the
entrepreneurial process for starting new ventures (e.g., Shane, 2003). I argue that mindfulness
can help entrepreneurs in the persuasion of others to acquire the resources necessary for the
entrepreneurship. Past research found that entrepreneurs are likely to be more successful if they
have more social networks (e.g., Singh, 2000). These social networks eventually help
entrepreneurs acquire human and financial resources (e.g., Ozgen & Baron, 2007; Walter, Auer,
& Ritter, 2006). Mindfulness was found helpful in connection and closeness of relationships
(Kabat-Zinn, 1990; Welwood, 1996). In fact, mindfulness helps people regulate the emotions and
prevent the destructive and impulsive reactions in different situations (Boorstein 1996).
Additionally, mindfulness is helpful in strengthening the interpersonal relationships (Goleman,
2006). For instance, being mindful people becoming aware of verbal, emotional and cognitive
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responses of self and others (Goleman, 2006). Moreover, mindfulness promotes the interaction
styles for enhancing the quality of the relationship between different people (Brown, Ryan, &
Creswell, 2007) and also improves quality of the communication to persuade other people (e.g.,
Tickle-Degnan & Rosenthal, 1990). Finally, mindfulness also improves the negotiation skills and
conflict handling styles (Fiol, & O'Connor, 2003). Combining the above considerations, I argue
that mindfulness is beneficial for entrepreneurs to acquire human and financial resources.
Proposition 3: Mindfulness enhances the social network capability and improves
communication and negotiations, thus relevant for entrepreneurs to acquire all the
necessary resources, i.e. human and financial capital.
Mindfulness and Entrepreneurs’ Ability to Deal with Dynamic Environments
Entrepreneurs usually work in a dynamic environment with high uncertainty and rapid
change. Therefore, mindfulness may play an important role for entrepreneurs to deal effectively
with the highly dynamic environment (Baron 2008). According to past research, highly dynamic
environment involves rapid change and intense competition (Bourgeois & Eisenhardt, 1988;
Nadkarni & Barr, 2008). First, mindfulness is related to a wide internal breadth of attention that
helps individuals in controlling their thoughts, emotions and feelings (Kabat-Zinn, 2005;
Nyanaponika, 1972). According to past research, positive affects are important in dealing with
the dynamic environments where there is a high level of stress and intense competition (Baron
2008). Therefore, through mindfulness entrepreneurs can regulate their emotions to deal with the
dynamic environments (Kabat-Zinn, 2005). Additionally, mindfulness helps in maintaining a
wide external breadth of attention which is helpful for performing dynamic tasks. For instance,
mindfulness plays a key in role in dealing with reactions, critics, argumentation and persuasive
tactics (Dane, 2008). Entrepreneurs while working in uncertain environments always face similar
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problems. Therefore, it seems reasonable to argue that mindfulness has implications for
entrepreneurs to deal with the dynamic environments (Dane, 2008; Alvarez, & Barney, 2005).
Proposition 4: Entrepreneurs by enhancing both internal and external breadth of
attention deal with dynamic environments effectively.
Mindfulness and Entrepreneurial Decision Making
Entrepreneurial decision making is one of the key factors in the success of the
entrepreneurs (Shepherd, Williams, & Patzelt, 2015). Entrepreneurs usually make different
decisions like opportunity evaluation decisions, entrepreneurial entry and exit decisions, decision
making in uncertainty. (Shepherd et al., 2015). Past research found that an entrepreneur’s
decision to start a new venture is influenced by the active systemic search, scanning and
processing of the relevant information (Patel & Fiet, 2009: 503). Cognitions play an important
role in scanning and processing of right information (Mitchell, Smith, Seawright, & Morse,
2000). There is ample evidence that mindfulness influences the cognitive processes necessary
for scanning and processing the information (e. g Brown & Ryan, 2003), which is important for
entrepreneurs to make the right decisions. Therefore, it seems reasonable to argue that
mindfulness is important for entrepreneurs in effective decision making. For instance,
mindfulness can help entrepreneurs analyze the different perspectives of decision making and
can help entrepreneurs think in a non-traditional way to come up with a better decision (e.g.
Carson & Langer, 2006; Feldman, Hayes, Kumar, Greeson, & Laurenceau, 2007; Moore &
Malinowski, 2009). Additionally, entrepreneurs work in uncertain environments, and they use
intuitions to guide their decisions (Busenitz & Barney, 1997). The intuition is an information
processing which includes both cognitive and affective elements (Blume, & Covin, 2011).
Previous research found a significant impact of intuitions on new venture creation decisions of
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entrepreneurs (see Blume, & Covin, 2011). Research scholars argued that not all the intuitions
get the attention by the people, some of them disappears without a conscious notice (Hofmann &
Wilson, in press). Mindfulness can help individuals notice their maximum intuitions by enabling
them to the phenomenon arising through non-conscious operations (Dane & Pratt, 2009).
Additionally, mindfulness can expand the internal attention breadth for attuning individuals to
their intuitions (Dane, 2011). Intuitions are also considered to be biased in previous research, but
at least in uncertain environments, they proved helpful for entrepreneurs to guide their decisions
(Baron, 2008).
Proposition 5: Mindfulness enhances the entrepreneurs’ capacity to make effective
decisions through creative thinking and intuitions.
Mindfulness and Entrepreneurs’ Handling of Stress
According to past research, entrepreneurs usually work long hours, deals with high-risk
situations, work in the highly dynamic environment and are likely to face an intense level of
stress (Rahim, 1996). Previous research also found that stress does not emerge only because of
the particular event but also by the meaning we give to the event (Lazarus & Follkman, 1984;
Weinstein et al., 2009). The construct of mindfulness was found to be helpful in adaptive stress
appraisal (Weinstein et al., 2009). For instance, mindfulness helps individuals react to the
stressful event in a non-traditional way, and mindful people are likely to observe the events more
objectively and refrain themselves giving a negative evaluation to the event (Hülsheger, Alberts,
Feinholdt, Lang, 2013). Additionally, mindfulness helps individuals not to be affected by the
negative thoughts and generate positive affects even in negative situations (Hülsheger et al.,
2013). Entrepreneurs usually deal with different events which are stressful, and they are likely to
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give negative meanings to the events resulting in to quit the ventures (Baron, 2008) Therefore,
being mindful can be one of the coping strategies for entrepreneurs to deal with stressful events
(Hülsheger et al., 2013).
Proposition 6: Mindfulness reduces entrepreneurs’ intense level of stress through
facilitating adaptive stress appraisal and by generating positive affects.
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Insert Figure 1 about here
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CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS
Past research on the construct of mindfulness indicates that it has important implications
at individual, societal and organizational level (e.g., Bishop et al., 2004; Brown et al., 2007;
Brown & Ryan, 2003). Building on the existing theory, the current study provides new research
directions of the construct of mindfulness in the scholarly field of entrepreneurship. Considering
the unique nature of mindfulness, I proposed that it has important implications for entrepreneurs
because of their working conditions and the tasks they perform. Entrepreneurship scholars urged
on investigating the role of cognitions and emotions influencing the entrepreneurial processes
(Baron, 2008). Mindfulness influences certain aspects of cognitions and emotions (Brown et al.,
2007; Brown & Ryan, 2003). Therefore mindfulness is likely to influence the key aspects of
entrepreneurial processes involving entrepreneurial alertness, opportunity recognition,
entrepreneurial decision making, entrepreneurs’ dealing with uncertain environments, the
entrepreneur’ acquiring of human and financial resources and entrepreneurs’ strategies to cope
with the intense level of stress. Our theoretical framework and propositions will be insightful for
future work on the role of mindfulness and entrepreneurship.
15
Practically, this research offered that entrepreneurs while working in dynamic and
uncertain environments should focus on mindfulness to perform various complex tasks (Brown
& Ryan, 2003). In fact, entrepreneurs can focus on the events surrounding them by maintaining
wide external attentional breath and can also monitor their internal states through wide internal
attentional breadth (Dane, 2011).
Having noted the potential benefits of the mindfulness for some aspects of
entrepreneurship, it will be interesting to find out the downside of the mindfulness for
entrepreneurs. For instance, the future scholars could investigate the conditions under which
mindfulness is costly for entrepreneurs (Brown et al., 2007). In fact, future research could
examine the outcomes of mindfulness vs non-mindfulness states for entrepreneurs (Dane, 2011).
Additionally, past research has found that mindfulness is related to ethical decision making
(Moore & Loewenstein, 2004). Future research could investigate how entrepreneurs recognize
the moral content in the problem at hand through mindfulness (Butterfield, Treviño, & Weaver,
2000; Sonenshein, 2007). For instance, mindfulness may help entrepreneurs consider ethical
issues by the expansion of the attentional breadth to the features of the problem at hand (Moore
& Loewenstein, 2004). Another important avenue for future research is to determine how and
when mindfulness state tends to arise for the entrepreneurs (Brown et al., 2007). For instance,
future research could find out the factors that enable the entrepreneurs to achieve the mindfulness
state of consciousness (Dane, 2008). Finally, past research also found that mindfulness can be
influenced by certain personality traits and being mindful can be learned using meditative
techniques (see Sadler-Smith & Shefy, 2007). Therefore, future research could examine
personality traits and training as the antecedents of the use of mindfulness in the entrepreneurial
context (Sadler-Smith & Shefy, 2007).
16
Exploration of the construct of mindfulness and its influence on cognitions and affects
are promising avenues for entrepreneurship research I believe that this research is beneficial
towards the deeper understanding of the cognitive and affective theories of entrepreneurship.
Entrepreneurship scholars should further consider the net impact of mindfulness across different
areas of entrepreneurship.
17
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FIGURE 1. Theoretical Model of the Role of Mindfulness in Entrepreneurship