Add : D/108, Sec-2, Noida (U.P.), Pin - 201 301Email id : helpdesk@campus100.inCall : 09582948810, 09953007628, 0120-2440265DISPUTEREDRESSAL DISPUTEREDRESSALDISPUTEREDRESSAL DISPUTEREDRESSAL DISPUTEREDRESSALMECHANISMAND MECHANISMANDMECHANISMAND MECHANISMAND MECHANISMANDINSTITUTIONSININDIA INSTITUTIONSININDIAINSTITUTIONSININDIA INSTITUTIONSININDIA INSTITUTIONSININDIA ChronicleIASAcademy [3]DISPUTEREDRESSALMECHANISM ANDINSTITUTIONS IN INDIACHRONICLEIASACADEMYACIVILSERVICESCHRONICLEINITIATIVEArticle21oftheConstitutionofIndiadeclaresinamandatorytonethatnopersonshall be deprived of his life or his personal libertyexceptaccordingtoprocedureestablishedbylaw.TheRighttoSpeedyTrialhasbeenrightlyheldtobeapartofRighttoLifeorPersonalLibertybytheSupremeCourtofIndia.ThisliberalinterpretationofArticle21istoredressthatmentalagony,expenseandstrainwhichapersonproceededagainstincriminallawhasto undergo and which, coupled with delay, mayresult in impairing the capability or ability of theaccusedtodefendhimselfeffectively.Thus,theSupremeCourthasheldtheRighttoSpeedyTrialasamanifestationoffair,justandreasonableprocedureenshrinedinthesaidArticle.BeforeformationoflawCourtsinIndia,peopleweresettlingthemattersofdisputethemselvesbymediation.ThemediationwasnormallyheadedbyapersonofhigherstatusandrespectamongthevillagepeopleandsuchmediationwascalledinoldendaysPanchayat.ThePanchayatwillbeheadedbya person of higher stature, quality and characterwho will be deemed to be unbiased by people ofthe locality, called Village Headman and he wasassistedbysomepeopleofsamecharacterorcadrefromseveralcastesinthelocality.Thedispute between individuals and families will beheardbythePanchayatanddecisiongivenbythe Panchayat will be accepted by the disputants.ThemainthingthatwillbeconsideredinsuchPanchayatwillbethewelfareofthedisputantsasalsotoretaintheirrelationshipsmooth.Similarlyinthecaseofdisputebetweentwovillages,itwillbesettledbyMediationconsistsof person acceptable to both villages and peoplefromboththevillagesandthedecisionofsuchmediationwillbeacceptedbybothvillagepeople.Thedisputesinoldendaysseldomreached law Courts. They would be even settlingthe complicated civil disputes, criminal matters,familydisputes,etc.Suchtypeofdisputeresolutionmaintainedthefriendlyrelationshipbetweenthedisputantsevenafterresolutionoftheirdisputes.Butsubsequently,thistypeofPanchayathasfailedduetointerventionofpoliticsandcommunalfeelingsamongthepeople.ButinadevelopingcountrylikeIndiawithmajoreconomicreformsunderwaywithintheframeworkoftheruleoflaw,strategiesforswifterresolutionofdisputesforlesseningtheburdenonthecourtsandtoprovidemeansforexpeditiousresolutionofdisputes,thereisnobetter option but to strive to develop AlternativemodesofDisputeResolution(ADR)byesta-blishingfacilitiesforprovidingsettlementofdisputesthrougharbitration,conciliation,mediationandnegotiation.Inthiscontext,theGOIhassetupdifferentdisputeredressalmechanismstoaddresstheproblem.Inessencethesystemareon: Mediationratherthanwinnertakesitall. IncreasingAccessibilitytojustice. Improvingefficiencyandreducingcourtdelays.SomedisputeredressalmechanismspresentinIndiaarediscussedbelow:ADMINISTRATIVE TRIBUNALWiththeacceptanceofWelfareideology,there was a mushroom growth of public servicesand public servants. The courts, particularly theHighCourtswereinundatedwithcasesconcerningservicematters.TheSwaranSinghCommitteetherefore,inter-aliarecommendedthe establishment of Administrative Tribunals asapartofConstitutionaladjudicativesystem.Resultantly the Constitution (42nd Amendment)Act, 1976 inserted Part XIV-A to the ConstitutionofIndiaconsistingofArticles323Aand323B.Article323AprovidesfortheestablishmentofAdministrativeTribunalsforadjudicationortrialofdisputesandcomplaintswithrespecttorecruitment,conditionsofserviceofpersonsappointedtopublicservicesandotheralliedmatters.[4] ChronicleIASAcademyCHRCHRCHRCHRCHRONICLEONICLEONICLEONICLEONICLEIAS IAS IAS IAS IAS AAAAACADEMYCADEMYCADEMYCADEMYCADEMYArticle 323B makes provision for the creationof Tribunals for adjudication or trial of disputes,complaintsoroffencesconnectedwithtax,foreign exchange, industrial and labour disputes,land reforms, ceiling on urban property, electiontoParliamentandStateLegislatures,etc.ParliamenthaspowertoenactanylawunderArticle323AwhilebothParliamentandStateLegislatures can make laws on matters of Article323B,subjecttotheirlegislativecompetence.TypesofAdministrativeTribunalsTherearedifferenttypesofadministrativetribunals,whicharegovernedbythestatues,rules, and regulations of the Central GovernmentaswellasStateGovernments.CentralAdministrativeTribunal(CAT)TheenactmentofAdministrativeTribunalsActin1985openedanewchapterinadministeringjusticetotheaggrievedgovernment servants. It owes its origin to Article323AoftheConstitutionwhichempowerstheCentralGovernmenttosetupbyanActofParliament,theAdministrativeTribunalsforadjudicationofdisputesandcomplaintswithrespectiverecruitmentandconditionsofserviceofpersonsappointedtothepublicservicesandpostsinconnectionwiththeUnionandtheStates.TheTribunalsenjoythepowersoftheHighCourtinrespectofservicemattersoftheemployeescoveredbytheAct.TheyarenotboundbythetechnicalitiesoftheCodeofCivilProcedure,buthavetoabidebythePrinciplesofNaturalJustice.Theyaredistinguishedfromtheordinarycourtswithregardtotheirjurisdictionandprocedures.Thismakesthemfree from the shackles of the ordinary courts andenables them to provide speedy and inexpensivejustice.TheActprovidesfortheestablishmentofCentralAdministrativeTribunalandStateAdministrativeTribunals.TheCATwasestablishedin1985.TheTribunalconsistsofaChairman,Vice-ChairmanandMembers.TheseMembers are drawn from the judicial as well astheadministrativestreams.TheappealagainstthedecisionsoftheCATlieswiththeSupremeCourtofIndia.CustomsandExciseRevenueAppellateTribunal(CERAT)TheParliamentpassedtheCERATActin1986.TheTribunaladjudicatedisputes,Complaintsoroffenceswithregardtocustomsandexciserevenue.AppealsfromtheordersoftheCERATlieswiththeSupremeCourt.ElectionCommission(EC)TheElectionCommissionisatribunalforadjudicationofmatterspertainingtotheallotmentofelectionsymbolstopartiesandsimilarotherproblems.ThedecisionofthecommissioncanbechallengedintheSupremeCourt. ForeignExchangeRegulationAppellateBoard(FERAB)TheBoardwassetupundertheForeignExchangeRegulationAct,1973.Apersonwhoisaggrievedbyanorderofadjudicationforcausing breach or committing offences under theActcanfileanappealbeforetheFERAB.IncomeTaxAppellateTribunalThis Tribunal has been constituted under theIncomeTaxAct,1961.Thetribunalhasitsbenches in various cities and appeals can be filedbefore it by an aggrieved person against the orderpassedbytheDeputyCommissionerorCommissioner or Chief Commissioner or DirectorofIncomeTax.AnappealagainsttheorderoftheTribunalliestotheHighCourt.AnappealalsoliestotheSupremeCourtiftheHighCourtdeemsfit.RailwayRatesTribunalThisTribunalwassetupundertheIndianRailwaysAct,1989.Itadjudicatesmatterspertaining to the complaints against the railwayadministration.Thesemayberelatedtothediscriminatoryorunreasonablerates,unfairchargesorpreferentialtreatmentmetedoutbytherailwayadministration.TheappealagainsttheorderoftheTribunallieswiththeSupremeCourt.IndustrialTribunalThisTribunalhasbeensetupundertheIndustrialDisputesAct,1947.ItcanbeconstitutedbyboththeCentralaswellasStategovernments. The Tribunal looks into the disputebetweentheemployersandtheworkersin ChronicleIASAcademy [5]mattersrelatingtowages,theperiodandmodeofpayment,compensationandotherallow-ances, hours of work, gratuity, retrenchment andclosure of the establishment. The appeal againstthe decision of the Tribunal lies with the SupremeCourt.At present and in view of the decision of theSupremeCourtin'ChandraKumar'scase,theadministrativetribunalsarerenderingthefollowingdiversifiedjudicialduties/functions:1. Functioningasa'Courtoffirstinstance;byadjudicatingtheOriginalApplications(shortlycalledO.A.s)filedbytheGovernment employees and also MiscellaneousApplications,ContemptApplicationsandReviewApplications,arisingoutofthem.2. AdjudicatingthecasesremandedbytheHighCourts,inexerciseofitspowerof'JudicialReview'.3. AdjudicatingcasesremandedbytheSupremeCourtofIndia.AdvantagesofAdministrativeTribunalAdministrativeadjudicationisadynamicsystemofadministration,whichserves,moreadequatelythananyothermethod,thevariedandcomplexneedsofthemodernsociety.Themain advantages of the administrative tribunalsare:a)FlexibilityAdministrativeadjudicationhasbroughtaboutflexibilityandadaptabilityinthejudicialas well as administrative tribunals. For instance,thecourtsoflawexhibitagooddealofconservatismandinelasticityofoutlookandapproach.Thejusticetheyadministermaybecomeoutofharmonywiththerapidlychangingsocialconditions.Administrativeadjudication,notrestrainedbyrigidrulesofprocedureandcanonsofevidence,canremainintunewiththevaryingphasesofsocialandeconomiclife.b)AdequateJusticeInthefastchangingworldoftoday,administrativetribunalsarenotonlythemostappropriated means of administrative action, butalso the most effective means of giving fair justicetotheindividuals.Lawyers,whoaremoreconcernedaboutaspectsoflaw,finditdifficulttoadequatelyassesstheneedsofthemodernwelfaresocietyandtolocatetheindividualsplaceinit.c)LessExpensiveAdministrativejusticeensurescheapandquickjustice.Asagainstthis,procedureinthelaw courts is long and cumbersome and litigationis costly. It involves payment of huge court fees,engagementoflawyersandmeetingofotherincidentalcharges.Administrativeadjudication,inmostcases,requiresnostampfees.Itsproceduresaresimpleandcanbeeasilyunderstoodbyalayman.d)RelieftoCourtsThe system also gives the much-needed relieftoordinarycourtsoflaw,whicharealreadyoverburdenedwithnumeroussuits.DisadvantagesofAdministrativeTribunalsEventhoughadministrativeadjudicationisessentialandusefulinmoderndayadminis-tration, we should not be blind to the defects fromwhichitsuffersorthedangersitposestoademocraticpolity.Someofthemaindrawbacksarementionedbelow.a) AdministrativeadjudicationisanegationofRuleofLaw.RuleofLawensuresequalitybeforelawforeverybodyandthesupremacyofordinarylawanddueprocedureoflawovergovernmentalarbitrariness.Butadministrativetribunals,withtheirseparatelawsandproceduresoftenmadebythemselves,putsaseriouslimitationuponthecelebratedprinciplesofRuleofLaw.b) Administrative tribunals have in most cases,nosetproceduresandsometimestheyviolate even the principles of natural justice.c) Administrativetribunalsoftenholdsummarytrialsandtheydonotfollowanyprecedents.Assuchitisnotpossibletopredictthecourseoffuturedecisions.d) The civil and criminal courts have a uniformpatternofadministeringjusticeandcenturies of experience in the administrationofcivilandcriminallawshavebornetestimonytotheadvantagesofuniform[6] ChronicleIASAcademyCHRCHRCHRCHRCHRONICLEONICLEONICLEONICLEONICLEIAS IAS IAS IAS IAS AAAAACADEMYCADEMYCADEMYCADEMYCADEMYprocedure.Auniformcodeofprocedureinadministrativeadjudicationisnotthere.e) Administrativetribunalsaremannedbyadministratorsandtechnicalheadswhomaynothavethebackgroundoflawortraining of judicial work. Some of them maynotpossesstheindependentoutlookofaJudge.FAST TRACK COURTSIndianjailsare,infact,brimmingwithprisoners.Againstthesanctionedcapacityof2.56lakh,jailsinthecountryarecrowdedbymore than five lakh inmates. This is resulting inallsortsofcomplications.KeepingthisfactorinviewtheStateshadtogethersoughtfromtheEleventhFinanceCommissionanaggregateofRs.3,700croreupgradationgrantstoimprovefacilitiesandinfrastructurerelatingtojails.TheFinancebody,however,provided116crorefora five-year period. This may be small consolation.ButthefactremainsthataFinanceCommissionhas for the first time set apart a special grant forupgradationofconditionsinjails.The Finance Commission has hoped that theestablishmentofadditionalcourtsandreformsinlawsandprocedureswouldresultinsubstantialreduction,ifnotelimination,ofpendingcourtcasesoveraperiodoffiveyears.Thusanovelexperimentaimedatclearingthemassivebacklogincourtcaseshasbeguninthecountrywiththesettingupoffasttrackcourtsinvariousstates.Fasttrackcourtsaremeant to expeditiously clear the colossal scale ofpendencyinthedistrictandsubordinatecourtsunderatime-boundprogramme.Alaudableobjectiveoftheexperimentalscheme is to take up on top priority basis sessionsandothercasesinvolvingundertrials.Anestimated1.80lakhundertrialsarelanguishingin various jails in the country. A majority of themarebehindbarsonaccountofpettyorminoroffencesnotwarrantingprolongedimprison-ment.Yetmanyofthemareunderlockupintheabsenceoftrial.Thefasttrackcourtsareexpectedtosubstantiallyreducethenumberofundertrialsinjails.Avastmajorityofthemwillbesetfree,therebyreducingexpenditureaswellasburdenon jails. The State Governments are spending anaggregateofoverRs.361croreperannumontheimprisonedundertrialsattherateofRs.55perheadperday.Besidessavingabulkofthisexpenditure,theexpeditiousdisposalofcasesrelatingtoundertrialswilladdressaserioushumanrightsproblem. Under the governments action plan, the fasttrackcourtswilltakeupastheirnextprioritysessionscasespendingfortwoyearsormore,particularlyinwhichtheaccusedpersonshavebeen on bail. According to an official figure, thetotalnumberofcasespendinginthenearly13,000districtandsubordinatecourtsinthecountryisawhopping2.40crore(latestestimate).Ofthese,over50lakhcriminalandover 25 lakh civil cases are pending for a periodrangingfromonetothreeyears.Theseareinaddition to over 10 lakh pending sessions cases.Theothersaremorethanthreeyearsold.The21HighCourtsaccountforover34lakhpendingcases.Overtenpercentofthesearemorethantenyearsold.Theschemeenvisagesthesettingupofanaverageoffivefasttrackcourtsineachdistrictofthecountry.Statewisedistributionhas,however,beendonekeepinginviewthependencyofcasesandtheaveragerateofdisposalofcasesincourts.UttarPradeshwillhave the largest number of 242 additional courtsfollowedbyMaharashtras187,Bihars183,Gujarats166andWestBengals152.Karnatakastallyis93,Jharkhands89,AndhraPradeshs86,MadhyaPradeshs85,Rajasthans83,Orissas72,TamilNadus49,Uttaranchals45,Keralas37,Haryanas36,Chhatisgarhs31andPunjabs29.Assamwillhave20fasttrackcourts,JammuandKashmir12,HimachalPradesh9,GoaandArunachalPradesh5eachandMizoram,Manipur,Nagaland,SikkimandTripura 3 each. Jammu and Kashmir and Punjabarenotcontentwiththeallottednumberoffasttrackcourts.TheyhavenotifiedtotheCentrethattheywillrespectivelyestablish43and34additionalcourts.Theschemefurtherenvisagestheappointmentofadhocjudgesfromamongretiredsessions/additionalsessionsjudges,judgespromotedonadhocbasisandpostedinthese courts or from among members of the Bar.SelectionofjudgeswillbedonebytheHighCourts.TheCentrehasdirectedtheStateGovernmentsthatconsequentialvacanciesresultingfromad-hocpromotionofjudgesbe ChronicleIASAcademy [7]filledthroughaspecialdrive.Thisiscalledforinorderthatfurtherpendencyisnotcreatedinexistingcourtsofmagistratesandciviljudges.As per the Centres action plan, the fast trackcourts will be required to dispose of 14 sessionstrialcasesand/or20to25criminal/civilcaseseverymonth.TheStateGovernmentsandHighCourtshavebeenrequestedtomakeeffectivearrangementforrepresentationonbehalfoftheprosecution and to ensure quick process service.Auniquefeatureoftheschemeisthatitisgoingtoprovetobecosteffective.Thisissobecausethenewcourtshavebeenchargedwiththeexclusiveworkofdisposingofundertrialcasesinthefirstyearoftheirexistence.Alargemajority of undertrials being those who had beenbooked for petty/minor offences, they are boundto be discharged forthwith as most of them havebeenbehindbarsforperiodswhicharelongerthanthepunishmentwarrantedbytheoffence.Inplainterms,thiswillmeanahugesavinginjailexpenditure.AnalysisofFastTrackCourtsEversincetheyweresetupbythefederalgovernmentin2001tohelptacklethecasebacklog,morethan1,000fasttrackcourtshavedisposedofmorethanthreemillioncases.Manylawyersbelievethisisaconsiderableachievementgiventhefactthatmorethan30millioncasesarependinginHighandDistrictcourtsinIndia.Toaddtolitigants'woes,there'salsoashortageofjudgesasvacanciesarenotfilled:Highcourtshave32%fewerjudgesthantheyshouldandDistrictcourtshavea21%shortfall.Nowondertheratioofjudgesisaslowas14per one million people, compared with over 100judges per million citizens in the US. Some yearsago, a Delhi High Court judge reckoned it wouldtakemorethan450yearstoclearthebackloggiventhethenjudgenumbers.Allthisproddedthegovernmenttolaunchaschemeunderwhichmorethan1,700fasttrackcourtswouldtacklelong-pendingcasesatacostof$90m(56.18m).Anaverageoffivesuchcourtsweretobeestablishedineachdistrictofthecountry.Thejudgesweretobeamixofretiredhighcourtjudgesandpromotedjudicialofficers.Butfundinghasbeenanissue.Thecentralgovernment said it could no longer fund the newcourtsafterMarch2011,leavingfuturefundingdecisionstoindividualstates.Theresult-somestateshavedoneawaywiththecourtsafterfindingthemtooexpensivetorun.FormerSupremeCourtChiefJusticeKGBalakrishnanhassaidthefasttrackcourtswerequite successful in reducing the backlog of cases.ButleadinglawyerandrightsactivistColinGonsalves says fast-track courts have not turnedout to be a "very satisfactory system of deliveringjustice". He told that people are " generally veryupset by the declining standards of these courtsand have defined it as 'fast-track injustice. " Thesecourtsaregivenunrealistictargetsofcasestofinish.Theyhavebeentoldtheyoughtnotgetinvolvedintoomuchtechnicality,andthatbroadly if they get a feeling that a person is guilty,then declare him guilty and if he is innocent, thendeclarehiminnocent."Thegovernmentwasworkingonanotherproposaltoallowstatestousefundsavailableformorningandeveningcourtstofurtherincreasethenumberoffast-trackcourts,ademandraisedbyvarioussectionsofsocietytoexpedite trial of pending cases, particularly thoseofsexualassaultandheinouscrimes.TheLawMinistryallowedsettingupofmorningandeveningcourtsin2010buttheschemefailedtotakeoffwithveryfewstatesavailingtheschemeleadingtounusedfunds.Now,thegovernmentproposestodivertthisallocation towards setting up of fast-track courts,sourcessaid.TheCentrehaddiscontinuedthefast-trackcourtsschemeinMarch2011afterrunningitforover11years.However,severalstateslikeAssam,Manipurand ArunachalPradeshdecidedtoconvertthesecourtsintoregularcourtswhilesomelikeWestBengalandMaharashtracontinuedtorunmorethan100suchcourtswithoutthecentralcontribution.Duringthecentralfundingoffast-trackcourts,between2000and2011, Bihar ranmaximum number of such courts at 179 and thisalsoresultedinreductionofalargenumberofpendingcasesinthestate.Underthescheme,the central assistance was limited to Rs. 4.80 lakhpercourtperannumforrecurringexpenditure[8] ChronicleIASAcademyCHRCHRCHRCHRCHRONICLEONICLEONICLEONICLEONICLEIAS IAS IAS IAS IAS AAAAACADEMYCADEMYCADEMYCADEMYCADEMYandRs.8.60lakhnon-recurringexpenditure.Anyotherexpenditureincurredbystatesinexcesswastobebornebythem.Despite all these efforts, there are more than3.20crorependingcasesindifferentcourtsofthecountry.Ofthis,atleast2.76crorecasesarepending in subordinate courts while 44 lakh arepending in various high courts, according to thelawministry.Theadditionof2,000judgesinthelowerjudiciaryforsettingupfasttrackcourtsiswelcome,butmustbeseenasnomorethanamodestbeginning.Thetruthisthatfasttrackcourtsareonlyaninterimsolutiontoanurgentproblem.Inthefinalanalysis,itisnotonlyspecificcategoriesofcrime,likesexualoffencesorcorruptioncases,thatneedtobedealtwithspeedily by our judicial system. The principle ofjustice delayed being equivalent to justice deniedmust ultimately apply across the board. All cases,irrespective of the nature of the alleged offences,mustbedealtwithspeedily.Forthatweneedmorejudgesandamoreefficientworkculturein the entire judicial system not just in fast trackcourts.GRAMNYAYALAYASEquality and justice are indisputably two keyfacetsoftheideaofamodern,democratic,andconstitution-adheringIndia.TheprinciplesofequalityandjusticearerealizedbytheStateapparatusthroughthebusinessofadminis-trationofjustice.Indiasjudicialsystemischaracterizedbysystemicproblems,includingcorruption,delays,pendency,increasingcosts,limitedlegalaid,andalackofappropriatelytrainedlawyersandjudges.ToovercometheseproblemstheLawMinistryhadsetupGramNyayalaysin2009with an aim to provide a cost-effective forum atthe grassroot level for the poor living in villagestosettlelegalmatters.ItwasestablishedbytheGramNyayalayasAct,2008.This Act perpetuates the phenomenon of twoIndias that of the better-resourced urban citizenwho can afford and has access to the courts, andtheotherIndiaoftheimpoverishedthemoredisconnectedruralcitizen,whogetsprimaryaccesstoforumsthatfocusprimarilyondisposingoftheirclaims,minustheapplicationofessentialsafeguardsofthelegalprocesslawyers,appeals,proceduralprotections,andevidentiaryrequirements.TheGramNyayalayawasproposedbythe114thLawCommissionwaybackin1986.ThereportrecommendedtheconceptoftheGramNyayalayawithtwoobjectives.Whileaddressingthependencyinthesubordinatecourtswasthemajorobjective,theotherobjective was the introduction of a participatoryforumofjustice.TomakeitparticipatorytheLawCommissionrecommendedthattheMagistratebeaccompaniedbytwolaypersonswhoshallactasJudges,thatthelegaltrainingoftheMagistratewillbecomplementedbytheknowledge of the lay persons who would bringin the much required socio-economic dimensiontoadjudication.Itwasproposedthatsuchamodelofadjudicationwillbebestsuitedforrurallitigation.TheLawCommissionalsoobservedthatsuchacourtwouldbeideallysuited for the villages as the nature of disputescomingbeforesuchacourtwouldbesimple,uncomplicatedandeasyofsolutionandthatsuchdisputesshouldnotbeenmeshedinproceduralclaptrap.SalientFeaturesofGramNyayalayaAct,2008whichcameintoeffectfromOct2,2009are:a) GramNyayalayasareaimedatprovidinginexpensivejusticetopeopleinruralareasattheirdoorsteps.b) TheGramNyayalayashallbecourtofJudicialMagistrateofthefirstclassanditsPresidingOfficer(Nyayadhikari)shallbeappointedbytheStateGovernmentinconsultationwiththeHighCourt.c) The Gram Nyayalaya shall be established foreveryPanchayatatintermediateleveloragroupofcontiguousPanchayatsatintermediate level in a district or where thereisnoPanchayatatintermediatelevelinanyState.d) TheNyayadhikariswhowillpresideovertheseGramNyayalayasarestrictlyjudicialofficersandwillbedrawingthesamesalary,derivingthesamepowersasFirstClassMagistratesworkingunderHighCourts.e) The Gram Nyayalaya shall be a mobile courtandshallexercisethepowersofbothCriminalandCivilCourts. ChronicleIASAcademy [9]f) TheseatoftheGramNyayalayawillbe locatedattheheadquartersoftheintermediatePanchayat,theywillgotovillages, work there and dispose of the cases.g) The Gram Nyayalaya shall try criminal cases,civilsuits,claimsordisputeswhicharespecifiedintheFirstScheduleandtheSecondScheduletotheAct.h) TheGramNyayalayashallfollowsummaryprocedureincriminaltrial.i) TheGramNyayalayashalltrytosettlethedisputes as far as possible by bringing aboutconciliationbetweenthepartiesandforthispurpose, it shall make use of the conciliatorstobeappointedforthispurpose.j) The judgment and order passed by the GramNyayalayashallbedeemedtobeadecree.k) The Gram Nyayalaya shall not be bound bythe rules of evidence provided in the IndianEvidenceAct,1872butshallbeguidedbytheprinciplesofnaturaljusticeandsubjecttoanyrulemadebytheHighCourt.l) AnappealincriminalcasesshalllietotheCourtofSession,whichshallbeheardanddisposedofwithinaperiodofsixmonthsfromthedateoffilingofsuchappeal.m) AnappealincivilcasesshalllietotheDistrictCourt,whichshallbeheardanddisposedofwithinaperiodofsixmonthsfromthedateoffilingoftheappeal.n) A personaccusedofanoffencemayfileanapplicationforpleabargaining.o) Theproceedingswillbecarriedoutinthelocallanguage.AnalysisofGramNyayalayasTheGramNyayalaya,thelatestjudicialmechanismtoprovideaccesstojusticeatgrassroots level although, looks beautiful from its face,but,theremaybesomepracticaldifficultiesinitsfunctioning.Theproblemsmaybedescribedas: AbouttheadequatenumberofcourtstoaddresswholeofruralIndiaInitially,itwasdecidedtoformGramNyayalayaforevery50000peopleandestimated6000GramNyayalayasweretobeconstitu-ted butat presentthegovernmenthasdeclared 5000 Gram Nyayalayas only. How-ever,fromthepopulationandNyayalayaratioitcanbe apprehendedthatthenumberof Nyayalayascannotmeetthewhole ofruralIndia.So,manypeoplecannotget thebenefitofthesecourts. AboutadequatenumberofqualifiednyayadhikariesAbouttheappointmentof Nyaadhikaries,Section6(2)oftheActprovidesforadequaterepresentationfromtheSC,ST,womenandothercategoriesshouldbemaintained,but,fromthetrendofemploymentinJ.M.F.CofvariousStatesitisfoundthatsufficientnumberofcandidatesforeachcategorymaynot beavailabletobe appointedtotheseposts.Thus, it may lead to vacancy of posts, hencedefeattheobjectoftheAct. Regardingconstitutionofthecourts-ItismentionedthatGramNyayalayaisthelowestcourtof subordinatejudiciaryandintegralpartofexistingjudiciary.ItisacourtofJMFC,themagistrate/presidingofficerofthiscourtwillbecalledasNyayadhikari.But,thecourtstructureprovidedinCr.P.C.doesnotprovideforeitherGramNyayalayaorNyayadhikari,whichmaycreateconfusioninthepowersof thecourt. Regarding the court system It is mentionedthatGramNyayalayaistoconductthecasesincloseproximityofthecauseofactionanditwillbeamobilecourtandtheprocedureisofadversarialsystemofjusticeandatimeframeforjudgmentisalsoprovidedinit.Thusthecourtmustgototheplaceofcauseofactionattherequestoftheaggrievedpartytodecidethematter.Forthetimeframe,itmaynotwaitforthepartiesorwitnesstoprovetheparticularfactinissueandpassorder.Aquestionarises,whatwillhappeniftheoppositepartyorallthenecessarypartiesincaseofcivildisputesarenotavailablebefore thatmobilecourt withinthestipulatedtimeoriftheywanttoavoidthecourt,andthecourtmakesanex-partedecreeor itgivesthejudgmentfrom the factsandcircumstantialevidencesithasinitspossession.Suchadecisioncannotgivejusticetotheeffectedparty,theremayalso[10] ChronicleIASAcademyCHRCHRCHRCHRCHRONICLEONICLEONICLEONICLEONICLEIAS IAS IAS IAS IAS AAAAACADEMYCADEMYCADEMYCADEMYCADEMYbeviolationofnatural justicetothemandforwhichtheymaygotoregularcourtforenforcementoftheirrights.InsuchcasestheobjectoftheActwhichistoreducetheburdenofcasesincourtswillbedefeated. InthematterofSummarytrialandconceptof Natural Justice It is provided in the Actthat,allproceedings incriminalcases havebeenmadeintoasummaryone.Twoimportantaspectsofsummarytrialarethatchargesarenotframedandonlythegistoftheevidenceisrecorded.Whatcouldbegainedif a full recording of evidence is givenupinfavourofsummaryrecordings.Bymakingsummarytrial,oneisgivingmoreroomtotheJudgetoexercisehisdiscretion.Further,conceptofNaturalJusticeprovidesforfairtrialandprotectionfromreasonablebias. In criminal cases, the duty of the State istoprovethecasebeyondallreasonabledoubts.BysummarytrialitmayamounttonotprovidingsufficientopportunitytotheaccusedfordefenceanddiscretionofJudgemayturnarbitrary. Lastly, regarding the duties of NyayadhikariitismentionedthattheNyayadhikrihastoassist,persuadeandconciliatethepartiesapart from their adjudicative function at thefirstinstanceofthecase.But,iftheNyaya-dhikariesaretoassist,persuade,conciliatetheparties,evenwiththeassistanceoftheconciliatorsthentheyhavetobeexposedwiththeindividuallitigants.Incasethemediationorconciliationofthatparticularlitigation has failed and the aggrieved partiescomeforadjudicationofthematterinthesamecourt,itmayleadtoasituationof favoritismorbias.SuggestionstoImproveFunctioningofGramNyayalayas-Regardingthenumberofcourts,asitisinearly stage of constitution, the Government mayconsiderthepopulationcourtratiofromapracticalpointofviewtoformasmanycourtstoachievetheobjectiveoftheAct.Similarly,as thecourts are tobeopenedinaphasedmanner,sotheruleregardingreservationmaynot be strictly adhered but sufficient steps shouldbetakentoempowerthecategoryofstudents/advocates to qualify for the post. This can be doneby(1)AssistingdifferentLawcollegestoorganize remedial courses for these students, (2)Creating awareness among the advocates to joinsuch jobs, (3)creatingasoundlegaleducationsystemthroughoutthecountry.RegardingtheanomaliesinconstitutionofcourtsCr.P.C.istobesuitablyamendedtoinsertGram NyayalayaandNyayadhikariasacadreoflower judiciarywithdefinedpowers.Regardingthecourtsystemthecourtmustadopttheprovisionofsufficient and reasonable notice to all parties andmusthave thepowertoenforceattendanceof the parties before the mobile court. Regardingthesummaryprocedureandmaintenanceofnaturaljustice,strictguidelineforflexibilityofrecordingevidenceanduseofdiscretionarypowershouldbeprescribed.Andlastly,abouttheconciliation,mediationtobeconductedbythejudges-moreethicalstandardmoralvalueshould be maintained by the Nyayadhikaries intheir work life, especially, while doing some actslikeconciliation,etc.Itwouldbebetter,ifthejudgesarenotinvolvedinconciliationdirectlyanddoitthroughthehelpofGramSabhaofthat particular locality or conciliators appointedfor the purpose and accept only the conciliatorsreportforgivingorderincaseofasuccessfulconciliationamongtheparties.PARIVARIKMAHILALOKADALAT(PMLA)The Constitution of India confers equal rightsandopportunitiesonmenandwomeninthepolitical,economicandsocialspheres.TheMilleniumDevelopmentGoal3Promotegenderequalityandempowerwomen.Threeprongedstrategyofempoweringwomenhasbeenproposed.Thisinclude: SocialEmpowermentcreateanenablingenvironmentthroughadoptingvariouspoliciesandprogrammesfordevelopmentof women, besides providing them easy andequalaccesstoallthebasicminimumservices so as to enable them to realize theirfullpotential. Economic Empowerment ensure provisionoftraining,employmentandincomegenerationactivitieswithbothforwardandbackwardlinkageswiththeultimateobjective of making all women economicallyindependentandselfreliant. ChronicleIASAcademy [11] GenderJusticeeliminateallformsofgenderdiscriminationandthusenablewomen to enjoy not only de jure but also defacto rights and fundamental freedom at parwithmeninallspheres,viz.,political,economic,social,civil,cultural,etc.Thustoprovidegenderjusticetheconceptof ParivarikMahilaLokAdalat (PMLA)hasbeenevolvedbythe NationalCommissionforWomen (NCW)tosupplementtheeffortsoftheDistrict Legal Service Authority for redressal andspeedydisposalofmatterspendinginvariouscourtsrelatedtomarriageandfamilyaffairs. MattersWhichcanbeBroughtBeforeParivarik Mahila Lok AdalatsThefollowingtypeofmatterscanbebroughtbeforethePMLA: Allcivilcases. Matrimonialdisputes,includingdivorce,maintenance (of wife, parents, children, etc.). CompoundableCriminalcases. DisputesrelatedtoLabourLaws. MotorAccidentClaims. Bigamy.ObjectivesofParivarikMahilaLokAdalat: To provide speedy and cost free dispensationofjusticetowomen. Togenerateawarenessamongthepublicregardingconciliatorymodeofdisputesettlement. To gear up the process of organizing the LokAdalats and to encourage the public to settletheirdisputesoutsidetheformalset-up. Toempowerpublicespeciallywomentoparticipateinjusticedeliverymechanism.MethodologyTheParivarikMahilaLokAdalatfunctionson the model of the Lok Adalat. The CommissionprovidesfinancialassistancetoNGOsorStateWomenCommissionsorStateLegalServiceAuthoritytoorganizetheParivarikMahilaLokAdalat.TheNGOsapproachtheDLSAorDistrictJudgeandcollectinformationaboutpendingcases of family disputes within the district. Thenthe DLSA selects women related cases which areadmissible in the Lok Adalat, and makes relevantfiles/casepapersavailabletotheNGOs.NGOsthroughtheircounsellorsapproachthepartiesandstartcounsellingpriortothedateofthePMLAtobringthemtoacompromiseorsettlement.Ifsettlementoccursthenthesettlement will be noted down on paper in eachcase and the signatures of both the parties mustbeobtainedonthedocumentwhichwillbepresentedbeforePMLAforitslegalauthentication.LatertheNGOswillorganizePMLAonthespecified date on which the cases will be broughtupforsettlement.Atleast40%ofthecasesreceived from DLSA must be disposed of on thedateofPMLA.TheDistrictJudgewillappointaPresidingOfficer,forthePMLA,whoshouldbeaJudgeandtwoormorememberswhocanbejudges,advocatesorsocialactivists.TheVenueofthePMLA will be a suitable central place convenienttothepanelistsaswellasthepartiesandpreferablypremisesotherthanaCourtRoom.The panel will authenticate the settlement on thedateofPMLA.Courtdecreewillbeissuedasper the settlement and will be legally binding onboth the parties. After that the settled cases willbewithdrawnfromthedealingcourts.NGOsshallnotchargeanyfeefromtheparties.AdvantagesAdvantagesofthePMLAarethatitischeaper,ithelpsencouragethepublictosettletheirdisputesoutsidetheformalset-up,itempowersthepublic(especiallywomen)toparticipateinthejusticedeliverymechanism,andideally,casesareamicablysettledbythepartiesinaharmoniousatmosphere.Interestingly,anawardoftheLokAdalathasthesameforceasadecreebyaCourtofLaw.FAMILY COURTSIn1975,theCommitteeontheStatusofWomenrecommendedthatallmattersconcerningthefamilyshouldbedealtwithseparately.TheLawCommissioninits59threport(1974)hadalsostressedthatindealingwithdisputesconcerningthefamily,thecourtoughttoadoptandapproachradicalstepsdistinguishedfromtheexistingordinarycivil[12] ChronicleIASAcademyCHRCHRCHRCHRCHRONICLEONICLEONICLEONICLEONICLEIAS IAS IAS IAS IAS AAAAACADEMYCADEMYCADEMYCADEMYCADEMYproceedingsandthatthesecourtsshouldmakereasonableeffortsatsettlementbeforethecommencementofthetrial.Gender-sensitizedpersonnel,includingjudges,socialworkersandothertrainedstaffshouldhearandresolveallthefamily-relatedissuesthrougheliminationofrigidrulesofprocedure.TheCodeofCivilProcedure was amended to provide for a specialprocedure to be adopted in suits or proceedingsrelatingtomattersconcerningthefamily.However the courts continue to deal with familydisputesinthesamemannerasothercivilmattersandthesameadversaryapproachprevails.Henceagreatneedwasfelt,inthepublicinterest,toestablishfamilycourtsforspeedysettlementoffamilydisputes.Thus the reason for setting up of family courtswasthemountingpressuresfromseveralwomen's associations, welfare organizations andindividualsforestablishmentofspecialcourtswithaviewtoprovidingaforumforspeedysettlementoffamily-relateddisputes.Emphasiswaslaidonanon-adversarialmethodofresolvingfamilydisputesandpromotingconciliationandsecuringspeedysettlementofdisputesrelatingtomarriageandfamilyaffairs.Finally,theFamilyCourtsActwaspassedin1984.Section3oftheActempowerstheStategovernmentsafterconsultationwiththeHighCourt,toestablish,foreveryareaintheStatecomprisingacityortown,whosepopulationexceedsonemillion,afamilycourt.Thecriteriafor appointment of a Family Court Judge are thesame as those for appointment of a District Judgerequiring seven years experience in judicial officeorsevenyearspracticeasanadvocate.TheCentral Government is empowered to make rulesprescribing some more qualifications. Apart fromprescribingthequalificationoftheJudgesofFamilyCourts,theCentralGovernmenthasnoroletoplayintheadministrationofthisAct.DifferentHighCourtshavelaiddowndifferentrules of the procedure. A need for a uniform setofruleshashoweverbeenfelt.TheActprovidesthatpersonswhoareappointedtothefamilycourtsshouldbecommittedtotheneedtoprotectandpreservetheinstitutionofmarriageandtopromotethesettlementofdisputesbyconciliationandcounselling.Preferencewouldalsobegivenforappointment of women as Family Court Judges.Itprovidedaplatformtoassociateinstitutionsengagedinpromotingwelfareoffamilies,especiallywomenandchildren,orworking in the field of social welfare, to associatethemselves with the Family Courts in the exerciseofitsfunctions.TheStateGovernmentsarealsorequired to determine the number and categoriesofcounsellors,officers,etc.toassisttheFamilyCourts.TheActconfersonallthefamilycourtsthepowerandjurisdictionexercisablebyanyDistrictCourtorsubordinatecivilcourtinsuitsandproceedingsofthenaturereferred.These,inter-aliarelatetosuitsbetweenpartiestoamarriageorforadeclarationastothevalidityofmarriageoradisputewithrespecttothepropertyoftheparties,maintenance,guardian-ship, etc. In addition, the jurisdiction exercisablebyaFirstClassMagistrateunderChapterIXofthe Cr.P.C. i.e., relating to order for maintenanceofwife,childrenorparents,hasalsobeenconferredonthefamilycourts.Thereisalsoanenablingprovisionthatthefamilycourtsmayexercisesuchotherjurisdictionasmaybeconferredonthembyanyotherenactment.Provisionhasalsobeenmadetoexcludejurisdictionofothercourtsinrespectofmattersforwhichthefamilycourthasbeenconferredjurisdiction.ProcedureFollowedintheFamilyCourtIthasbeenmadeincumbentonthesecourtsto see that the parties are assisted and persuadedtocometoasettlement,andforthispurposetheyhavebeenauthorizedtofollowtheprocedure specified by the High Court by meansof rules to be made by it. If there is a possibilityofsettlementbetweenthepartiesandthereissomedelayinarrivingatsuchasettlement,thefamilycourtisempoweredtoadjourntheproceedingsuntilthesettlementisreached.Undertheseprovisions,differentHighCourtshavespecifieddifferentrulesofprocedureforthe determination and settlement of disputes bythefamilycourts.IntherulesmadebytheMadhyaPradeshHighCourt,thefamilycourtjudge is also involved in the settlement, and if asettlement cannot be reached then a regular trialfollows.Itisalsoprovidedthattheproceedingsmaybeheldincameraifthefamilycourtorifeither party so desires. The family court has alsobeen given the power to obtain assistance of legalandwelfareexperts. ChronicleIASAcademy [13]Section 13 of the Act provides that the partybefore a Family Court shall not be entitled as ofrighttoberepresentedbyalegalpractitioner.However, the court may, in the interest of justice,provideassistanceofalegalexpertasamicuscuriae.Evidencemaybegivenbyaffidavitalsoanditisopentothefamilycourttosummonand examine any person as to the facts containedintheaffidavit.Thejudgementofthefamilycourt is concise and simple, it contains the pointfor determination of decision and the reason forthe same. The decree of the Family Court can beexecutedinaccordancewiththeprovisionsoftheCPCorCr.P.C.,asthecasemaybe.AnappealagainstjudgementororderoffamilycourtliestotheHighCourt.TheActgivespowertoeachoftheHighCourtstomakerulesfortheproceduretobefollowedbythefamilycourtsinarrivingatsettlementsandothermatters.The Act was expected to facilitate satisfactoryresolutionofdisputesconcerningthefamilythroughaforum,andthisforumwasexpectedto work expeditiously, in a just manner and withanapproachensuringmaximumwelfareofsocietyanddignityofwomen.The Act however does not define 'family'. Thematters of serious economic consequences whichaffectthefamily,liketestamentarymattersarenot within the purview of the family courts. Onlymattersconcerningwomenandchildren-divorce,maintenance,adoption,etc.arewithinthepurviewofthefamilycourts.AnalysisofFamilyCourtsTheActhasbroughtcivilandcriminaljurisdictionunderoneroof.Thiswasseenasapositivemeasuretocentralizealllitigationconcerningwomen.Secondly,theverynatureofcriminalcourtsfacilitatedquickerdisposalofapplicationstoacivilcourt.Thirdly,therewasseriousnessandasenseofintimidationassociatedwithacriminalcourt,whichwouldactinawoman'sfavour.AlsotheActbroughtunder one roof, matters which were handled byfortyoddmagistratesandatleasttwocourtsinthecitycivilcourt,intofivecourtroomsinthecityofMumbai.While the Act laid down the broad guidelinesit was left to the State Government to frame therulesofprocedure.However,moststategovernmentsdidnotbothertoframetherulesandsetupfamilycourts.RajasthanandKarnatakawerethefirsttwostatestosetupfamilycourts.Butsoonwomenlitigantsaswellasactivistsweredisillusionedwiththefunctioningofthecourts.Theoverallsituationis the same everywhere, with minor differences.InTamilNadu,themarriagecounsellorskeepchangingevery3monthsandeachtimethewomanmeetsanewcounsellorshehastoexplainherproblemsalloveragain,withnocontinuityinthediscussion.SuggestionstoimprovefunctioningofFamilyCourts:a) TheFamilyCourtsAct,1984wasenactedwithaviewtopromoteconciliationandsecure speedy settlement of disputes relatingtomarriageandfamilyaffairsandformattersconnectedtherewith.Thoughthiswasaimedatremovingthegenderbiasinstatutorylegislation,thegoalisyettobeachieved.b) Mechanismofthefamilycourtsmustdevelop systems and processes, perhaps withthehelpofcivilsocietyorganizations,toensurethatatrocitiesagainstwomenareminimizedinthefirstplace.c) Familycourtsshouldalignthemselveswithwomen'sorganizationsforguidanceinmattersrelatedtogenderissues.Inthecontextoffamilycourts,actionforumsshouldbeinitiatedandstrengthenedbyincorporatingNGOs,representativesofelectedmembersandtheactivemembersofthedepartmentssuchasUrbanCommunityDevelopment,asmembers.d) State level monitoring mechanisms could beestablishedtoreviewthefunctioningandoutcomeofthecasesrelatedtowomeninthefamilycourts.Womenjudgesandthosewho have expertise and experience in settlingfamilydisputesshouldbeappointed.e) Thesespecialcourtsshouldhavetheauthoritytotrycasesagainstanaccusedevenifthefemalevictimisnotwillingtotestify or is bent upon withdrawing her case.f) Themarriagecounsellorsshouldnotbefrequentlychangedasitcauseshardshiptowomenwhohavetoexplainherproblemsafreshtothenewcounsellorseachtime.g) Thefamilycourtscommittedtosimpli-ficationofproceduresmustomitthe[14] ChronicleIASAcademyCHRCHRCHRCHRCHRONICLEONICLEONICLEONICLEONICLEIAS IAS IAS IAS IAS AAAAACADEMYCADEMYCADEMYCADEMYCADEMYprovisionsrelatingtoCourtFeesAct.Eachadditional relief should not be charged withadditionalcourtfee.h) TheActandRulesexcluderepresentationby lawyers, without creating any alternativeandsimplifiedRules.Thesituationhasworsened because in the absence of lawyers,litigantsarelefttothemercyofcourtclerksandpeonstohelpthemfollowthecomplicatedrules.Womenarenotevenaware of the consequences of the suggestionsmadebycourtofficials.Forinstance,whenawomanfilesfordivorceandmaintenance,thehusbandturnsaroundandpressesforreconciliationonlytoavoidpayingmaintenance.i) Thesettingupoffamilycourtsdoesnotinanywayalterthesubstantivelawrelatingtomarriage.Divorcedisentitlesawomantothematrimonialhome.Whetherornotshegetsmaintenanceduringaseparationorafter divorce depends on her ability to proveherhusband'smeans.Inasituationwherewomen are often unaware of their husband'sbusinessdealingsandsourcesofincome,itisdifficult,ifnotimpossible,toprovehisincome.j) Theothermuchneglectedareaoflawforwomen is domestic violence. Wife beating isprevalentinallclassesandyetthereisnoeffective law to prevent it or protect a womanagainstaviolenthusband.Suchalawisurgentlyrequired.LOKADALATTheconceptofLokAdalatisaninnovativeIndiancontributiontotheworldofjurisprudence.TheintroductionofLokAdalatsaddedanewchaptertothejusticedispensationsystemofthiscountryandsucceededinproviding a supplementary forum to the victimsfor satisfactory settlement of their disputes. ThissystemisbasedonGandhianprinciples.The advent of Legal Services Authorities Act,1987gaveastatutorystatustoLokAdalats,pursuant to the constitutional mandate in Article39-AoftheConstitutionofIndia,containsvariousprovisionsforsettlementofdisputesthroughLokAdalat.ItisanActtoconstitutelegalservicesauthoritiestoprovidefreeandcompetentlegalservicestotheweakersectionsofthesocietytoensurethatopportunitiesforsecuringjusticearenotdeniedtoanycitizenbyreasonofeconomicorotherdisabilities,andtoorganize Lok Adalats to secure that the operationof the legal system promotes justice on the basisofequalopportunity.EvenbeforetheenforcementoftheAct,theconceptofLokAdalathasbeengettingwideacceptanceasPeople'sCourtsastheverynamesignifies.Settlement of disputes at the hands of PanchayatHeads or tribal heads was in vogue since ancienttimes.Whenstatutoryrecognitionhadbeengiven to Lok Adalat, it was specifically providedthattheawardpassedbytheLokAdalatformulatingthetermsofcompromisewillhavetheforceofdecreeofacourtwhichcanbeexecutedasacivilcourtdecree.TheevolutionofmovementcalledLokAdalatwasapartofthe strategy to relieve heavy burden on the Courtswithpendingcasesandtogiverelieftothelitigantswhowereinaqueuetogetjustice.ItcontainsvariousprovisionsforsettlementofdisputesthroughLokAdalat.SalientfeaturesofLokAdalat:1) Itisbasedonsettlementorcompromisereachedthroughsystematicnegotiations.2) Itisawinwinsystemwhereallthepartiestothedisputehavesomethingtogain.3) ItisoneamongtheAlternateDisputeResolution(ADR)systems.ItisanalternativetoJudicialJustice.4) ItiseconomicalNocourtfeeispayable.If any court fee is paid, it will be refunded.5) Thepartiestoadisputecaninteractdirectlywiththepresidingofficer,whichisnotpossibleinthecaseofacourtproceeding.6) LokAdalatisdeemedtobeacivilcourtforcertainpurposes.7) LokAdalatishavingcertainpowersofacivilcourt.8) TheawardpassedbytheLokAdalatisdeemedtobeadecreeofacivilcourt.9) AnawardpassedbytheLokAdalatisfinalandnoappealismaintainablefromit.10) AnawardpassedbytheLokAdalatcanbeexecutedinacourt. ChronicleIASAcademy [15]11) TheawardcanbepassedbyLokAdalat,onlyafterobtainingtheassentofallthepartiestodispute.12) CodeofCivilProcedureandIndianEvidenceActarenotapplicabletotheproceedingsofLokAdalat.13) APermanentLokAdalatcanpassanawardonmerits,evenwithouttheconsentofparties.Suchanawardisfinalandbinding.Fromthatnoappealispossible.14) Theappearanceoflawyersonbehalfofthe parties, at the Lok Adalat is not barred.(Regulation39ofthe KeralaState LegalServicesAuthorityRegulations,1998.)LokAdalatshavecompetencetodealwithanumberofcaseslike: Compoundablecivil,revenueandcriminalcases Motoraccidentcompensationclaimscases PartitionClaims DamagesCases Matrimonialandfamilydisputes Mutationoflandscase LandPattascases BondedLabourcases Landacquisitiondisputes Banksunpaidloancases Arrearsofretirementbenefitscases FamilyCourtcases Caseswhicharenotsub-judiceProcedureTheprocedurefollowedataLokAdalatisverysimpleandshornofalmostalllegalformalismandrituals.TheLokAdalatispresided over by a sitting or retired judicial officerasthechairman,withtwoothermembers,usuallyalawyerandasocialworker.ItisrevealedbyexperiencethatinLokAdalatsitiseasiertosettlemoneyclaimssinceinmostsuchcases the quantum alone may be in dispute. Thusthe motor accident compensation claim cases arebrought before the Lok Adalat and a number ofcases were disposed of in each Lok Adalat. Oneimportantconditionisthatbothpartiesindispute should agree for settlement through LokAdalatandabidebyitsdecision.ALokAdalathas the jurisdiction to settle, by way of effectingcompromisebetweentheparties,anymatterwhich may be pending before any court, as wellasmattersatpre-litigativestagei.e.,disputeswhichhavenotyetbeenformallyinstitutedinanyCourtofLaw.Suchmattersmaybecivilorcriminal in nature, but any matter relating to anoffencenotcompoundableunderanylawcannot be decided by the Lok Adalat even if theparties involved therein agree to settle the same.LokAdalatscantakecognizanceofmattersinvolving not only those persons who are entitledto avail free legal services but of all other personsalso, be they women, men, or children and eveninstitutions.Anyone,ormoreofthepartiestoadisputecanmoveanapplicationtothecourtwheretheirmattermaybepending,orevenatpre-litigativestage,forsuchmatterbeingtakenup in the Lok Adalat where upon the Lok AdalatBenchconstitutedforthepurposeshallattempttoresolvethedisputebyhelpingthepartiestoarriveatanamicablesolutionandonceitissuccessfulindoingso,theawardpassedbyitshall be final which has as much force as a decreeofaCivilCourtobtainedafterduecontest.TheawardoftheLokAdalatisfictionallydeemedtobedecreeofCourtandthereforethecourtshaveallthepowersinrelationtheretoasit has in relation to a decree passed by itself. Thisincludesthepowerstoextendtimeinappropriate cases. The award passed by the LokAdalatisthedecisionofthecourtitselfthougharrived at by the simpler method of conciliationinsteadoftheprocessofargumentsincourt.BenefitsofLokAdalatThe benefits that litigants derive through theLokAdalatsaremany.a) First,thereisnocourtfeeandevenifthecaseisalreadyfiledintheregularcourt,thefeepaidwillberefundedifthedisputeissettledattheLokAdalat.b) Secondly,thereisnostrictapplicationoftheprocedurallawsandtheEvidenceActwhileassessingthemeritsoftheclaimbytheLokAdalat.ThepartiestothedisputesthoughrepresentedbytheiradvocatescaninteractwiththeLokAdalatjudgedirectlyandexplaintheirstandinthedisputeandthereasonstherefore,whichisnotpossibleinaregularcourtoflaw.[16] ChronicleIASAcademyCHRCHRCHRCHRCHRONICLEONICLEONICLEONICLEONICLEIAS IAS IAS IAS IAS AAAAACADEMYCADEMYCADEMYCADEMYCADEMYc) Thirdly,disputescanbebroughtbeforetheLokAdalatdirectlyinsteadofgoingtoaregularcourtfirstandthentotheLokAdalat.d) Fourthly,thedecisionoftheLokAdalatisbinding on the parties to the dispute and itsorderiscapableofexecutionthroughlegalprocess.NoappealliesagainsttheorderoftheLokAdalatwhereasintheregularlawcourtsthereisalwaysascopetoappealtothe higher forum on the decision of the trialcourt,whichcausesdelayinthesettlementofthedisputefinally.Thereasonbeingthatin a regular court, decision is that of the courtbut in Lok Adalat it is mutual settlement andhencenocaseforappealwillarise.IneveryrespecttheschemeofLokAdalatisaboonto the litigant public, where they can get theirdisputessettledfastandfreeofcost.e) Lastbutnottheleast,ithasfasterandinexpensiveremedywithlegalstatus.Thesystemhasreceivedlaurelsfromtheparties involved in particular and the public andthelegalfunctionaries,ingeneral.Italsohelpsinemergenceofjurisprudenceofpeaceinthelargerinterestofjusticeandwidersectionsofsociety.Itsprocessisvoluntaryandworksonthe principle that both parties to the disputes arewillingtosortouttheirdisputesbyamicablesolutions. Through this mechanism, disputes canbe settled in a simpler, quicker and cost-effectivewayatallthethreestagesi.e.,pre-litigation,pending-litigationandpost-litigation.Overall effect of the scheme of the Lok AdalatisthatthepartiestothedisputessitacrossthetableandsortouttheirdisputesbywayofconciliationinpresenceoftheLokAdalatJudges, who would be guiding them on technicallegalaspectsofthecontroversies.TheschemealsohelpstheoverburdenedCourttoalleviatetheburdenofarrearsofcasesandastheawardbecomesfinalandbindingonboththeparties,noappealisfiledintheAppellateCourtand,assuch,theburdenoftheAppellate Court in hierarchy is also reduced. Theschemeisnotonlyhelpfultotheparties,butalsototheoverburdenedCourtstoachievethe constitutional goal of speedy disposal of thecases.About90%ofthecasesfiledinthedevelopedcountriesaresettledmutuallybyconciliation,mediation,etc.and,assuch,only10% of the cases are decided by the Courts there.Inourcountry,whichisdeveloping,hasunlikethedevelopedcountries,numberofJudgesdisproportionatetothecasesfiledand,hence,toalleviatetheaccumulationofcases,theLokAdalatistheneedoftheday.CriticismTherighttoappealisoneofthemostbasicfeaturesofanysoundlegalsystem.Itsproutsfrom the principle to err is human. It recognizesthe fact that it is impossible to be infallible always.LokAdalatscannotproceedtopassawardsunlessthepartiestoadisputeunderitsconsideration, agrees to the passing of an award.Insuchasituation,byagreeing,thepartiesareestoppingthemselvesfromchallengingitafterwards.Inthatcase,denialofanappealprovision can well be justified. But a PermanentLokAdalatcanproceedtodisposeofamatterreferredtoitevenwithouttheconsentofthepartiestosuchdispute.AndthePLAdoesnothave to go by the rules of evidence contained inThe Indian Evidence Act. Moreover, a party canbedrawntoPLA,despitehiswishes.Insuchasituation,denyingachancetoappealmaynotbeinconsonancewithourmostcherishedlegalprinciple: Justiceshouldnotonlybedone,butshouldmanifestlyandundoubtedlybeseentobedone.ArbitrationandConciliation Arbitrationisamethodforsettlingdisputesprivately, but its decisions are enforceable by law.Anarbitratorisaprivateextraordinaryjudgebetweentheparties,chosenbymutualconsenttosortoutcontroversiesbetweenthem.Arbitratorsaresocalledbecausetheyhaveanarbitrary power; for if they observe submissionsand keep within due bounds their sentences aredefinitefromwhichthereisnoappeal.Arbitrationoffersgreaterflexibility,promptsettlementofnationalandinternationalprivatedisputesandrestrictedchannelsofappealthanlitigation.InthewordsofRichardCobdenAtallevents,arbitrationismorerational,just,andhumanethantheresorttothesword.Arbitrationisasimplifiedversionofatrialinvolvingnodiscoveryandsimplifiedrulesofevidence.Eitherbothsidesagreeononearbitrator, or each side selects one arbitrator andthetwoarbitratorselectthethirdtocomprisea ChronicleIASAcademy [17]panel.Arbitrationhearingsusuallylastonlyafew hours and the opinions are not public record.Arbitrationhaslongbeenusedinlabour,construction,andsecuritiesregulation,butisnowgainingpopularityinotherbusinessdisputes. Litigation is expensive, time consumingandfullofcomplexities.KindsofArbitration AdhocArbitration: Inthecourseofacommercialtransactionifadisputearisesandcouldnotbesettledamicablyeitherbyway of mediation or conciliation, the partieshavetherighttoseekAdhocarbitration.Itisaprocessentrustedtoanon-institutionwith all the procedural laws set out in specificagreementofthepartiesforthatparticulararbitrationonly. InstitutionalArbitration:Inthiskindofarbitrationtherewillbeaprioragreementbetween the parties regarding the institutionthat they will refer to in order to resolve theirdisputesinthecourseofacommercialtransaction. ContractualArbitration:Inthepresentscenario,wherethenumberofcommercialtransactionsaswellasthenumberofdisputesareincreasing,thepartiesenteringintoacommercialtransactionprefertoincorporateanarbitrationClauseintheiragreement.ThearbitrationClauseprovidesthatifinfutureanydisputearisesbetweenthepartiestheywillbereferredtoanamedarbitrator(s). Statutory Arbitration: If by operation of lawthecourtprovidesthatthepartieshavetorefer the matter to arbitration it is termed asStatutoryArbitration. Inthiskindofarbitrationtheconsentofthepartiesisnotrequired.Itismoreofacompulsoryarbitrationanditisbindingonthepartiesasthelawoftheland.TheArbitrationandConciliationAct,1996providestwoalternatemethodsofADR:ArbitrationandConciliation.Arbitrationmaybeconductedadhocorunderinstitutionalproceduresandrules.Institutionalarbitrationisconductedundertheguidance and well-tested rules of an establishedarbitralorganizationwhereasunderAdhocarbitration,thepartieshavetodrafttheirownrulesandprocedurestofittheneedsoftheirdispute.Therearenumberofnationalandinternational organizations set up with the mainobject of settling commercial disputes by way ofarbitrationandotheralternativedisputeresolutionmechanism.Theseorganizationslaydownrulesfortheconductofarbitration.Theserules,however,cannotoverridetheAct.Theseorganizationshandlethearbitrationcasesofthepartiesandprovidevaluableserviceslikeadministrativeassistance,consultancyandrecommendingnamesofarbitratorsfromthepanelmaintainedbythem.TheActcontainsgeneralprovisionsonarbitration,enforcementofcertainforeignawards,conciliationandsupplementaryprovisions.ThethreeschedulesreproducethetextsofGenevaConventionontheexecutionofForeignArbitralAwards,1927,theGenevaProtocolonArbitrationClause,1923andtheNewYorkConventionontheRecognitionandEnforcementofForeignArbitralAwards,1958.TheActdiffersfrompreviousActsinmanyways.Firstly,wherethereisanarbitrationagreement,thejudicialauthorityisrequiredtodirectthepartiestoresorttoarbitrationasperthe agreement, provided the application for thatpurposeismadebeforeorwhenawrittenstatementonthemeritsissubmittedtothejudicialauthoritybythepartyseekingarbitration.Secondly,thegroundsonwhichawardofan arbitrator may be challenged before the courthas been severely trimmed. For e.g., a challengewillnowbepermittedonlyonthebasisofinvalidity of the agreement, want of jurisdictiononthepartofthearbitratororwantofpropernoticetoapartyoftheappointmentofthearbitratororofarbitralproceedingsorapartybeing unable to present its case. At the same time,an award can now be set aside if it is in conflictwiththepublicpolicyofIndiaagroundwhichcovers,interalia,fraudandcorruption.Thirdly, the powers of the arbitrator himselfhavebeenamplifiedbyinsertingspecificprovisions on several matters, such as the law tobe applied by him, power to determine the venue[18] ChronicleIASAcademyCHRCHRCHRCHRCHRONICLEONICLEONICLEONICLEONICLEIAS IAS IAS IAS IAS AAAAACADEMYCADEMYCADEMYCADEMYCADEMYofarbitrationfailingagreement,powertoappointexperts,powertoactonthereportofaparty, power to apply to the court for assistancein taking evidence, power to award interest, andsoon.Fourthly,obstructivetacticssometimesadopted by parties in arbitration proceedings aresoughttobethwartedbyanexpressprovisionwhereunder a party who knowingly keeps silentand then suddenly raises a procedural objectionwillnotbeallowedtodoso.Fifthly,theroleofinstitutionsinpromotingandorganizingarbitrationhasbeenrecognized.Sixthly,thepowertonominatearbitratorshasbeengiven(failingagreementbetweentheparties)totheChiefJusticeortoaninstitutionorpersondesignated by him. Seventhly, the time limit formakingawardshasbeendeleted.Eighthly,present provisions relating to arbitration throughinterventionofcourtwhenthereisnosuit. AdvantagesofArbitrationoverLitigation1. ArbitrationcarriesanumberofadvantagesoverusualmethodofdisputeresolutionofredressalthroughacourtofLaw.2. Arbitrationpromisesprivacy.Inacivilcourt,theproceedingsareheldinpublic.3. Arbitrationprovideslibertytochooseanarbitrator,whocanbeaspecialistinthesubjectmatterofthedispute.Thus,arbitratorswhoaresectorspecialistscanbeselectedwhoresolvethedisputefairlyandexpeditiously.4. Thevenueofarbitrationcanbeaplaceconvenienttoboththeparties.Likewisethepartiescanchoosealanguageoftheirchoice.5. Eventherulesgoverningarbitrationproceedingscanbedefinedmutuallybyboththeparties.6. Acourtcaseisacostlyaffair.Theclaimanthastopayadvocates,courtfees,processfeesandotherincidentalexpenses.Inarbitration,theexpensesarelessandmanytimesthepartiesthemselvesarguetheircases.Arbitrationinvolvesfewproceduralstepsandnocourtfees.7. Arbitrationisfasterandcanbeexpedited.Acourthastofollowasystematicprocedure,whichtakesanabnormallylongtimetodisposeofacase.8. Ajudicialsettlementisacomplicatedprocedure.AcourthastofollowtheprocedurelaiddownintheCodeofCivilProcedure,1908andtheRulesoftheIndianEvidenceAct.AnArbitratorhastofollowtheprinciplesofnaturaljustice.TheArbitrationandConciliationAct,1996specificallystatesthattheArbitralTribunalshallnotbeboundbyTheCodeofCivilProcedure,1908andTheIndianEvidenceAct,1872.9. Section34oftheActprovidesverylimitedgroundsuponwhichacourtmaysetasideanaward.TheActhasalsogiventhestatusofadecreefortheawardbyarbitrators.Theawardofthearbitratorsisfinalandgenerallynoappealliesagainsttheaward.10. Inalargenumberofcases,Arbitrationfacilitatesthemaintenanceofcontinuedrelationshipbetweenthepartiesevenafterthesettlement.It is quicker, cheaper, and more user-friendlythancourts.Itgivespeopleaninvolvementinthe process of resolving their disputes that is notpossible in public, formal and adversarial justicesystemperceivedtobedominatedbytheabstruseprocedureandreconditelanguageoflaw.Itofferschoicechoiceofmethod,ofprocedure, of cost, of representation, of location.Becauseoftenitisquickerthanjudicialproceedings,itcaneaseburdensontheCourts.Becauseitischeaper,itcanhelptocurbtheupwardspiraloflegalcostsandlegalaidexpenditure too, which would benefit the partiesandthetaxpayers.Inthisjuncture,fewthingsaremostrequiredtobedoneforfurtheranceofsmootheningthemechanisms.Fewofthemare: Creationofawarenessandpopularizingthemethodsisthefirstthingtobedone. NGOsandMediashaveprominentroletoplayinthisregard. ForCourtannexedmediationandconciliation,necessarypersonnelandinfrastructureshallbeneededforwhichgovernmentfundingisnecessary.Training programmes on the mechanism areof vital importance. State level judicial academiescanassumetheroleoffacilitatororactivedoerfor that purpose. While the Courts are never tired ChronicleIASAcademy [19]ofprovidingaccesstojusticefortheteemingmillions of this country, it would not be incorrecttostatethattheobjectivewouldbeimpossibletoachievewithoutreformofthejusticedispensationmechanism.Therearetwowaysin which such reform can be achieved - throughchangesatthestructurallevel,andthroughchangesattheoperationallevel: Changesatthestructurallevelchallengetheveryframeworkitselfandrequireanexaminationoftheviabilityofthealternativeframeworkfordispensingjustice.ItmightrequireanamendmenttotheConstitutionitselforvariousstatutes. Ontheotherhand,changesattheoperationallevelrequiresonetoworkwithintheframeworktryingtoidentifyvarious ways of improving the effectivenessofthelegalsystem.Needlesstosay,thiswillconsiderablyreducetheloadonthecourtsapartfromprovidinginstantjusticeatthedoor-step,withoutsubstantialcostbeinginvolved.Thisisalsoavoidingproceduraltechnicalitiesanddelaysandjusticewillhopefullybebasedontruthandmorality,asperacknowledgedconside-rationsofdeliveringsocialjustice.NATIONAL LEGAL SERVICESAUTHORITYTheNationalLegalServicesAuthority(NALSA)hasbeenconstitutedundertheLegalServicesAuthoritiesAct,1987toprovidefreeLegalServicestotheweakersectionsofthesociety and to organize Lok Adalats for amicablesettlementofdisputes.Actually,Article39AoftheConstitutionofIndiaprovidesforfreelegalaid to the poor and weaker sections of the societyand ensures justice for all.Articles 14 and 22(1)oftheConstitutionalsomakeitobligatoryforthe State to ensure equality before law and a legalsystemwhichpromotesjusticeonthebasisofequalopportunitytoall. In1987,theLegalServicesAuthoritiesActwasenactedbytheParliamentwhichcameintoforceon9thNovember,1995toestablishanationwideuniformnetworkforprovidingfreeandcompetentlegalservicestotheweakersectionsofthesocietyonthebasisofequalopportunity.TheCentralAuthorityshallconsistof1. TheChiefJusticeofIndiawhoshallbethePatron-in-Chief.2. AservingorretiredJudgeoftheSupremeCourttobenominatedbythePresident,inconsultationwiththeChiefJusticeofIndia,whoshallbetheExecutiveChairman;and3. Such number of other members, possessingsuchexperienceandqualifications,asmaybeprescribedbytheCentralGovernment,tobenominatedbythatgovernmentinconsultationwiththeChiefJusticeofIndia.The Central Authority shall perform all or anyofthefollowingfunctions,namely:- LaydownpoliciesandprinciplesformakinglegalservicesavailableundertheprovisionsofthisAct; FramethemosteffectiveandeconomicalschemesforthepurposeofmakinglegalservicesavailableundertheprovisionsofthisAct; UtilizethefundsatitsdisposalandmakeappropriateallocationsoffundstotheStateAuthoritiesandDistrictAuthorities; Take necessary steps by way of social justicelitigationwithregardtoconsumerprotection,environmentalprotectionoranyothermatterofspecialconcerntotheweakersectionsofthesocietyandforthispurpose,givetrainingtosocialworkersinlegalskills; Organize legal aid camps, especially in ruralareas,slumsorlabourcolonieswiththedualpurposeofeducatingtheweakersectionsofthesocietyastotheirrightsaswellasencouragingthesettlementofdisputesthroughLokAdalats; Encouragethesettlementofdisputesbywayofnegotiations,arbitrationandconciliation; Undertake and promote research in the fieldoflegalserviceswithspecialreferencetotheneedforsuchservicesamongthepoor; TodoallthingsnecessaryforthepurposeofensuringcommitmenttothefundamentaldutiesofcitizensunderPartIVAoftheConstitution; Monitor and evaluate implementation of thelegalaidprogrammesatperiodicintervalsandprovideforindependentevaluationofprogrammesandschemesimplementedin[20] ChronicleIASAcademyCHRCHRCHRCHRCHRONICLEONICLEONICLEONICLEONICLEIAS IAS IAS IAS IAS AAAAACADEMYCADEMYCADEMYCADEMYCADEMYwholeorinpartbyfundsprovidedunderthisAct; Providegrants-in-aidforspecificschemestovariousvoluntarysocialserviceinstitutionsandtheStateandDistrictAuthorities, from out of the amounts placedatitsdisposalfortheimplementationoflegalservicesschemesundertheprovisionsofthisAct; Develop,inconsultationwiththeBarCouncilofIndia,programmesforclinicallegaleducationandpromoteguidanceandsupervisetheestablishmentandworkingoflegalservicesclinicsinuniversities,lawcollegesandotherinstitutions; Takeappropriatemeasuresforspreadinglegalliteracyandlegalawarenessamongstthepeopleand,inparticular,toeducateweakersectionsofthesocietyabouttherights,benefitsandprivilegesguaranteedbysocialwelfarelegislationsandotherenactmentsaswellasadministrativeprogrammesandmeasures; Makespecialeffortstoenlistthesupportofvoluntarysocialwelfareinstitutionsworkingatthegrassrootslevel,particularlyamongtheScheduledCastesandtheScheduledTribes,womenandruralandurban labour,and CoordinateandmonitorthefunctioningofStateAuthorities,DistrictAuthorities,SupremeCourtLegalServicesCommittee,HighCourtLegalServicesCommittees,TalukLegalServicesCommitteesandvoluntarysocialserviceinstitutionsandotherlegalservicesorganizationsandgivengeneraldirectionsfortheproperimplemen-tationoftheLegalServicesprogrammes.In every State, State Legal Services Authorityhas been constituted to give effect to the policiesanddirectionsoftheNALSAandtogivefreelegalservicestothepeopleandconductLokAdalatsintheState. TheStateLegalServicesAuthority is headed by the HonbleChiefJusticeoftherespectiveHighCourtwhoisthePatron-in-ChiefoftheStateLegalServicesAuthority.IneveryDistrict,DistrictLegalServicesAuthorityhasbeenconstitutedtoimplementLegalServicesProgrammesintheDistrict.TheDistrictLegalServicesAuthorityissituatedinthe District Courts Complex in every District andchairedbytheDistrictJudgeoftherespectivedistrict.Primarily,theStateLegalServicesAuthorities,DistrictLegalServicesAuthorities,Taluk Legal Services Committees, etc. have beenasked to discharge the following main functionsonregularbasis: ToProvideFreeandCompetentLegalServicestotheeligiblepersons; ToorganizeLokAdalatsforamicablesettlementofdisputes;and Toorganizelegalawarenesscampsintheruralareas.AdvantagesoftheMovement:Ithashelpedovercomethreeimpediments:1) Economicinequality(legalaid)-thepoorcannotaffordgoodlegalcounselstogetthemoutonbail,norcantheyaffordthebailamount.Thiswassoughttoberemediedbytheprovisionsoflegalaidandanattorneyforallthosebelowacertainspecifiedincomebracket.Theyhavearighttobeinformedaboutthesame,sincebeingilliterateandpoor,theyareoftenunawareoftheirrights.2) Organizationalimpediments(diffusedinterests)-tofacilitatecollectiveaction,sincetheindividualwastoosmalltoplayasignificantrole/effectachange.AccordingtoJusticeKrishnaIyer,anotherreason for justice on the streets, rather thanthecourtsisthattheConstitutionwithitsmandateofsocio-economicrightsisincontradictionwiththecolonialJusticeandlawhangover.ThesearenotattunedtotheIndiansocialrealitiesandthemystiquesoflacunoselegaleseandprocessualpyramidswithsophisticatedrules,alongwithslow-motion justice and high priced legal serviceshasledtovictimizationofthecommonman.3) Proceduralobstacles(informaljustice)-toovercomethecurrent,traditionalproceduresthroughalternatedisputeresolutions,specializedorsmallclaimscourtssuchastheFamilyCourtsortheLokAdalats,etc. ChronicleIASAcademy [21]Duringtheperiodfrom1st April,2011to30th September,2011morethan6.95lakhpersons have benefited through legal aid servicesinthecountry. Outofthem,morethan25.1thousandpersonsbelongedtotheScheduledCastes,about11.5thousandScheduledTribes,about24.6thousandwerewomenand1.6thousandwerechildren. Duringthisperiod,53,508LokAdalatswereorganized. TheseLokAdalatssettledmorethan13.75lakhcases. Inabout39.9thousandMotorVehicleAccidentClaimcases,compensationtothetuneofRs.420.12crorehasbeenawarded.AnalysisoftheWorkingofNALSA:TheNationalLegalServicesAuthoritywassetupin1995undertheLegalServicesAuthoritiesAct,1987toprovide''freeandcompetent''legalservicestotheneedy.AccordingtotheviewsoftheCommitteeheadedbyE.M.SudarsanaNatchiappantheprogramme lacked proper planning and sufferedfrom paucity of funds and failure at the level ofstates to utilise even the grants made. The actualbenefitofthisschemeisnotgainingaccesstopoorlitigantsandtheprogrammeis''confinedtohighprofileareasorcapitalcitiesonly.''To be eligible for legal aid, the annual incomelimitfixedbythecentralgovernmentforcasesbeforetheSupremeCourtisRs.50,000.Overthepastdecade,theAuthorityclaimstohaveaided8.25millionindividuals,besidesholding4,86,000LokAdalatsorconciliationcourts nationwide and settling 18.3 million cases.Butcriticssaythattellslittleaboutthesortofcases in which the Authority helped individuals,the quality of legal aid or the outcome.Nor doesittellstheplightofcitizenswhoareneithereligible for legal aid nor can afford legal recourseontheirown--withnolimitsenforcedonlawyers'feesordurationofproceedings.As in ordinary cases, in aided cases, too, thequality of lawyering is a key issue, only perhapsmoresogiventhe'meagre'feesNALSAAdvocatessupposedlyget.The Committee noted that counsels engagedfor the poor under the legal aid programme ''arepaidmeagerly''and''goodandreputedlawyersdonotcomeforwardtotakeupthecases.EvenSeniorAdvocatesdonottakeupsuchcases.Asaresultpoorlitigantsfeelthatlegalaidbeingprovidedtothemismereeyewash.TheCommitteerecommended''reasonably''enhancing the fee structure -- and standardisingitnationwide--soastodrawexperiencedandcompetentlawyerstolegalaid.The Committee said that the government hasbeen providing adequate funds to NALSA fromyeartoyear.However,therehasnotbeentotalutilisationofthe"allocatedgrants.''SomeStepstakenbyNALSAtoBringJusticeattheDoorstep:a)Para-LegalVolunteersOneoftheproblemsfacedbylegalservicesinstitutionsistheirinabilitytoreachouttothecommonpeople.ItisinthiscontextthattheNational Legal Services Authority (NALSA) hascomeupwiththeideaofpara-legalvolunteerstobridgethegapbetweenthecommonpersonandlegalservicesinstitutions.The scheme seeks to utilise community-basedvolunteersselectedfromvillagesandotherlocalitiestoprovidebasiclegalservicestothecommonpeople.Educatedpersonswithcommitmenttosocialserviceandwitharecordofgoodcharacterareselected.Thevolunteersaretrainedbydistrictlegalservicesauthorities.Thetrainingequipsthemtoidentifythelaw-related needs of the marginalised in their locality.Suchneedsincludeassistancetosecurelegalrights,benefitsandactionableentitlementsunderdifferentgovernmentschemesthataredeniedtothem.Comingastheydofromthesamelocality,theyareinabetterpositiontoidentifythosewhoneedassistanceandbringthemtothenearestlegalservicesinstitutionstosolvetheirproblemswithintheframeworkoflaw. They can assist disempowered people to gettheir entitlements from government offices whereordinary people often face hassles on account ofbureaucraticlethargyandapathy.b)LegalAidClinicsinVillagesIn order to reach out to the common people,NALSAhascomeupwithaprojecttosetuplegal aid clinics in all villages, subject to financialviability.Ignoranceofwhattodowhenfacedwith law-related situations is a common problemfor disempowered people. Legal aid clinics work[22] ChronicleIASAcademyCHRCHRCHRCHRCHRONICLEONICLEONICLEONICLEONICLEIAS IAS IAS IAS IAS AAAAACADEMYCADEMYCADEMYCADEMYCADEMYonthelinesofprimaryhealthcentres,whereassistance is given for simple ailments and otherminor medical requirements of village residents.Legal aid clinics assist in drafting simple notices,fillingupformstoavailbenefitsundergovernmentalschemesandbygivinginitialadvice on simple problems. A legal aid clinic is afacilitytoassistandempowerpeoplewhofacebarrierstoaccesstojustice.Trainedpara-legalvolunteersareavailabletorunlegalaidclinicsinvillages.Thecommonpeopleinvillageswillfeelmoreconfidenttodiscuss their problems with a friendly volunteerfromtheirowncommunityratherthanwithacity-based legal professional. The volunteers willreferanycomplicatedlegalmattersthatrequireprofessionalassistancetothenearestlegalservicesinstitutions.Whencomplexlegalproblemsareinvolved,theservicesofprofessionallawyerswillbemadeavailableinthelegalaidclinics.c)FreeandCompetentLegalServicesTherehasbeenawidespreadgrievancethatlawyers engaged by legal services institutions donotperformtheirdutieseffectivelyandthatthelawyersarenotpaidcommensuratelyfortheirwork. In order to solve these problems, NALSAhas framed the National Legal Services Authority(Free and Competent Legal services) Regulations,2010toprovidefreeandcompetentlegalservices.Scrutinyoflegalaidapplications,monitoring of cases where legal aid is provided,andengagingseniorlawyersonpaymentofregularfeesinspecialcases,arethesalientfeaturesoftheRegulations.Inseriousmatterswherethelifeandlibertyofapersonareinjeopardy, the Regulations empower legal servicesauthoritiestospeciallyengageseniorlawyers.d)LegalAidCamps:NALSAhasorganizedcampstargetedneighbourhooditself.Thepeopleshallnotbemade to travel long distances for the purpose ofattending camps. Instead of pompous inauguralfunctionsandspeeches,time,energyandresourcesshallbedevotedoninteractionwiththepeople.Localbarshallbeencouragedtoparticipate.Localvoluntarilyorganizations,socialclubs,colleges,universitiesandothereducationalinstitutionsshallbeengagedtojoinaspartnersinsuchventuresformutualbenefit.e)StudentLegalAidClinicsAssociationoflawstudentswiththeworkofprovidinglegalserviceswouldnotonlyhelpthecauseoflegalservicesbutalsogivetotheyoungstudentsasenseofidentificationandinvolvementwiththecauseofthepoor.The legal aid clinic is an excellent medium toteachprofessionalresponsibilityandagreatersense of public service.The law school legal aidclinicisaviableandeffectiveinstrumentforcommunityeducationandpreventivelegalservicesprogramme.Inclusionofthelawstudentsinlegalaidwillcontributetowardsabetterlegaleducation,sociallyrelevantandprofessionallyvaluable.Thelawschoolclinicscanploughbackintothelegalcurriculumandwill be a goldmine of information that can makelearningandteachingoflawstimulating,challengingandproductive.Lawschoollegalaidcliniccanbelocatedatthe law colleges premises itself which will be anexcellentsourceforstudyofconflictsincivilsociety.EachStateAuthorityshallpreparealawschoollegalaidmanualdependingonthelocalneedsoftheState.The law students shall be encouraged to formintodifferentgroups,eachgroupadoptingavillage, preferably a remote village. The studentswhohaveadoptedavillagemayconductsocio-legalsurveysinthatvillage.Thequestionnaireinthesurveysmaybepreparedinconsultationwith the teachers of the law schools, the contentsofwhichmayvarydependingonthelocalcircumstances.Thequestionnaireshallbesufficientenoughtogathertheproblemsfacedbyvillagers,especiallyrelatingtotheirlegalrights.Thenatureofdisputes,ifany,inter-setheinhabitantsofthevillagemaybeidentifiedandtheymaybeencouragedtoresolvethedisputesamicablythroughtheADRtechniqueslikeconciliation, mediation, Lok Adalat, etc.For thispurpose, the students may seek the help of theirteachers,andifnecessary,ofthenearestlegalservicesinstitutions.The students shall be encouraged to organizelegal awareness classes for small groups of people(4or5housestogetheror10to12people).Itshouldbemoreintheformofinformalgatherings. ChronicleIASAcademy [23]Inappropriatecases,seniorstudentsandpost-graduatestudentswhohavealreadyenrolledaslawyersmaybeentrustedwiththefilingandconductingofthelitigationinthecourts,freeofcost.Thestudentsmayadoptcoloniesandslumareas in urban locations also where economicallyand socially backward people reside.Such areasalsomaybechosenforsettingupoflegalaidclinics.f)LegalAidClinicsinJailsPrisonersaredoublyhandicappedpersons.Mostofthembelongtolowerstrataofthesociety,bothsociallyandeconomically.Secondly,theyareincommunicado,walled-offfromtheworld.ButtheybeingcitizensofIndiaareentitledtoprotecttheirrightsenshrinedinArticle21oftheConstitutionanditsvariants.Therefore, it is highly essential that prisoners alsoare given legal aid especially in matters relatingtodefendingorprosecutingtheircasesandappealsandalsolegalproblemstheyandtheirfamilymightfaceonaccountoftheirbeingbehindthebars.The legal aid clinics in Jails shall be run undertheDistrictLegalServicesAuthorities.Paneloflawyersselectedinconsultationwiththelocalbarassociationmaybedeployedformanningthelegalaidclinicsinprisons.Servicesofsociologists and psychiatrists also may be availedofwhileprovidinglegalaidtotheprisoners.The applications, appeals and petitions fromtheprisonersmaybeforwardedtotheappropriateauthoritiesandcourtsasexpedi-tiously as possible. Their pleas in relation to theremission,parole,etc.alsomaybeassistedandattendedtobythelegalaidcounseldeputedtosuchclinicsinJails.REDRESSAL MECHANISM FORDISPUTES RELATED TOWEAKER SECTIONThereareseveralConstitutionalandstatutory institutions which look into complaintsfiledbycitizens:a) NationalHumanRightsCommission:Regardingviolationoforabetmentofviolationofhumanrightsornegligenceintheconductofpublicservantsinsuchviolation.{Section12(a).TheProtectionofHumanRightsAct,1993}.b) StateHumanRightsCommission:similartoabove.{Section29.TheProtectionofHumanRightsAct,1993}.c) NationalCommissionforWomen:Regardingdeprivationofwomensrights,non-implementationoflawsprovidingprotection to women, etc. {Section 10(f). TheNationalCommissionforWomenAct,1990}.d) NationalCommissionforScheduledCastes: Regardingcomplaintswithrespecttodeprivationofrightsandsafe-guardsoftheScheduledCastes.Article338(5)(b).e) NationalCommissionforScheduledTribes:RegardingcomplaintswithrespecttodeprivationofrightsandsafeguardsoftheScheduledTribes.Article338A(5)(b).f) StateCommissionsforWomen:Regardingcomplaintsrelatingtodeprivationofwomensrights,non-implementationoflawsprovidingprotectiontowomen,etc.{Forexample,Section10(1)(f)oftheMaharashtraStateCommissionAct,1993}.g) NationalCommissionforProtectionofChildRights:Regardingdeprivationandviolationofchildsrightsandnon-implementationoflawsprovidingprotec-tiontochildren.{Section13(f).TheCommissionsforProtectionofChildRightsAct,2005}.h) StateCommissionsforProtectionofChildRights: Regarding deprivation and violationofchildsrightsandnon-implementationoflawsprovidingprotectiontochildren.Section 24. {The Commissions for ProtectionofChildRightsAct,2005}.i) NationalConsumerDisputesRedressalCommission,StateConsumerDisputesRedressalForum,DistrictConsumerDisputesRedressalForum:Regardingcomplaintsinrelationtoanygoodsorservice sold or provided for a consideration.{Section12,ConsumerProtectionAct,1986}.Theseareallinstitutionsconstitutedforprovidingspecialfocusonredressingthegrievancesofspecificsectionsofsocietybuttheissuesrelatedtothesemechanismsarelistedbelow:[24] ChronicleIASAcademyCHRCHRCHRCHRCHRONICLEONICLEONICLEONICLEONICLEIAS IAS IAS IAS IAS AAAAACADEMYCADEMYCADEMYCADEMYCADEMYThereisalackofcoordinationamongthedifferentorganizations.Thesuggestionformerging of the Commissions came from differentexperts,particularlyinlargerStates,isimpracticableandwouldfailtoadequatelyaddressthespecialproblemsofdifferentdisadvantagedgroups.However,thismaybepossibleincaseofsomeofthemuchsmallerStates where the various Commissions to redressthegrievancesofdifferentsectionsofsocietycouldbeconstitutedintoasinglemulti-roleCommissiontocarryoutthespecificfunctionsoftheexistingconstitutionalandstatutoryCommissionsofthatState.TheexistenceofalargenumberofCommissionsshouldenableeachoneofthemtolookintospecificcategoriesofcomplaintsthereby ensuring speedy action on the complaint.However, this multiplicity of Commissions couldlead to problems of overlapping jurisdictions andevenduplicationofeffortsindealingwithcomplaints.Someofthelawshadenvisagedthese problems and made legal provisions for thesame.For example, in order to prevent duplicationofeffortsamongtheNationalandStateHumanRightsCommissions,Section36ofTheProtectionofHumanRightsAct,1993(PHRA)mandatesthattheNHRCshallnotinquireintoanymatterwhichispendingbeforeaStateCommissionoranyotherCommissiondulyconstitutedunderanylawforthetimebeinginforce.Furthermore,Section3(3)ofthePHRAprovidesthattheChairpersonsoftheNationalCommissionforMinorities,theNationalCommissionforScheduledCastes,theNationalCommissionforScheduledTribesandtheNationalCommissionforWomenshallbedeemed Members of the NHRC for the dischargeof various functions assigned to it. However, thisdoesnotcoverfunctionsprescribedunderSection12(a)ofthePHRA,whichdealswithinquiry, suo motu or otherwise, into a complaintofviolationorabetmentofviolationofhumanrightsornegligencebyapublicservantinthepreventionofsuchviolation.Moreover,itisevidentthatthereexistsnationalaswellasstatelevelCommissionstoredress similar grievances. The Central law itselfprovidesfortheconstitutionofNationalandState level Commissions for safeguarding humanrightsandchildrights.Further,differentStategovernmentshaveconstitutedstatutoryCommissionsforsafeguardingtheinterestsofSCs,STs,WomenandMinorities.AmongalltheseCommissions,theHumanRightsCommissionshavethewidestmandateduetothebroaddefinitionofthetermhumanrightsprovided in the PHRA, 1993. Similarly, wherevertheStateshaveestablishedstatutoryStatelevelCommissions(suchasthoseforWomen,SCsandSTs,Minorities,Children,etc.)whosejurisdictions may overlap with the National levelCommissions,itisnecessarytoevolveamechanismtopreventduplicationofefforts.ThusthereisneedtoprovideamoremeaningfulandcontinuousmodeofinteractionbetweentheNationalandStateHRCs.Atthebasiclevel,incaseofcomplaints,coordinationbetweendifferentCommissionsatthenationalandstatelevelscouldeasilybefacilitatedthroughcreationofelectronicdatabasesandnetworking.Forhavingaseamlessexchangeofdata,acommoncomplaintformatneedstobedevised for all such Commissions constituted tomonitorandinvestigatetheconstitutionalandlegalsafeguards.Thiscommonformatwouldhave specifically designed data fields to capturethedetailsofthevictim(s)andcomplainants.Incaseofcomplaintsfiledwithoututilizingthespecifically designed format, the necessary detailscouldbeascertainedatthetimeofregistrationofthecaseitself.ThecreationofadatabaseandnetworkingwouldassisttheseCommissionsinnotonlystreamlining their workload but also in decidingwhichbodywouldbethebestagencytocarryout investigations. Further, it would also help inidentifyingthoseareasandgroupswheretherights of such groups of citizens are more pronetoabuse.Thiswouldassisttherespectivegovernmentsindevisingspecificmeasurestoaddressthesituation.FurtheralargenumberofcomplaintsarereceivedbytheseCommissionswhichareregularlydisposedbythembyprovidingsomerelieftothevictims.Effortshavetobemadebythe Union and State Governments to ensure thatthecasesofviolationoftherightsofcitizensespecially the vulnerable sections are significantlyreducedifnoteliminatedaltogether.Preventive ChronicleIASAcademy [25]

measureswouldalsohavetobetakentoeliminate cases of serious human rights violationssuchascustodialdeaths,torture,etc.In addition to the criminal justice system, theNationalandStateHumanRightsCommissionsaswellastheotherCommissionscouldplayanimportantroleinpreventingsuchviolationsofcitizensrightandalsoinmitigatingthehardships of the victims. An analysis of the casesdisposedofbyNHRCoverthelastthreeyearsrevealsthatawidevarietyofcomplaintsofhumanrightsviolationsarereceivedandprocessed. But despite the efforts of the NHRC/SHRCs,thenumberofsuchcaseshasnotbeensignificantlyreduced.Therefore,theUnionandtheStateGovernmentsshouldtakeproactivesteps to eliminate causes of such occurrences. Thiscouldbeachievedbyprioritizingthemoreserious offences like custodial deaths/rapes, etc.Guidance of the NHRC and SHRCs may be takento prepare and implement an action plan for thispurpose.LastlyaseparateStandingCommitteeofParliamentmaybeconstitutedtolookintoAnnualReportssubmittedbytheseStatutoryCommissions.