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The University of Greenwich Business School

Does organisational change necessarily improve a

company`s performance? - A Meta-Analysis.

By

Business Management

21 March 2011

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Executive Summary

In order to secure their survival within the corporate world, organisations have had to re-

adjust or change their business operations to adapt to the environment filled with intense

competitive forces, (Yu, 2009; Lewin and Johnston, 2000; Liu et al, 2007; Liu and Perrewé,

2005; Huy, 2002; Eriksson, 2004; Siegal et al, 1996; Rashid et al, 2004; and Taylor and

Cooper, 2007). It has been estimated that there is a massive change failure rate of about

70%, (Miller, 2010; Washington and Hacker, 2005; Eriksson, 2004; and Liu and Perrewé,

2005); hence, existing literature had stressed the importance of change management. And

while some has focused on the problems associated with change, others have studied what

causes these problems through employee attitude analysis, culture and their effects on

performance, (Elias, 2005; Vakola and Nikolaou, 2005; Frahm and Brown, 2007; Dam, 2005;

Lines, 2005; and Smollan and Sayers, 2009). Thus, further research has to be conducted to

evaluate mediating variables acting between change, its effects on culture and performance.

Consequently, this meta-analysis study attempted to address this research question, “does

organisational change necessarily improve a company`s performance?” in order in

evaluate these.

The meta-analysis research adopted in this study examined the literature from six journal

articles chosen from the literature review so as to find the mediating variables between

organisational change, employee attitudes and performance. In chapter three, the

arguments in the literature review of each paper, the approaches to data collection

undertaken, including theoretical (Lines, 2005); qualitative (Saka, 2003) and Frahm and

Brown (2007);’ quantitative (Rashid et al, 2004) and (Avey et al, 2008); and mixed methods

as well as the sample sizes, ethical considerations and the validity of all the studies were

discussed. Such an analysis was undertaken because, previously researched areas in the

field could help to identify relationships that other research methods may fail to uncover,

(Blumberg et al, 2005).

While reviewing and comparing the six journal articles regarding corporate change and

performance, five major findings were observed to help understand and address the

research question. These key variables included; psychological capital; positive emotions

and organisational citizenship; affective commitment and; change agents and

communication. Research by Avey et al (2008) further revealed that culture can affect the

employees` psychological wellbeing through the analysis of psychological capital and

emotions relative to attitudes and behaviours; and a further effect on performance, (Toor and

Ofori (2010). Emotions were revealed to be part of attitudes which affect affective

commitment, (Wang et al, 2010), that influences employee behaviour and performance in

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return. Ultimately, the investigation highlighted the importance of organisational cultures and

employee attitudes especially psychological capital and positive emotions towards the

proposed change initiatives. Hence the research shows some of the aspects that change

implementers have to focus on in order to make change regarding organisational culture a

success, improve performance and possibly their competitiveness in return.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

In acknowledgement I would like to first of all thank Dr Graham Symon because without his

support and guidance, it would have been impossible to prepare and hence finish this

management report. Also, I would also like to thank Miss Angela Bowles who always

provided useful dissertation writing tips especially at the beginning of this project. Most

importantly though; I am thanking God who helped to keep it together; even when it seemed

impossible to carry on; in addition to my family for putting up with me.

Thank You all

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER ONE – INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................... 9

BACKGROUND ........................................................................................................................................................ 9

THE RESEARCH QUESTION......................................................................................................................................... 9

1.3 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY ............................................................................................................................. 10

1.4 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY ............................................................................................................................... 10

1.5 THE STRUCTURE OF THE PAPER .......................................................................................................................... 11

1.6 CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................................................. 11

CHAPTER TWO - LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................................................... 12

2.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................... 12

2.2 FROM ORGANISATIONAL CHANGE TO PERFORMANCE ............................................................................................. 12

2.3 ORGANISATIONAL CHANGE AND ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE ................................................................................... 13

2.3.1 Reasons for Organisational change .................................................................................................... 13

2.3.2 Change Implementation, Attitudes and Behaviour ............................................................................. 14

2.3.3 Barriers to Change Efforts ................................................................................................................... 15

2.3.4 Managing Change for success ............................................................................................................ 16

2.5 CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................................................. 19

CHAPTER THREE – REVIEW AND COMPARTIVE ANALYSIS ........................................................ 20

3.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................... 20

3.2 INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH AREAS ................................................................................................................... 20

3.3 KEY OUTCOMES / ARGUMENTS IN THE LITERATURE ................................................................................................ 21

3.4 APPROACHES TO METHODOLOGY AND DATA COLLECTION ....................................................................................... 22

3.4.1 Research Paradigm ............................................................................................................................. 23

3.4.2 Research Design .................................................................................................................................. 23

3.4.3. Data Collection Methods .................................................................................................................... 24

3.4.4 Sampling Procedures and Population ................................................................................................. 24

3.4.5 Validity and Reliability of the Studies .................................................................................................. 25

3.4.6 Ethical considerations ......................................................................................................................... 26

3.5 RESULTS AND KEY FINDINGS FROM RESEARCH ARTICLES .......................................................................................... 26

3.6 COMPARISON OF THE DISCUSSIONS AND ANALYSIS OF THE OUTCOMES OF RESEARCH ARTICLES ...................................... 27

3.7 FUTURE RESEARCH / LIMITATIONS & IMPLICATIONS OF RESEARCH IN ARTICLES ........................................................... 28

3.8 RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS DRAWN FROM THE ARTICLES ...................................................................... 29

3.9 CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................................................. 29

CHAPTER FOUR – DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS OF OVERALL FINDINGS ................................ 31

4.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................... 31

4.2 DISCUSSION OF THE KEY RESULTS ....................................................................................................................... 31

4.2.1 Key Finding One – Organisational Culture .......................................................................................... 31

4.2.2 Key Finding Two – Psychological Capital; Attitudes and Behaviours and performance ...................... 32

4.2.3 Key Finding Three – Positive Emotions and Organisational Citizenship .............................................. 33

4.2.4 Key Finding Four – Affective Organisational Commitment ................................................................. 34

4.2.5 Key Finding Five– Change Communication and Change Agents ......................................................... 35

4.3 ADDRESSING THE RESEARCH QUESTION ............................................................................................................... 36

4.4 SUMMARY OF KEY FINDINGS / MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS ..................................................................................... 37

4.4 CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................................................. 38

CHAPTER FIVE – CONCLUSIONS ..................................................................................................... 39

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5.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................... 39

5.2 SUMMARY OF THE STUDY .................................................................................................................................. 39

5.2.1 Review and Comparative Analysis ...................................................................................................... 40

5.2.2 Key Findings / Discussions ................................................................................................................... 40

5.3 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY ............................................................................................................................... 41

5.4 FUTURE RESEARCH .......................................................................................................................................... 41

5.5 CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................................................. 42

REFERENCE LIST ............................................................................................................................... 43

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CHAPTER ONE – INTRODUCTION

Background Within the recent years, the rapid change and competitive pressures due to globalisation,

technological changes and other internal forces, have forced organisations to re-adjust in

order to adapt to the environment and still maintain their efficiency, (Liu et al, 2007; Liu and

Perrewé, 2005; Huy, 2002; Eriksson, 2004; Siegal et al, 1996; Rashid et al, 2004; Lewin and

Johnston, 2000 and Taylor and Cooper, 2007). And even though organisational change may

be unavoidable; and still increasing at an unprecedented pace, (Gutsch, 1995), it has been

estimated that there is a massive change failure rate of about 70%; meaning that out of ten

change programmes, just three are a success, (Miller, 2010; Washington and Hacker, 2005;

Eriksson, 2004; Liu and Perrewé, 2005; and Cinite et al, 2009). The reasons may be

because, within an organisation, there many barriers to change including employee

resistance, and conflicts from the subcultures within, in addition to the existing entire

company culture (Rashid et al, 2004; Liu and Perrewé, 2005; Kotter and Schlesinger, 1979;

and Cinite et al, 2009). In fact, to facilitate change, the existing values, attitudes and

behaviours need to be tested, (Eriksson, 2004). Moreover, it has been argued that the major

factor causing failed change is the employees` attitudes; lack of readiness for change and

positive reactions that indicate receptivity, (Armenakis et al, 1993; Miller, 2010 and Cinite et

al, 2009). There has been a growing literature indicating that employee attitudes and

acceptance to change are important for change success; however little consideration has

been given to the relationship between members’ attitudes, perspectives towards change

and organisational culture, (Oreg and Berson, 2009; and Rashid et al, 2004). Consequently,

it has become vital to understand, possibly predict and manage the employee`s

psychological reactions (emotions) during the change programme, as they influence

behaviour and performance (Chen and Wang, 2007 and Liu and Perrewé, 2005). Therefore,

an investigation concerning the attitudinal consequences of culture change is needed; which

will help understand organisational change and factors affecting its receptivity.

The Research Question From the literature analysed, some has hinted on the importance of attitudes towards

change, (Oreg and Berson, 2009), however more research is still needed to reveal how

change affects them, their cultures; and if this impacts the performance are. Hence, the

purpose of the following study is to examine the correlation between, organisational change,

employee attitudes and organisational performance. Therefore, the research question,

“does organisational change necessarily improve a company`s performance” was

devised to aid this particular research. This question aims to investigate how change affects

attitudes, beliefs and views of the employees within an organisation, and vice versa; its

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effects on the subcultures that have been created within. In addition, the research aims to

examine the effects of these on the behaviours, commitment and the efforts in return.

Finally, the research aims to also investigate the significance of change communication and

change managers, towards the management of successful change.

1.3 Justification of the Study This particular study has several reasons as to why it is of importance. For example,

it builds upon some of the less investigated topics within the topic of change management,

that is, attitude consideration within a cultural sense towards change implementation. Apart

from this it has been revealed why organisational change does not always lead to an

improved performance, through the analysis of the psychological element of those that might

be affected. Therefore, evaluating this is especially important, as they impact attitudes,

behaviours, affective organisational commitment the output in return, (Rashid et al, 2004;

Toor and Ofori, 2010; Wang et al, 2010 and; Elele and Fields, 2010). Consequently, the key

findings from this study might be able to provide businesses within the corporate world with

some key issues to consider before any major change is implemented; in order to avoid

being part of the 70% whose change implementations end up changing nothing. As a result,

so as to acquire a deeper understanding of the subject and hence answer the question, a

meta-analysis study was undertaken. This involved an evaluation of six journal articles by

different authors (from different companies and countries) who had undertaken different

research methods; that provided different results and different perspectives. This would have

been quite impossible had the quantitative or qualitative methods alone, been undertaken.

However, limitations to this particular study are apparent; and are considered in the section

below.

1.4 Limitations of the Study Blumberg et al, (2005) suggest that all research has to reveal any possible limitations

regarding a particular topic. These are desired procedures from a methodological

perspective that have a possibility to be followed upon. The reason for providing this, is just

to ensure that the findings are not mere idiosyncrasies regarding a specific case; and for

further evaluation of the reliability and validity of a particular study, (Creswell, 2007 and

Blumberg et al, 2005). Some of these limitations regarding undergraduate research may

include; access to information and participants; and time constraints, (Saunders et al, 2007).

This research provides a meta-analysis of six key journals regarding the topic of change

management and while the study does provides an insight into the management of

employee attitudes; some significant limitations have been noted. Particularly, that fact that

no actual methodology took place could be seen as a limitation. This implies that the results

from the evaluation and analysis could only be of quality only if the original records are valid.

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However, it has also been argued that investigating a previously researched field may help

to identify relationships that other research methods may fail to uncover, (Blumberg et al,

2005). Secondly, the research lacked qualitative research which is important in accessing

attitudes, (Amaturuga et al, 2002). According to Blumberg et al, (2005) however, through

evaluating different variables; using already researched data, direction of influence becomes

much clearer. The next section will lay out the structure of this investigation.

1.5 The Structure of the Paper This study has five chapters which are all summarised in this section. The current

chapter provides an introduction to the investigation, though the introduction and discussion

of the research question. This concerns the management of organisational change regarding

culture and attitudes; and whether they affect organisational performance. Additionally, it

also, outlines the justification and limitations of the study. The next, chapter two focuses on

the research question, with an aim to critically examine the existing literature about cultural

change; employee attitudes and behaviours; the barriers to change and how it can be

managed successfully. In order to investigate these factors further, chapter three reviews

and comparatively examines the literature of six key journal articles from the literature

review. Consequently, chapter four aims to analyse and discuss the key findings that

emerged from the literature of the six journals in comparison to the literature discussed in

chapter two. Ultimately, the purpose of chapter five is to summarise the entire study, in

addition to the study`s limitations and future research.

1.6 Conclusion In conclusion, the current chapter has provided a brief introduction to the research

topic, along with the proposed research question and aims of the investigation. Also, the

justifications of the study have been discussed together with the key issues that could be

considered by businesses before implementing change. Furthermore, the limitations to the

study were discussed, followed by the structure. With the purpose of analysing the

correlation between change in terms of culture, employee attitudes and performance, the

next chapter critically analyses the literature about the issue.

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CHAPTER TWO - LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction Currently, within the business environment, change, due to internal and external

factors is happening at an unprecedented rate, (Taylor and Cooper, 2007; Rashid et al,

2004). When the environment changes, the organisation has to change or die, (Yu, 2009).

There seems to be an agreement that the success of organisational change only depends

on how the members will react to it, (Lines, 2005). Hence, this organisational change is very

important for both managers and employees. For managers, have to find ways to implement

it effectively while for employees, it will be in terms of acceptance and engagement, (Avey et

al, 2008).

Any attempt to change the organisation, will inevitably be an attempt to change the

culture of the organisation, because change tends to change tends to changes the way that

things are done, (Smollan and Sayers, 2009). Within the change management literature,

there is evidence that managing culture change has turned out to be one of the mostly

debated aspects in the recent years, (Brubakk and Wilkinson, 1996). For that reason, the

aim for this chapter is to examine the literature as regards to whether change in terms of

culture can necessarily lead to an improved performance and competitiveness in return. This

includes the factors that lead to culture change, the effects on attitudes, behaviours and

performance in return. The research will ultimately be drawing a correlation between

organisational change, employee behaviour and performance. Hence the next section,

predicts this correlation.

2.2 From Organisational Change to Performance The concern for this chapter is the management of cultural change. For instance, due

to a merger as there will be a clash of two cultures or even a possible elimination of one of

them. Culture clash according to Marmenout (2010), as the degree to which cultures differ

has been recognized to be responsible for mergers` success or failure. In this respect, this

research will be slightly examine how change can impact a company`s culture. Also, strategy

implementation usually involves the need for cultural adaptation, (Smith, 2003); therefore,

according to Mohanty and Yodav (1996), the need to change strategically, will in some ways

affect certain attitudes and organisational behaviour patterns which consider culture as a

major factor; in addition to impacting performance. Duck (1993) supports this by stating that

in order to change, employee attitudes have to be changed, which may change behaviour

automatically, and result in improved performance. But, does it mean that any change can

automatically lead to an improvement in performance? The chapter will also evaluate the

barriers to change including, stress and conflict with also potential impacts; as they are

bound to happen during any stage of the implementation, and are closely related to the

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employee receptivity of change. Furthermore, some of the ways that they can be overcome

will be highlighted. The next section will provide a few definitions about organisational

change and culture.

2.3 Organisational Change and Organisational Culture Organisational change as defined by Lines (2005), is the is the deliberate planned

change in an organisation`s arrangement or systems and practices so as to achieve one or

other organisation`s objectives. In fact, Schalk et al (1998), in their research refer to change

as the purposeful introduction of new ways to think, act and operate in the organisation, so

as to survive and accomplish goals. Smith (2003) states that organisational change includes

a very common type which is culture change. Schein (2004), one of the most significant

authors concerning organisational culture precisely defines organisational culture as a

pattern of shared assumptions which were learned by a group through solving problems

about adapting to the external environment.

In an organisation, usually people who are like minded will group themselves

together, (Smollan and Sayers, 2009) therefore culture clearly has a big impact on

organisational behaviour; and performance. In this context, to simplify culture, one can

define it as how people feel within the organisation. Very often, management get hang up on

changing the systems in the organisation that they actually forget organisational needs; and

fact that it is the employees and culture within the organisation that make the change stick,

Smith (2003). Heracleous and Langham (1996), highlights that change strategy formulation,

is not only to be rooted within the organisation`s goal planning but also in within the cultural.

Therefore, one can argue that altering structures alone, is not enough as those held beliefs

that are deep within the culture have to be changed too. However, organisations still tend to

persist with their culture, even though these prevent it from adapting to the changing

environment, (Smith, 2003). The reasons as to why organisational change has to happen will

now be discussed below.

2.3.1 Reasons for Organisational change

Presently, the global economy requires organisations to operate in very complex

environments, which was not the case a few years back. The speed at which organisations

are changing has increased and so has the intensity of the competitive demands, (Lewin &

Johnston, 2000). This pace, at which change happens, has been mainly due to the increase

in challenges that organisations face including; survival, technology and mergers &

acquisitions, cultures changes and many more. Rashid et al, (2004) support this by stating

that for example, with technology changes including computerisation and e-commerce, new

information communication and ways of conducting business have been shaped. Because of

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the shift towards globalisation and liberalization of markets, organisations have to be ready.

Therefore, they have to rapidly adapt to these changes in the environment in order to survive

and develop. Without change, organisations can easily lose their competitiveness, (Yu,

2009; Mohanty & Yadav, 1996).

Most organisations find real challenges as regards to change especially those related

to a change in culture, (Rashid et al, 2004). Indeed trying to adapt to these ever changing

goals and competitive demands has always been a challenge for companies but currently

this is very important, (Piderit, 2000). One reason why change within cultures is hard and

challenging is because, managers lack the knowledge regarding what processes will be

involved as the organisational culture changes, and how this culture might limit or show

opportunities from this change. Rashid et al, (2004) declare that these challenges arise

because within the organisation, there are different management styles, business nature,

work culture; and employee attitudes and behaviour. Jones et al (2005) state that

organisations also, tend to make a common mistake of moving directly to change

implementation before making sure that those to be changed are psychologically ready.

Therefore, the next section will discuss the effects of change on the employees by analysing

employee attitudes and behaviours.

2.3.2 Change Implementation, Attitudes and Behaviour

Organisations transform regularly, with changes that have the potential to impact the

organisation, in addition to individual employees, (Elias, 2009). According to Schalk et al

(1998), change implementation starts with creating a suitable change environment within an

organisation. Since this particular change will include moving away from the well-known to

the unknown causing an uncertain future, members usually are not very supportive of

change except if there are positive convincing reasons for them to. In their research, Elrod et

al (2002) concluded that because generally employees are not hopeful of change, their

attitudes will become resistant as soon as change appears. Lines (2005), defines these

attitudes towards organisational change as the employees’ assessment of the implemented

change, whether negative or positive. Their attitudes will ultimately have an effect on

whether the change is successful or not. When employees have strong positive attitudes,

they might be more supportive of change with focused, effortful behaviours, than those with

strong negative attitudes who could be resistant to it, (Elias, 2009). The author`s theory

proves that when managers attempt to implement change programmes, employee attitudes

will certainly play a huge role towards the outcome. Similarly, Duck (1993), argues that

employers can rent their employees behaviour which is influenced by attitudes; because

“winning attitudes” really can make a huge difference. Therefore it is very important to be

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careful when marketing new change ideas within the organisation. The author further warns

that even with this approach, it will be hard to convert the cynical change survivors. Change

survivors are people who have learnt to survive through programmes about change without

actually changing in any way. These people` reaction to change will be negative, Duck

(1993).

Elias` (2009), research proves that by knowing how important their attitudes are

during organisational change, for successful implementation, managers should therefore

select those employees whose attitudes towards change are strong and positive. In order to

achieve commitment to change however, Parish et al (2008) believe that top executives

have to try and understand the main drivers of commitment to change, and the vital role it

plays in successfully implementing the change strategies, (Wang et al, 2010; Michaelis et al,

2009). Their data supported their hypothesis that employee commitment towards change

has very significant consequences. In addition, Schalk et al (1998), adds that ways in which

change is implemented can have an effect on the psychological contract, which shows a

positive correlation with employee attitudes; and attitudes with employee behaviour. The

psychological contract according to Strebel (1996) is an unwritten contract that incorporates

the implicit relationship and commitment between employer and employee. The awareness

of this contract influences employee behaviour in some ways. The section below gives an in-

depth discussion of the factors that may act as barriers to change management.

2.3.3 Barriers to Change Efforts

Waddell and Sohal (1998) pointed out that of all main corporate change efforts, one-

half to two-thirds will fail and resistance will have contributed to the failure. This is why very

often managers view resistance as the main enemy of change. Yu (2009), states that when

change within an organisation happens, there will be some kind of uncertainty, irritation and

anxiety produced within the workforce; which will certainly have lasting consequences on the

employees psychologically and, on attitudes. The increasing regularity and complexity of

change in the workplace means that employees have to adapt with minimal or no disruption;

but that resistance is also a common response. This means that change related decisions

may not only consider the effects on performance but also the effects on employees, Parish

et al (2006). Employee resistance to change has been known as one of the major obstacles,

a threat but also a significantly important factor which can impact or influence either the

success or failure of the organisation`s change efforts, (Waddell & Sohal,1998; Avey et

al,2008). Individuals perceive change differently, therefore some will welcome it as it might

provide them with opportunities for broadening professional horizons; while for others the

same change might require more effort with impacts on their motivations for work; thus will

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dread it, (Elias,2009; Cutcher, 2009; Rashid et al, 2004). Therefore, in support of this Taylor

and Cooper (2007), affirms that same demands might bring challenge to for one person but

mean threat to the other.

Initially, resistance may be caused by uncertainty. Uncertainty is a sense of doubt

that arises within the organisation due to unclear recent events and their implications for the

future. This could be because there is confusing or not enough information about what is

could be happening, Bordia et al (2006). When reality clashes with expectations, distraction,

doubt and confusion takes hold resulting in a drop in performance, Elrod at al (2002). Also,

uncertainty about the future tends to rise when employees fail to make the necessary

adjustments, creating stress; and negatively affecting job commitment and satisfaction, in

return, (Yu, 2009; Bordia et al, 2004; Elias, 2005). Once any change begins, some

employees will possibly begin to face threats to their jobs and roles; with more job insecurity

sometimes leading to resignations. These are capable of lowering employees` trust in the

whole organisation. Reactions like this can be evident in employees` attitudes to their work,

(Yu, 2009).

Uncertainty can go on increase the employees` stress levels. Work stress can

increase with negative perceptions from employees about organisational change. Failure to

find ways of relieving this can heavily affect the employees` attitudes and performance, Yu

(2009). The author`s study proved that there was indeed a positive relationship between

organisational changes and stress levels within company. Dam (2005), states that it is the

employees that do not welcome change that react with feelings of stress. It seems that when

individuals consider the stress that might be accumulated due to change, their choice of

response, perception and working attitudes will all have an influence on its success; and

whether the newly formed organisation will have the ability to function efficiently, (Yu, 2009).

Hudson (1999) argues that also, too much stress can cause conflict, but also conflict can be

a cause for stress, as a result a cycle which is hard to break is suddenly formed. Some of

the approaches in which these barriers can be avoided and change managed successfully,

are discussed within the next section.

2.3.4 Managing Change for success

Firstly, managing communication is one of the strategies used during change to

reduce the employees` uncertainty and deal with resistance, (Frahm and Brown, 2007). By

communicating employees have more information about change, which is important in

reducing rumours and reduces widely spreading fears, (Schalk et al 1998). According to

Bordia et al, 2001, communication may reduce the negative outcomes of change, first

through proving quality change related information which helps them feel more prepared and

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the ability to cope, (Lines,2005); and secondly, allows them to take part in decision making

more frequently. In this way, their awareness about the change events to follow is increased;

and so is their feel about control over the outcomes, (Frahm and Brown, 2007 and Lines,

2005).

People generally take time to hear, recognize and believe change massages, and as

a result not liking what they hear can be even more time consuming, Duck (1993). Kotter

(2007) warns that communication can be in form of words and actions but deeds are a more

influential form as there is nothing more undermining towards change other than the

behaviour of those important individuals which is incompatible with what they say. Sinclair

(1994) also suggests that communication can take various forms, some of which will be

ignored or misunderstood. Kotter (2007) recommends that a clear change vision should be

broadcast via every potential channel particularly those wasted on unnecessary information.

Taylor and Cooper (2007) conclude that if an organisation has excellent communication

structure, it will encourage a positive work surrounding, loyalty and dedication.

Secondly, leadership plays a very important part in change implementation. Elrod et

al (2002: 287), postulate that “the art of leadership is the art of guiding others through

change” by communicating expectations that are realistic to all the employees that will be

affected by the planned change. Leaders are responsible for successfully leading

organisational change, (Mohanty and yadav, 1996; Oreg and Berson, 2009 and Saka,

2003). This is though forming a culture with the ability to advance changes throughout the

work cultures and attitudes of all employees. Oreg and Berson (2009) anticipate that

employees` attitudes towards change, somehow reflects their leaders individual orientation

in the direction of change. Employees are more likely to display negative behaviour towards

organisational change if their leader values more stability, than if they emphasised

innovation. Similarly Miller (2002) adds that leaders that value stability have low adaptability

and are likely to resist the change strategies. Therefore, for change to be successful leaders

have to have higher adaptability levels than the employees, (Saka, 2003). Consequently, a

manager has to learn to be a figure for the new newly formed corporate culture by learning

to “walk the walk”, Kotter (2007). In support of this, Miller (2002), states that this is very true;

and also adds that the culture of the organisation has to adapt to new ways of working

through proper change implementation.

If employees continue to resist change, managers may also manipulate them in order

to create a readiness for change. This may include withholding unwelcome information until

a solution can be found or by making them very dissatisfied with their status quo which will

possibly make them motivated to try other things and possibly change their behaviour,

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(Schalk et al, 1998). In contrast, Kotter (2007) argues that unless employees believe that the

proposed change will be useful, they will not take the risks, even though they are dissatisfied

with their status quo. Furthermore, according to Kotter (2007), it is impossible to change

unless people within the organisation are willing to help. Sinclair (1994), states that by

getting employees to participate and get involved within the change process, they will

become aware objectives and needs within the organisation. (Bordia et al, 2004 and Msweli-

Mbanga and Potwana, 2006), acknowledges that there is a positive result of participation on

work attitudes. Involving employees in the implementation of change can improve employee

openness and acceptance to change; and improves attitudes in return. Also they are more

likely to perceive these programmes as beneficial.

From the literature above, one can now devise these hypotheses. When culture

change is managed well, employee attitudes and behaviours will have positive attitudes,

leading to better performance. On the other hand if this change is not, it may lead to

negative attitudes and behaviours. This implies that some things were ignored or not done

right, for example, ineffective communication and poor leadership. This leads to uncertainty

and resistance, and hence negatively affecting performance. Hence, evident research by

Elrod et al (2002) suggests that organisation change implementation can be linked to

performance; and can be experimentally calculated. The figure 1 below illustrates these

theorized links between Organisational culture change and performance.

Figure 1

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2.5 Conclusion While most of the above literature support that change is good for the company,

Waddell and Sohal (1998), state that this is a misleading notion for managers to believe that

each organizational change is in actual fact good because in the end, it can only be

assessed by its costs. Successful change has to go through a number of phrases that

usually require a significant length of time. At any time, in any phrase, vital mistakes can be

made that may have devastating effects and slowing down the process. One should not

forget that even the most capable person can make the at least makes one big error, Kotter

(2007). Overall, Sinclair (1994) hypothesises that change management processes have a

huge impact on organisational cultures, which have an effect on behaviours and attitudes.

Kotter (2007), warns that since change is a lengthy process, new change approaches are

very delicate and subject to failure until the implemented changes submerge deeply in the

organisation`s culture. Furthermore, Kotter (2007) concludes that change only sticks after it

has become the way things are done in the organisation or when sinks within the corporate

body. Therefore, the literature has demonstrated and recognised, that some important

factors affecting employee receptivity during the change process are; how they react to it in

terms of attitudes and evident in their behaviours; communication and its management.

Hence, the next chapter reviews and comparatively analyses these issues form six key

journal articles.

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CHAPTER THREE – REVIEW AND COMPARTIVE ANALYSIS

3.1 Introduction At present, all organisations within the corporate world are under a great amount of

stress to change so as to survive in an environment of ever-increasing transformations; with

potential impacts on the employees` attitudes, productivity and turnover, (Weber and Weber,

2001). These progressing and apparently non-stop efforts put more stress not just on the

organisations, but on the members too, (Vakola and Nikolaou, 2005). The people element is

a significant aspect in the change process, but also the hardest to handle; which makes it a

major challenge, because people have values and attitudes that are hard to change, (Rashid

et al, 2004). In addition, change challenges culture or the daily routines, resulting into

uncertainty and fears for the possible failure while trying to cope, Vakola and Nikolaou

(2005). In the preceding chapter, existing literature regarding cultural change; employee

attitudes and behaviours; and whether they affect performance was examined. This chapter

examines the literature of six journal articles from the literature review, so as to investigate

the factors that mediate the above. For that reason, the chapter also focuses on this key

question, “Does organisational change necessarily improve a company`s

performance?”. The next section will introduce the research area, followed by the

arguments in the literature, authors` methodology; reliability of the studies and ethical

considerations and the results and discussions.

3.2 Introduction to Research Areas This section is an introduction to the six articles that are the focus of this chapter.

These were written by different scholars from several institutions and countries and show;

empirical and empirical research regarding organisational change management and

attitudes, through the use of qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods. The first paper is

by Rashid et al, 2004:161) examines “the influence of organisational culture on attitudes

towards organisational change in Malaysia”, while in the second article, Avey et al, (2008)

investigate whether the positive employees help positive change by analysing the

psychological capital, emotions and their impacts on behaviours and employee attitudes. A

third article is by Lines (2005) aims to find out why and how employees react to change

within a company by analysing the attitude theory. In addition, commitment is introduced in

the fourth article by Elias (2009:37) who analysed “employee commitment in times of

change” by evaluating the significance of these attitudes. In the fifth paper, Frahm and

Brown (2007) study change receptivity by examining the importance of organisational

communication during change. Lastly, in the sixth article, Saka (2003:480) examines the

“internal change agents’ view of the management problem of change”.

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From the literature review in chapter two, it was argued that when change is

managed well in terms of culture, the effects on attitudes and behaviours will be positive,

which could improve performance. But since many companies fail to succeed in their change

implementations, one can only conclude that, a few things are not done right, leading to

devious behaviours, resistance and poor performance. Though analysing the articles above

however, it is been noted that the journey from culture to performance is not as

straightforward, as there are many mediating variables in between. The grouping of the

chapter will be according to the emergent key findings as compared to the themes in the

literature review. Firstly, Rashid et al, (2004) examine the literature that focused on

organisational culture (in terms of Goffee and Jones` (1998) sociability and solidarity); which

introduced four culture cultural typologies. The literature studied the influence of these on

attitudes to organisational change; which suggested that the organisational culture was very

important for change management. Lines (2005), builds on this by studying how beliefs and

attitudes structures can impact the proposed change. Rashid et al, 2004 and Lines (2005)

propose that there are three of these attitudes including cognitive, affective and behavioural,

and that these can cause a person to either support or resist changes within the

organisation. In addition, Avey et al (2008) focus their study on the employees` attitudes in

the form of psychology and emotions, (Lines, 2005). Similarly, Elias (2009) emphasised the

importance of these attitudes through analysing employee commitment. Finally, Saka (2003)

evaluates the importance of managers` views are towards change, which could help through

the change process. By linking communication to how members view change, also evaluate

another way to manage change, Frahm and Brown (2007). The next section will outline the

key arguments in the literature of these journals.

3.3 Key Outcomes / Arguments in the Literature This section outlines the key arguments within the literature reviews of the six journals.

Firstly Rashid et al, (2004) states that each organisation has a unique change process

because of the differences in business nature, work culture, values, management styles and

variations in employee behaviours and attitudes. It is also believed that indeed there may be

some kind of relationship between the culture with the organisation and the employees`

attitudes concerning change because culture includes assumptions and philosophies that

are used as a guide to functions; therefore these are expected to shape members` attitudes,

Elias (2009) and Lines (2005). Those employees that have strong negative attitudes

regarding change are likely to be resistant to change, while those with strong, positive ones

will be more supportive, Lines (2005). By focusing on employees` commitment, Elias (2009)

assesses the significance of these attitudes stating that it is important to study commitment

as part of organisational change because it precedes commitment, and commitment is

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fundamental for an organisation to function. However many leaders hardly ever recognise

how important employee commitment can be during change, (Avey et al, 2008). In support,

Rashid et al, (2004) `s literature about culture typologies highlights that, a high sociability

from the research suggested a high level of commitment which can ensure general success

of the organisational change.

Avey et al (2008)`s research build on this notion about positive employees` ability to help

positive change by considering the employees` physiological well being, including the

psychological capital (PsyCap) and their positive emotions; which influence attitudes,

behaviours and performance in return. Alternatively, the authors further state that, some

pessimistic attitudes and unusual behaviours might hinder the positive change; however

engagement attitudes citizenship behaviours could improve positive change. Lines (2005,

pp.8-12) developed an attitudinal viewpoint about how employees react to change basing on

their “emotions, cognitions, and behaviours”. According to the literature, this is because

individuals have the ability to respond emotionally when they first encounter change,

depending on the information. Elias (2009) and Avey et al (2005)`s literature of the emotional

and behaviour literature suggests that for change to be successful, employees have to be

motivated intrinsically, posses the feeling of control and perceive change like an opportunity.

Similarly, Rashid et al, (2004) suggest that there is a link between motivation and attitudes

emphasising that a failure to take these into account might lead to employee cynicism,

lessen commitment and job satisfaction, (Elias, 2005); leading to employees` resistance to

change, Rashid et al, (2004). Frahm and Brown (2007) too study these by examining the

employees` change receptivity; arguing that, it is important to avoid these problems for

change initiatives to be successful arguing that, communication is a very essential aspect

towards change receptivity. In addition, Saka (2003) suggests that it is the, change agents

(managers) that are responsible for shaping and managing change conditions or processes.

3.4 Approaches to Methodology and Data Collection According to Saunders et al (2007), research methods or data collection methods

refer to the methods and procedures that one uses to acquire and examine data; including

observations, surveys, interviews etc with either qualitative, qualitative or mixed methods.

Methodology refers to the author`s method for gathering and critical evaluation of data for

their projects, (Horn, 2009; and Saunders et al, 2007). More about these research methods

will be discussed in the next section, under the paradigm theories.

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3.4.1 Research Paradigm

Looking at the six journal articles it is clear that the authors that are being focused on

here have very different types of research paradigm. Research paradigm as defined by

Burrell and Morgan (1979) is the conceptual structure about how the researcher particularly

views and makes sense of the world. This includes three elements including; methodology,

epistemology and ontology, (Cassell and Symon (2007). Epistemology, refers to the

researcher`s hypothesis of knowing and their structure of knowledge, (Horn, 2009); while

Ontology about the reality nature like how the world operates and the held views, (Saunders

et al, 2007). The author points out that epistemology can be divided into positivism and

realism; where the positivists like by Elias (2009), Rashid et al, (2004) and Avey et al (2008)

investigate the different segments to understand reality, by looking for regularities and

connecting interrelations to comprehend and foresee the social world, (Jankowicz, 2005).

Amaturuga et al (2002) states that, realism is about what the author considers to be reality

as the truth, (Saunders et al, 2007). This is the philosophy that Frahm and Brown (2007) and

Saka (2003) used to conduct their research.

Ontology too has two aspects (Healy & Perry, 2000), objectivism and subjectivism. The

difference between the two regards qualitative and quantitative data where the Quantitative

is objective while qualitative is subjective, (Amaturuga et al, 2002). From the articles in the

study, the research by Elias (2009), Rashid et al, (2004) and Avey et al (2008) is more

objective while that of Frahm and Brown (2007) and Saka (2003) is subjective. The research

design section next will discuss more about these quantitative and qualitative approaches.

3.4.2 Research Design

Yin (2003) states that this research design involves the topic that is to be explored by using

several data collection methods or, offer the essential guidelines to help do project, (Hair et

al, 2003). This includes explanatory, descriptive and causal research. It can be noted that

Elias (2009) and Avey et al (2008) `s also causal, as it tried to discover how different variable

affect each other. Ultimately, research designs include two approaches qualitative and

quantitative. According to Amaratunga et al (2002), the former focuses on expressions and

explanations to convey reality while the latter is about testing hypotheses by the use of

statistical research. In contrast, mixed methods is using both research methods through a

method referred to as triangulation. The Research Strategy includes deductive and inductive

approaches. Horn (2009) and Riley et al (2000) state that the inductive approach is where

the investigation and analysis of the situation leads to the building of a theory, while, the

deductive works quite the opposite way by beginning with a theory. The data collection

methods undertaken will now be discussed.

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3.4.3. Data Collection Methods

From the articles that Elias (2009), Rashid et al, (2004) and Avey et al (2005) all

implemented the quantitative methods of data collection. Elias` (2009) research was

collected using written surveys completed by Madison Police Department employees, within

small groups. Secondly, Rashid et al, (2004) adopted another data collection method

through emailing questionnaires to Chief Executive Officers (CEO) and managers within the

sample population. And lastly, Avey et al`s (2005), research involved filled questionnaires.

Firstly, those that participated completed instruments about psychological capital, positive

emotions and mindfulness. Then after being separated for week, participants completed the

instruments about employee engagement and citizenship, cynicism and deviance.

In contrast, Saka (2003) and Frahm and Brown (2007) opted for qualitative methods

of data collection. Firstly, Saka`s (2003) research involved just 20 semi-structured interviews

with higher-ranking and mid-level managers; and document analysis from two companies,

Samson and Metis (both pseudonyms) from the UK. In comparison, research conducted by

Frahm and Brown (2007) employed a case study design approach with multiple research

methods, including focus groups interviews, documentation, organisational surveys and

participant observation where they were given unrestricted access to the company. This kind

of research has basics of ethnography. Additionally, data was also collected from company

documents related to the proposed change. According to Forster (1999), analysis of a

company`s documents strengthens a case-study`s methodology. Lastly, the authors also,

conducted five focus group interviews to extract information about the group`s general

understanding of the kind of change that was happening and the communication used.

Lines (2005) used a completely different method of data collection, which was both

conceptual and theoretical. Theoretical research is described by Riley et al (2000) as one

that involves the collection of existing data; interpreting it progressively in order to broaden

the existing and theoretical understanding of the issue. Firstly, a conceptual frame was built

to find the structure and function toward organisational change. This originated from a

theoretical framework that as seen provides an illustration on the relationships between

several variables, (Lines, 2005).

3.4.4 Sampling Procedures and Population

Avey et al`s (2008) mixed sample contained 132 adults, aged between 18 and 65,

from number of US firms. The study of Elias (2009) had 258 police officers from the

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Madison, Wisconsin Police Department (MPD), with the typical person in the sample a white

male aged about 40 years and had previously been for about 15 years, either police officers,

or investigators; and had attempted technical college or college. Rashid et al, (2004) on the

other hand used a Malaysian directory as their sample population, where 281 structured

questionnaires were developed and emailed to managers and CEO`S. Nearly 65% of these

were male while the rest were female with an aim to gain an insight into the managers` view

of the management of the change problem, Saka (2003) carried out field research at

Samson and Metis, an engineering and training company; that were experiencing major

change, at the time. The respondents selected because of the position they held and the

department from which they were. Last but one, Frahm and Brown (2007:376) did not

mention an exact sample for the participant observation. However, it is shown that “five

focus groups”, with 28 participants from the five divisions were conducted, so as to link

receptivity to communication, in addition to 69 questionnaires. And finally, there was no

sample size for the conceptual research carried out by Lines (2005).

3.4.5 Validity and Reliability of the Studies

Reliability and validity refers to the measurement of several concepts used to build

ones theory, Riley et al (2000). Elias (2009) calculated the validity and reliability using

scales from different authors; and concerning different topics. The reliability coefficients were

over.69, indicating the study`s validity. Avey et al (2008) also measured psychological capital

using several questionnaires. Overall, the reliability coefficients for all the variables were

higher than .70; which showed the validity. In the study carried out by Saka (2003), choosing

participants based on position and department revealed the different realities from different

departments. This, together with another theoretical saturation, made it possible to enhance

the reliability of the data collection procedure. Furthermore, the author`s research did

address participant bias through data triangulation, which improves qualitative research

validity, Horn (2009). In the case-study carried out by Frahm and Brown (2007) using

multiple data collection methods enabled the triangulation of the collected data. Like Saka

(2003), this would help to create validity because; different information sources offer various

measures regarding similar facts. In addition, the fact that the researcher was provided

limitless access into the organisation enabled the improvement of data validity. Rashid et

al, (2004) used descriptive statistics so as to show the major features within the sample

plus the outline of organisational cultures and the employees` attitudes concerning change.

Cross-tabulation was also used for the measurement of the existing associations within the

variables.

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3.4.6 Ethical considerations

In Elias` (2009) and Saka (2003) research, all participants knew their rights, and

were told that all responses were confidential. Additionally, after the data had been collected,

the participants were given the opportunity to state concerns about the process and any data

usage. On the other hand, members who agreed to participate in Avey et al`s (2008)

research, were given a link to access a secure online server; which also contained the

consent form that they had to read and approve, then register their e-mail addresses. Saka

(2003) was granted access into the company as a researcher under the conditions that upon

publication, the company`s identity would be concealed and anonymousness assured. In

contrast there is no mention of any ethical considerations in Rashid et al, (2004) and

Frahm and Brown`s (2007) research, but an assumption can be made that participation was

voluntary from the number of returned questionnaires. And since company names have

been disguised or, not mentioned within the articles, it is assumed that anonymity and

confidentiality was promised. Furthermore, it is evident that the participants were willing to

discuss the subject matter with the researchers. Both, Lines (2005) and Rashid et al,

(2004), do not mention any ethical considerations in their papers. For Lines (2005), this is

probably because it is completely theoretical, therefore not needed.

3.5 Results and Key Findings from Research Articles

Avey et al (2008) used hierarchical regression using different covariates to find out

the effects of positive employees. The results showed there was a positive relationship

between emotions, engagement, citizenship and psycap. The positive emotions acted as

mediator between psychological capital and employee behaviours and attitudes; but the test

for the relationship between Psycap and the two gave mixed results. Moreover, when Elias

(2009) examined the correlations between the employee attitudes and several mediating

psychological variables, the results for the first theoretical model showed no significant

correlations, which showed the lack of Common Method Variance; and a poor fit for the data.

For the second partial mediation theory, a straight path between growth need and affective

commitment was removed which indicated correlations between employee attitudes to

change and affective commitment; hence a good fit for the data was found.

The results from Frahm and Brown`s (2007) showed that employees had very high

scores for all attitude types which indicated that most of the participants had a positive

feeling about the positive changes and were more accepting. However the discussion

revealed that openness to change did not necessarily mean a continuation of positive

receptivity during the procedure. Also, the findings in the study by Rashid et al, (2004)

revealed that all the respondents had either a positive or strong positive attitude to change.

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Furthermore, 46.9% of the organisations in the sample had Mercenary culture that

emphasises strategy and winning within the market. The literature analysed by Lines (2005),

reveals that attitudinal outcomes are most likely to be associated with many behaviours

which can reflect the entire assessment for the change process. Saka` s (2003) revealed two

perceptions of change by change agents. First was the rational-linear view that change

offers in the ideal state while the other one was the systematic-multivariate view, where

managers are forced to face the real business action at hand. Evidence from both of the

companies suggested that several stakeholder interests were acknowledged, with more

emphasis on communication or information processing.

3.6 Comparison of the Discussions and Analysis of the Outcomes of

Research Articles According to Elias` (2009) theoretical implications, organisations change on a regular

basis with potential effects on both the company and employees. But, because there is a

diversity of employee traits, people respond to change in various ways. Some will welcome

it, due to the possible opportunities, while others will not as it may require extra efforts; and a

shift from the comfort zone. Rashid et al, (2004) revealed that organisations have different

cultures but that also within organisation there may be a presence of different cultures. In

support, Frahm and Brown`s (2007) study also showed that each of the interviewed groups

indeed had a unique culture from the other, with norms, rules and even values, thus

restructuring would mean a threat to these subcultures. Rashid et al, (2004) results reveal

that in the “Malaysian manufacturing industries”, some types of cultures like the mercenary

culture, were dominant, when it comes to optimistic attitudes; but these also with subcultures

that possessed more positive attitudes. The reason could have been because of the

economic conditions and the quick technological innovation present at the time; increasing

uncertainty and adaptation levels in return, for survival. However, Saka (2003) found out that

organisational cultures and the subcultures are harder to change because it is hard to

change the everyday rituals that are embedded within the company. Therefore culture plays

a very important role for the change implemented to be successful, (Rashid et al, 2004).

Results from the study by Avey et al (2008) suggest that, it may be possible to

counter negative attitudes and behaviours by using the members` positive emotions and

psychological capital. Furthermore, it was revealed that the employees` positivity was

connected to their emotional engagement and organisational citizenship, which might lead to

positive change. Lines (2005), agrees by stating that earlier research about change in

organisations highlighted the significance of these emotions towards change, but the

literature examined by the author does remind other researchers that, employee emotions

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can be just as essential as cognitions. Commitment too was an issue, for example, Elias`

(2009) findings show that attitudes are close to employee commitment which means that,

there are probably other variables that affect affective commitment through attitudes.

During the change process, many employees tend to express frustration, uncertainty

about what exactly is happening, Frahm and Brown (2007) probably due to a lack of enough

information leading to a decrease in the change receptivity, with manifestations in form of

frustration, cynicism and resistance, Frahm and Brown (2007). According to Avey et al

(2008), resistance is mostly recognised for being an obstacle to those companies trying to

keep up with external conditions. Also, it was revealed that when change communication

was a-miss, a constructivist approach was taken; where members actively tried to make

sense of whatever was happening, (Frahm and Brown, 2007). Seeing as change is a

process, Lines (2005) suggests that highest attention and the greatest effort has to be given

to the management of the initial stages of the change process.

For restructuring, communication is important; information about all the jobs that

might be affected has to be provided to all employees. In support, Saka (2003), states that

reliable, timely communication; participation and knowledge sharing was essential for

successful performance. Furthermore, Elias` (2009) study results suggested that managers

have to look for some inner psychological processes within employees, especially if change

is likely to happen frequently. Finally, Lines (2009) and Elias (2009) argue that when

managers start to implement change, their subordinates` attitudes will definitely play a great

part in whether the proposed change is a success or not. Saka (2003) theory about Change

agents suggest that change maybe uncertain but managers have to try to form clear future

goals or structure. Lines (2005), advises that these change agents should focus on these

when formulating communication networks. Rashid et al, (2004) research discovered that

the network culture had a higher proportion, which was not surprising as that was consistent

with the Malaysian managers` cultural ideals; and other business communities. Furthermore,

high sociabilities indicated high commitment which certifies organisational success.

3.7 Future Research / Limitations & Implications of Research in Articles The limitations from Elias` (2009) research were that it was data was collected once

and was only limited to just one police department; therefore did not account for the

differences between the different organisational cultures and authority. The author advised

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that for validity, future research could repeat this same study but in a typical workplace. Avey

et al (2008) research also has limitations like, no causal conclusions reached. There were no

experiments, to determine causation between the variables; hence the authors` advice was

that in the future, more experimental studies should be carried out; with more explorations

on psychological factors, and other mediators. Saka (2003) recommendation for future

research was that there was still an area that requires more research which is the way in

which organisations could attain a healthier balance between different managerial attitude

perceptions. With the most strengths, Frahm and Brown (2007) research also has a

limitation which was that they just the used of one case-study. Further research would

involve replicating the same research methods, but use of other cases. Lines (2005)

recommended that future research must mostly be focused on the ways that different

individuals` are affected by change emotionally. From the study of Rashid et al, (2004), the

limitations are; firstly, the sample was quite small compared to the all Malaysian

manufacturing companies; and secondly other sectors were excluded. Thirdly, measuring

the organisational culture using questionnaires, in a nominal scale rather than the Likert

scale restrained better analysis.

3.8 Recommendations and Conclusions drawn from the Articles Saka (2003) postulates that, managers are supposed to generate a logical structure

from a number of illogical and seemingly unmanageable events. However this is not always

simple therefore, the author concludes that clearly there is a difference between those

normative change patterns that are idealised and a non-rational perception. Frahm and

Brown (2007) conclude that active employee involvement is not just about making

employees feel included but also to make them more receptive to change. Rashid et al,

(2004) study did provide evidence which suggested that different cultures have different

effects on towards possible changes. In addition, Elias` (2009) research shows that when

employees are satisfied intrinsically, it leads to intrinsic motivation which might develop

some sense of affective commitment, which affects attitudes. The research by Avey et al

(2008) concludes that cognitions like perceptions initiate emotions but people are generally

not aware of this. In support, Lines` (2005) showed that emotions brought out by change can

be different in two dimensions, the hedonic and intensity. The next section will conclude all

that has been discussed in this chapter.

3.9 Conclusion The aim of this chapter was to examine the literature of six key journals from the

literature review in order to compare and analyse the key factors that mediate cultural

change; employee attitudes and behaviours; and performance. Consequently the chapter

aimed to focus on the key question, “does organisational change necessarily improve a

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company`s performance?”. The chapter was structured into nine sections including; the

introduction to the review; introduction to the research areas; the key arguments in the

literature reviews of the articles; methodology and data collection methods; results and key

findings; discussion of the results; future research, limitations and implications;

recommendations from the articles and this final section, the conclusion. The next chapter

will build upon the discussion of the results from this chapter; to analyse and further discuss

the overall findings.

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CHAPTER FOUR – DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS OF OVERALL FINDINGS

4.1 Introduction By examining the change management literature within the perspective of an

organisation, there has been attempt to thoroughly understand the employees` attitudes in

regards to change. In chapter three, a meta-analysis approach was taken, analysing six

journal articles written by several scholars. These conducted their research using different

gathering methods, like qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods to prove their stated

theories. As a result, the purpose of this chapter is to discuss and analyse the major key

findings that emerged from the literature of the six journals, and further compare it to the

research in the literature review. First, the key results will be briefly introduced relating to the

research question, secondly the five key findings will be discussed in detail and lastly, the

research question will be addressed before the conclusion.

4.2 Discussion of the Key Results This part of the dissertation aims to highlight and interpret the key themes from the

literature analysed in the six journals; with an intention of addressing the stated research

question in literature review. While comparing the outcomes and discussions from the six

articles; five major issues were observed that might help to provide a thorough

understanding of the research question, ““does organisational change necessarily

improve a company`s performance?” These mediating variables regarding change

include; organisational culture; psychological capital, attitudes and behaviours linked to

employees` positive emotions and organisational citizenship behaviours; which in return

affect an employees` affective commitment to the organisation. And lastly the importance of

change communication and internal change agents will be reviewed as they were observed

to be especially important in the management of effective change processes. The

organisational culture if the first key finding that will evaluated below.

4.2.1 Key Finding One – Organisational Culture

One of the key findings stresses the importance of organisational culture and the

small subcultures during change implementation. Sadri and Lees (2001) state that, corporate

culture has turned into a very significant subject in corporations recently as it affects both

operations and employees. In addition, Lok and Crawford (2004) acknowledge that

organisational cultures influence ways in which employees set their goals and execute their

tasks. In other words, it subconsciously affects how people think; formulate decisions,

receptivity and even act. In fact, Goffee and Jones (1996) state that, a company without

culture has no ideals, direction, and principles. From the literature, Frahm and Brown (2001)

and Rashid et al, (2004) discussed the concept of subcultures within major organisational

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cultures in different organisations. According to Smollan and Sayers (2009), these

subcultures exist within all organisations usually based on several groupings that exist within

the company like; department, gender, ethnicity or value systems and hierarchy. Rashid et

al, (2004) especially based their entire research on Goffee and Jones (1996) research on

cultural typologies regarding the positivity of employee attitudes towards change. The

authors argued that organisational culture is basically determined by the intensity of

solidarity (how the community pursues those goals that they share) and Sociability (how

friendly the members are; emotionally); with four dimensions including the network,

communal, fragmented and mercenary culture, (Goffee and Jones, 1996; Sadri and Lees,

2001 and Rashid and Rahman, 2004). Rashid et al, (2004) results showed that

organisations with the mercenary and network cultures had the strongest positive attitudes

towards change. The mercenary culture has low sociability but a high solidarity; where

employees strongly support the business goals, focus on getting the work done, intolerance

of poor performance and employees and have high change receptivity. Seemingly, the

mercenary culture can be related to “high involvement work systems” which reflect

important, effective and organised work patterns with an intention of increasing performance,

Mandelson et al (2009:46). The reason why the mercenary culture may be adopted by many

companies is probably for survival reasons, within the current corporate context where

survival is crucial. However, any manager or Malaysian managers may handle certain

situations in such a culture ruthlessly which could affect the employees/organisations

negatively, Rashid et al, (2004). One way to handle these is by considering the

psychological well being of employees as will be discussed next.

4.2.2 Key Finding Two – Psychological Capital; Attitudes and Behaviours

and performance

Organisational culture and performance usually involve the psychological wellbeing

of those involved, (Toor and Ofori, 2010). The literature studied by Avey et al (2008)

introduced the concept of positive psychology (psycap) and emotions in relation to attitudes

and behaviours; and their effects on performance. In this section therefore, psycap, attitudes

and behaviours will be analysed while positive emotions and organisational citizenship will

be covered in the next. Chen and Wang (2007) and Toor and Ofori (2010) highlight that

since organisations change a lot more regularly these days, it is important to understand and

predict the employees` psychological responses when managing change. Psycap is about

the strengths therefore, recent literature has emphasised the significance of highlighting the

positivity within organisations, (Norman et al, 2011 and Demerouti et al (2011). One can

argue that psychological capital is particularly essential for the development of positive

organisational behaviours, which can affect the change outcome, (Avey et al, 2010;

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Nimnicht et al, 2010 and Luthans and Youssef, 2007). This positivity is what Norman et al

(2011) refers to as resilience which is the capacity to recover from any setbacks like

uncertainty; and is positively correlated with commitment and job satisfaction, (Youssef &

Luthans, 2007). Hence, those employees with higher psycap are more likely to be flexible

during change, supportive of change and can adapt better to changes, (Avey et al, 2010).

Since employees are affected psychologically, it can be expected that their attitudes

and reactions will indeed be affected. This is supported and proved by Avey et al (2010)

study. These reactions towards the proposed change, can in return influence behaviours

(e.g supporting or change resistance), Chen and Wang (2007). Additionally, Demerouti et al

(2011) state that, these affect satisfaction, performance and possibly the competitiveness of

an organisation; therefore psycap can be used a performance predictor, Rego et al (2010).

In fact, psycap supports the hunt for positivity and work fulfilment which may be required to

allocate resources, adequately necessary within the competitive environment, Avey et al

(2010).

In addition to employee psychological well being, psycap is fundamental for

leadership and therefore, has some advantages to managers and organisations in general

too, Toor and Ofori (2010). In fact the study conducted by Murray et al (2010) presents

evidence about the positive relationship there is between psycap, the employees` wellbeing

and commitment and leadership. Most leaders posses the three basic elements of psycap

which are resilience, hope and optimism which makes them well prepared to deal with the

challenges within the corporate world through understanding those that follow them, (Toor

and Ofori, 2010). This is done through paying close attention to their developmental

concerns; inspiring them with respect and high expectations and helping them to face new

situations, Mendelson et al (2011). Another link to the psychological part is the positive

emotions to be analysed in the section below.

4.2.3 Key Finding Three – Positive Emotions and Organisational Citizenship

According to Huy (2002), emotions are part of the psychological responses.

Jimmieson et al (2009) state that, members` reactions to change comprise; cognitions

(attitudes and thoughts) and emotions (like anxiety or enthusiasm). Evidence suggests that

those employees that receive more change support regarding their well being

(psychologically) are likely to be more positive and exhibit better “organisational citizenship

behaviours”, Liu (2009:307). Therefore, emotions are also related to culture; and hence

attempting to manage the culture is also attempting to deal with the emotions within, Smollan

and Sayers (2009). In other words, cultural change can affect the way members react to

change; but all together, organisational change, can alter culture, intentionally or not, hence

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influencing the emotional reactions, Smollan and Sayers (2009). For this reason, Avey et al

(2008) and Lines (2005) stress the importance of positive emotions towards organisational

change. These emotions have two essential dimensions including the hedonic (that

measures the pleasantness level of the emotion e.g. excitement) and the intensity (highness

and lowness of emotion or readiness), (Huy, 2002; Eriksson, 2004 and Liu and Perrewé,

2005), which change throughout the change process. Therefore those emotions experienced

at the start of change have a lower level of readiness than those at a later stage, Liu and

Perrewé (2005). Hence, the effective management emotional management of emotions right

at the start of the change implementation is very important; together with the development of

emotion-related practices to aid adaptation, (Liu and Perrewé, 2005 and Huy (2002).

Eriksson (2004) states that, even though emotions are an essential force for change they

are, also a consequence to this change.

Organisational citizenship behaviours on the other hand, are behaviours that add to

the psychological perspective above which affects organisational performance and change

success, (Norris-Watts and Levy, 2003). These can be characterised in several ways

including sportsmanship, altruism, courtesy, conscientiousness and civic virtue, (Organ,

1988). In this change management situation however, it is sportsmanship that seems more

associated with change and attitudes. This is one`s capability to keep a positive approach

even when there are difficulties at work, Norris-Watts and Levy (2003). Nevertheless, it can

be argued that behaviours like sportsmanship and helpful behaviour is just easier to exhibit

instead of letting go of the known and usual practices, a necessity for embracing change,

Msweli-Mbanga and Potwana (2006). It is also evident that for these behaviours to be

positive participation is vital, Rego and Cunha (2008) and Msweli-Mbanga and Potwana

(2006). This is because citizenship is a behaviour which is likely to show, should

participation be allowed. Organisational members should therefore be more empowered to

contribute to the overall performance; and further attention be paid to attitudes and

management traits, Rego and Cunha (2008). An additional to psychological well being is the

affective commitment, which is the key finding four.

4.2.4 Key Finding Four – Affective Organisational Commitment

Apart from the emotions, Elias (2009) research introduced the notion of affective

organisational commitment and its effects on attitudes towards any change. Like emotions,

commitment can also be accounted for how employees react psychologically towards

change, (Chen and Wang, 2007). This is they commit depending on attitudes, values and

personal beliefs at work that are reflected in different cultures, (Lok and Crawford, 2004).

According to Wang et al (2010), Elele and Fields (2010) and Wasti (2003), affective

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commitment explains one`s need to remain with the company depending on their emotional

attachment to it. Michaelis et al, (2009) state that commitment to change is a vital part of the

behaviour that is intended to aid change; and has been revealed to in influence employee

actions, firm performance, (Harrison and Kelly, 2010) and organisational citizenship

behaviours, Heffner and Rentsch (2001). In fact, higher commitment levels have been

associated with positive outcomes for both the employee and individual, (Beck and Wilson,

2000).

Since affective commitment is based on organisational emotional attachment, there

is a possibility that one, who is attached affectively, will have the motivation to contribute

more positively at work, Rego et al (2004). Also, one can argue that there is a positive

relation between age and commitment. For example, those that are older or have been with

a certain company for quite some time might have more positive commitment, (Beck and

Wilson, (2000). This could probably be because of the past positive experiences. When

employees have affective commitment, they are very likely to display productive behaviours

and improved job performance; possess more positive towards the planned change and

could work a bit harder to see that the change initiatives succeed, Shum et al (2008).

However Suliman and Iles (2000) contend that in this age filled with this kind of change

uncertainty, it is harder for employees to be committed to companies. But, positive social

interaction should help affective commitment to grow, (Heffner and Rentsch, 2001) and

create lasting benefits, Liu et al (2007). However, key finding two, three and four can be

managed using efficient communication and change agents with high adaptation levels.

4.2.5 Key Finding Five– Change Communication and Change Agents

The last key finding further analyses the importance of change communication and

change agents, two concepts that were evaluated by Saka (2003), Lines (2005), Frahm and

Brown (2007) and Avey et al (2008). Johansson and Heide (2008) postulate that change and

internal communication are processes that are, complexly related; and one cannot happen

without the other, (Daly, Teaque and Kitchen, 2003). Attempting to change a corporate

culture, is a difficult task itself because it involves different communication practices, paying

close attention to employees` reactions to these and most importantly; how change agents

perceive change, Salem (2008). Massey and Williams (2006) refer to change agents as

those with the responsibility to plan, direct and facilitate change within an organisation as

well as performing the daily change procedures, Shum et al (2008). Top management are

hence required to set a clear vision for the future for the effectiveness of the organisation,

Saka (2003).

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The introduction of change will most certainly raise, negative behaviour and

resistance especially from the members that might be most affected, mainly when they feel

like have no control over the situation, Proctor and Doukakis (2003). The solution here is

clear communication which is a necessity to implement change effectively, (Elving, 2005

and). Messages regarding change have to be continuous, and be presented in different

forms to effectively manage the change process, Massey and Williams (2006). However,

understanding ways in which change can be communicated in this century, still poses

massive challenges, (Nelissen and Selm, 2008) as it involves emotions from change

recipients which change agents have to deal with first. This implies that communication

levels during the change process will in a way influence members` emotional reactions, (Liu

and Perrewé, 2005). On the other hand those that have authority too can impact

subordinates’ views, attitudes and behaviours, (Klein, 1996, Wang et al, 2010 and Case et

al, 2007). Therefore, it is important for change agents to have empathy and understanding to

those emotional impacts and anxiety that change programmes have on employees, (Massey

and Williams, 2006).

The significance of change communication is that; it facilitates to overcome ambiguity

and anxiety; and offers some control over the situation to employees that are likely to be

affected, (Proctor and Doukakis, 2003 and Liu and Perrewé, 2005). In conclusion, those

employees that receive information regarding change understand their work environments

much better hence display better psychological welfare, job satisfaction and commitment.

4.3 Addressing the Research Question

Essentially, the reason for the research undertaken throughout this study was to

provide an understanding as to why many managers in companies think that a mere change

in the working structures or activities definitely mean an improvement in the performance or

even the competitiveness. Therefore, the study intended to evaluate mediating variables

acting between change and performance; such as the organisational culture, employee

attitudes, behaviours and the barriers to change implementation. Consequently, this study

attempted to address the research question, “does organisational change necessarily

improve a company`s performance?” Some managers would believe it does, which is

why most change programmes implemented within an organisation fail; but, the results from

the investigation suggest that a change in organisational structure or any other change, in

fact does not lead to improved performance. The reason for this is that there are many,

mediating psychological variables that change agents or managers tend to ignore. These are

very important and hence managers have to look for them within the employees especially if

the change is to happen frequently.

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To test the hypothesis, further research analysis has proved that when cultural is

managed well, in can in fact influence positive attitudes and behaviours, as it was discussed

in the literature review. But there several mediating variables between change and attitudes

and behaviours; that have been discussed to be psychological capital; emotions and

organisational citizenship; and affective commitment (an emotional attachment), which

influence behaviour; and vice versa. Therefore, when not managed well negative behaviours

can arise that include rumours, stress, conflict and resistance. Hence, change

communication and change agents that quickly adapt to changes are necessary for change

success and better performance. These relationships are shown on an improved

hypothesised model in Figure 2 below.

Figure 2

4.4 Summary of Key Findings / Managerial Implications From the six journals five major findings have been fully analysed in order to aid

answer the research question. The findings from this research confirmed that because of

the change pressures from both the internal and external environment; change has turned

out to be a basis for frustration within organisations, Yousef (2000). One major finding was

the culture plays a very important role during organisational change, mostly because it can

generate emotions but also influence attitudes, Smollan and Sayers (2009). This is not

particularly unreasonable as emotions are linked to the employees` psychological well-being

that determines whether employees are supportive or resistant to change. Therefore, one

implication here is that companies have to craft cultures that are strong enough to be able to

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welcome change, while avoiding the alteration of the basic cultures; and further build up the

acceptance of emotions.

The study further established that affective commitment was a significant factor

concerning change. Strongly, affectively, committed employees could easily stay with the

organisation and might be more receptive of change as it may seen as beneficial, Yousef

(2000). This is possible because it was also revealed that older employees and those who

had worked for the company for longer, were more committed to their jobs, but more like to

be resistant to new changes. Therefore, when managing change, managers can enhance

the affective commitment through the provision of fairly challenging, but satisfying jobs and

provide opportunities for further development. This, together with participation can also

improve organisational citizenship behaviours, (Msweli-Mbanga and Potwana, 2006). The

final management implication is that if cultural change is about changing the individual`s

attitudes, then more information should be provided to steer them into the positive direction.

4.4 Conclusion Smollan and Sayers (2009) affirm that the employees` behaviours can be highlighted

by what they perceive and engage in within the subcultures and the general organisational

culture; therefore, in order to keep a company as one to face the external pressures, culture

is a very powerful tool, Goffee and Jones (1996). And, whereas culture alone cannot

establish whether a business is a success or not, a positive culture can provide a very

important competitive advantage, (Sadri and Lees, 2001). All in all, when psychological and

emotional factors are managed well, the organisation can benefit enormously from these;

through attitudinal outcomes like job commitment, (Toor and Ofori, 2010); and more efforts

which usually improves performance, Nimnicht et al (2010).

In conclusion, this chapter discussed and analysed five major findings regarding the

employees` attitudes towards change and their effects on performance. Thus, some of the

mediators between organisational change and performance have been analysed to answer

the question, “does organisational change necessarily improve a company`s

performance?”. These include; organisational culture; psychological capital; positive

emotions and organisational citizenship; affective organisational commitment and Change

Communication and Change Agents. Therefore, in the next chapter a summary of the entire

study will be outlined, in addition to the limitations and the required future research.

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CHAPTER FIVE – CONCLUSIONS

5.1 Introduction In the preceding chapter four, the discussion and analysis of key findings which

emerged from chapter three has been made. These have been discussed in relation to the

literature in chapter two, however since whole new literature has had to be introduced

because new concepts different from those in chapter two were introduced. Additionally, the

chapter also examined and presented the managerial implications that could probably be

useful for many businesses dealing with change within the corporate world. Consequently,

the aim of this chapter five is to summarise the entire study, outlining and answering the

research question, “does organisational culture necessarily improve a company`s

performance?” proposed in chapter two, the review and comparative analysis of the six

journals and the discussion of the results. Finally, the limitations to this study will be

discussed together with the recommendations for future research.

5.2 Summary of the Study Previously, organisations would only cope with change, but today they have to learn

to manage it, (Thomson, 1992). In order to survive, corporations have attempted to plan and

begin essential changes in many forms and practices, (Yu, 2009; Lewin and Johnston,

2000). There has been a growing literature concerning the importance of change

management within the corporate world, as discussed in the study, (Miller, 2010; Thompson,

1992; Martinez-Sanchez, 2008; Saka 2003; Armenakis et al, 1993 and Avey et al, 2008;

Piderit, 2000 and; Massey and Williams, 2006). Many have focused on the problems

associated with change like stress, conflict and resistance, (Yu, 2009; Saka, 2003; Liu and

Perrewé, 2005; French, 2001; Bordia et al, 2006; Strebel, 1993 and; Waddel and Sohal,

1998). While others have concentrated on what brings about this resistance, to make the

change programmes unsuccessful. This has included the study of employee attitudes;

emotions; behaviours and receptivity, (Elias, 2005; Vakola and Nikolaou, 2005; Schalk and

Freese, 1998; Frahm and Brown, 2007; Dam, 2005; Lines, 2005; Rashid et al, (2004); and

Smollan and Sayers, 2009), that may either be affected by change or have an impact on the

implementation and performance itself, (Avey et al, 2010). All organisations have some kind

of culture, therefore, any attempt to change, will be a cultural change that can affect the

attitudes, values and the beliefs held, (Fronda and Moriceau, 2008; Rashid et al, (2004); Liu

and Perrewé, 2005; and Eriksson, 2004). In other words, change affects the employees`

psychological well being that affects the organisational citizenship behaviours, job

commitment, and performance in return, (Msweli-Mbanga and Potwana, 2006; Wang et al

(2010); and Wasti (2003). But, since there is fewer studies have focused the relationship

between the members` psychological reactions towards change and organisational culture,

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(Oreg and Berson, 2009; Chen and Wang, 2007; and Rashid et al, (2004), a further

investigation was required to understand cultural change, employees and performance.

5.2.1 Review and Comparative Analysis

The research adopted in this study examined the literature from six journal articles

chosen from the literature review so as to shed a light on the question addressed above. The

section introduced the arguments in the literature review of each paper, the approaches to

data collection undertaken, including qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods as well as

the sample sizes, ethical considerations and the validity of all the studies. Furthermore, the

key findings were discussed and outcomes compared against each other. For example

Rashid et al, (2004) adopted a quantitative research method where they examined several

cultural typologies and their influences on employees` attitudes towards change with a key

finding that the mercenary culture had the highest positive attitudes; which makes some

sense considering the economic state. In addition, Avey et al (2008) qualitative research

builds on this employee attitude concept from a psychological viewpoint which connects this

to psychological capital, organisational citizenship and emotional engagement, (Lines,

2005). Also Rashid et al, (2004) add affective commitment to this while Elias (2009)

emphasised the significance of managing commitment towards attitudes. In turn, these

attitudes and beliefs can impact the proposed change, as seen in Lines (2005) theoretical

article. Finally, Saka (2003) and Frahm and Brown (2007) adopted the qualitative research

methods to evaluate the change agents (managers) perception of change and employees`

reception of change through the analysis of change communication.

5.2.2 Key Findings / Discussions

While reviewing and comparing the six journal articles regarding change, culture and

performance in chapter three, many findings were discovered however, only five major

findings were observed to help understand and address the research question. These

emergent themes or mediating variables included; corporate culture; psychological capital;

positive emotions and organisational citizenship; affective commitment and; change agents

and communication. One of the key findings is the significance of organisational culture and

the small subcultures within that determine the members` attitudes towards change, and

their effects on the execution of tasks, (Lok and Crawford, 2004; Rashid et al, (2004)).

Based on Goffee and Jones (1996) typologies, it was revealed that the culture with the

highest positive attitudes; and high change receptivity was that mercenary culture; which

many companies probably adopted for survival within the business world, (Rashid et al,

2004). Change can have an effect on culture, employee attitudes and behaviours through

psychology; and vice versa. For example, research by Avey et al (2008) further revealed that

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culture can affect the employees` psychological wellbeing, analysing the concept positive

psychological capital and emotions relative to attitudes and behaviours; and a further effect

on performance, (Toor and Ofori (2010); in addition to its importance to leadership, (Murray

et al, 2010). Furthermore, it was discussed that emotions and organisational citizenship

behaviours were part of the psychological reactions, (Huy, 2002); but emotions were also

linked to culture; hence attempting culture change would be attempting emotional change,

Smollan and Sayers (2009); which is very difficult. Emotions can in turn affect affective

commitment, which is an emotional attachment to the organisation, (Wang et al, 2010 and;

Elele and Fields, 2010), that influences employee behaviour and performance. If not

managed well, these can lead to a change resistance which is why key finding five evaluates

the importance of internal change agents and change communication during organisational

change, (Saka, 2003; Frahm and Brown, 2007 and Lines, 2005).

5.3 Limitations of the Study

According to Blumberg et al, (2005), any research has to reveal any possible

limitations. This is to make sure that the researcher`s findings are basically not based on

idiosyncrasies concerning a specific case. While the results from the research may provide

an insight into the understanding of the employee attitudes regarding change, there are still

a few significant exceptions to be considered. As with any study, (Saunders et al, 2008), this

current study has limitations too; some important to be noted include; first of all for a study

attempting to determine employees` attitudes, no methodology was undertaken especially,

one involving participant observation, interviews, focus groups or surveys. This qualitative

data collection method for example interviews would have helped to view the topic from the

interviewee`s viewpoint and further understand why and how they reached that perspective.

While participant observations would have been necessary in research like this where;

interactions, implications and interpretations were of importance, (Amaturuga et al, 2002).

This, with further quantitative data would have further helped with the validity of the causal

relationship conclusions drawn from the study, (Saunders et al, 2007). However, Blumberg

et al, (2005) advice that sometimes the path of influence becomes clear by evaluating the

variables` nature even from the already researched data, so no actual would be necessary;

something that happened with this study.

5.4 Future Research

Understanding employee attitudes regarding change necessitates one to understand

the employees` psychological state before major change can be implemented. The findings

from this research, offers a basis from which future research can direct their investigations.

First of all, it is evident the future research need to be more practical (that is, qualitative or

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quantitative), where one can investigate and monitor employee attitudes from an

organisational level rather than just theoretical and conceptual research. In particular it has

to focus on the various ways that employees react to change emotionally, (Lines, 2005).

Furthermore, the mediating variables analysed in this study and others that have not been

focused on need to be further investigated, within different sectors of business in a number

of countries or continents depending on the national cultures.

5.5 Conclusion

In general, the study established the significance of managing change and cultures

within the business world. In particular, it highlighted the importance of employee attitudes

and organisational cultures especially psychological capital and positive emotions towards

the proposed change initiatives. Other major issues within this study thought to be

organisational citizenship behaviours; affective organisational commitment and; change

agents and communication, (Rashid et al, 2004); Avey et al, 2008; Lines, 2005; Elias, 2009;

Frahm and Brown, 2007 and Saka, 2003). Furthermore, the research highlighted the effect

of these on leadership, participation and job satisfaction; and vice-versa. Therefore, one

core managerial implication is that because change in unstoppable, managers have to be

considerate of emotions and, build up cultures without alteration of existing sub-cultures,

which are strong, and capable of welcoming change positively. Additionally, affective

commitment has to enhanced through providing satisfying jobs and clear information be

provided for guidance into the right positive direction. In conclusion, the study has offered a

better insight into a better understanding as regards to whether organisational culture

necessarily improves a company`s performance; through the evaluation of the mediating

variables between the two.

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Appendices: Six Journal Articles

dissertation 76 model b

Education

organisational change

corporate change

metaanalysis research

liu et

s performance

research question

avey et

proposed change initiatives