dispute resolution: issues in training in negotiation skills for an organisational setting

8/4/2019 Dispute Resolution: Issues in Training in Negotiation Skills for an Organisational Setting

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NEGOTIATION ASSIGNMENT: Dianne Allen ... p.1

ISSUES IN TRAINING IN NEGOTIATION SKILLS IN AN ORGANISATIONAL SETTING

ISSUES IN TRAINING IN NEGOTIATION SKILLS

FOR AN ORGANISATIONAL SETTING

Dianne Allen, 1996

CONTENTS:ABSTRACT:..............................................................................................................................3

1. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS:........................................................................................... 4

1.1 GENERAL COMMENTS:.......................................................................................4

1.2 MY PERSONAL EXPERIENCE:............................................................................6

1.3 FROM EXPERIENCE WITH MANAGEMENT TRAINING DELIVERED IN-

HOUSE AT SHELLHARBOUR COUNCIL:.................................................... 6

1.4 COGITATIONS: ......................................................................................................8

1.4.1 The Negotiation Dance.............................................................................. 8

1.4.2 Dance & Negotiation & Integrity & Male/Female Complementariness -

Torvill & Dean; "Shall We Dance" ........................................................ 8

1.4.3 "Shall We Dance" - "The King & I" - An Accessible Case Study - Power,

Gender & Cross-cultural Issues in Negotiations .................................... 9

1.4.4 Framebreaking: for the King of Siam -> ill-health.................................... 9

1.5 APPLICATION TO AN ISSUE OF CONCERN...................................................10

1.5.1 Interpersonal Skill Training in Adults, in a Workplace context.............. 10

1.5.2 Framebreaking - organisational training implications............................. 11

1.6 FROM "EQUIPPING STAFF TO HANDLE DISPUTES EFFECTIVELY IN

LOCAL GOVERNMENT" .............................................................................. 121.7 FROM HUXLEY'S ENDS AND MEANS ............................................................13

2. FROM THE LITERATURE: ............................................................................................... 14

2.1 INTERPERSONAL SKILL TRAINING:.............................................................. 14

2.2 EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING: .............................................................................15

2.2.1 Experiential Learning and Interpersonal Skill Development: ................. 15

2.2.2 Experiential Learning for the Adult, and particularly for the Development

of Management Skills ........................................................................... 16

2.3 THE "SIMULATION" IN SUCH TRAINING:..................................................... 16

2.4 ADULT LEARNING: ............................................................................................ 17

2.5 MANAGEMENT SKILLS LEARNING: .............................................................. 17

2.6 WORKPLACE TRAINING:..................................................................................183. IMPLICATIONS FOR ORGANISATIONS INVOLVED IN DELIVERING TRAINING

IN NEGOTIATING SKILLS ....................................................................................... 19

3.1 THE OPTIONS: .....................................................................................................19

3.2 THE ORGANISATIONAL OPTIONS:................................................................. 19

BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................................... 21

Section 1:1.1 .................................................................................................................21

NOTE 1: HAVING A CULTURAL MILIEU FOR PRACTISING NEGOTIATION

SKILLS............................................................................................................. 21

NOTE 2: RECOGNITION OF IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION &

NEGOTIATION SKILLS ................................................................................22

NOTE 3: "WORKPLACE" RESPONSIBILITY ......................................................... 23

Section 1:1.4.1..............................................................................................................23


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ISSUES IN TRAINING IN NEGOTIATION SKILLS IN AN ORGANISATIONAL SETTINGSection 1:1.4.4..............................................................................................................24

NOTE 4: The King and I .......................................................................................... 24

Section 1:1.5.1..............................................................................................................25

NOTE 5: CONCERNING THE "FORMED ADULT": AND REMARKS INSECTION 1.5.1 ................................................................................................ 25

Section 1:1.7 .................................................................................................................26

Section 2: ...................................................................................................................... 27

NOTE 6: LIMITATIONS OF LITERATURE SEARCH AND RESEARCH............. 27

Section 2:2.1 & 2.2....................................................................................................... 27

NOTE 7: CURRENT THINKING ON DEVELOPING MANAGEMENT SKILLS.. 28

Section 2:2.3 .................................................................................................................28

Section 2:2.4 .................................................................................................................31

Section 2:2.5 .................................................................................................................31

Section 2:2.6 .................................................................................................................32

Section 3:3.2 .................................................................................................................32NOTE 8: TRAINING, TRAINING CONTEXT AND LEARNING & APPLYING

THE LEARNING IN THE WORKPLACE ..................................................... 32

ATTACHMENTS.................................................................................................................... 33

ATTACHMENT 1: ......................................................................................................33

1.2 MY PERSONAL EXPERIENCE............................................................... 33

ATTACHMENT 2: ......................................................................................................37

Training Input...............................................................................................................37

ATTACHMENT 3: ......................................................................................................39

EXTRACTS FROM "EQUIPPING STAFF TO HANDLE DISPUTES

EFFECTIVELY IN LOCAL GOVERNMENT".............................................. 39

ATTACHMENT 4........................................................................................................47

SEARCH RESULTS FROM ELECTRONIC DATABASES & CD ROM................. 47

SELECTED ITEMS ATTENDED TO: ....................................................................... 47

ATTACHMENT 5........................................................................................................53

3.3 EXPLORING A PREFERRED PROCESS TO UNDERTAKE BASE

NEGOTIATION TRAINING AT SHELLHARBOUR COUNCIL................. 53

PRESENTATION ASSIGNMENT: AN ACCESSIBLE CASE STUDY: FOR EXPLORING

POWER, GENDER AND CROSS CULTURAL ISSUES IN NEGOTIATIONS ...... 55

ELEMENTS OF THE NEGOTIATION/S PROCESS: ............................................... 56


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ABSTRACT:

This report seeks to explore the issues arising from the consideration to provide training in

negotiation skills in the workplace.

The report does this by:

1. reviewing impressions and implications from personal experience of

negotiation skill training

2. reviewing recent literature on the subject

3. seeking to apply these reflections to the task of determining curriculum and

presentation - training techniques.

The report notes the nature of effective negotiation skill training: with its inherent

"interpersonal" aspect and the reliance on experiential learning, often in the context of a

simulation, or role play.

Since interpersonal (and hence negotiation) skills are reflected in behaviour, and behaviour is

instructed by the formation of self-concept (the intrapersonal), the individual needing such

training most is the one who has a dysfunctional behaviour formed as part of their self-

concept.

To change this behaviour requires framebreaking and new frame formation. This is a task

which is complex; takes time; and will require significant effort by participant and trainer,with the trainer especially on notice to sustain a model of consistent pattern of behaviour

congruent with the new frame, and to provide instruction on the new frame of perception and

approach and reinforce congruent behaviour in the participant when it is attempted.

The risk of effective framebreaking is that it may include psychological breakdown.

In that event, if the training has been sponsored by the organisation, then the organisation has

some responsibility for having contributed to the breakdown.

Without adequate management of the training, the events, and the consequences, and

adequate support to maintain the individual while the new frame is constructed, theorganisation could be held responsible for negligence through current occupational health and

safety legislation.

Planning and delivering such training, if required of the organisation, is then a very sensitive

issue, requiring support mechanisms not always associated with a typical training program.


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1. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS:

1.1 GENERAL COMMENTS:

Negotiation is a key interpersonal skill. As such it is a "life" skill. In the workplace,

negotiation becomes a "workplace skill".

Negotiation, and skill in negotiation, is usually well recognised in the context of the

"commercial" transaction.

What is not so readily recognised, is the impact of skill, or lack of skill, in negotiation, when

it occurs as a part of the interpersonal exchanges occurring in the workplace.

SEE NOTE 1 IN BIBLIOGRAPHY

Negotiation, and its pre-cursor, communication, are key elements of any process of dispute

management.

Further, as Fisher & Ury, and others, have shown, communication is a key element of

negotiation. Good communication skills usually facilitate a good negotiation.

This lack of recognition, and, therefore, its "absence" from deliberate, explicit and effectivetraining in communication skills (and so on to the building of negotiation skills) appears to be

a characteristic of our basic culture and our current educational system. If it is not recognised

in our culture, it is not surprising that it is missing from our educational programs.


The task, in workplace training, is to "fill some of that gap".

In the workplace this task faces as least three significant hurdles:

1. recognition of the need for this training

(Part of the lack of explicit, deliberateness in communication and/or

negotiation training is what has led to the perception that people with such

skills were born with them, or at least born into them. To some extent the

latter is true: people born into contexts where the adult models were good

communicators/ negotiators grow up good communicators/ negotiators. What

is not in the genes (nature) is certainly in the environment (nurture), to be

informally absorbed, imitated and reflected.)

2. acceptance, that if these skills are lacking, it is the task of the workplace to dealwith the lack/ provide the training


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3. the mechanism for the delivery of such training

3.1 It has to be delivered to the "formed" adult.

If the "formed" adult has dysfunctional behaviour in this area, the

"formed" adult has to be "reformed". This may involve framebreaking,

and with framebreaking, the distinct possibility of psychological

breakdown.

3.2 It has to be delivered to the workplace.

The workplace is, itself, part of the problem. The workplace is an

organisation. An organisation is a complex made up of the individuals

in it, the systems of operation for those individuals: as individualswithin certain tasks, and as members of the organisation, in a variety of

group, interpersonal contexts.

It is the workplace where the expression of current interpersonal skills,

whether functional, or dysfunctional, has established a certain pattern of

predictable behaviour - the organisational culture.

To change this requires acceptance of additional risk.

3.2.1 The first source of risk is the current load of stress in the

workplace from change (technological, constitutional,

economic, external competition, increased diversity, etc.,). This

load means that another pressure may make the work context

"unworkable".

3.2.2 The second source of risk will be where workplace training

seeks (needs) to explore another level of intimacy, and/or

vulnerability, in the workplace, while insisting on performance/

productivity. The fact that there may not yet be a general

expectation from society at large to go down this track may

create further tensions between the workplace and society.Successful change in the workplace may then seriously

challenge the present social fabric.


The delivery of such training can happen explicitly in the workplace, or out of the workplace

but directed to the workplace. It can be given to the individuals, asynchronously. Or it can

be given in the workplace, synchronously, to a group, and supported by other organisational

change and accountability systems.

(I would postulate that such training is always going on in the workplace, whether it is


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ISSUES IN TRAINING IN NEGOTIATION SKILLS IN AN ORGANISATIONAL SETTINGrecognised or not. Unless it is deliberately targeted to a specific (or range of specific)

strategic outcome(s), then what happens is part of the informal, implicit, ad hoc and on-going

cultural formation of the workplace. And, without deliberate targeting, and effective

congruent presentation, both the informal processes and the formal workplace training maywell be antithetical to the essential objective of the organisation. The culture formed may not

support the organisation, or, more significantly, it may not support what the organisation

thinks is its objectives, especially those expressed in glossy mission statements.)

1.2 MY PERSONAL EXPERIENCE:

I have had two "structured" educational experiences of training in negotiation, using the

experiential technique:

Firstly, in a course entitled "Commercial Negotiation" an elective unit of a Certificate

of personnel Management conducted by UTS Kuringgai, by Peter McGraw, using the

game "The Black and White Game" (1992).

Secondly, with "Pepulator Pricing" in the Negotiation unit of the Dispute Resolution

studies (1996).

Both learning experiences have been very informative, and, for me, confronting, and, to a

certain extent, emotionally disturbing.

These experiences have raised the issue of the importance, and efficacy, of such experiential

learning. Also, they have raised the question: in planning for organisationally sponsored and

delivered interpersonal skill training, like training in negotiation, are there guides for making

such learning effective, and handling any psychological consequences?

SEE DETAILS IN ATTACHMENT 1

1.3 FROM EXPERIENCE WITH MANAGEMENT TRAINING DELIVEREDIN-HOUSE AT SHELLHARBOUR COUNCIL:

Since 1993 I have been engaged in considering, selecting, organising the delivery of, and

evaluating the effectiveness of training delivered in the organisational context at Shellharbour

Council.

I have focussed the limited resources available on training managers to manage better.

I have focussed this training on the development of interpersonal skills.

I have used an external provider, Barry Smith, of Central Human Resources, who has Army


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ISSUES IN TRAINING IN NEGOTIATION SKILLS IN AN ORGANISATIONAL SETTINGtraining experience, and Local Government training experience, and who has come with good

references. Firstly, from the NSW LG ITC: he is one of their contracted trainers delivering

ITC sponsored training. Secondly, from a local, and experienced Human Resources Manager

whose insight and expertise I respect, and who, at a larger Council has used Barry, and histraining approach, to good effect.

Barry has used material from Development Dimensions International. The material used is

entitled: "Interaction Management" and/or "Techniques for an Empowered Workforce".

This material includes "role-playing" within a simulated context.

SEE DETAILS IN ATTACHMENT 2

I have observed participants in this context. The following are my observations:

1. All participants are "at home", with their usual "colleagues", and with the

(implicit) necessity to maintain "congruence with past behaviour" and/or

"face", in an ongoing relationship.

2. Some will not break out of their normal responses to try another approach

3. Those that will not/do not, invariably raise the "role-play" as being "unreal",

therefore they cannot comfortably operate in them.

3.1 They complain that they don't know enough information (indicating anormal reliance on information as power?).

3.2 They express the view that they are not comfortable with "pretending"

(rejection of "deceit" as a mechanism?).

3.3 They indicate their perception of the lack of relevance for the above

two reasons.

4. Those who are prepared to risk observation while trying the skills, and who

generally accept and apply the content of the learning experience, are those

who are already exhibiting the thrust of the behaviours and processes,

recommended in, and reinforced by, the training. These behaviours are their

preferred approach. They gain further substance and insights from the

experience and the advised process.

These observations beg the question of the effectiveness of this training for "those who need

it most".

Such a question is usually framed by their subordinates who, when exposed to the same/

similar/ related training, comment to the effect that: "so-and-so should have this training".

This question is even more poignant when "so-and-so" has indeed been "exposed" to it, andyet there is/has been no observable change in their dysfunctional behaviour.


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1.4 COGITATIONS:

In considering what to do for my assignment and presentation, the question of "gender" and

"integrity" had taken my fancy.

The term, "the dance", as it applied to negotiation, was also a trigger for me.

1.4.1 The Negotiation Dance

Raiffa (1982) refers to the "negotiation dance", the pattern of offer and counter offer by which

negotiators seek to close the gap between their opening positions in order to reach agreement.

Ury (1991) comments in his author's note to "Getting Past No":

"Ten years ago Roger Fisher and I wrote a book calledGetting to Yes, which

presented a step-by-step "dance routine" for negotiating mutually satisfactory

agreements. .. IfGetting to Yes outlines a dance routine, Getting Past No shows how

to get a reluctant partner to dance."

The "dance" is a particularly apt description for the process between regular partners in

ongoing negotiations.

Labor & Employer: One step to the left, two to the right. Or, do I mean, "one step to the

right and two to the left"?

1.4.2 Dance & Negotiation & Integrity & Male/Female Complementariness

-Torvill & Dean; "Shall We Dance":

When I think of dance, and integrity, and the issue of complementariness in male-female role,

the model that comes to my mind is: Torvill and Dean.

Their Olympic winning display from 1984, and their professional explorations of the medium

since, have displayed an artistic integrity - truth. For me, that truth included the essence of

collaboration, within inherent difference, between male and female, with different levels of

physical power/ capacity. It is also subject to an external discipline: that of being artistically

consistent with the music (process?). This integrity with different gender roles has impressed

me no end.

The next "dance" that came to mind was the key sequence from "The King and I": "Shall We

Dance?"

Then the old inconsequential mind processes really got under way: the whole story line of


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ISSUES IN TRAINING IN NEGOTIATION SKILLS IN AN ORGANISATIONAL SETTING"The King and I" was the negotiation around a breach of contract - with the interplay of:

1. gender,

2. power (power in position; power in information; the power in the offerof relationship/ life purpose/ role),

3. cross-cultural issues,

4. the role of a mediator,

5. the impact of "framebreaking" for the King,

6. the impact of "framebreaking" for the Crown Prince

1.4.3 "Shall We Dance" - "The King & I" - An Accessible Case Study - Power,Gender & Cross-cultural Issues in Negotiations

This then met the criterion of "visual component" for a presentation - to select the elements of

the story to illustrate aspects of the negotiation process, and the issues raised.

It is an accessible case study.

There is then the possibility of using "The King and I", as an accessible, and "neutral", case

study, for analysis, and for opening discussion on issues, in a teaching context.

1.4.4 Framebreaking: for the King of Siam -> ill-health

The implicit ending in "The King and I" appears to point to ill-health/ death, arising from the

psychological breakdown in the King.

If "cause" and "effect" can be derived from this, my interpretation would identify:

1. the shift of persuasive power because of the development of the relationship

between Anna and the King;

2. the dilemma of the cultural clash: of the power of the King to deal with hisslave as he wished; Anna's expressed revulsion in slavery per se;

3. the context of the pre-cursor to the event: that of trying to impress the British

delegation of the "civilisation" or non-barbaric nature of Siamese culture; and

4. the King's "reversion" to type being challenged, leading to a crisis of action ->

inaction -> leading to crisis of self-concept and of "kingship"

Counterpointed with this is the declaration of the Crown Prince, who has been under Anna's

teaching, that in his reign, respect for the king is to be expressed differently.


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1.5 APPLICATION TO AN ISSUE OF CONCERN

1.5.1 Interpersonal Skill Training in Adults, in a Workplace context

These strands of experience, and reflection, raise for me a number of issues:

1. the nature of and the content for the training of interpersonal skills

2. the context of the training of interpersonal skills

3. the support structures needed for effective training of interpersonal skills

For adults, much of the basic training in interpersonal skills has been "delivered" long ago, by

key people in their early lives - eg parental modelling.


If those interpersonal skills are/have proved dysfunctional in the workplace, they need to be

unlearned and replaced by alternative skills.

If such unlearning and reskilling is to happen, the following pre-conditions apply:

1. it will need to be delivered in an environment which is "secure" (Montessori);

2. adequate time will need to be given to the process; and

3. sometimes, and/or for some individuals, additional support, to assist with the

reformation of self-concept in the new behaviours, will be required.

The question is: if this is so, how then to best deliver this kind of training:

1. in-house?

2. out-house? [well, that at least has an interesting lateral association -Freudian slip?; or more indications of my father's training in

cryptic crosswording capacity??]

3. hot-house? [yes, definitely Freudian slips!!]

4. on-the-job?

5. off-the-job?

6. individually?

7. all-in-together now?


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ISSUES IN TRAINING IN NEGOTIATION SKILLS IN AN ORGANISATIONAL SETTING8. independent/ unknown but credible deliverer(s)

who come in and go away; and, because they don't know the players, or the

context, intimately, can't be accused of having "set some-one up" (then againthey may be accused of being ?? incompetent/ unprofessional/ insensitive/ ...)

9. in-house corporate trainers

who may be able to tailor it better since they know the participants; and/or may

be more responsible and sensitive about its use because they will live with the

consequences.

(They can then be more readily accused of having a hidden agenda;

deliberately exposing individuals to risk, etc.)

(The question now arises: how do organisations which must train their staff for

contingencies, for ambivalence, or psychological warfare, etc., go about it? It

must be part of police training for some roles; army training for officer roles;

training for security/ espionage areas - who else?)

10. stand-alone?

11. part of an organisational change strategy?

1.5.2 Framebreaking - organisational training implications

When a person chooses, of their own free-will, to engage in training, it is their choice. Within

that choice they are free to accept or reject the content of the training. They have the liberty

to stay, or leave, the training. In this context, the risk associated with framebreaking is their

risk.

When training is presented in the organisational context, the choice is made by those in

authority in the organisation. The individual does not have quite the same liberty to stay, or

go, as they choose, should they find the training uncongenial, threatening, etc.

Further, if the training is a deliberate component of organisational change, and supplemented

by other aspects of organisational discipline, etc., then there are even more significant

implications for the individual.

The individual will be vetted for:

1. the "response to",

2. the "behaviour demonstrated in" and

3. the "success" with the training and the associated follow up.

Their short- or long- term future with the organisation may be dependent on the outcome(s).


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ISSUES IN TRAINING IN NEGOTIATION SKILLS IN AN ORGANISATIONAL SETTINGIn addition, there are significant implications for the organisation. It needs to consider the

nature of the likely outcomes, and to manage any risks involved. Otherwise, if not handled

well, or properly, an organisation could well find itself a target of an occupational health and

safety claim, even after, and when, the industrial trouble, which was created by suchmismanagement, was settled.

Personal choice is an important part of the adult individual's preparation for learning, being a

significant part of motivation for an adult.

Much organisationally sponsored training misses its target since this motivation is not there.

Should the issue of framebreaking arise then the prudent organisation, which has given notice

of this possibility, and consulted with the parties likely to be affected by the framebreaking,

will be geared up with: support, and prepared procedures, and reasonable expectations.

(Indications are that framebreaking may well arise, since Australian management is generally

characterised as having poor interpersonal skills [Karpin].)

1.6 FROM "EQUIPPING STAFF TO HANDLE DISPUTESEFFECTIVELY IN LOCAL GOVERNMENT":

I have raised some of these issues previously, in my assignment for the Dispute Resolution

unit of studies.

On that occasion, I was only able to "raise the issue", as something which needed to be

considered. There were some indications, from the brief exploration of the matter that I had

been able to undertake at the time, of the way forward.

SEE ATTACHMENT 3

My conclusions there may now be summarised:

1. the interpersonal skills of communication and negotiation need to be enhanced

2. the two thrusts: of training, and conscious development of a new organisational

culture which values the effective application of these skills, is required

What follows from this is that the organisation will also need to:

3. exercise due diligence and care with:

3.1 decisions related to how this training is delivered,

3.2 what lead time there needs to be between delivery and demands forperformance


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3.3 prior communication about objectives and implications

3.4 structures and resources available to support staff, as required, throughthe process

3.5 structures and resources available to assist staff, who are not willing/

are not able to perform, to be released from the organisation, or from

present duties where such skills are critical

1.7 FROM HUXLEY'S ENDS AND MEANS

One of the seminal experiences, of my formative youth, was reading Aldous Huxley's "Endsand Means".

From this there distilled, for me, the view that the end never justifies the means. And further,

that the only way to achieve any end is to accomplish it through consistent means. If it is

"peace" we are after, there is no way that "war/ violence" will achieve it. Or to quote: "'The

more violence, the less revolution.'"

So, workplace training in negotiation needs to have the end in view. Is it competitive

negotiation or collaborative negotiation we wish to encourage?

And, in my frame, if it is organisational effectiveness we are after, then the only option for

training in negotiation is to train the collaborative technique. There will need to be a real

effort to train collaborators to counter competitive and/or unprincipled negotiation techniques,

or tactics, when exercised by others. This applies especially to those key staff who need to

operate both with "internal" customers and with "external" parties, and especially when the

contacts with external parties are with key commercial transactions.

That is to say: competition, by its very nature, if espoused, and enhanced, will destroy the

cohesiveness of the organisation - its essence and its essential effectiveness.

Collaboration, acknowledged and enhanced, will:1. build better teamwork and the potential for increased overall organisational

performance - the outcomes of synergy

2. encourage support in relationships and so provide ongoing internal stability in

the midst of external uncertainties

This will give an organisation the necessary strength/ context to make other

strategic/ technological/ process changes to keep ahead of external pressures

that might otherwise threaten the viability of the organisation.

3. minimise the necessity to establish and maintain expensive systems for internal

and/or external dispute resolution


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2. FROM THE LITERATURE:

At this stage, my review of the literature has not been/ could not be exhaustive. Thisconstraint means that this assignment represents a "work in progress". As time/ experiences

passes, I anticipate continuing to have a watching brief on these matters.

The first area where such additional work is required is an examination of the literature prior

to the implementation of electronic databases. One might assume that present knowledge is

well-built and well-founded on the past knowledge and understanding. However, the history

of the development and application of ideas is littered with lost cultural knowledge. And an

overreliance on the quick and easy electronic database search risks/ invites such loss.

At this stage, it has been a matter of gathering what evidence I could, of the support of other

parties in addressing some of these issues.


My general impression is that the issues I am concerned with are not always raised, indeed,

not often raised.

SEE ATTACHMENT 4

For instance, a search of the NSW State Library Collection for "role play.." delivered 9 titles.

The search of APAIS & AEI & AFPD for "role playing" and "management" delivered 7

items. The search for "simulation" and "training" delivered 3 items. The search for "role

play" and "training" delivered 11 items.

2.1 INTERPERSONAL SKILL TRAINING:

My prime source for commentary on this matter at this stage is:

Phillips, K & Fraser, T "The Management of Interpersonal Skills Training", Gower

Publishing, 1992

Some extracts from this are noted in ATTACHMENT 3 as this material was extracted and

used to flag the issue in relation to the wider task of equipping staff to handle disputes.

There are some particular teaching techniques that are most valuable for interpersonal skill

development. One of these is the opportunity to practice and/or experiment with different

responses in an interpersonal encounter. The opportunity to do this is provided most

frequently in the role-play or the simulation.My secondary source is:


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Robbins, S P "Training in Interpersonal Skills: TIPS for managing people at work"

Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, c1989

This source applies the training of interpersonal skills to the manager or potential manager.

The training model selected is an eight step process:

1. Self-assessment exercise

2. Skill concepts

3. Concept Quiz

4. Behavioral Checklist

5. Modeling Exercise

6. Group Exercises

7. Summary Checklist

8. Reinforcement Exercises

The modelling and group exercises presented in the chapter on Resolving Conflicts involve

three role plays, and the third group exercise involves evaluating responses in four case

studies and discussing and defending the evaluation in a group.

2.2 EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING:

2.2.1 Experiential Learning and Interpersonal Skill Development:

The first thing to note in this regard is how important experiential learning is to the task of

skill development in interpersonal skills.

Phillips & Fraser note in their preface (viii):

"In IST [Interpersonal Skills Training] it is possible to identify four broad and

sequential aims; that is for people to:

1 Increase awareness, i.e. to learn more about themselves, their impact onothers, and others' impact on them.

2 Develop more choices in handling relationships.

3 Experimentin trying out some of these new choices.

4 Make decisions about what 'works' and makes sense."

Experiential learning, if effective, will deliver elements of:

1. increasing self-awareness, and

2. awareness of others; and

3. provide an opportunity for experimenting to try out alternatives.


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2.2.2 Experiential Learning for the Adult, and particularly for theDevelopment of Management Skills

The second thing to note about experiential learning is how critical it is for adults; adultlearning; and management learning, in particular.

This has been remarked on in many and various places, and most recently in the Karpin

Report.


2.3 THE "SIMULATION" IN SUCH TRAINING:

The stimulation that led to the key reference/s for this area was a bibliographic search at the

UTS City Campus Library on "communication"; and, in particular: "communicative

competence". This search yielded "Learning from Experience through Games and

Simulations". This turned out to be one of a series of conference reports from the UK from

SAGSET (the Society for the Advancement of Games and Simulations in Education and

Training). The series is Perspectives in Gaming and Simulation. This item is number 13

(1988).

This had an article entitled "Open Forum: The Unforeseen Consequences of Simulations".Other articles in the collection of interest to me were: "Interpersonal Perspectives on

Simulation/Gaming"; and Section 3 which dealt with "Applications of Simulation Gaming to

Business and Management".

The UTS City Campus Library shelf adjacent then delivered:

Jones, K "Simulations". London: Kogan Page, 1980.

Morry van Ments was also a contributor to that Conference, and the NSW State Library

search threw up

van Ments, M "The Effective Use of Role-play: a handbook for teachers and trainers" .London: Kogan Page, [1983], rev ed 1989.

Other Conference reports which promised to shed some light on the topic, but which I have

not yet been able to lay hands on, include:

Human Factors in Games and Simulations, series no. 4, (1979)

Simulation in Management and Business Education, series no. 7, (1982)

Learning for the Future with Games and Simulation, series no.9, (1984)

Effective use of Games and Simulations, series no.10, (1985)

Gaming and Simulation for Capability, series no.11 (1986)

Games and Simulations at Work, series no.12, (1987)

The simulation is an integral, and significant, component of training in these areas.


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ISSUES IN TRAINING IN NEGOTIATION SKILLS IN AN ORGANISATIONAL SETTINGSo, knowing what are

1. the objectives of the simulation;

2. the potential outcomes of the simulation;

3. the next steps to extract the most/ best from such simulations;4. the risks of damage from such simulations; etc.,

is part of the professional and ethical responsibility of a teacher/ trainer in this area.

2.4 ADULT LEARNING:

As noted earlier (1.5.2), the current "accepted wisdom" for adult learning is related to that

other buzz word: "empowerment".

This wisdom speaks of:1. getting commitment from the adult to the learning

2. getting the adult to explicitly recognise their "interest" in the learning

3. endeavouring to draw on the adult's prior experience to derive content,

reflection, experiential components

4. in the group context, allowing the adults to pool their experiential/ reflective

resources by sharing where they are at, and why

5. then pointing the way to additional sources of information: content, research

findings, case studies, reflection on experience, exposure to "new" experience

in a "safe" setting - the role play, the simulation, etc

6. providing some discipline to gather the information together

The assignment, preferably self-directed, but related to the subject, free in the

context, allows the student to apply this experience to say a workplace issue.

The size, and the demand for some element of originality challenges their

present comfort zone - and so can extend their present level of knowledge/skill.

[See information from:

"Managing Adult Communication", a 15 module training resource

"Public Sector Management Course";

Power, Mary R "Educating Mediators Metacognitively" (1992) 3Australian Dispute

Resolution Journal, 1992, Vol 3, 214-226 extract cited in ATTACHMENT 4]

2.5 MANAGEMENT SKILLS LEARNING:

My primary source for this area of application is:

Whetten, DA & Cameron KS "Developing Management Skills". NY: HarperCollins, 1995,

3rd ed.

This (p.13 Table 1.3) presents an approach to management skill development which is based


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ISSUES IN TRAINING IN NEGOTIATION SKILLS IN AN ORGANISATIONAL SETTINGon:

1. Skill assessment - Assess current level of skill competence and knowledge;

create readiness to change (preparing the adult to learn)2. Skill learning - Teaching the correct principles and present a rationale

for behavioral guidelines (content 1)

3. Skill analysis - Provide examples of appropriate and inappropriate skill

performance. Analyze behavioral principles and reason

they work (content 2)

4. Skill practice - Practice behavioral guidelines. Adapt principles to

personal style. Receive feedback and assistance.

5. Skill application - Transfer classroom learning to real-life situations. Foster

ongoing personal development.

Simulations, and role plays will be an integral part of Stage 4, where this pattern ofmanagement training is used.

2.6 WORKPLACE TRAINING:

Much of the material in the above subsections can either be applied to on-the-job learning or

off-the-job learning.

The question for workplace learning is: has it moved to this model, or is it still "old-style" in-house off-the-job lectures, sometimes with visiting speakers?

There is a growing body of literature raising the issue of workplace training. The new

concept/ word for this is "the Learning Organisation"!

My primary source here is:

Gunzburg, D "Identifying and Developing Management Skills". Canberra, AGPS:

1991.

Gunzburg looks at Management Development through On-the-Job Learning, and The

Learning Organisation, and makes the case:"Greater advantage might be taken of the learning opportunities in day to day work

experiences, special assignments, postings and exchanges, through a deliberate,

structured focus on learning objectives and learning outcomes. The use of personal

development plans, mentors, structured reflections and reporting on learning seem to

work well in many organisations."

If it is the case that more effective learning could happen at the organisation level, if it was

planned for, and focussed on, then establishing the context for that training, and the linkages

between that training and other elements of organisational effectiveness become more and

more significant.


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3. IMPLICATIONS FOR ORGANISATIONS INVOLVED INDELIVERING TRAINING IN NEGOTIATING SKILLS:

The implications for organisations involved in delivering training in negotiation skills whichincludes the experiential component are:

1. to exercise care in selecting the mechanism/ providers - provide for as many

different options as possible

2. to exercise care in selecting/ compelling staff to participate - again, provide as

much choice of vehicle of delivery as possible

3. to provide ancillary support by way of time and additional independent

professional input if required by the individual

3.1 THE OPTIONS:

There is always the option for an individual to learn whatever they can, however they can,

when they want.

Whether an organisation chooses to train in this area, or not, the individual can still choose to

search for, and access, such training.

Sources include:

1. the good read

2. one-day "exposure" seminars often delivered by the commercial training

enterprises

3. longer, but still short, focussed course/ seminar/ workshops delivered by the

commercial training sector

4. short, focussed courses delivered by tertiary institutions as part of another,

wider course curriculum

5. something more intensive and accrediting in negotiation skill and/or skilltraining, like the Harvard Negotiation Project course/s

3.2 THE ORGANISATIONAL OPTIONS:

For the organisation, embarking on the process of delivering such training, there are a number

of options:

1. leaving and/or motivating the individual to "go outside and get it"

2. providing access to outside training in this area - letting and/or motivating the

individual to volunteer3. providing it "inside" to the individual volunteer


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ISSUES IN TRAINING IN NEGOTIATION SKILLS IN AN ORGANISATIONAL SETTING4. accessing outside delivery, and sending conscripts


5. providing the training inside and conscripting participants

But in the end, the organisation must say:

"There'll be no promotion this side of the ocean"

If the organisation is convinced that it needs, for organisational development, to go down this

track, it must:

1. seek to link good performance in interpersonal skills to its organisational

rewards

2. then make available training in one or more of the above modes

3. set the parameters for expecting delivery in on-the-job performance post-

training exposure

The application of these principles is explored in ATTACHMENT 5.


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BIBLIOGRAPHY:

This bibliography is presented in the order of the sections of the report. This allows the

bibliography to convey where supportive material will be found, although this process means,at times, there is repetition of citations.

Further, the report raises issues that can be dealt with, in part, by some further analysis/

evaluation of the material in the bibliographic sources, and this is done in this bibliography.

Section 1:1.1

Local Government (State) Award, 1991& 1993

This explicitly nominates "negotiation skill" at a variety of levels as a part of a

position's skill requirement. The award also requires training to develop skill, deliver

career path, etc.




3rd ed.

"Enterprising Nation: Renewing Australia's Managers to Meet the Challenges of the Asia-Pacific Century" [Executive Summary] ["Karpin Report"]

NOTE 1: HAVING A CULTURAL MILIEU FOR PRACTISINGNEGOTIATION SKILLS

Just as negotiation, as a skill, is poorly recognised in the workplace in interpersonal

exchanges, so, negotiation is not readily recognised as occurring elsewhere, in the

whole range of life activities.

Further, in the area of commercial transactions, in the name of "efficiency", our

western culture has, by and large, removed the opportunity to practice and develop

this skill.

The oriental culture, with its emphasis on relationship rather than efficiency, and a

different conception of time, persists with the marketplace and the barter.

It is here, in day-to-day transactions, on a small scale, that a person practices and

refines their negotiating technique. This is gone from our fixed-priced supermarket.

Then, when the time for negotiation comes, with the big ticket item, we are not well


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ISSUES IN TRAINING IN NEGOTIATION SKILLS IN AN ORGANISATIONAL SETTINGequipped to deal with it, and often come away disappointed.

When the big ticket item is a construction in time, (the first and last home) with the

flexibility to make changes as the construction develops, then there is the potential forpoor negotiating skills, and inadequate communication and documentation, to create

the context for a big fight. Hence our Builders' Services Corporation appeals

mechanism.)

Fisher, Roger & Ury, William "Getting to Yes: Negotiating an agreement without giving in."

London: Century Business, 2nd ed, 1991.

NOTE 2: RECOGNITION OF IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION &

NEGOTIATION SKILLS

Why we don't readily recognise these skills as important I can't say that I have much

of an inkling. If Australia is "Euro" in its ethos, with a predominantly Anglo-Irish,

working class foundation, it may be a reflection of these cultural biases.

The history and geography of European settlement in Australia, with the resultant of

loss of opportunity for communication by the "tyranny of distance" may have some

part to play here.

It may be the rejection of intimacy required for the pioneering of a difficult country. It

may be reinforced by the Anzac element of Stoicism. The "Anglo-" "reserve" is well

established. The "-Irish" is not so reserved. Nor is the Irish reluctant to talk.

However, the tendency to "blarney" may mean we are never comfortable enough to

trust such talk, and so real communication, leading to understanding and intimacy,

doesn't happen.

It may be the "working class" element. Not the "working" or "class" per se, but that

this group, which formed the initial convict contingent, were those with poorly formed

communication/ negotiation skills (which became the skill base from which the next

and future generations drew its model) and who then fell foul of economic change, and

then the law.

Recent work, on the development of competencies, is starting to recognise these skills.

And "communication", as a competency, is placed in amongst the "key"

competencies. The "key" competencies are then expected to be taught in primary and

secondary levels of education. I have remarked in my assignment "Equipping Staff to

Handle Disputes Effectively in Local Government" (see extracts in Attachment 2) that

these skills, and their attendant behaviours, are generally developed in an ad-hoc way,

in early childhood development. Note 5, later, gives some further consideration to the

conundrum this kind of training, and the scheduling of it, poses.


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NOTE 3: "WORKPLACE" RESPONSIBILITY

It is worth noting that the current trend/s talk of "family friendly workplaces".

Organisations are moving to provide "employee assistance programs" with access to

social/ psychological assistance. Occupational Health and Safety legislation requires

that an employer: " ; xxx." Anti-Discrimination legislation requires that an employer

provide a discrimination/ harassment-free workplace, and so requires employers to

take action to control individual behaviour - once the role of family teaching, the

church.

Some of this is far from the older concept of the "sweat-shop" simply extracting

physical labour for a monetary exchange. The shift to package benefits, while initiallya tax dodge, is considered an appropriate, and in some cases a more attractive,

mechanism of alternative rewards. The powerful Japanese business organisation

concept, with its "family" feel, may not be far away.

For some, "work" has replaced "alcohol" as the preferred "substance of abuse" - the

workaholic. For most, "work" and "position" at work, is integral to identity -

explaining why unemployment is so psychologically (and socially) devastating. The

opening conversational lead: "what do you do?" to commence the exploration of

interpersonal relationship, highlights the value given to work, and with it, the

workplace.

More time is spent at work than at any other activity.

With the general increase in social instability, the workplace organisation, with its

apparent capacity to deliver (economic) security, can become "family", "church",

"community" for the individual.

Field, Laurie with Ford, Bill "Managing Organisational Learning". Melb.: Longman, 1995

Section 1:1.4.1

Raiffa, Howard "The Art and Science of Negotiation." Cambridge: Harvard Univ Pr, 1982.

Ury, William "Getting Past No: Negotiating with difficult people." London: Century

Business, 1991.

Goldberg, Sander & Rogers [were they in fact quoting Raiffa at this point .. hard to see the

quotes ..] speak of "The Negotiation Dance" in their commentary on negotiation. They

identify four major stages in a negotiation:

1. Preparing for negotiations


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ISSUES IN TRAINING IN NEGOTIATION SKILLS IN AN ORGANISATIONAL SETTING1.1 Know thyself

1.2 Know your adversaries

1.3 Give thought to the negotiating conventions in each context

1.4 Consider the logistics of the situation1.5 Remember that simulated role playing can be of value in preparing your

strategy

1.6 Iterate and set your aspiration levels

2. Opening Gambits

2.1 Who should make the first concrete offer

2.2 Gauge your reaction to an extreme first offer

2.3 Protect your integrity

3. The Negotiation Dance

3.1 The pattern of concessions3.2 Reassessing perceptions

4. End Play

4.1 Making Commitments

4.2 Breaking a commitment gracefully

4.3 Helping your adversaries to break a commitment gracefully

4.4 Introducing an intervenor

4.5 Broadening the domain of negotiation

Section 1:1.4.4

Landon, Margaret "Anna and the King" London: Harrap, 1952 (a shortened version of "Anna

and the King of Siam")

Encyclopedia Brittanica

NOTE 4: The King and I

The Margaret Landon story, "Anna and the King", published in 1944, was used as the

source for "The King and I".

This story, in turn, was developed from Anna Leonowens' stories developed from her

time in Siam.

Landon does not make a link, either in time, events, or sequence of events between the

impact of culture clash and health/ life-and-death. Also, in the Landon presentation, it

is the Crown Prince who grapples with the slavery issue, and makes the change, and,

in time, is able to steer his culture/ political structures through such a fundamentalchange.


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Rodgers & Hammerstein, on the other hand, post- World War II, in both "The King

and I", and "South Pacific", are engaged in dealing with cross-cultural issues. No

doubt reflecting some of the difficulties experienced in building a multi-culturalsociety, and a society where some of its key members have been recently exposed to

other cultures on their own ground, as distinct from dealing with cultural differences

when they are set in a context of requiring new immigrants to meet the target of

conforming to the "new world".

Section 1:1.5.1

NOTE 5: CONCERNING THE "FORMED ADULT": AND REMARKSIN SECTION 1.5.1

For me, one of the conundrums of training in interpersonal skills relates to the impact

of home-based modelling and/or pre-school training, and then the efficacy of primary

and secondary education.

It would be far preferable to arrange for the right behavioural patterns to be formed

then, rather than have to break frames and form new frames later on in adult life, when

these frames are dysfunctional.

While the foundations of behavioural patterns are laid down in a person's formative

years, it is difficult to conceive societal mechanisms to direct such training to meet

societal needs. It is the parents and adult teachers with dysfunctional behaviour

patterns who are then modelling these. First of all you catch and reform your parent.

Then, the teacher. Indeed, teacher selection procedures could improve societal

performance in this area. However, while societal performance in this area continues

to reward dysfunctional behaviour - the competitors win; winning is good - such a

strategy flies in the face of all "normal" experience.

The concept of "spiritual" "revival": Christian conversion, with church renewal, andspilling over into reformation of society, is a pattern for such comprehensive change.

It takes at least four generations if the Exodus is anything to go by, and the Second

Coming, if the rest of human history is indicative.

My words to describe my case have not included "reconstruction" - and yet that could

be a reasonable description of what is proposed. This is certainly the way the

communist regimes see it, and framebreaking and reconstruction is certainly to way

they seek to deal with anti-communist and/or non-conformist behaviour. Some even

call it "re-education."

I would also contend that effective interpersonal skills can only be taught/ trained/

modelled by those with effective supportive interpersonal skills. [The Ignatian


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ISSUES IN TRAINING IN NEGOTIATION SKILLS IN AN ORGANISATIONAL SETTINGchallenge is relevant here: "give me the child till they are seven years and I will give

you the man (adult)".]

I would further contend that a decision to change, to reform, to achieve improved,more effective, supportive interpersonal skills, when they have not been established in

the earlier formative years, needs to be an adult decision. A person needs to be at a

level of adult enough perception to recognise the gap between their own performance

and their desired performance. Then, they also need to be prepared to "take the

consequences"; to work through the trauma of such significant change. The concept

of "informed consent" will be vital. The fact that both sides recognise and realistically

assess the risk, is an important aspect of this.

The indirect method of training, eg teaching "communication" in and through teaching

English Literature, etc, as it was practised on me, is ineffective.

Lillard, PP "Montessori today: a comprehensive approach to education from birth to

adulthood". New York: Schocken, 1996

"Enterprising Nation: Renewing Australia's Managers to Meet the Challenges of the Asia-

Pacific Century" [Executive Summary] ["Karpin Report"]

p.31

".. the Task Force has identified the broad areas in which many Australian managers

need to improve their skills:

* soft or people skills

....

* relationship building skills across organisations ... "

Section 1:1.7

Huxley, Aldous "Ends and Means." London: Chatto & Windus, first published 1937,collected edition 1946.


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Section 2:

NOTE 6: LIMITATIONS OF LITERATURE SEARCH ANDRESEARCH

The "other parties", which are used to give support to my contentions, are presumably

more widely read, better informed by research etc, than myself - ie hopefully experts

in their field, since they have written, and been supported by being published by

reputable concerns, in this area.

This approach, of seeking, and identifying support, may well be "flawed", in that it is

essentially an exercise in psychological congruence - from my frame.

And if you want a discussion on the capacity of the "scientist"/ "researcher"* to be

objective, and to be willing, and able, to recognise and deal with incongruence, you

can have one with me and/or

Arthur Koestler - The Act of Creation (1964); or

C.S. Lewis - Meditation in a Toolshed (1945) [and C.S. Lewis - The

Abolition of Man (1943) for its application to the task of

general/ liberal education]; or

C.P. Snow; or .... !)

(* Whether it is in the area of social, or physical, science makes little or no difference.

However, the social researcher is likely to have much more difficulty, in my view,

with dissociating themselves from unrecognised implicit cultural frames, especially

when formulating their hypotheses, and sometimes when constructing their research

process.)

Koestler, Arthur "The Act of Creation." London: Pan, 1966 (c. 1964)

Lewis, C.S. "Undeceptions: Essays on theology and ethics." London: Geoffrey Bles, 1971.

Lewis, C.S. "The Abolition of Man: or Reflections of education with special reference to the

teaching of English in the upper forms of schools." Glasgow: Collins Fount paperback 1978(c. 1943)

Section 2:2.1 & 2.2

Phillips, K & Fraser, T "The Management of Interpersonal Skills Training", Gower

Publishing, 1992




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ISSUES IN TRAINING IN NEGOTIATION SKILLS IN AN ORGANISATIONAL SETTINGWhetten, DA & Cameron KS "Developing Management Skills". NY: HarperCollins, 1995,

3rd ed.

"Enterprising Nation: Renewing Australia's Managers to Meet the Challenges of the Asia-Pacific Century" [Executive Summary] ["Karpin Report"]

NOTE 7: CURRENT THINKING ON DEVELOPING MANAGEMENTSKILLS

Whetten, Robbins, and Karpin all note among the key management skills needed are

the interpersonal skills of communication and persuasion.

All three flag the necessity for experiential learning.

Robbins' work reflects the learning principles of Kolb's model. Practice is a part of

this.

Whetten, p.12: "Any approach to developing management skills, therefore, must

involve a heavy dose of practical application. .. The method .. is based on social

learning theory (Bandura, 1977; Davis and Luthans, 1980). This approach marries

rigorous conceptual knowledge with opportunities to practice and apply observable

behaviors."

Karpin, p.32: " managers learn best and fastest through being exposed to a variety of

management development strategies. But in particular, managers learn best at work."

Note also Fred Emery's critique in "Business Review Weekly" p.72 July 24, 1995:

"The taskforce does not ask whether the change in the workforce towards self-

managing groups eliminates the need for such supervisors. It assumes that they

can be retrained into leaders, mentors and coaches. This is assumed in the face

of one fact, which it probably does not know, that in the 1950s the movement

to retrain supervisors in human relations was a dismal failure; and in the face

of another fact, which they certainly do know, that human-resource people donot know how to train the much better-schooled managers to be leaders,

mentors and coaches."

Section 2:2.3

Since this is probably the pivotal section of the literature/ research/ substance of my

case, I have cited here a number of key quotes from the relevant authors.

"Learning from Experience through Games and Simulations". Leicestershire: Centre for

Extension Studies, Loughborough Univ of Technology, 1988.


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ISSUES IN TRAINING IN NEGOTIATION SKILLS IN AN ORGANISATIONAL SETTINGPeppercorn, D "Open Forum on the Unforeseen Consequences of Simulation"

p.159

".. in particular, .. the responsibilities of the trainer (and in particular the user ofsimulations) for the emotional and psychological consequences of the training.."

".. I have personally experienced many occasion when the consequence of a particular

action on the part of the facilitators on a training program have not been as expected,

and .. have caused personal crisis and worry to the trainee beyond that with which the

program's designers were qualified to cope."

".. business simulation exercise .. the hidden problem was with the two individual's

own self esteem, and the light in which they were seen by their actual subordinates .."

".. I certainly do not believe that we should stymie our activities through paralysingself-doubt, but I do think .. we as trainers should be more aware of these difficulties

..."

Jones, K "Simulations". London: Kogan Page, 1980.

Jones, K "Unnecessary Ambivalents - a cause for concern". The Simulation and Gaming

Yearbook Volume 2 Interactive Learning. London: Kogan Page, 1994.

p.12

".. ambivalent events .. are not games or simulations or exercises, but a muddled

mixture in which, by definition, some participants behave in accordance with one

methodology while other are in a different methodology ...

".. ambivalents are undiagnosed as such, and thus psychological damage to

participants and facilitator becomes more hazardous since the cause is not only

undetected but attributed to personal failings. Since events are usually reported by the

facilitators rather than the participants it is not surprising that the assumption is that

the participants are to blame."

" .. if some participants treat the event as an intellectual exercise while others treat itas a play-acting session then the event is an ambivalent."

"[Initially it was my view] that all ambivalents were unnecessary and undesirable, and

should be made consistent by either altering the design or by giving an appropriate

briefing .. [now it is my view that] although necessary ambivalents are a very small

class, they include some of the most powerful learning events yet devised, including

STARPOWER, THE COMMONS GAME and (sometimes) PRISONER'S

DILEMMA."

"Stewart (1992: Simulation and Gaming, 23, 2) makes the point that there has been

little discussion of ethical considerations in experiential learning compared withconsiderable discussion by research workers in the field of experiments."


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"She urges facilitators who use games and simulations for experiential learning to

focus on ethics in their debriefing if the event involves deceit ... it is unethical to

conduct an experience-based activity without providing an adequate debriefing."

"However, four major practical difficulties remain:

1. ambivalents do not usually come with a health warning

2. the area of concern can arise in other ethical aspects, not just deceit: it

can be other undesirable behaviour such as greed intolerance, violence,

hate

3. it is impossible to give an adequate debriefing of an ambivalent if there

is faulty diagnosis of the methodology

4. even if the facilitator is aware of the clash of methodologies, then

merely to announce this fact in the debriefing may not itself be enough

to expunge the feelings of distress and hurt caused during the event

"If the necessary ambivalents are potentially powerful events, the facilitator should

consider not just a normal explanatory debriefing but some sort of interactive follow-

up involving co-operation and empathy."

van Ments, M "The Effective Use of Role-play: a handbook for teachers and trainers".

London: Kogan Page, [1983], rev ed 1989.

p.14

"The use of role-play as an educational or training technique is part of a wider set of

techniques that have collectively become known as simulation and gaming. These are

techniques which aim to provide the student with either a highly simplified

reproduction of part of a real or imaginary world (a simulation) or a structured system

of competitive play that incorporates the material to be learnt (a game)."

p.15

"Many simulations involve students in making decisions and communicating or

negotiating with one another."

p.15

"Role-play is the name given to one particular type of simulation that focuses attentionon the interaction of people with one another."

p.16

"The idea of role-play, in its simplest form, is that of asking someone to imagine that

they are either themselves or another person in a particular situation. They are then

asked to behave exactly as they feel that person would. As a result of this they, or the

rest of the class, or both, will learn something about the person and/or situation."

p.20

"The idea of role-playing is very simple: to give students the opportunity to practise

interacting with others in certain roles."


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ISSUES IN TRAINING IN NEGOTIATION SKILLS IN AN ORGANISATIONAL SETTINGp.21

"As a technique, role-play has proved to be very powerful. It is highly motivating and

enables students to put themselves in situations they have never experienced before; in

particular it opens the way for them to put themselves in others' shoes. Much of ourbehaviour in interpersonal interactions is governed by our assumptions about our own

role, other people's roles, and the way we perceive their roles."

"It can be used at different levels to teach simple skills of communication, to show

how people interact and their stereotyping of others, and to explore deep personal

blocks and emotions."

"Because the technique is so powerful, it is essential that tutors approach it in a

systematic way and are aware of the different ways of using it."

p.23".. conventional methods of teaching and learning .. cannot easily help to change the

student's attitude or behaviour. To read or hear about something is not the same as

experiencing it, and it is often only be actual experience that understanding and

change can come about."

"Role-play is one of a unique group of experiential teaching techniques which help the

student to cope with the idea of uncertainty."

p.24

"The second major area where conventional methods needs to be supplemented is that

of interpersonal and communication skills. No matter how much reading and

observing the student undertakes, the only way to develop these skills fully is by using

them in actual interpersonal situations."

Section 2:2.4

"Managing Adult Communication", a 15 module training resource

"Public Sector Management Course";

Power, Mary R "Educating Mediators Metacognitively" (1992) 3Australian Dispute

Resolution Journal, 1992, Vol 3, 214-226 extract cited in ATTACHMENT 4]

Section 2:2.5


3rd ed.


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Section 2:2.6

Gunzburg, D "Identifying and Developing Management Skills". Canberra, AGPS: 1991.

Section 3:3.2

NOTE 8: TRAINING, TRAINING CONTEXT AND LEARNING &APPLYING THE LEARNING IN THE WORKPLACE

The conscript may well be able to demonstrate adequate change/ competence in the

preferred behaviours in the training context, but still not be able to apply it/ deliver itwhen back in the workplace.

Here the complex of the impact of antithetical workplace culture; too much having

been invested in past congruence of behaviour to be able to break with it now; the

relapse to "old behaviour" under stress, all play their part.

The practising Christian, whether lay, theologian or pastor knows this only too well:

Romans 7:24 "Wretched man that I am ... Romans 7:21 .. I find it to be a law

that when I want to do right, evil lies close at hand .. Romans 7:15 .. For I do

not do what I want, but I do the very thing I hate."

Ephesians 4:1-3; 4:17-5:20

John 2:23-25


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ATTACHMENTS

ATTACHMENT 1:

1.2 MY PERSONAL EXPERIENCE

1.2.1 Commercial Negotiation UTS Kuringgai: The Black & White Game

In this instance, if my memory serves me correctly, I was a member of a fairly evenly mixed-

gender team. This team argued about the ethics of the decisions with the bid, and the content

of the negotiations. The "collaborative"/"ethical" component of the group "got its way". Theteam result was a loss to the other team which chose the competitive approach. I regret: I did

not notice the gender mix of that group.

The point of the game was to demonstrate that "collaboration" was the most successful

strategy. This point was made clear in the debriefing.

The controller of the game also raised the issue of collaborating, in the negotiations, to agree

to change the game rules to assist the "competing" teams to build mechanisms of

"predictability"/ "trust" in the negotiation process and its outcomes, in the face of the "hostile"

game environment.

So, I experienced: holding fast to my own personal principles - and going down.

1.2.2 Pepulator Pricing

In this instance, I was one female in a group of five males.

The group recognised the efficacy of the collaborative approach, right at the beginning.

However, given the game rules of the "Antitrust Legislation", there was no endeavour toexplore mechanisms to circumvent this rule to achieve the necessary collaboration.

The group briefly discussed the high risk/ low risk choices, but little else. The group opted

for the low risk stance, and then the reactive stance: persist with the low risk option and wait

and see what the other party did.

There was almost (from my point of view, anyway) a conspiracy of silence on discussing the

issues involved in the choices.

The discussion, between bids and results, was mostly of other issues - some marketing in

general; some incidental information involved in building relationships - job, interest incourse, difficulties of course presentation so far, difficulties of enrolment, etc.


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One participant raised the question of being able to operate outside the rules, by having a

range of options to supplement the price/benefit offer in the sales context, but was quickly

brought back to the limitations of the game rules.

The individual who became the "leader" in market strategy expression was very quick and

forceful in the presentation of his views.

The individual who went into the first negotiation, when our group was "in front" with the

profits, indicated that his approach (if we could risk "atypical" personal behaviour) would be

to hear what the other team wanted to suggest, and to be ambivalent towards any agreement

suggested.

When the second negotiation came round (our team was now "behind" in the profit stakes)

there was limited discussion, in depth, of the options of different strategies, and their likelyoutcomes.

What discussion there was took the following form:

1. The suggestion was made that if we went into the negotiation, the best course

was to agree to the win-win collaboration, even though that meant we would

still be behind at the end, we would be better off than any other process.

2. It was then commented that the person who should go into the negotiation with

that offer was myself. That, of the group, I had the preferred demeanour: my

demeanour would be convincing.

3. Then the comment was that if that happened, and the group then reneged, the

result could be a "win".

4. The second strategist, who nominated me and my demeanour to negotiate, said

yes, but it was important that I should not know that/ or it would have been

better had I not known that.

I was prepared to risk going into the negotiation, to see how I could handle the "lie"/

"unprincipled" position/ approach. The exercise for me was to see if I could carry it off, whatit might involve, especially if my essential discomfort and body language gave me away.

As it transpired, the other negotiator showed every sign of being even more nervous than I,

and so being perhaps devious too.

The other team had an option which "sounded reasonable". As a result of my group's lack of

preparation in exploring options, this option came as a "surprise" to me. And, in the context

of the negotiation, I had no mechanism to "understand" it readily. Especially since much of

my relational energy was being consumed by the "emotional" aspect of my need to control

my concealment. I responded with uncertainty - real, since I didn't understand the option. I

sought to clarify that, and so, to that extent become "comfortable." As the idea sounded"good enough" to me, I was able to honestly agree to their new option, as a reasonable way


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ISSUES IN TRAINING IN NEGOTIATION SKILLS IN AN ORGANISATIONAL SETTINGforward, and better than any option I had, and was able to honestly report that back to the

group with that information as the offer to which I had agreed.

There was still the possibility that I had been persuaded, in the negotiation, to "buy a lemon".There was the possibility that, in my absence, my group may have had a change of heart, or

explored some of the alternative options and their implications, and therefore now know and

understand this option and know that it could be followed, to our advantage, and the mutual

advantage of both groups. But I was reasonably sure that this would not be the case. And,

again, given the internal conflict from my "dishonourable", or potentially dishonourable

behaviour, and the context of the established group dynamics, I wasn't prepared, or able, to

take up the cudgels and challenge the group position. To, for example, claim the moral

support that they help me keep my word.

Our group then decided to renege - won the battle and lost the war. When the results came in,

not one of the group was really comfortable with the consequences of what was going to bethe opinion of the other group concerning our behaviour. Again, there had been no explicit

discussion of this likely outcome, or whether it was something that we "would prefer not to

have to live with".

At the time, I was personally struggling with the symptoms of the flu. And when the group

implicitly withdrew from "working on" the exercise, I didn't have the energy that I might

otherwise have had to challenge that approach. I am not sure that if I had that energy I would

have acted differently.

The challenge of the quick, forceful strategist - good at the numeric component of the

exercise - may have daunted. [I have discovered, from my previous training in negotiation,

that my old "quick mental arithmetic" skills have deserted me. I cannot be relied on to do

quick, accurate computations, especially of money matters, when involved in a negotiation.

Apparently my mind is elsewhere, much engaged.]

Certainly, we were still all raw to one another as people, to know what each other might have

been comfortable with/ uncomfortable with.

The context was explicitly "safe", in order to allow us to "risk atypical behaviour"/ "try

another way of doing it".

It is/was notable that while the teaching context sought to reinforce this "safety", I doubt that

many of us were prepared to work wholeheartedly in that context - to "go that far" (ie a long

way from our normal comfort zones). Also, when people did step outside the accepted group

ethic, there was much chiding, and implicit and explicit peer pressure exercised, with some

grouping of the like-minded, and some isolation of the risk-takers/ non-conformists.

For me, the exercise had these instructive components:

1. Risking the atypical - for me that was being unprincipled, exercising a capacity

to convincingly lie when personally most uncomfortable with such an approach

(my father's training for family poker games and other card games of strategycame to the fore here)


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ISSUES IN TRAINING IN NEGOTIATION SKILLS IN AN ORGANISATIONAL SETTING2. Failure, in the group, to communicate

3. Gender mix in group

4. Personality in group

5. Implicit exercise of power in group - power to convince, or control6. Personal preparation - ill health

7. Failure/ inability of other party to recognise signs of deceit - it was "too easy"

8. The challenge, again, to the acculturation of competitiveness

8.1 my poker playing father;

8.2 my schooling the challenge to excel academically, and

competitively with peers, other schools, etc (St George Girls

High 1957-61)

8.3 competitive sport to the exclusion of cooperative play;

8.4 the present economic rationalism/ international competitiveness/

benchmarking process [? is it "quality" or only institutionalised

one-upmanship?]


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ATTACHMENT 2:

Training Input:

Development Dimensions International (DDI)

"Interaction Management" Training

Key Principles -

1. Maintain or enhance self-esteem

1.1 be specific

1.2 be sincere

2. Listen and respond with empathy

2.1 respond to feelings and content

3. Ask for help in solving the problem

3.1 seek and deve

dispute resolution: issues in training in negotiation skills for an organisational setting

Documents