diss model a bm 1

8/12/2019 Diss Model A BM 1

1/47

DissertationAre people that work in London more stressed than people that work in smaller towns?

Page 1of 47

Student Name & ID

BA(Hons) Business Management

University of GreenwichThe Business School

21st

March 2013

Are people that work in London more stressed than people that

work in smaller towns?

Supervisor:


2/47


Page 2of 47

Acknowledgements


3/47


Page 3of 47

Executive Summary

In todays society, stress is become more and more of a problem for organisations. Employees are

becoming more stressed and consequently taking time off because of it. It is more important than

ever for employers to attempt to reduce factors that cause work place stress. Therefore this

dissertation looked at stress levels in different locations to answer the research question Are people

that work in London more stressed than people that work in smaller towns? It aimed to

investigate stress and the factors that cause this in each location to find a firm conclusion to this

question.

The aims of this research were:

To explore the relationship between work location and stress levels

To find the factors that influence stress in the different locations

Explore the cultures of offices in each environment

This dissertation used quantitative research in the form of a questionnaire to investigate the link

between location and stress levels. One hundred participants were surveyed about their stress levels

and the data was collected and analysed in a scientific way. The participants were sourced using

random and snowball sampling at a number of locations so that the reliability of the sample was

high.

The data presented a number of key findings and these are as follows:

People that work in London are more stressed than people that work in smaller towns

People that work in London find their commute to work more stressful than people that

work in smaller towns, and it tends to take them longer

People that work in London are less likely to take a lunch hour everyday

People that work in smaller towns are more likely to have a personal friendship with their

work colleagues and tend to talk to them more

These findings all lead to the conclusion that office location and culture does affect stress levels.

If this research was completed again in the future, a higher number of participants should be used so

that the findings can be generalised to a larger populations. It would also be a good idea to

investigate other large cities to see if the findings apply there too.


4/47


Page 4of 47

Contents Page

Page

Glossary of Terms. 7

Chapter 1Introduction ........................ 8

1.1 Introduction ......... 8

1.2Research Aims ... 8

1.3Research Question ... 8

1.4

Context and Relevance .. 9

1.5

Scope of Research ....... 9

1.6Structure .. 10

1.7Conclusion .. 10

Chapter 2Literature Review 11

2.1 Introduction 11

2.2

What is Stress? . 11

2.3

Work Related Stress . 12

2.4

Daily Hassles and Stressors .... 13

2.5Stress Due to Location or Working Conditions .... 14

2.6Stress Management . 15

2.7Gaps in the Literature . 16

2.8

Conclusion .. 16

2.9

Conceptual Framework .... 17

Chapter 3Methodology . 19

3.1 Introduction 19

3.2 Research Approach 19

3.3 Research Design .. 20

3.4 Data Collection.. 20

3.5 Data Analysis ....... 21

3.6 Validity ... 22

3.7 Reliability .. 22

3.8 Ethical Considerations . 23

3.9 Conclusion ... 24

Chapter 4Findings 25

4.1 Introduction ... 25

4.2 Stress Levels of Participants ... 25

4.3 Journey to Work .. 26

4.4 Lunch Hour .. 28

4.5 Office Location .. 29

4.6 Work Colleagues .. 30

4.7 Overall Stress . 31

4.8 Summary ..... 32

4.9 Conclusion ..... 32


5/47


Page 5of 47

Chapter 5Discussion 33

5.1 Introduction 33

5.2 Overview of Findings ... 33

5.3 Stress Levels ... 33

5.4 Journey to Work .. 34

5.5 Lunch Hour .. 34

5.6 Office Location .. 35

5.7 Work Colleagues .. 36

5.8 Overall Stress . 36

5.9 Summary of Findings ... 37

5.10 Conclusion . 37

Chapter 6Conclusion .. 38

6.1 Introduction 38

6.2 The Purpose of the Research .... 38

6.3 Addressing the Research Question ... 386.4 Key Findings ... 39

6.5 Limitations and Recommendations 39

6.6 Answering the Research Question .. 40

References 41

Appendices 44

Appendix 1 44

Appendix 2 47


6/47


Page 6of 47

Glossary of Terms

Stress a state of physiological imbalance in the body which has unpleasant

emotional and cognitive components (Hussin, 2008, pg.16)

Daily Hassles the irritating, frustrating, distressing demands that to some degree

characterise everyday transactions with the environment (Kanner et al,

1981 cited by Haralambos et al, 2002, pg. 102)

Stressor something which causes stress(Haralambos et al, 2002, pg. 84)

Inductive Research Using evidence to form conclusions (Krishnaswamy et al, 2009)

Quantitative Data works by measurement and analysis of relationships between resulting

numbers(Sapsford and Jupp, 2006, pg.2)

Construct Validity The effect to which the design of a study is an adequate way to measure

what is being measured (Scruggs and Mastropieri, 2006)

External Validity The effect to which results from a study can be generalised to the rest of

the population (Judd and Kenny, 1981)

Random Sample The selection of people or events is literally at random (Denscombe,

2007, pg. 13)

Snowballing The sample emerges through a process of reference from one person to

the next (Denscombe, 2007, pg. 17)

Likert Scale An ordered response scale often used when collecting quantitative data

(Morgan, Griego and Gloeckner, 2001)

Correlation To determine whether two variable are related to each other (Jackson,

2011)

T-test Comparing two data sets to see if they are significantly different from each

other (Urdan, 2010)

Standard Deviation The amount to which the numbers stray from the mean (Jackson, 2011)


7/47


Page 7of 47

Chapter 1Introduction

1.1Introduction

This chapter will introduce the research; discuss the aims and state why it is relevant in todays

society. It will briefly evaluate the context of the research and present the structure for this

dissertation.

Firstly, the research aims will be discussed and this will lead on to developing a focused research

question to investigate. It will then go on to say why this research is important and the relevance of it

in the work place. Following which it will highlight what this dissertation will examine and the

confines of it. Finally it will finish by outlining the structure for the rest of the research.

1.2Research Aims

This dissertation aims to explore whether the location of a work place can impact an individuals

stress levels. It will attempt to measure how stressed people are in different locations to determine

this. It also aims to try and find what factors contribute towards people being more stressed in

certain locations. It will explore the cultures in different locations and evaluate the impact that each

of these has on stress levels.

1.3Research Question

The research question for this dissertation needed to be narrow and specific due to time

restraints. Therefore it was important to choose a question that could easily be researched and

wasnt too broad. The research question for this dissertation was Are people that work in London

more stressed than people that work in smaller towns?This question will allow the researcher toexplore the difference in stress levels in two different locations. There was also a sub question of

what factors contribute towards the different stress levels in locations? This question will look to

highlight why people are more stressed due to location and look at factors such as culture and the

commute to a work place.


8/47


Page 8of 47

1.4Context and Relevance

This research will be extremely important to organisations when looking at why employees are

stressed and where they should base their new offices. By eliminating factors, where possible, that

have been identified in this report, organisations can take steps to reduce employee stress levels.

With more regulations and media attention on stress in the workplace, organisations are now having

to try new measures to ensure the wellbeing of their employees.

According to CIPD stress is the number one cause of long term absence within a workplace

(Anonymous 3, 2011). Therefore, this research is extremely relevant in todays workplace

environment. With reports saying that stress can even lead to heart attack and strokes (Barrow,

2011), it is becoming more and more important for employers to tackle this problem.

A well known example of workplace stress was the case of Lloyds Banking Groups Chief Executive

Antonio Horta-Osorio. In 2011, Antonio was signed off of work for six weeks due to stress related

illness (Anonymous 4, 2011). This shows the consequences of workplace stress, it can be costly for

the organisation and can create negative media attention.

This dissertation will explore whether workplace location affects employee stress and discover the

factors that cause this. By highlighting these factors, organisations may be able to look to reduce

them and therefore reduce stress levels among employees.

1.5Scope of Research

This research will examine the link between stress levels and office location. It will do this by

using two sample groups: one from London and one from smaller towns. Due to time restraints, the

sample will be limited to 100 participants. This may mean that the results cannot be generalised to

the whole population.

The research will confine itself to exploring stress due to location and will not investigate job role

stress or other sources of stress in participants lives. It will not examine stresses within the work

place but will concentrate on the location of the work place and how this affects the culture.

Due to limited time and budget, the research will ask participants to self evaluate their stress levels

and therefore it may have poor construct validity.

Overall, the research will look to highlight whether there is a difference in stress levels of participants

depending on their office location.


9/47


Page 9of 47

1.6Structure

This dissertation will follow a logical structure to systematically answer the research question. It

will begin with a literature review to give general knowledge surrounding the topic of stress. It will

also discuss and evaluate previous research to see where this dissertation will fit within the

literature.

The dissertation will then go on to discuss the methodology used for this research. It will highlight

the methods used, the sample and the limitations of the research.

The findings will then be presented using tables and graphs to highlight the key points found.

Averages and correlations will be calculated to help form an answer to the research question.

There will then be a chapter to discuss what has been found and to relate it back to the existing

literature. This will allow the researcher to draw conclusions from the data.

Finally, there will be a conclusion which will draw all of the data together to form an answer to the

research question.

1.7Conclusion

This chapter has introduced the research and outlined the aims and relevance of it. It has

discussed the scope of the research and created a research question that can be investigated. The

next chapter will present existing literature surrounding the question Are people that work in

London more stressed than people that work in smaller towns? This will give background

knowledge for the topic and will be informative about what has previously been investigated.


10/47


Page 10of 47

Chapter 2Literature Review

2.1 - Introduction

According to a Financial Times report, stress at work is the biggest problem in European

companies (cited by Mullins, 2002, pg. 650). Furthermore, according to Grable and Britt (2012)

people are now anxious as they believe their lives are filled with too much stress and strain.

Therefore, this literature review will aim to evaluate and critically analyse existing research and data

on the topic of Are people that work in London more stressed than people that work in smaller

towns?This will help to gain knowledge and ideas for the dissertation question and will be done by

initially defining stress, before going on to discuss different areas of stress. It will evaluate the

previous research that has been done and state why it is so important in the current market to deal

with employee stress. This literature review is broken down in to five main sections to help discuss

different aspects of the research question.

2.2 - What is Stress?

Stress is a word derived from the Latin word stringere, meaning to draw tight (Arnold and

Randall et all, 2010, pg. 435), but what does this really mean? According to Haralambos et al (2002,

pg.82), stress refers to the application of an outside or external force which places strain on an

object. Furthermore Kranner (2010) defines it as the amount of force put on a certain object or

area. Both Haralambos and Kranners definitions are quite general and focus on objects. However,

Mullins (2002, pg. 650) focuses more on human behaviour and takes a psychological approach by

saying that stress is a complex and dynamic concept. It is a source of tension and frustration, and

can arise through a number of interrelated influences on behaviour. Whereas, Varvogli and Darviri

(2011) have a more scientifically approach by defining stress as a state of threatened homeostasis

that can only be re-established by complex behavioural and psychological responses. Hussin (2008,pg. 16) offers the reader the most understandable definition that can be related to, by saying that

Stress is a state of physiological imbalance in the body which has unpleasant emotional and

cognitive components. Each definition varies on both approach and style and therefore it can be

argued that stress cannot clearly be defined.

Stress is a negative force on the body and can even prove to be fatal (Hewstone et al, 2005;

Haralambos et al, 2002) but short term stress can have a positive effect on individuals. According to

Bernstein et al (1997, cited by Haralambos et al, 2002, pg. 83) stress can be stimulating, motivating


11/47


Page 11of 47

and desirable. However, according to Varvogli and Darviri (2011, pg.75) the stress system located

both in the central and peripheral nervous system, is generically activated whenever a threshold of

any stressor is exceeded. They then go on to say that due to this, stress is the second highest health

problem. This contradicts the previous statement made by Bernstein et al as it is not positive if it is

causing health problems. This is further supported by another author who states that exposure to

long term stress can harm your body. Chronic Stress influences high blood pressure and heart

disease. (Anonymous, 2011). This article also goes on to state that stress can somehow speed up the

ageing process. This shows that long term stress is harmful and may affect peoples health.

Therefore, it is impossible to say whether stress has a positive or negative effect on people as

different authors argue each side.

2.3 - Work Related Stress

According to the World Health Organization stress, especially that relating to work, is the

second most frequent health problem, impacting one third of employed people in the European

Union. (Varvogli and Darviri, 2011, pg.75). This is supported by Furedi (1999, cited by Haralambos et

al, 2002, pg. 103) who states that stress has overtaken the common cold as the main cause of

absence from work. Therefore, it has become important for employers to manage stress within the

workplace. This is shown by Arnold et al (2010) who states that stress can affect peoples health in

both positive and negative ways and therefore, the wellbeing of employees has now become

something that employers focus on.

Workplace stress is often caused by employees feeling that they have to meet unrealistic targets and

goals in order to meet employers requirements (Jaramillo et al, 2011). Furthermore, Soylu (2007, pg.

313) states that the competitive global economy is putting increasing pressure on employees

throughout the world through greater work demands, heightened organizational change and

restructuring, and reduced job security.

Both Jaramillo (2011) and Soylu (2007) support each other

by going on to say that workplace stress is therefore increasing due to these new higher demands.

This is also supported by Arnold and Randall et al (2010, pg. 436) who say that work related stress is

due to the lack of fit between an individuals capacity and the demands of the work environment.

Reineholm et al (2011) uses research to discuss that few companies focus on promoting health

within the workplace and instead deal with stress problems after they have occurred. This is

supported by Soylu (2007) who says that 550 million working days are lost each year due to stress

related illness in the United States. This shows that organisations are not preventing employee stress


12/47


Page 12of 47

as they are taking days off because of it. Jaramillo et al (2011) also say that peoples health is

deteriorating as their workplace stress levels are increasing; this supports Reineholm et al and Soylus

findings. Furthermore, Behrman and Perreault (1984, cited by Jaramillo et al, 2011, pg. 341) say that

stress is an unavoidable characteristic of certain job roles. This shows that there is a need for

organisations to prevent stress within the workplace.

However, Arnold and Randall et al (2010, pg. 433) say that over the last few years the management

of employee well-being has become a priority issue for all types of organisation. They go on to say

that according to CIPD (2007) the number of organisations with an employee well-being strategy in

place has increased from 26 percent to 42 percent in one year. This contradicts what Reineholm et al

(2011) said about the lack of organisations that promote staff well-being.

2.4 - Daily Hassles and Stressors

Spector (1998) states that stressors refer to environmental conditions or situations that

elicit an emotional response such as anger or anxiety (citied by Mazzola, 2011, pg. 93). According to

Haralambos et al (2002, pg.82) stressors are the external stimulus which places strain on the

individual or more simply, something which causes stress (pg. 84).

It is really important to deal with stressors in a positive way. According to Clarke et al (2012, pg. 1)

Stressor exposure is the primary environmental challenge believed to contribute to a range of

neuropsychiatric conditions, most notably clinical depression and anxiety disorders. This shows how

important it is to try to reduce stress.

One major cause of stressors is daily hassles. These are little things that happen every day that cause

stress. According to Kanner et al (1981, cited by Haralambos et al, 2002, pg. 102) daily hassles are

the irritating, frustrating, distressing demands that to some degree characterise everyday

transactions with the environment. The opposite of this is daily uplifts, which according to

Haralambos et all (2002, pg. 102) give people a boost which makes them feel better. Therefore, it is

important to try and balance hassles and uplifts to remain in a positive state of mind. This is shown

by Johansson et al (2011) who say that people have both hassles and uplifts throughout everyday

life. When hassles outweigh the uplifts, people may begin to feel stressed. This is further supported

by Haralambos et al (2002) who argue that daily hassles lead to more stress than major life events

and McIntosh et al (2010) who state that daily hassles are often associated with depression.


13/47


Page 13of 47

Haralambos et al (2002, pg. 102) also go on to discuss that daily hassles build up and wear people

down, so making them more vulnerable to psychological and physical disorders.

2.5- Stress Due to Location or Working Conditions

All different kinds of things can be seen as stressors to different people. Often location or

working conditions can make people feel stressed. According to Arnold and Randall et al (2010,

pg. 465) our physical surroundings can affect our moods and overall mental state, whether or not

we find them consciously objectionable. This is supported by Haralambos et al (2002) who discuss

that many environmental factors affect levels of stress within individuals; these include temperature,

humidity and noise. Furthermore, Plaisier et al suggested that poor working conditions may be an

important precursor of stress (Plaisier et al, 2006, cited by Rusli et al, 2008, pg. 49). A specific

working condition which may cause stress is isolation. Haralambos et al (2002) state that social

isolation in a workplace can cause stress among employees as they are spending long amounts of

time on their own. According to Cartwright and Cooper (1996) the design or setting of an office may

also cause stress. If employees are spread throughout a building, there will be poor communication

between them and this may lead to stress.

However, it is not always the physical environment that causes stress. Oke and Dawson (2012)

discuss that often the culture of a workplace can cause stress if it does not match the culture of the

employee. Therefore, by controlling the conditions within the workplace, organisations may be able

to reduce stress.

Cardwell and Flanagan (2005) discuss the effects of noise and overcrowding on stress levels. They

found that people were more agitated, irritable and stressed after spending time in an area that is

noisy and crowded. This can not only be applied to offices that are noisy but it also may be the case

that people that use public transport, especially in London, arrive to work already stressed.

Office location can also cause stress if employees have to commute long distances to it. Cartwright

and Cooper (1996, pg.16) state that travel itself can be a source of stress, traffic jams, delayed

trains and flights can present stressful challenges to employees. The topic of office location and its

relation to stress will be investigated throughout this dissertation.


14/47


Page 14of 47

2.6 - Stress Management

It is clear from the above research that it is important for organisations to put stress

management programmes in to place. According to Varvogli and Darviri (2011, pg. 74), stress is a

significant problem of our times and therefore needs to be managed effectively. They go on to say

that stress coping methods are thecognitive, behavioural and psychological efforts to deal with

stress. This is supported by Hussin (2008, pg.17) who states that employees cannot function

effectively unless stress is dealt with wisely and systematically. Hussin (2008, pg.17) also supports

the notion for organisations to put stress coping methods in to place by saying that when an

organization recognises that workers are their most valuable assets, their only rational response can

be to support their workers in managing stress positively.

Within the coping methods, there are three steps that organisations plan to take: primary, secondary

and tertiary. Primary interventions attempt to alter the source of the workplace stress by making

changes such as redesigning jobs to give employees greater flexibility or more decision control.

Secondary interventions help employees better recognize and manage stress symptoms as they

occur. (Sidle, 2008, pg. 111). Arnold and Randall et al (2010) support this and go on to say that there

are also tertiary interventions to deal with stress, for example, these would include employee

rehabilitation programmes.

According to Arnold and Randall et al (2010) it is important to include employees in each step of the

management interventions in order for them to be successful in the long term. Primary interventions

work to tackle stress and make it manageable for employees. Secondary interventions are used to

weaken or break the link between exposures to stress and problems with well-being. Finally,

tertiary methods are used to repair the damage caused by stress (Arnold and Randall et al, 2010,

pg. 479). This supports what Sidle (2008) discussed about stress management techniques.

However, surprisingly, according to research more than one in four HR directors in Britain admit

they have no formal policy to manage stress or anxiety (Anonymous 2, 2012,pg. 5). According to

Hamaideh and Ammouri (2011) stress may not always be able be prevented in all jobs but may be

able to be minimized if the source can be identified. This shows that organisations first need to find

the source of peoples stress and attempt to reduce it. Smith et al (2012) contradict this by discussing

the importance of being proactive when dealing with stress and how procedures have been

implemented in to organisations to prevent stress. They state that organisations are now sending

employees on courses to learn to deal with stressful situations before they have occurred.


15/47


Page 15of 47

Haralambos et al (2002, pg. 118) say that stress management is a bigbusiness. Organisations are

increasingly employing stress consultants in an attempt to reduce or eliminate stress in the

workplace. This shows that whether organisations already have procedures in place or not, in the

future more and more will attempt to protect employees against stress.

2.7- Gaps in the Literature

When conducting this literature review and reading many articles on stress, it has been

apparent that there is a lack of literature that discusses stress due to the location of workplaces. A lot

of the literature about the workplace focuses on what is happening inside rather than the

employees experience of the workplace as a whole. Therefore there is a need for further research to

do this. This will be done throughout this dissertation as the workplace location and the experience

of the workplace will be looked at holistically to gain a view of where the least stressful place to base

an office is. In todays society this is extremely relevant as organisations are continuously opening

new offices and trying to reduce stress among employees. As Haralambos et al (2002) said,

organisations are continuously trying to reduce stress in the workplace and therefore this

dissertation will give them a new idea of how to do so.

2.8- Conclusion

According to Cardwell and Flanagan (2005, pg. 101) stress in the workplace will become the

epidemic of the 21st

century and therefore needs to be effectively managed.

Hewstone (2005, pg. 419) says that stress can be summed up as a negative emotional experience

resulting from a mismatch between the individuals appraisal that the stressor is stressful and their

ability to cope. As outlined in above sections, there are many types of stress and many things in

everyday life that act as stressors. There is not one particular way to deal with stress, but by using a

combination of many types, it can be managed effectively.

This literature review has discussed many aspects of stress in order to gain a holistic view of the topic

and gain more knowledge on it. Throughout the review, many authors have contradicted each other

and therefore each term and concept within the topic of stress, may not be able to be clearly

defined. However, the review has presented the researcher with wider background knowledge on

the topic which will allow a deeper discussion of findings after the study has been completed.


16/47


Page 16of 47

In conclusion, this literature has discussed and analysed existing literature surrounding the topic of

stress. This has given background knowledge of the topic and therefore will help in answering the

question Are people that work in London more stressed than people that work in smaller towns?

The literature has built a strong foundation for the dissertation and will help when discussing the

findings. The next chapter will outline the methodology that will be used in the study that will be

conducted.

2.9 - Conceptual framework

The following conceptual framework shows where the research question for this dissertation

sits within the current literature. It will concentrate on what causes stress and how this differs in

small towns compared to London city. This will be done by analysing each stressor and comparing it

in the two different location types. The framework also shows how this dissertation will fill a gap in

the literature. There is currently no research that has looked at what this dissertation aims to do and

therefore new information will be found. The top part of the framework shows the existing literature

and summarises what it has found. The bottom half of the framework goes on to show what this

dissertation will do.


17/47


Page 17of 47

Work

Culture

Daily

Hassles

Working

Conditions

Location

Workplace

How do these differ

depending on location

and culture?

Depression

Anxiety

Aggression

Frustration

Stress

Lower Work

Productivity

Absenteeism

Are people that work in

London more stressed

than people that work in

smaller towns?

Stress

Management


18/47


Page 18of 47

Chapter 3Methodology

3.1Introduction

The previous chapter discussed the existing research on the topic of stress, including what

stress is, the causes of it and the management of it. Now that the current research has been

analysed, this chapter will go on to discuss the research approach that was used during this

dissertation. The approach and design will be analysed to decide what the best method of data

collection will be to answer the question Are people that work in London more stressed than

people that work in smaller towns?This chapter will cover the method of data collection and

analysis, as well as the validity and reliability of the study being conducted.

3.2Research Approach

Research approaches fall into two categories: inductive and deductive. An inductive

approach can be described as using evidence to form conclusions, whereas a deductive approach is

when a hypothesis is created and then tested with research (Krishnaswamy et al, 2009). Each of

these approaches has advantages and it can be said that any research effort uses both inductive and

deductive thinking (Krishnaswamy et al, 2009, pg. 13)

To keep the study unbiased and reliable, an inductive approach was used. This was so that findings

were not swayed by a leading research question as the researcher had not previously decided what

the outcome should be. An inductive approach can be said to be when theory is the outcome of

research (Bryman and Bell, 2007, pg.14). By using an inductive approach, this dissertation was able

to analyse whether there is a link between work location and levels of stress.

Data can be split into two main categories: quantitative and qualitative. Quantitative data works by

measurement and analysis of relationships between resulting numbers and is said to be the method

of natural sciences (Sapsford and Jupp, 2006, pg. 2). Qualitative research involves words as opposed

to numbers and explores individuals feelings and thoughts through the asking of open questions

(Creswell, 2009).

To ensure that the research being conducted was scientific, quantitative data was used throughout

the data collection as it can then be clearly analysed in the form of tables and graphs. This was

helpful when trying to draw conclusions from the data and presented trends and correlations in clear

format.


19/47


Page 19of 47

3.3Research Design

In terms of data collection methods, a questionnaire was used for this research. A

questionnaire was chosen because it is a widely used method of gathering scientific information

(Mcburney and White, 2009, pg. 245). This therefore means that it was an appropriate form of data

collection for this dissertation as it allowed the results to be easily analysed in a scientific format.

There are many benefits of using a questionnaire to collect data. One of the main positives is that

data can be collected quickly, at little cost. Due to time restraints for this research and a limited

budget, this was essential. A questionnaire can be distributed to a wide sample relatively quickly

meaning that the sample can be larger than if using a different method. According to Mitchell and

Jolley (2012, pg. 286) questionnaires allow a research to collect a lot of information about a

samples attitudes, beliefs, and self-reported behaviours. Therefore, this was the chosen method

for this research as it suits its needs well.

However, there are also many disadvantages to using questionnaires and these may mean that the

research has limitations. A major downfall of questionnaires is that participants self-evaluate and this

can often be inaccurate. According to Mitchell and Jolley (2012, pg. 286) this can therefore mean that

the questionnaire may have poor construct validity. They go on to state that due to limited

questionnaire distribution, the sample may be biased and this can lead to poor external validity

(pg. 286). These are obviously major limitations in the research and may affect the overall validity,

however, a questionnaire still seems as though it is the right method to use for this dissertation.

In conclusion, even though there are limitations to this research method, there will be limitations to

all methods and therefore questionnaires were still used as the source of data collection.

3.4Data Collection

The data for this dissertation was collected in two different ways: random sampling and

snowballing. This allowed the researcher to collect a broader sample meaning that it is less biased.

There were two different samples so that the stress levels can be compared. Fifty questionnaires

were collected in London and fifty were collected from a smaller town, meaning that there is a total

sample size of 100.

The random sample was collected in two different areas (London and a smaller town) and data from

15 participants was collected from each. This type of sampling means that the selection of people or

events is literally at random (Denscombe, 2007, pg. 13). The smaller amount of participants was


20/47


Page 20of 47

due to the limited amount of time, as well as people being reluctant to stop in the street to answer

questionnaires. For the London sample, data was collected by the researcher by approaching people

in Canary Wharf shopping centre. This was done at lunchtime when people tend to have more time

to stop and talk. The smaller town sample was collected in Essex by using the same approach in

Wickford high-street. By ensuring that the same number of questionnaires were collected from each

area, the reliability of the research will remain high.

The second method of sampling was snowballing. This is when the sample emerges through a

process of reference from one person to the next (Denscombe, 2007, pg.17). This method was

chosen because it is an effective technique for building up a reasonable-sized sample, especially

when used as part of a small scale research project (Denscombe, 2007, pg.18). Therefore, it seemed

an appropriate method for this dissertation as it is an efficient, cost effective and relatively hassle

free.

This method was used to collect data from 35 participants in each area, therefore making the totals

up to 50 from each location. This method was used to collect more of the sample due to its quick and

easy nature. The questionnaires were emailed to contacts of the researcher in both locations and

each participant was asked to forward it to 3 others until the desired amount of data had been

collected.

Due to the time restraints and limited budget, the sample size was relatively small. If the research

was done on a larger budget in the future, ideally there would be a larger sample. This would help to

rule out any bias results and help the external validity to remain high.

3.5Data Analysis

Once the questionnaires had been distributed and the data had been collected it was

important to analyse it to find patterns and trends.

The chosen software for this research was Microsoft Excel as it allowed the researcher to create

tables and graphs so that the data could easily be interpreted. By using Likert scales in the

questionnaire, results could easily be entered in to this software by using a code book.

The code book transformed each questionnaire in to a series of numbers so that it could be

compared to others. By using quantitative data, this was easily done and therefore the data could be

easily analysed to find a link between location and stress.


21/47


Page 21of 47

It was important to ensure that each set of answers stayed with the number of the questionnaire

that they had come from so that if a participant wished to withdraw their data, this could easily be

done.

3.6Validity

The data collection method may affect the overall validity of this research. By using a

questionnaire to collect data, the external validity and the construct validity may be poor.

Due to a limited sample size, this research may have poor external validity as it will be hard to

generalise the results to the entire population. This therefore means that the results that are gained

from this research may not be used to predict the stress levels of the whole population.

The study may also have poor construct validity as participants are self-evaluating their stress levels.

This means that people may exaggerate or play down their levels of stress and the results may be

swayed by this. Therefore, it cannot be guaranteed that the questionnaire is measuring what it is

supposed to be in a scientific manor. This is a major flaw in the design of this research and in future,

a more reliable and scientific source of data collection should be used. This would allow researchers

to analyse peoples stress levels rather than letting them do it themselves.

The questionnaire used consisted of fifteen questions to evaluate participants stress levels. The first

three questions focused on the demographics of the sample so that it could clearly be decided if it

was representative of the population. The questionnaire then went on to ask about stress levels in

different situations. Tick boxes and Likert scale questions were used so that the data could easily be

analysed. It was ensured that the questionnaire also explained how to withdraw the data if a

participant wished to do so.

3.7Reliability

The reliability of research is extremely important so that it can be generalised to the whole

population and not just those in the sample.

Due to the time restraints and low budget of this research, the sample size is smaller than it ideally

would be. This means that it would be harder to generalise the results to an entire population as the

data has been collected from a small group, therefore meaning that the results can be easily swayed


22/47


Page 22of 47

by just a few people. To make this research more reliable, a much larger sample should have been

used.

The small sample that was used has been collected from a variety of places to ensure that it is more

reliable. By using two different sources of data collection, the sample will be from a wider population

distribution and therefore can be generalised more easily.

The demographics of the sample are listed in the table below. It was ensured that data from 50

participants was collected from each location. In future, to make the sample more reliable, the same

number of each gender and age group could be used.

Age 18-25 26-35 36-45 46-55 55+

No.

Participants

24 22 18 21 15

Gender Male Female

No.

Participants

46 54

Location London Smaller Town

No.

Participants

50 50

3.8Ethical Considerations

It is extremely important to remain ethical when collecting research and therefore, this

dissertation will aim to minimise stress in participants and stick to ethical regulations at all times.

A major ethical consideration is anonymity and the protection of data. To ensure that participants

remain anonymous, each questionnaire was numbered and therefore there was no need for the

participants name to be on them. Once the data had been collected, it has been kept on a memory

stick which is held by the researcher and not shared with others.

In terms of informed consent, each questionnaire had a brief at the top explaining the research

project. The candidates were informed that they have the right to withdraw their results at any time,

and can do so by emailing the research and stating their questionnaire number. This meant that the

research meets ethical regulations.


23/47


Page 23of 47

Each participant had a short debrief at the end of the questionnaire explaining the purpose of the

research and thanking them for their time.

It was ensured that all participants are over the age of 18 before participating in the research.

3.9Conclusion

This chapter has evaluated and analysed different methods of data collection to explain why

the chosen method was chosen. It has clearly outlined exactly what was done in this research so that

it could easily be replicated if someone desired to. Validity and reliability of the research has been

discussed and flaws in these have been outlined. The research approach and design have been

outlined so that the reader can draw a clear interpretation as to how the research was completed.

This chapter discussed the methodology used to answer the question Are people that work in

London more stressed than people that work in smaller towns?The next chapter will go on to

discuss the findings from this research.


24/47


Page 24of 47

Chapter 4Findings

4.1Introduction

The previous chapter discussed the methodology of this research, stating the format of the

questionnaire used and the demographics of the sample collected. Therefore this chapter will go on

to discuss the findings from the research collected in order to answer the question Are people that

work in London more stressed than people that work in smaller towns?It will use graphs, tables

and measures of averages to determine whether there is a correlation between work location and

stress.

The two samples for this research each had 50 participants and therefore the findings will use the

number of participants as opposed to percentages. This will present the data in a clear manner and

allow the graphs to be read easily.

4.2Stress Levels of Participants

Participants were asked to self-evaluate how stressed they were at the time of completing

the survey. Surprisingly this was relatively low for both groups in the sample. Graph 1.0 shows the

current stress levels of participants.

Graph 1.0 Stress Levels at Time of Survey

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Amounto

fparticipants

Stress Levels

london

smaller town


25/47


Page 25of 47

When using a T-test to see if there was a significant difference between the two samples, the result

was 0.05. This means that the hypothesis that neither sample is more stressed than the other is

proven to be true.

4.3Journey to Work

There was quite a significant difference between how stressed participants felt when

travelling to work depending on whether they worked in London or a smaller town. Graph 2.0 shows

the stress levels of participants during their journey to work. It is clear that people that worked in

London found their commute to work more stressful.

Graph 2.0 Journey to Work

Table 2.1 shows that the averages for each set of data were significantly different. The stress levels of

people working in London were much higher in averages than those that worked in smaller towns.

The standard deviation for people that worked in London was lower showing that the results had less

variation. This meant that the participants answers were generally closer to the mean.

0

2

46

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Num

berofParticipants

Stress Levels

London

Smaller Town


26/47


Page 26of 47

Table 2.1

Mean Median Mode Standard

Deviation

Coefficient of

Variation

London 6.16 7 7 1.98 32.19

Smaller Town 3.82 3 2 2.62 59.29

The T-test for this set of data showed that there was a difference between the two samples. The

result was 3.1 showing that the two sets of data were notably different. This shows that people that

work in London find their journey to work more stressful that people that work in smaller towns.

The data was then tested to see if there was a correlation between how stressful participants found

their journey to work and how stressed they were overall. The correlation was 0.55 showing that

stressful journeys to work do increase stress levels.

Graph 2.2 shows that people that work in London spend more time travelling to their office location.

This links to graph 2.0 which showed that people that work in London find their journey more

stressful.

Graph 2.2 Commute Time

Table 2.3 shows that the standard deviation is quite low for the participants responses to this

question. This shows that the averages are a good measure of the answers that participants gave.

0

5

10

15

20

25

30


27/47


Page 27of 47

Table 2.3


Deviation

Coefficient of

Variation

London 3.1 3 4 0.97 31.42

Smaller Town 1.9 2 2 0.76 40.14

There was a correlation of 0.45 when testing whether the amount of time commuting affected

participants overall stress levels. Although this correlation is quite low, it still shows that journey time

may be one of the factors that cause people that work in London to be more stressed than people

that work in smaller towns.

4.4Lunch Hour

A possible cause of stress for participants is whether or not lunch hours are being taken. This

will vary from office to office depending on work place culture. Graph 3.0 shows on average how

often participants on take a lunch hour. It is clear that people that work in London were less likely to

take a lunch hour every day. Many of the participants from both locations said that they did not take

lunch hours every day. Graph 3.1 tries to establish the cause of them not taking regular lunch breaks.

Graph 3.0 Lunch Hours

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

Every Day 3 x a week 1 x a week 1 x a

month

Never

Amountof

Participants

How often participants take a lunch hour

London

Smaller Town


28/47


Page 28of 47

Graph 3.1 Cause of Not Taking Lunch Hours

When trying to link questions to find why people may be more stressed in different locations if was

found that there was only a correlation of 0.18 between how often participants take lunch hours and

how stressful they find the location and culture of their office. This is a relatively low correlation and

it was expected to be much higher.

The result of the T-test for this question was 6.1 showing that there is a significant difference

between the two sample groups. This means that people that work in smaller towns were more likely

to take lunch hours every day than people that work in London.

4.5Office Location

Office location can be extremely important to workers as they can either love it or hate it.

Graph 4.0 shows how much participants like their office location on a scale of 1-10. It is clear that on

average, people that work in London prefer their office location to those that work in smaller towns.

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

Collegues Don't Don't Have Time Other

Amountofparticpants

If participants do not take lunch hours every day, why is this?

London

Smaller Town


29/47


Page 29of 47

Graph 4.0 Office Location

When completing a T-test to see if the two sample groups differed in responses for this question, the

result was 0.19. This shows that there was only a slight difference between the two groups.

The correlation between how much participants like their office location and their overall stress level

was -0.06 showing that there was not a significant link between these two factors. This implies that

whether you like your office location or not does not affect your stress level.

4.6Work Colleagues

It can be important for people to have well established relationships with their work

colleagues and often being able to talk to colleagues and class them as friends can reduce stress

levels. Graph 5.0 shows if participants would class their work colleagues as friends and if they feel

they can talk to them. The graph shows that people that work in smaller towns are more likely to

class their work colleagues as friends.

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Amountofparticipants

How much participants like their office location

London

Smaller Town


30/47


Page 30of 47

Graph 5.0 Work Colleagues

4.7Overall Stress

Finally, the participants were asked how stressful they found their office location and culture

overall. Graph 6.0 shows that people that work in London find their workplace much more stressful

than people that work in smaller towns.

Graph 6.0 Overall Stress from Location and Culture of Office

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Yes No


Do participants see their work colleagues as friends

London

Smaller Town

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10


Stress Levels

London

Smaller Town


31/47


Page 31of 47

Table 6.1 shows the averages for both samples, and it is clear that there is a significant difference.

The averages are much higher for people that work in London, suggesting that they are more

stressed.

Table 6.1


Deviation

Coefficient of

Variation

London 6.3 7 7 1.81 28.73

Smaller Town 4.4 4 3 1.80 41.38

When completing a T-test on this data set, the result was 5.3 meaning that there clearly is a

significant difference between the two sets of data. This shows that participants stress levels varied

depending on office location. The result was much higher than 0.05 meaning that the null hypothesis

that the data sets are different will be accepted.

This question was used when finding correlations in the data and it was found that many of the other

factors impacted participants overall stress level.

4.8Summary

Overall, the results show that people that work in London tend to have higher stress levels

than people that work in smaller towns. It also shows that they are less likely to take a lunch hour

every day, less likely to be friends with their work colleagues and find it more stressful commuting to

work. These factors all contribute towards the stress levels of participants and may be why people

that work in London are significantly more stressed than those that work in smaller towns.

4.9Conclusion

This chapter has presented the findings of the research by using graphs and tables. It has

clearly shown the results of the questionnaires and has given averages so that more effective

conclusions can be drawn to answer the question Are people that work in London more stressed

than people that work in smaller towns? The next chapter will discuss the findings and relate them

to previous research that has been completed. It will evaluate the research and attempt to answer

the research question.


32/47


Page 32of 47

Chapter 5Discussion

5.1Introduction

The previous chapter discussed the findings of this research; it used graphs and tables to

present the data in a clear format and tried to find a correlation between where participants worked

and how high their stress levels were. Therefore this chapter will go on to discuss and make sense of

the findings to try and answer the question Are people that work in London more stressed than

people that work in smaller towns?It will evaluate the findings by linking them to existing

literature and analyse the link between work location and stress.

5.2Overview of Findings

The research completed presented a number of key findings relating to the research

question. Firstly, it highlighted that people that work in London find their journey to work much

more stressful than people that work in smaller towns. This may be due to it taking longer on

average for them to commute to work. Secondly, it was found that people that work in London are

much less likely to take a lunch hour every day, with many participants saying that they never take

one. Thirdly, it found that people that work in smaller towns are more likely to have a more personal

relationship with their work colleagues and tend to class them as friends. Finally, it found that people

that work in London find the location and culture of their work place much more stressful than

people that work in smaller towns.

This chapter will go on to discuss the findings further to try and form an answer to the research

question.

5.3Stress Levels

At the beginning of the questionnaire, participants were asked to state how stressed they

felt at the present time. Surprisingly the results showed no difference between the two sample

groups, suggesting that neither were more stressed. This therefore meant that current stress levels

did not affect the results of the overall survey as the control groups started at the same level. The T-

test result for this data was 0.05, meaning that the hypothesis that the data was different was

rejected.


33/47


Page 33of 47

This question measured how stressed participants were on a certain day, therefore daily hassles

would have played a major role in this. According to Haralambos et al (2002) daily hassles are sources

of stress and can therefore change on a day to day basis. This means that if the questionnaire had

been completed on a different day, participants may have responded to this question differently.

5.4Journey to Work

One of the key findings of this research was that there was a significant difference between

how stressed participants felt when travelling to work, depending on whether they worked in London

or smaller towns. When completing a T-test on this data, the result was 3.1, showing that the two

sets of data were extremely different.

It was also found that participants that spent longer commuting to their office were more stressed

overall. This suggests that your journey to work really does contribute towards daily stress levels.

There was a clear correlation between journey time and overall stress level which indicates that

people that work in London may be more stressed than people that work in smaller towns as they

tended to commute further.

These findings are supported by Cartwright and Cooper (1996, pg. 16) who stated that travel itself

can be a source of stress. They go on to discuss how traffic jams and delayed trains can affect an

individuals stress levels (pg.16). This supports the findings of this study, by supporting that office

location can affect employees stress levels, especially when they have to commute long distances to

get to work.

Cardwell and Flanagan (2005) also support this finding. They state that people are more stressed

after spending time in noisy or crowded environments. This can be applied to participants that used

public transport to travel to work. This may cause additional stress to the working day, particularly if

people have used crowded transport methods such as the tube. This indicates that people that work

in London may be more stressed than people that work in smaller towns as the city is a lot more

populated.

5.5Lunch Hours

Participants were also asked how often they take a lunch hour and why this was. It was

found that participants that worked in London were much less likely to take a lunch hour every day,


34/47


Page 34of 47

with 30% saying that they never take a lunch hour at all. Participants that worked in smaller towns

were much more likely to take a lunch hour every day, with 62% saying that they did. When

completing a T-test for these results, there was an extremely significant difference between the two

sample groups with a result of 6.1.

Participants were then asked why they did not take a lunch hour every day if they did not. The

majority of participants responded by saying that they dont have the time, with a few saying that it

was because colleagues dont. This links to the culture of the office as some employees may feel that

taking a lunch hour is not appropriate if others arent.

This finding is supported by Jaramillo et al (2011) who state that workplace stress is often caused by

employees feeling they have to meet unrealistic targets. This indicates that participants may have

been skipping lunch hours so that they had more time to complete their workload. Soylu (2007) also

supports this by saying that organisation are putting more pressure on employees to complete a

larger work load. However, by employees not taking lunch breaks on a regular basis, they may

become more stressed.

5.6Office Location

How much people like their office location can change their outlook for the whole day. If

someone particularly likes the location of their office then they will not mind travelling to it.

Surprisingly the results of this research showed that there was not a significant difference between

how much people liked their office location when they worked in London or smaller towns.

This result was unexpected as many participants that work in London had said that their commute to

work was extremely stressful. Therefore it was expected that they would dislike their office location.

However, many said that they loved their office location due to it being in the middle of the city and

that it was convenient when going out after work.

People that worked in smaller towns were just as likely to say that they loved their office location

due to the fact that it was close to home. The T-test that was completed showed very little difference

between the two sample groups when responding to this question.

This opposes the ideas suggested by Cartwright and Cooper (1996) who say that a long commute to

work means people are less likely to like their office location as they will arrive already stressed.

However, Arnold and Randall et all (2010, pg. 465) state that our physical surrounding can affect our

moods and overall mental state. This supports that people that work in London like their office


35/47


36/47


Page 36of 47

5.9Summary of Findings

In summary, the results have shown that office location can affect employee stress levels.

There are many factors that contribute towards this and it is not just the physical environment that

can cause stress. The culture of offices in London appears to be very different to the culture of offices

in smaller towns. In London people tend to take less lunch hours and maintain a more professional

relationship with colleagues. They also seem to find their journey to work more stressful and it tends

to take them longer to commute. All of these factors contribute towards the conclusion that people

that work in London tend to be more stressed than people that work in smaller towns.

However, the research also found that people that work in London tend to like their office location

because it is so central. Therefore, is there really a perfect place to base an office?

5.10 - Conclusion

This chapter has discussed the findings of the research and compared them to existing

literature. It has analysed the results from the data collected to attempt to answer the question Are

people that work in London more stressed than people that work in smaller towns? The next

chapter will draw firm conclusions from the research and link the findings to the research question. It

will discuss the aims of the research and state whether these have been completed or not. Finally, it

will attempt to answer the research question by considering all parts of the research to draw

conclusions from.


37/47


Page 37of 47

Chapter 6Conclusion

6.1Introduction

The previous chapter discussed the findings of the research and linked them to existing

literature to try and draw conclusions. This chapter will draw together the whole research project

and create a firm conclusion to the question Are people that work in London more stressed than

people that work in smaller towns? It will also discuss the limitations of this research and give

recommendations for future research.

6.2 - The Purpose of the Research

In todays environment stress is the top cause of work place absence (Anonymous, 2011) and

therefore it is extremely important to reduce this in any way possible. According to Arnold and

Randall et al (2010) employee well being has become a priority for organisations. Therefore, this

research aimed to investigate whether location had an effect on employee stress levels.

By finding whether there is a link between office location and stress levels, and exploring the factors

that cause this, it may give employers new ways to try and reduce stress. The physical location of an

office may not be able to be changed, but the culture that comes with this location can be.

Therefore, by exploring this issue, it will allow employers to take steps to reduce these factors

meaning that they will reduce stress levels.

6.3 - Addressing the Research Question

In order to answer the research question Are people that work in London more stressed

than people that work in smaller towns?, quantitative research was conducted in the form of a

questionnaire. Two sample groups were formed, each containing 50 participants and the

questionnaires were distributed using random and snowball sampling methods. The questionnaires

were kept anonymous and each participant was asked for informed consent so that no ethical

guidelines were breached.

The participants were asked to self evaluate their stress levels when looking at different aspects of

their working day. The data was then collected and kept in a secure location whilst it was being


38/47


Page 38of 47

analysed. The researcher was then able to draw conclusions from the data to attempt to answer the

research question.

6.4 - Key Findings

The main key finding of this research was that there was a significant difference between the

stress levels of participants, depending on whether they worked in London or a smaller town. It was

also found that many factors influenced stress levels and that it was not just the physical

environment that changed with location. The results showed that the cultures in the two

environments were extremely different.

It was found that people that worked in London found their commute to work more stressful, were

less likely to take lunch hours and were less likely to become friends with their work colleagues. All of

these factors influenced the overall stress level that these participants felt. Each factor showed a

correlation to the stress level and therefore it was proven that it was not just where the office was,

but what culture came with this too.

However, it was also found that people that worked in London liked their office location. Therefore,

this suggests that it is the culture within the office that needs to be tackled and not the physical

location.

6.5 - Limitations and Recommendations

The main limitation of this research was the small sample size used; therefore meaning that

it has poor external validity. Due to limited time and budget, only 100 participants were used. This

may mean that the results of this research cannot be generalised to the entire population. In future,

if this research was repeated, a much larger sample size should be used so that the results are more

accurate. This would also help to rule out any outliers in the data.

Another limitation of this research was that participants were asked to self evaluate their stress

levels meaning that it has poor construct validity. Participants may have exaggerated their stress

levels or lied about them and this may have swayed the results. This may have meant that the results

that were recorded were not completely accurate. This was a major flaw in the research design and

therefore if this was completed again, a more scientific method should be used. This would allow


39/47


Page 39of 47

researchers to analyse peoples stress levels through a series of questions or observations, rather

than letting participants do it themselves.

If this study was completed again in the future, it would be a good idea to look at other large cities

and compare these to the results of London. London is an extremely fast paced city, but how does

this compare to other cities around the World such as New York? It would be extremely interesting

to see if these results still applied when testing the stress levels in different countries.

6.6 - Answering the Research Question

This research showed people that work in London are more stressed than people that work

in smaller towns. It has highlighted a number of factors that contribute towards this and therefore

organisations can use these to help tackle stress within the work place.

It found that there was a significant difference between how stressful people found the location and

culture of their office depending on where it was based. This shows that our surroundings can add

additional stress to our working day.


40/47


Page 40of 47

References

Anonymous (2011), How Stress Affects the Body, Harvard Health Publications, pg. 33-38.

Anonymous 2 (2012), Stress Management Lacking Despite Toll of Longer Hours, Occupational Health,

64 (10), pg. 5.

Anonymous 3 (2011), Stress is number one cause of long-term absence for the first time as job

insecurity weighs heavy on the workplace, finds CIPD/Simplyhealth Absence survey,Available at:

http://www.cipd.co.uk/pressoffice/press-releases/stress-number-one-cause-long.aspx. Last accessed

12th March 2013.

Anonymous 4 (2011), Lloyds board has handled Horta-Osrio's return well,Available at:http://www.guardian.co.uk/business/nils-pratley-on-finance/2011/dec/14/lloyds-horto-osorio-

return. Last accessed 12th March 2013.

Barrow, B (2011), Stress 'is top cause of workplace sickness' and is so widespread it's dubbed the

'Black Death of the 21st century',Available at: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/health/article-

2045309/Stress-Top-cause-workplace-sickness-dubbed-Black-Death-21st-century.html. Last accessed

12th March 2013.

Bryman, A and Bell, E (2007), Business Research Methods, Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Cardwell, M. and Flanagan, C. (2005), Psychology AS: The Complete Companion, Nelson Thornes:

Cheltenham.

Cartwright, S. and Cooper, C.L. (1996), Managing Workplace Stress, Sage: London.

Clarke, M. et al (2012), Stressor-Like Effects of c-Jun N-Terminal Kinase (JNK) Inhibition, PLoS ONE, 7

(8), pg. 1-8.

Creswell, J.W. (2009), Research Design, Third Edition, Sage Publications Inc, California.

Denscombe, M. (2007), The Good Research Guide, McGraw-Hill International, Berkshire.

Grable, J.E. and Britt, S.L. (2012), Assessing Client Stress and Why It Matters to Financial Advisors,

Journal of Financial Service Professionals, 66, pg. 39-45.

Hamaideh, S.H. and Ammouri, A. (2011), Comparing Jordanian Nurses Job Stressors in Stressful and

Non-Stressful Clinical Areas, Contemporary Nurse: A Journal For the Australian Nursing Profession, 37

(2), pg. 173-187.


41/47


Page 41of 47

Haralambos, M. et al (2002), Psychology In Focus, Causeway Press Limited: Ormskirk.

Hewstone, M. et al (2005), Psychology, Blackwell Publishing Ltd: Oxford.

Hussin, W. (2008), Managing Stress At the Workplace: The Application of Wan Hussin 3-Dimentional

Stress Management Model, Pranjana: The Journal of Management Awareness, 11 (2), pg. 16-26.

Jackson, S.L. (2011), Research Methods and Statistics: A critical thinking approach, Cengage Learning:

Hampshire.

Jaramillo, F. et al (2011), Workplace Stressors, Job Attitude, And Job Behaviours: Is Interpersonal

Conflict The Missing Link?,Journal of Personal Selling and Sales Management, 31 (3), pg. 339-356.

Johansson et al (2011), Everyday Hassles and Uplifts Among Women on Long-Term Sick-Leave Due to

Stress-Related Disorders, Scandinavian Journal of Occupational Therapy, 19 (3), pg. 239-248.

Judd, C.M. and Kenny, D.A. (1981), Estimating the Effects of Social Intervention, CUP Archive:

Cambridge.

Kranner, I. (2010), What is Stress? Concepts, Definition and Applications in Seed Science Tansley

Review, New Phytologist, 188 (3), pg. 655-673.

Krishnaswamy, K.N. et al (2009), Management Research Methodology: Integration of principles,

methods and techniques, Pearson Education India, Delhi.

Mazzola, J.J. (2011), What Qualitative Research Has Taught Us About Occupational Stress, Stress and

Health: Journal of the International Society for the Investigation of Stress, 27 (2), pg. 93-110.

Mcburney, D.H. and White, T.L. (2009), Research Methods, Cengage Learning, Hampshire.

McIntosh, E. et al (2010), Rumination, Goal Linking, Daily Hassles and Life Events in Major

Depression, Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 17 (1), pg. 33-43.

Mitchell, M.L. and Jolley, J.M. (2012), Research Design Explained, Cengage Learning, Hampshire.

Morgan, G.A., Griego, O.V. and Gloeckner, G.W. (2001), Spss for Windows: An introduction to use and

interpretation in research, Routledge: Oxford.

Mullins, L.J. (2002), Management and Organisational Behaviour, Prentice Hall: Harlow.

Oke, A. and Dawson, P. (2012), The Role of Socio-cultural Norms in Workplace Stress: An Empirical

Study of Bank Employees in Nigeria, International Journal of Management, 29 (1), pg. 314-331.

Reineholm et al (2011), Evaluation of Job Stress Models For Predicting Health at Work, Work, 40 (2),

pg. 229-237.


42/47


Page 42of 47

Rusli, B.N. et al (2008), Working Conditions, Self-Perceived Stress, Anxiety, Depression and Quality of

Life: A Structural Equation Modelling Approach, BMC Public Health, 8 (1), pg. 48-59.

Sapsford, R. and Jupp, V. (2006), Data Collection and Analysis, Second Edition, Sage Publications Ltd,

London.

Scruggs, T.E. and Mastropieri, M.A. (2006),Applications of Research Methodology: Volume 19,

Emerald Group Publishing: Bingley.

Sidle, S.D. (2008), Workplace Stress Management Interventions: What Works Best?,Academy of

Management Perspectives, 22 (3), pg. 111-112.

Smith, M. et al (2012), A Proactive Approach to Stress Management in a Neuroscience Intensive Care

Unit, Pennsylvania Nurse, 67 (2), pg. 12-18.

Soylu, A. (2007), Foreigners and Workplace Stress,Journal of Individual Employment Rights, 12 (4),

pg. 313-327.

Urdan, T.C. (2010), Statistics in Plain English: Third Edition, Taylor and Francis US: Florida.

Varvogli, L. and Darviri, C. (2011), Stress Management Techniques: evidence-based procedures that

reduce stress and promote health, Health Science Journal, 5 (2), pg. 74-89.


43/47


44/47


Page 44of 47

6. On a scale of 1-10 (1 being not at all and 10 being extremely) how stressed does your journey

make you feel? Please put a cross on the line.

1 10

7.

How long does it usually take you to commute to work?


45/47


46/47


Page 46of 47

Appendix 2Code Book

Below are the numbers used for each question in correspondence to the answers when inputting the

data in to the excel spreadsheet.

Question 1

18-25 26-35 36-45 46-55 55+

1 2 3 4 5

Question 2

Male Female

1 2

Question 3

London Smaller Town

1 2

Question 4

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Question 5

Car Bus Train Tube Walk

1 2 3 4 5

Question 6

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Question 7


47/47


Question 9

Colleagues dont Dont have time Other

1 2 3

Question 10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Question 11

Yes No

1 2

Question 12

Yes No

1 2

Question 13

Yes No

1 2

Question 14

Yes No

1 2

Question 15

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

diss model a bm 1

Documents