PROTESTANT INSTITUTE OF ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCE (PIASS)

FACULTY OF DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

DEPARTMENT OF PEACE AND CONFLICT STUDIES

LEVEL V

A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Development Studies,

PIASS as a partial fulfillment for the award of bachelor‟s degree in

development studies with honor in peace-building and development.

By TUYISHIME Etienne

Supervisor: Dr. Kazuyuki Sasaki

Huye, September 2015

From Blind Obedience to Culture of Peace:

The challenge of Fostering Critical Thinking in Youth through

NGOs‟ Peace Education Initiatives in Post-genocide Rwanda

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DECLARATION

I, TUYISHIME Etienne, do hereby declare that this dissertation entitled “From Blind

Obedience to Culture of Peace: The challenge of Fostering Critical Thinking in Youth

through NGOs’ Peace Education Initiatives in Post-genocide Rwanda” is my original

work. It has not been presented anywhere for any degree or other purpose in any

institution.

Signature: …………………………………… Date:

TUYISHIME Etienne

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DEDICATION

To

My mother

NYIRAKANANI Vénantie

My sisters

DUSHIME Anne Diane and IRADUKUNDA Esther

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The accomplishment of this research could not be possible without the contribution of

various people who deserve my special thanks for all their efforts. Firstly, I would like to

express my heartfelt thanks to my supervisor, Dr. KAZUYUKI Sasaki for his guidance

throughout the research process. I cannot forget how he usually encourages me to work

hard. He used to tell me “I believe that you can produce a good paper”. I thank him again

for his kind supervision and other different supports he offered to me.

Secondly, my thanks are addressed to all PIASS’ staff, especially to the lecturers of the

Faculty of Development Studies for fostering my intellectual growth and providing all

academic facilities during my studies.

Thirdly, I would like to extend my gratitude to all those who helped me to successfully

carry out this research. In this regard, my thanks are addressed to the staff of Aegis Trust,

Shalom Educating for Peace and Never Again Rwanda for their willingness to provide

me all the information I needed from them.

Lastly, I am thankful to my classmates for their help in different activities we worked

together and also to everyone who contributed to this dissertation in different ways.

May peace be with you!

TUYISHIME Etienne

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ABREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

CINEDUC: Cinema Education

CNLG: Comission National pour Lutter contre le Genocide

(National Commission for the Fight against Genocide)

FARG: Fond d’ Assistance pour les Rescapes du Genocide

(Genocide Survivors Assistance Fund)

GLR: Great Lakes Region

GNU: Government of National Unity

G.S: Groupe Scolaire

IJR: Institute of Justice and Reconciliation

IPHR: Initiative for Peace and Human Rights

MINEDUC: Ministry of Education

MINISPOC: Ministry of Youth, Culture and Sport

NAR: Never Again Rwanda

NCHR: National Commission for Human Rights

NGOs: Non-Government Organizations

NISR: National Institute of Statistic of Rwanda

NURC: National Unity and Reconciliation Commission

PAR: Participatory Action Research

PBI: Peace Building Institute

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PIASS: Protestant Institute of Arts and Social Science

PREST: Peace and Reconciliation Education through Song and Theater

RPEP: Rwanda Peace Education Program

SEP: Shalom Educating for Peace

UNESCO: United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization

USA: United State of America

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ABSTRACT

The aim of this study was to find out how NGOs’ peace education initiatives foster

critical thinking to promote culture of peace among youth in post genocide Rwanda. Four

specific objectives were formulated and four research questions were set in order to

achieve the aim.

To assist the study’s aim, qualitative research approach was used. The case studies were

comprised by three NGOs which were selected purposively. In each of the three NGOs

under the study, one respondent was selected purposively. The data were collected by

using direct observation, semi-structured interview and documentation method.

Concerning data analysis, thematic analysis method was used.

The research findings revealed that the three NGOs under the study have been using

different approaches to promote culture of peace among youth in post-genocide Rwanda.

The approaches used include mobile exhibition, storytelling, audio-visual materials and

eyewitness for Aegis Trust; Peace Education through Sport, Peace trough Radio Program,

Peace and Reconciliation Education through Song and Theater, Ubupfura cultural content

and Tree planting approach for Shalom Educating for Peace; and Cinema Education,

Participatory Action and Research, critical thinking training and conference for Never

Again Rwanda.

Concerning how the approaches used in fostering critical thinking, the study found that

some approaches such as mobile exhibition, storytelling, interactive radio show, Cinema

Education and critical thinking training involve discussion, debate and dialogue which

are arguably to be effective in fostering critical thinking. Importantly, all the three NGOs

maintained that critical thinking is a key element in their peace education programs.

Finally, this research has identified fear of being in troubles or dangers, poor people’s

mindset and culture of silence as the key challenges faced by the NGOs in their effort to

foster critical thinking.

Key words: Blind obedience, Culture of peace, Peace education, Critical thinking.

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TABLE OF CONTENT

Contents

DECLARATION .............................................................................................................................. i

DEDICATION ................................................................................................................................. ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .............................................................................................................. iii

ABREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS .......................................................................................... iv

ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................... vi

TABLE OF CONTENT ................................................................................................................. vii

CHAPTER ONE: GENERAL INTRODUCTION .......................................................................... 1

1.1 Background to the study ........................................................................................................ 1

1.2 Problem statement .................................................................................................................. 2

1.3 Purpose of the study ............................................................................................................... 3

1.4 Research objectives ................................................................................................................ 3

1.5 Research questions ................................................................................................................. 3

1.6 Significance of the study ........................................................................................................ 4

1.7 Ethical consideration .............................................................................................................. 5

1.8 Limitations of the study ......................................................................................................... 5

1.9 Organization of the study ....................................................................................................... 5

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ................................................................... 6

2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 6

2.2 Defining the key concepts ...................................................................................................... 6

2.2.1 Blind obedience .............................................................................................................. 6

2.2.2 Education ........................................................................................................................ 7

2.2.3 Conflict ........................................................................................................................... 7

2.2.4 Violence .......................................................................................................................... 8

2.2.5 Peace ............................................................................................................................... 9

2.2.6 Peace education ............................................................................................................. 10

2.2.7 Cultural of peace ........................................................................................................... 11

2.3 Scope of peace education ..................................................................................................... 12

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2.3.1 Education for peace ....................................................................................................... 12

2.3.2 Critical peace education ................................................................................................ 13

2.4 Critical thinking as a key element of peace education ......................................................... 14

2.4.1 Conceptualization of critical thinking ........................................................................... 14

2.4.2 Critical thinking as a way to effective peace education ................................................ 16

2. 5 Conceptual framework of peace education ......................................................................... 17

2.6 The practice of peace education and the importance of critical thinking in post genocide

Rwanda ...................................................................................................................................... 19

2.7 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 22

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ................................................................ 23

3.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 23

3.2 Research approach ............................................................................................................... 23

3.3 Research design ................................................................................................................... 23

3.4 Research population and sampling method ......................................................................... 24

3.4.1 Research population ...................................................................................................... 24

3.4.2 Sampling method .......................................................................................................... 24

3.5 Data collection and analysis methods .................................................................................. 25

3.5.1 Data collection methods ................................................................................................ 25

3.5.2 Data analysis method .................................................................................................... 26

3.6 Source of data ...................................................................................................................... 26

3.6.1 Primary data .................................................................................................................. 26

3.6.2 Secondary data .............................................................................................................. 26

3.7 Ethical consideration ............................................................................................................ 27

3.8 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 27

CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION ............ 28

4. 1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 28

4.2 Aegis Trust ........................................................................................................................... 28

4.2.1 Short presentation ......................................................................................................... 28

4.2.2 Key findings .................................................................................................................. 29

4.3 Shalom Educating for Peace (SEP) ...................................................................................... 34

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4.3.1 Short presentation ......................................................................................................... 34

4.3.2 Key findings .................................................................................................................. 35

4.4 Never Again Rwanda ........................................................................................................... 39

4.4.1 Short presentation ......................................................................................................... 39

4.4.2 Key findings .................................................................................................................. 40

4.5 Comparison of the findings from three NGOs ..................................................................... 46

4.6 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 48

CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ..................... 50

5.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 50

5.2 Discussion ............................................................................................................................ 50

5. 3 General conclusion.............................................................................................................. 55

5.4 Recommendation ................................................................................................................. 57

BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................................................................................................................... 59

APPENDICES ............................................................................................................................... 64

APPENDIX 1: INTERVIEW GUIDE ........................................................................................... 64

APPENDIX 2: OBSERVATION GUIDE ..................................................................................... 69

APPENDIX 3: The stories from mobile exhibition ....................................................................... 71

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CHAPTER ONE: GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the study

In 1994, Rwanda experienced genocide against Tutsi where more than one million Tutsi

were killed (website of CNLG) and more than two million Hutu fled to neighboring

countries of Rwanda, over the span of only three months (Arnhold et al 1998). One of the

factors that led the 1994 genocide to the extent it reached within such short period of

time is the involvement of youth in the killings because of the teachings they got through

informal and formal education. Before the introduction of schools in Rwanda, the only

way used to educate children was through informal education. This was done by telling

stories, poems, proverbs which mostly talked about the history of the kingdom as well as

the values Rwandans should have. Therefore, the children grew up with the mindset of

patriotism, living together in harmony as the one who share the same kingdom and

fighting their enemies together.

After the introduction of schools in Rwanda by the missionaries, children began to be

exposed to the form of education which promoted violence. As stated by Rutayisire et al

(2004), the pre-genocide education system contributed to conflict and genocide through

the use of teaching practices such as “ethnically pupil identification files, biased access to

national examinations, violent forms of punishment, discriminatory policy as well as

biased content pertaining to the teaching and learning of history and events” (p.332).

Therefore, this greatly contributed to develop “blind obedience” among youth, which is

arguably the primary cause of massive youth participation in the 1994 genocide against

Tutsi (written in Kigali Memorial Genocide). After the 1994 genocide, the government of

Rwanda has been trying to address some of the factors identified, by Rutayisire et al

(2004), which led to the genocide; however, there is still long way to achieve sustainable

peace and reconciliation.

In this regard, critical peace education is considered to build critical consciousness

among people, especially youth. According to the founding charter of UNESCO (1945),

“War begins in the minds of men”. If this is true, then it is through changing our minds,

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our consciousness and our world view, which are rooted in our culture. That

transformation needs to occur in order to move from the culture of violence to a culture

of peace. In this study, I focused on how NGOs foster critical thinking as a key element

of their peace education programs to promote culture of peace among youth in post

genocide Rwanda.

1.2 Problem statement

After the 1994 genocide against Tutsi, to unify and restore the broken relationship among

Rwandans was one of the priorities of new government and a condition for building a

peaceful country. Accordingly, the new government, Government of National Unity

(GNU), established National Unity and Reconciliation Commission (NURC) in 1999

with the aim of promoting unity and reconciliation among Rwandans. To prevent the

reoccurrence of violent conflict and achieve sustainable peace, the government through

NURC and other stakeholders such as NGOs and churches have been working together

for promoting unity and reconciliation as well as peace-building.

However, the approaches used to promote unity and reconciliation and peace-building,

especially those used in programs targeting the youth, are criticized for not responding to

the problem of “blind obedience” which characterized the youth during the 1994

genocide against Tutsi (Hilker 2010; Duruz 2012; Thomson 2013). Youth were

manipulated and used in the 1994 genocide against Tutsi. This is illustrated by the

following words of one genocide perpetrator who was 21 years old at the time of the

genocide: “I perpetrated the 1994 genocide against Tutsi because the leaders told us to do

so. They promised us to take over the lands and other properties of Tutsi after killing

them” (Testimony of genocide perpetrator which the author heard during Gacaca court in

2009).

From this perspective, what is known as critical peace education can be an important

element of post-genocide peace-building which aims to prevent the reoccurrence of

violence and build a sustainable peace. Critical peace education is a way “to build a

critical mass of people who will demand for and address the needed personal and

structural changes that will transform the many problems that relate to peace into

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nonviolent, humane and ecological alternatives and solutions” (Castro & Galace 2010, p.

23). Additionally, King (2014) asserts that critical thinking skills “may make individuals

more resistant to leaders’ efforts to scapegoat and motivate to violence” (p. 34).

This prompted me to investigate on: How and to what extent do NGOs foster critical

thinking in their effort to promote culture of peace among youth through peace

education in post-genocide Rwanda?

1.3 Purpose of the study

This study aimed to find out how NGOs’ peace education initiatives foster critical

thinking in their effort to promote culture of peace among youth in post genocide

Rwanda.

1.4 Research objectives

From the above main purpose of the study, the following three objectives were

formulated:

To identify and describe different peace education approaches of NGOs in

promoting culture of peace among youth in post-genocide Rwanda.

To find out the extent to which critical thinking is considered as a key element in

those NGOs’ peace education programs for youth in post-genocide Rwanda.

To analyze how the approaches used by NGOs foster critical thinking as a key

element of peace education.

To identify the challenges faced by NGOs in fostering critical thinking in their

peace education programs.

1.5 Research questions

The study responded to the following main three questions:

What are different peace education approaches used by NGOs in promoting

culture of peace among youth in post- genocide Rwanda?

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To what extent is critical thinking considered as a key element in those NGOs’

peace education programs for youth in post-genocide Rwanda?

In what ways is critical thinking fostered in their peace education program for

Rwandan youth?

What challenges do the NGOs face in fostering critical thinking in their peace

education programs for youth in post-genocide Rwanda?

1.6 Significance of the study

Education is arguably the most important tool for human development, eradication of

poverty and building peaceful society. However, it can lead to violence depending on

how it is practiced. After experiencing the 1994 genocide against Tutsi, Rwanda has

started the process of peace-building with much emphasis on reconciliation. Along this

process, NURC and other stakeholders including NGOs are working together with

different groups of Rwandans including the youth that constitutes 40% of the Rwandan

population (NISR 2014). A World Bank study cited by Hawrylenko views education as a

key in preventing conflict and is of utmost importance in the post-conflict reconstruction

and reconciliation process (cited in Hilker 2010, p. ). As stated by UNESCO (1945), if

war starts in the mind of man, we should start educating our children about and for peace

at early age so that they will grow up with the mind of culture of peace. Thus, the focus

on youth in creating culture of peace in their mind is one way towards sustainable peace

in post- genocide Rwanda. Moreover, it is crucial to address the problem of “blind

obedience” through critical peace education which fosters critical thinking.

Therefore, the choice of this topic was not only motivated by the need of fulfilling the

requirement for bachelor’s degree in development studies, with honor in peace-building

and development but also by my desire to contribution to deepen our understanding of

how peace education can be promoted effectively among youth in post-genocide Rwanda

by responding to the problem of “blind obedience”. Additionally, it is my hope that the

findings of this study will give some useful insights to peace-building practitioners in

Rwanda and other post-conflict societies.

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1.7 Ethical consideration

The study population participation in the research exercise was voluntary. In order to

meet this requirement, I used well-prepared introduction procedures before soliciting

data, explaining who I am, and the objectives of the study. Before data collection, I

negotiated the consent of the respondent. Confidentiality and anonymity were assured.

1.8 Limitations of the study

The study was carried out within only five months in order to meet the deadline. Within

that time framework and limited financial resources, only three different NGOs were

studied. Additionally, the scope of this research is limited to critical thinking as an

element of peace education and it focuses on youth. In this regard, more details were not

reflected in this vast area of research, peace education.

1.9 Organization of the study

This study has been organized into five chapters. The first chapter covers the general

introduction of the research. The second chapter is concerned with literature review

which provides the theoretical framework of this study. The third chapter clarifies the

methodology which was used throughout this study for data collection, analysis and

interpretation. The fourth chapter is concerned with data presentation, analysis and

interpretation. The last chapter discusses the findings, concludes the research and

provides recommendations.

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CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

2.1 Introduction

This chapter aims to clarify different key concepts related to the research and reviews

what scholars wrote on peace education with a particular focus on critical thinking as a

key element of peace education. The chapter is divided into seven sections. After this

short introduction, the second section defines key words and the other five remaining

ones review theories of peace education with a particular focus on approaches used to

foster critical thinking as well as the practice of peace education in post-conflict

countries, including Rwanda.

2.2 Defining the key concepts

2.2.1 Blind obedience

Blind obedience is defined as following one’s idea, order or law without questioning or

reflecting on it in order to make a choice (Williams 2010). Mainly, blind obedience is

likely to occur to authority or a superior. According to Larken Rose, blind obedience to

authority is “what you do when you think laws should be obeyed just because the law

exists” (Website of Synaptic Sparks).

In this sense, blind obedience can be understood as an obligation, particularly when what

you are asked to do or to follow is in accordance with law. In addition, Rose asserts that

perpetrators try to defend themselves after doing evil things by saying: “because we've

always done it this way"; "because my boss said so"; "because it's the law" and "because

I was only following orders" (ibid). In the context of Rwanda, there are some genocide

perpetrators who witnessed that they perpetrated the 1994 genocide against Tutsi because

they were ordered to do so and also because they were promised, by the authority of that

time, to get the properties of Tutsi after killing them as quoted in the previous chapter.

Blind obedience is not the only factors which led to the 1994 genocide against Tutsi;

rather, there are the other different factors such as bad governance, ethnic conflicts, and

culture of impunity, among others (Rutayisire et al 2004).

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In this research, blind obedience is considered to be following one’s idea or order without

reasoning and reflecting on it before taking actions.

2.2.2 Education

Education as a concept is a derivative of Latin word “educare” which means to “bring

up” (website of study lecture notes). Education is defined differently according to

different philosophers and scholars. Frankenna (1965), a famous philosopher of

education, defines education as: what parents, teachers and schools do, or in other words,

the activity of educating the young; what goes on in the child, or the process of being

educated; and the result, or what the child acquires, or has in the end.

Cambridge dictionary defines education as “the process of teaching or learning in a

school or college, or the knowledge you get from this”. In this research, education is

considered to be the process of learning values, attitudes, skills and knowledge for social

change.

The concept of non-formal education is the focus of this study. As discussed by different

scholars, education plays a vivid role in socialization and promoting social citizenship.

Nelson Mandela stated that education is “the most powerful weapon to change the world”

(cited in King 2014, p. 8). This was echoed by Barack Obama who called education “the

currency of 21st century” (ibid).

2.2.3 Conflict

Conflict is natural and inevitable. According to the International Alert, conflict is “a

multi-dimensional social phenomenon which is an integral feature of human existence,

essential to ongoing process of history, to social change and transformation. Conflicts

arise because of incompatibility of goals over materials or symbolic resources”

(International Alert 2004).

Some people consider conflict as negative thing; however, it can be also constructive.

Depending on how the conflict is managed, its negative effects may be minimized

(destructive conflict) or it may even entail positive effects (constructive conflict).

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Effective conflict management is based, in part, on a solid understanding of the different

ways conflict emerges and can be resolved.

2.2.4 Violence

The concept of violence has generated a large literature. Violence can be seen in both

narrow and broad sense. According to Stanko (2001), violence is “any form of behavior

by an individual that intentionally threatens to or does cause physical, sexual or

psychological harm to others or themselves” (Quoted in Lay 2011, p.7). Thus, violence

means more than physical force intended to hurt, damage, or kill someone. For Stanko, to

harm someone psychologically is also violence.

Galtung (1990) defines violence as any physical, emotional, verbal, institutional,

structural or spiritual behavior, attitude, policy or condition that diminishes, dominates or

destroys ourselves and others. Galtung (1990) classifies violence into three different

forms: direct violence, structural violence and cultural violence.

Direct violence: This form of violence is explained by Galtung (1990) as the use of

physical force such as killing, torture, rape and sexual assaults and beating.

Structural violence: According to Galtung(1990) there are two main types of structural

violence: exploitation and repression. Concerning exploitation, Galtung clarifies how

topdogs get much more than what underdog get. This is what he called “unequal

exchange” (p. 293). Concerning repression, Galtung used four terms to explain it. First,

he combines penetration and segmentation to explain how underdogs are prevented to

know what is going on by the topdogs who already penetrated inside them. Second, he

combines marginalization and fragmentation to show how topdogs keep away the

underdogs from each other so that they cannot overcome such form of violence (pp. 293-

294). Thus, structural violence is driven by the structures or institutions that prevent

people (underdogs) from meeting their basic needs (exploitation) and accessing their

basic human rights (repression). To strengthen Galtung’s point of view, Assefa (1993)

describes structural violence as “killing people without the use of the gun” (p. 3).

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Cultural violence: For Galtung (1990), cultural violence means “aspects of culture, the

symbolic sphere of our existence, exemplified by religion and ideology, language and art,

empirical science and formal science (logic, mathematics), that can be used to justify or

legitimize direct or structural violence” (p.291). Here, language, religion, ideology, and

science are examples of parts of a culture that may lead to cultural violence, and even

make it seem natural or right.

Different scholars argue that all of these three forms of violence are interconnected.

Schirch (2004) states that “violence occurs when people address conflict in a way that

harms or destroys relationships by frustrating or denying the human needs for others”

(quoted in Nsengimana 2014, p14). In this sense, structural violence often leads to

“secondary” violence which includes self-destruction (alcohol abuse, drug abuse,

depression and internalized oppression), community destruction (crime, interpersonal

violence, domestic violence and rape) as well as national and international destruction

(rebel movements, terrorism, civil war, revolution, coups and war) (ibid). In the same

sense, Galtung (1990) argues that violence can start at any of the above mentioned types

of violence (direct, structural, cultural violence) and is easily transmitted to the other.

Further, Galtung (1990) asserts that “with the violent structure institutionalized and the

violent culture internalized, direct violence also tends to become institutionalized,

repetitive, and ritualistic, like a vendetta” (p 302).

2.2.5 Peace

The concept of peace has different meanings. For example, the meaning of peace differs

significantly in different languages or culture. The Latin word for peace “pax” means

“freedom from civil disorder” while the Hebrew word for peace “shalom” goes beyond

the reduction of conflict and rather involves “rightness, completeness and wholeness”

(Lossky et al 2002 cited in Nsengimana 2013, p.16). Similarly, some scholars discuss

peace as the absence of war while others see peace as more than absence of war. From

this perspective, Galtung (1966) proposed two concepts of peace that are influential in the

field of peace studies: negative peace and positive peace.

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Negative peace: This concept of peace refers to the absence of war or direct/physical

violence. It is a condition in which no active, organized military violence is taking place.

In late 1960s, a French scholar, Raymond Aron defined peace as a condition of “more or

less lasting suspension of rivalry between political units” (Barash 1999, cited in Castro &

Galace 2008, p.13). Here, Aron’s understanding of peace is “negative peace”.

Positive peace: According to Galtung (1990), positive peace is defined as the absence of

structural and cultural violence. In this sense, positive peace refers to “a social condition

in which exploitation is minimized or eliminated and in which there is neither overt

violence nor the more subtle phenomenon of underlying structural violence” (cited in

Barash & Webel 2014, p.7).

2.2.6 Peace education

Peace education is a broad topic. Historically, literature shows that it was originated in

European philosophical thought where it became largely institutionalized in the 1950s

and 1960s in Western Europe and the United States. The influential peace scholars such

as Johan Galtung, Kenneth Boulding and Elise Boulding conducted peace research and

parented civil society organizations for peace activism within the community while Betty

Reardon, who is considered as a mother of peace education, sought to construct formal

peace education programs to be implemented in educational system (Kester 2010).

The idea of peace education is also rooted in the foundation charter of UNESCO which

states that “war begins in the mind of men”. From this perspective, peace education aims

to move from culture of war to culture of peace through changing our mind, our

consciousness and our worldview. As Albert Einstein said, “the problems we have cannot

be solved at the same level of thinking that created them”. Therefore, the goal of peace

education is to “raise our level of thinking to be able to solve those problems” (quoted in

Teachers without Borders 2011, p. 79).

According to UNESCO (1995), peace education is a “values-oriented field that aims to

cultivate in learners the knowledge, attitudes, skills, and behaviors upon which a culture

of peace is predicated” (quoted in Kester 2010, p. 17). In addition, other scholars consider

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peace education to be a process of developing knowledge, skills, values and attitudes

needed to bring about behavior changes that are useful to prevent all forms of violence

(direct, structural and cultural) and manage conflict peacefully and create conditions

conducive to peace (Fauntain 1999; Abebe et al 2006 & Reardon 2000).

As the focus of this study, I consider peace education to be, in the context of Rwanda, a

process of learning and developing knowledge, skills, values and attitudes for restoring

the broken relationship among Rwandans as well as creating and promoting culture of

peace among Rwandans.

2.2.7 Cultural of peace

The concept of culture of peace is rooted in UNESCO preamble as mentioned in the

previous sections. To achieve its mission, UNESCO began the Culture of Peace Program.

In 1999, UN General Assembly adopted a declaration on a culture of peace. One year

later, the year 2000 was called the year of culture of peace, which was followed by the

decade for culture of peace from 2001 to 2010.

According to UN (1998) culture of peace is:

a set of values, attitudes, traditions, modes of behavior and ways of life that

reflect and inspire: respect for life and for all human rights; rejection of violence

in all its forms and commitment to the prevention of violent conflict by tackling

their root causes through dialogue and negotiation; commitment to full

participation in the process of equitably meeting the needs of present and future

generations; promotion of the equal rights and opportunities of women and men;

recognition of the right of everyone to freedom of expression, opinion and

information; devotion to principles of freedom, justice, democracy, tolerance,

solidarity, cooperation, pluralism, cultural diversity, dialogue and understanding

between nations, between ethnic, religious, cultural and other groups, and

between individuals. (Quoted in Castro & Galace 2010, p. 18)

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Based on this broad definition, this research considers culture of peace to be how people

think and act for living with others and nature in harmony from intra-personal to

international level. Peace education is the vehicle for promoting this culture of peace.

2.3 Scope of peace education

Peace education is a complex field viewed as “multidimensional and holistic in its

content and process” (Castro & Galace 2010, p. 39). On the other hand, it is a peace-

building strategy in the case of post-conflict situations as well as an effective way of

preventing violent conflict. Scholars developed frameworks for peace education into

different paradigms. As discussed in Kester (2010), common themes of peace education

include human rights, peace, environmental and international education. In addition,

Teachers Without Borders (2011) includes other themes in the scope of peace education

such as gender and peace education, conflict resolution education, critical peace

education and futures education. Thus, peace education encompasses many themes or

topics.

2.3.1 Education for peace

Literature reveals that over three decades, there has been a general shift in peace

education approach from “education about peace” to “education for peace”.

Education about peace is, for Reardon, “education for the development and practice of

institutions and processes that comprise a peaceful social order” (Reardon 1999, p.8).

From this point of view, education about peace seeks to understand what peace is and

how to achieve it. This includes conflict resolution education, human rights education,

and traditional peace studies which tend to respond to conflict in non-violent way. Thus,

education about peace focuses on knowledge and skills for peacemaking.

Education for peace is described as “education to create some of the preconditions for

the achievement of peace” (Reardon 1999, p.8). In this sense, it involves developing

values, attitude, skills and knowledge that are conducive to peace-building.

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Those who implement a peace education program has choices of either adopting one of

these approaches, or combining both depending on the context and the objectives of the

program. Teachers Without Borders prefers to combine both. For them, “if peace

education is like farming system, then education for peace is like preparation of seedbed

while education about peace is like to sow or plant seeds in well prepared land”

(Teachers Without Borders 2011, p.76).

2.3.2 Critical peace education

Critical peace education is, according to Teachers Without Borders (2011), the outcome

of applying critical pedagogy to the issues that promote or hinder peace. Thus, critical

peace education is intertwined with and cannot be divorced from critical pedagogy.

Additionally, Teachers Without Borders states that critical pedagogy can be understood

as a “method in which educators prepare their students to assess, evaluate, and challenge

conventional beliefs or norms through rational critique” (P.80). According to Shor

(1992), critical pedagogy broadly means:

habits of thought, reading, writing, and speaking which go beneath surface

meaning, first impressions, dominant myths, official pronouncements,

traditional clichés, received wisdom, and mere opinions, to understand the deep

meaning, root causes, social context, ideology, and personal consequences of

any action, event, object, process, organization, experience, text, subject matter,

policy, mass media, or discourse (Quoted in Riasati 2012, p. 224).

Barber (1984) also states that the goal of critical pedagogy is to “create a citizenry

capable of genuine public thinking, political judgment, and social action” (quoted in

Teachers Without Borders 2011, p.79). Thus, critical pedagogy is not only for criticizing

society. Rather, it is “understanding why things are the way they are, how they came to

be, and what can be done to change them” (ibid).

Different scholars have contributed to the theory of critical peace education. Two of them

who are influential in the field of critical peace education are Christoph Wulf and

Lourdes Diaz-Soto.

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Wulf puts much emphasis on the conditions which turn peace into structural violence.

Wulf maintains that critical peace education “stems from an explicit understanding of

peace education as a criticism of society” (quoed in Bajaj 2008, p.138). In this way,

critical peace education entails both “the creation of a critical consciousness in students”

and “student comprehension of societal institutions and how power imbalances can create

structural violence” (ibid).

Diaz-Soto’s understanding of critical peace education is not much different from Wulf’s

idea. For her, critical peace education should:

Ensure that issues of power are central to collaborative dialogues; recognize the

need to pursue spiritual aspects of questions; allow the raising of critical

consciousness; realize the need for inclusivity, thereby driving us beyond

identity politics and rely on love as an inclusive alternative paradigm in

solidarity transcending existing conditions and reality (Diaz-Soto 2005, p.96).

In brief, critical peace education should help students to understand possible lenses of

critique. Through this critique, questions arise, and answers are explored. This spirit of

critical consciousness can open the room for culture of peace.

2.4 Critical thinking as a key element of peace education

2.4.1 Conceptualization of critical thinking

The concept of critical thinking is complex and it has been discussed by different scholars

since the mid-late 20th

century. Critical thinking can be understood in both, broad and

narrow sense.

Broadly, critical thinking is, according to the National Council for Excellence in Critical

Thinking, “the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully

conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information

gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or

communication, as a guide to belief and action” (Website of Critical Thinking

Community).

15

Narrowly, two scholars, Robert Ennis and Matthew Lipman, generated literature on

critical thinking. On one hand, Ennis defines critical thinking as “reasonable, reflective

thinking that is focused on deciding what to believe or do” (Website of Pearson).On the

other hand, Lipman sees critical thinking as “skillful, responsible thinking that is

conducive to good judgment because it is sensitive to context, relies on criteria, and is

self-correcting” (ibid). Both, Ennis and Lipman maintain that the result of critical

thinking is to make judgment and/or decision.

Hence, Tara DeLecce points out that critical thinking helps to make “reasoned judgments

that are logical and well thought out” (Website of study.com). Importantly, critical

thinking implies the attitude of questioning all arguments and conclusions one is exposed

to, instead of accepting them blindly. DeLecce proposed three important skills that

critical thinking should encompasses: “curiosity” which tends to learn more information,

seeks evidence and being open to new ideas; “skepticism” which encourages people to

question about all new information exposed to them rather than believing everything they

are told blindly, and “humility” which creates the sense of flexibility in ideas and

opinions once there is new ideas or opinions which convince yours with evidences (ibid).

In addition, critical thinking is reflective, authentic and it involves standards which makes

it different from just thinking (Website of Pearson). Critical thinking as authentic means

thinking about real problems. In this sense, it is far more about what you believe or do

but it is about good judgment. And also, critical thinking involves standards. Here,

standard means the same as criteria. Accuracy, relevance and depth are some of the

criteria or standards which should be met in order to make judgment in critical thinking

(ibid).

Although critical thinking aims at resulting into good judgments, decision or actions, it

may be manipulated when it is motivated by selfishness. Thus, critical thinking should be

“grounded in fair-mindedness, intellectual integrity” and empathy for better judgments,

decision or actions (Website of the Critical Thinking Community).

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2.4.2 Critical thinking as a way to effective peace education

As I have discussed in the previous chapter, the ultimate goal of peace education is to

maintain peace and harmonious relationship from intra personnel to international level.

For peace education to be effective, Johnson & Johnson (no publication year)

interconnected three different theories: social interdependence, constructive controversy

and, integrative negotiation, all of which foster critical thinking.

Social interdependence theory emphasizes both cooperation and competition. But to

create and maintain peace, relationships among relevant parties must be dominated by

cooperation, not competition. There are two types of social interdependence: positive

(cooperation) which leads to “promotive interaction” and negative (competition) which

brings to “oppositional or contrient interaction”. The key driving force of “promotive

interaction” is the open-minded discussion of diverse views. In this regards, open-minded

discussion fosters critical thinking which tends to result in effective, integrative decisions

and strengthened relationships as well as the understanding of each other’s perspectives

and a willingness to integrate everyone’s ideas into a joint decisions (Johnson & Johnson,

no publication year, pp.226-227).

Constructive controversy theory focuses on effective analysis on political speeches,

writings and actions; innovative problem solving; and decision making on difficult issues.

For Johnson & Johnson (no publication year), there is a controversy when “the ideas,

opinions, information, theories, or conclusions of one person are incompatible with those

of another and the two seek to reach an agreement” (p. 29). Controversy may lead to both

positive and negative outcomes depending on how it is managed. But the aim of

constructive controversy is “to create problem solving”. As controversy is viewed as

conflict among ideas, Edmond Burke considers an opponent as a helper. Burke argues

that “he that wrestles with us strengthens our nerves, and sharpens our skill (quoted in

Johnson & Johnson, no publication year, p. 230). Thus, controversy is compared with

debate which generates “higher achievement characterized by critical thinking and

greater creativity”. Therefore, constructive controversy entails “advocating the course of

action one thinks is best, critically analyzing and refuting the opposing positions, trying

17

to see the issue from all points of view, and jointly coming to the best reasoned judgment

possible about how to solve the problem” (ibid, p. 231).

Integrative negotiations theory puts much emphasis on resolving conflicts to “maximize

joint gain and mutual benefits” (Johnson & Johnson, no publication year, p.231). Both,

negotiation and mediation approaches used in this theory. Thus, integrative negotiations

theory gives a space to all parties in conflict to express their feeling, needs and requests.

The aim of this theory is to come up with win-win solution (ibid).

To sum up, all the three theories, social interdependence, constructive controversy and

integrative negotiation, create a space for dialogue, open-minded discussion and debate

which foster critical thinking and the sense of empathy for harmonious relationship.

Alfonso (2014) who considers critical thinking as a foundation to the four pillars of peace

education (respect for self, appreciation of diversity, understanding of justice/fairness and

awareness of interconnectedness) asserts that “if we want our children to be able to

challenge world views and question current unfair practices, they must be taught to be

critical in their thinking processes” (p.183). Alfonso (2014) continues arguing that there

are three main skills which are necessary for the effectiveness of critical thinking process

and critical though applicability. Such skills are attentive listening, active observation and

good communication skills.

2. 5 Conceptual framework of peace education

Based on what I have discussed in the literature review, one of the two peace education

approaches, education about and for peace, can be used depending on the context and the

objectives of the program. In this regard, I propose that effective peace education which

aims to bring about culture of peace should be the combination of both education about

and for peace which foster critical thinking and empathy.

Here, critical thinking is considered to be a foundation of both educations about and for

peace. This is because people’s understanding in peace is different. For example, Botha

said that he was for peace during the Apartheid in South Africa. What kind of peace did

he mean? May be for him, peace meant segregation between white and black in all

18

aspects of life. His understanding was different from that of Mandela who struggled

against Apartheid. Also, in 1980s, Regan’s perspective in peace was to keep out

communists from the interest of USA whatever means he could use including armed

force (McCandless & Karbo 2010). In the case of Rwanda, those who planned and

organized the genocide thought that they could be peaceful if all Tutsi were massacred.

Their perspective in peace was different from that of Galtung (1990) I discussed in the

previous sections.

In this regard, critical thinking combined with empathy towards others can help to reason

authentically what peace is and how to achieve it (education about peace). After bearing

in mind what peace is and how to achieve it, then critical thinking can help to make

decision on what preconditions one should believe to be conducive to peace (education

for peace).

In this sense, I consider critical thinking and empathy to be key elements to both

approaches to peace education which aims to bring about culture of peace.

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Figure 1: Conceptual framework of peace education

2.6 The practice of peace education and the importance of critical thinking in post

genocide Rwanda

Different authors argue that peace education programs are different according to the

context. For example, peace education in western countries is not and should not be the

same as that in Sub-Saharan Africa. Peace education implemented in a country which

does not experience violent conflict cannot be the same as those implemented in post-

conflict countries, even though both may share some commonalities. According to Castro

& Galace (2010), peace education is “more effective and meaningful when it is adopted

according to the social and cultural context and the country’s needs and aspirations”

(preliminary page VIII). Smith (2000) suggests that peace education in post conflict

countries should involve four main topics: reconciliation, respect for self and others,

justice and laws and how to work together for peaceful future (cited in Term 2010). In

this regard, two different commissions were established in Rwanda after the 1994

genocide against Tutsi. One, National Unity and Reconciliation Commission (NURC),

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focuses on reconciliation while the other, National Commission for Human Rights

(NCHR), focuses on respect for self and others (human rights)

The responsibilities of NURC were strengthened by the new constitution of Rwanda in

2003 where in its preamble emphasizes on “the necessity to strengthen and promote

national unity and reconciliation which were seriously shaken by the genocide and its

consequences”. In addition, for “the national economic development and social

progress”, the new government was “conscious that peace and unity of Rwandans

constitute the essential basis” (Constitution 2003).

Therefore, to achieve its goal, NURC in partnership with the government, especially

Ministry of Youth, Culture and Sport (MINISPOC) and Ministry of Education

(MINEDUC), adopted programs and activities that promote unity and reconciliation.

Some of them are: Ingando which is rooted in Rwandan tradition in two hundred years

ago; Itorero ry’igihugu which focuses on ensuring ongoing peace and security and

improving public service delivery; Unity and Reconciliation clubs among youth in

schools, and the most recent one Ndi umunyarwanda which aims to build national

identity of “ubunyarwanda”.

Apart from NURC, different NGOs and churches work on the same field of promoting

reconciliation among Rwandans by using different approaches. Most of the NGOs and

churches put much emphasis on the forging interpersonal relationships through

cooperatives and clubs. However, there are other NGOs which went beyond

reconciliation and involved other topics of peace education in order to foster culture of

peace among the young generation of Rwandans for achieving sustainable peace. Some

of those NGOs include:

Shalom Educating for Peace (SEP). SEP is a non-governmental, non-profit

organization working for building and sustaining positive peace through education. This

organization is based in Rwanda. It was already started a branch in Kenya and is

establishing another branch in Burundi. SEP pursues the following objectives: educating

for peace, researching for peace and cultivating the culture of non-violence. (Website of

SEP)

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Initiatives for Peace and Human Rights (IPHR). IPHR is a nonprofit organization that

works to help communities and individuals in Africa's Great Lakes Region achieve

sustainable peaceful coexistence through human rights and good governance education.

The mission of IPHR is “to equip communities and individuals living in Africa's Great

Lakes Region with the Human Rights knowledge and Good Governance skills needed to

build a global culture of peace” (Website of IPHR).

Never Again Rwanda (NAR). NAR is an NGO which has the mission of “enhancing

citizens’ capacity to analyze the root causes of conflict and facilitate dialogue among

peers in order to generate ideas and activities that work towards sustainable peace and

socio-economic development” (Website of NAR). Within NAR, there is a program of

peace-building which has the goal of promoting mutual understanding, respect and non-

violent conflict resolution among youth in order to build sustainable peace.

Aegis Trust. This is an international organization working for genocide prevention. One

of its activities is Rwanda Peace Education Program (RPEP). The target groups in this

program are teachers, students (youth), government leaders and others who work closely

with the community such as the military and police. The aim of this program is to bring

positive changes in society through teaching about genocide (what genocide is, how it is

planned, organized and implemented and its consequences) and helping citizens to

develop critical thinking and positive values. (Website of Aegis Trust)

Based on how different scholars conceptualize critical thinking as reviewed in this

section, it is possibly to argue that the involvement of a large number of youth in the

killings of the 1994 genocide against Tutsi was at least partly due to the lack of critical

thinking skills. One of the three critical thinking skills, according to DeLecce, is

“skepticism” which encourages people to question about all new information exposed to

them rather than believing everything they are told blindly (Website of study.com). This

once again reminds me of the testimony given by the genocide perpetrator who said that

“I perpetrated 1994 genocide against Tutsi because the leaders told us to do so. They

promised us to take over the lands and other properties of Tutsi after killing them”

(Testimony of genocide perpetrator heard by the author during Gacaca court in 2009).

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This is an indication that blind obedience characterized many of the youth who

perpetrated the 1994 genocide against Tutsi.

To prevent the reoccurrence of genocide and other violent conflicts, peace education

which fosters critical thinking can be one of the solutions. King (2014) argues that critical

thinking skills can be one of the pathways to peace-building (p.33). In the previous

sections, we have seen that conflict may result into violent conflict or it may even entail

positive effects (constructive conflict) depending on how conflict is managed. Thus,

critical thinking skills “assist people in discovering conflict-management options” (King

2014, p.34) for positive outcome.

In the case of Rwanda where youth were used blindly to perpetrate the 1994 genocide

against Tutsi, to empower youth with critical thinking skills can be considered as an

important way for preventing violent conflict in the future. As this research aims to find

out how NGOs’ peace education initiatives foster critical thinking in their effort to

promote culture of peace among youth in post genocide Rwanda, much will be discussed

in the next chapters.

2.7 Conclusion

This chapter has focused on related literature of peace education with particular focus on

critical thinking. Both approaches to peace education, education about and for peace, can

be combined or one of them can be used depending on the context and the objectives of

the program. Also, this chapter has discussed how critical thinking can be fostered for

effective peace education by focusing on three theories, social interdependence,

constructive controversy and, integrative negotiation. In addition, the chapter has

reviewed how critical thinking can be a solution to blind obedience which characterized

youth during the 1994 genocide as a way for preventing the reoccurrence of violent

conflict in the future.

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CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter clarifies methodological approach which was used to guarantee the

authenticity and the validity of findings. Mainly, this chapter focuses on research design,

population and sampling techniques, as well as methods for data collection, analysis and

interpretation.

3.2 Research approach

In this study, I used qualitative approach to collect, analyze and present the data. A

qualitative approach is “a systematic subjective approach used to describe life

experiences and situations to give them meaning” (Burns & Grove 2003, p.19).

Therefore, this approach helped me to find information in depth and to present them

without generalization.

3.3 Research design

Burns & Grove (2003) define a research design as “a blueprint for conducting a study

with maximum control over factors that may interfere with the validity of the findings”

(p.195). Further, Parahoo (1997) describes a research design as “a plan that describes

how, when and where data are to be collected and analyzed” (p.142). In this research, a

case study approach was used.

I used a case study as an approach because I aimed to find out, in depth, different peace

education initiatives of NGOs. According to Bell (1999), “a case study approach is

particularly appropriate for individual researchers because it gives an opportunity for one

aspect of a problem to be studied in some depth within a limited time scale”. Therefore,

three NGOs, Aegis Trust, SEP and NAR, were studied to find out: the approaches used to

promote culture of peace among youth in their peace education programs; if critical

thinking is considered as a key element of their peace education programs for youth in

post-genocide Rwanda; how critical thinking is fostered among youth in their peace

education programs; and the challenges faced in doing so as well as the way forward.

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3.4 Research population and sampling method

3.4.1 Research population

Burns & Grove (2003) describe population as all the elements that meet the criteria for

inclusion in a study. Further, they refer eligibility criteria as “a list of characteristics that

are required for the membership in the target population” (Burns & Grove 2003, p. 45).

In this study, the target population is NGOs and the criteria for inclusion are: being

NGOs, having the program of peace-building or peace education, operating in Rwanda

and working with youth.

3.4.2 Sampling method

According to Polit et al (2001), sample is a proportion of a population. The sample is

chosen from the study population that is commonly referred to as the “target population

or accessible population” (Burns & Grove 2003, p.233). Further, Holloway & Wheeler

(2002) assert that in qualitative study, sample size does not matter in terms of quality of

the study and note that there are no guidelines in determining sample size. Qualitative

researchers do not normally know the number of people in the research beforehand; the

sample may change in size and type during research.

Therefore, the researcher must determine what type of information is needed, who is

most likely to have it and how many people will be surveyed (Sample Size). In this sense,

three NGOs were purposively selected from the study population due to time and

financial availability. And then, in each case study, two respondents were purposively

selected for semi-structured interview. The criteria to be selected as an interviewee were:

at least having two years of experience in peace education or peace-building program and

responsibilities the person has in peace education or peace-building program. But due to

time availability, only one respondent was interviewed in each of the three NGOs under

the study.

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3.5 Data collection and analysis methods

3.5.1 Data collection methods

In this research, three different methods were used to collect data: direct observation,

semi-structured interview and documentation.

3.5.1.1 Semi-structured interview

An interview is a conversation between two or more people where questions are asked by

the interviewer to elicit facts or statements from the interviewee. In qualitative research,

interview is important in order to get information. There are different forms of interview.

This study used semi-structured interview, the interview method which is effective in

understanding respondent’s view points. In this study, semi-structured interviews were

conducted with the help of an interview guide which consisted of open-ended questions

that were developed to address research questions (See Appendix 1).

The interview guide was revised more than once as the researcher was progressing in

conducting interviews.

3.5.1.2 Direct observation

In qualitative research, observation is mostly used. Observation can be participative or

non-participative which is also known as “direct observation”. As stated by Pauly (2010),

direct observation is a source of evidence that can contribute to the development of a

strong case study. Thus, it provides an opportunity for researchers to observe directly

what is happening in the social setting, interact with participants, and participate in

activities.

In this study, I used direct observation with an observation guide which helped me to

collect and record information concerning the topic of the study (See Appendix 2). I also

used field note to record data after realizing that there are other useful information apart

from the observation guide I had.

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3.5.1.3 Documentation

Documentation is one of the methods of collecting information. According to Mogalakwe

(2006), documentary study is a careful reading, understanding and analysis of written

documents. In this study, the researcher gathered information from books, articles,

internets and importantly from peace education tools developed by target NGOs as well

as their websites.

3.5.2 Data analysis method

As aforementioned that this study is qualitative, the method which was used to analyze

that is thematic analysis, the most common method for qualitative research.

According to Braun & Clarke (2006), thematic analysis is defined as “identifying,

analyzing and reporting patterns (themes) within data” (p.79). This method was used to

analyze stories and other data collected in form of texts. Thus, this method helped to give

rich and detailed data for this descriptive research.

3.6 Source of data

Both primary data and secondary data were used to enrich the findings.

3.6.1 Primary data

In this research, primary data are all the information collected by the researcher through

observations and semi-structured interviews within the sample size discussed in the

previous sections.

3.6.2 Secondary data

Secondary data refers to, in this study, all the information gathered from books, articles,

journals, reports and other studies done by other institutions or organizations as well as

the websites of NGOs studied in this research. Documentation is the method which was

used in the collection of secondary data.

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3.7 Ethical consideration

This relates to moral standards that the researcher should consider in all research methods

in all stages of the research design. First of all, the researcher has to respect the right of

the respondents. That is why verbal consent was used for participating in this research

voluntarily. Also, all information collected was used in the purpose of this research only.

Additionally, the names of respondents were not recorded in other to maintain

confidentiality.

3.8 Conclusion

This chapter describes the research methodology and design. Its purpose is to maximize

valid answers to a research question. Therefore, the researcher has described in depth

data collection methods, population and sampling method to be used. Additionally, the

researcher makes sense of data by using a descriptive method to analyze it and also to

ensure that the data are trustworthy. Finally, this chapter has discussed the ethical issues

which were taken into consideration in order to make sure that the participant’s rights are

protected.

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CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND

INTERPRETATION

4. 1 Introduction

This chapter is the core of this study and it aims to respond to the research questions in

order to meet research objectives. Therefore, the findings from three NGOs, Aegis Trust,

Shalom Educating for Peace and Never Again Rwanda, are presented, analyzed and

interpreted in this chapter. As I noted in the previous chapter, all the three methods, semi-

structured interview, direct observation and documentation were used to collect data in

the three case studies.

4.2 Aegis Trust

4.2.1 Short presentation

As explained in chapter two, Aegis Trust is an international NGO which initiated Rwanda

Peace Education Program (RPEP) in partnership with other three NGOs: IRDP, USC

Shooh Faundation and Radio la Benevolencia. RPEP started in 2013 with the aim of

bringing positive changes in the society through developing critical thinking and positive

values. RPEP is implemented into two different programs: outreach program and onsite

program. The target groups are teachers, youth, government leaders from different

institutions and visitors. From 2013 to 2016, RPEP targets 22 districts of Rwanda. Aegis

Trust spends 22 days in each district among the 22 targeted. In July, RPEP was in Burera

district, the twelfth district covered by the program. (Interview with Aegis Trust staff)

In its two programs mentioned above, Aegis Trust organizes different workshops. While I

was collecting data for this study, I participated in two of the workshops organized by

Aegis Trust on peace education, one for teachers and the other for secondary school

students. The one, for teachers, was scheduled from 13th

July to 15th

July 2015 and both

primary and secondary teachers were involved. This workshop was held in Burera district

and a total of 20 participants came from this district. The purpose of the workshop was to

equip teachers with good methodology which would help them to create space for

discussion in order to know what genocide is, how it was planned, organized and

29

implemented and its consequences. And also, the training aimed to help teachers to be

skilled in how to develop and increase the level of critical thinking among students, to

develop values against bystander ship, and to encourage students to be peacemakers.

The topics covered during the workshop are the following: history of Rwanda (pre-

colonial, colonial and post-colonial period of Rwanda); genocide against Tutsi and its

consequences; continuum of violence; genocide in general and genocide in Rwanda and

its consequences; building sustainable peace in Rwanda; critical thinking and empathy;

active bystander ship; the Way Forward - Sustainable Peace in Rwanda (The Continuum

of Benevolence) and forgiveness and trauma healing.

The workshop, for secondary students, was carried out in one day at Kigali memorial

genocide on 28th

July 2015. The participants were secondary school students from G.S

Burega, Rulindo district and the total number was 28. All the participants are student

representatives in their school. The theme of the workshop was “learn from the history to

build the future”.

4.2.2 Key findings

In Aegis Trust, they define peace education as “an inclusive education that promotes

peace in its all components” (Interview with Aegis staff, 15th

July 2015, Burera).

1. Peace education approaches used in promoting culture of peace among youth

in post- genocide Rwanda.

Mainly, Aegis Trust uses mobile exhibition through its RPEP. As I discussed in the

previous section, RPEP has outreach and onsite program. Mobile exhibition is used in

both programs and it consists of different stories with their pictures. Those stories are

about Rwanda before, during and after the 1994 genocide against Tutsi. The stories after

the 1994 genocide are portrayed as peacemaking stories because they explain the process

of how different categories of Rwandans, genocide survivors, genocide offenders,

bystanders and youth, have been working together so that they can live in harmonious

relationship again. In addition to mobile exhibition, Aegis Trust uses other approaches

such as story telling approach, audio visual materials, and eyewitnesses. With storytelling

30

approach, Aegis Trust uses different stories found in mobile exhibition such as story of

Martin and Jacque which is entitled “Our friendship changed our parents and our

community” (see appendix 3). Concerning audio visual materials, Aegis Trust has

different video documentaries which show how genocide was planned and how genocide

propaganda was spread among the citizens. Also, the some videos are used to illustrate

how some groups of Rwandans have overcome the past for the better future. The

eyewitness as an approach is not much used. But occasionally, Aegis Trust invites people

to give their testimony face-to-face in some workshops.

2. To what extent is critical thinking considered as a key element in peace

education programs for youth in post-genocide Rwanda?

“Critical thinking itself is not enough [....]. Critical thinking results in

positive changes when it is combined with empathy” (The workshop’s

facilitator, 15th

July 2015, Burera).

In Aegis Trust, critical thinking is considered to be a key element in RPEP. This is shown

by one of the stories used in mobile exhibition where it explains how people, especially

youth, were used blindly to perpetrate the 1994 genocide against Tutsi. This story

explains that youth were involved in the killings because they did not think critically. The

facilitator used this story to show the consequences of not using critical thinking.

The other story, which is entitled “We find our own truth” (see appendix 4), shows how

secondary students in Gisagara district used critical thinking to overcome the past and

find their own truth. Learning about Rwandan history and discussing topics such as how

people are made into outsider (not Rwandans) and how generalizations can hurt people

enabled them to realize that they need to treat everyone as an equal and listen to them.

They stopped judging people by appearance. By sharing with their parents, their parents

also changed.

On one hand, before this change, youth who are genocide survivors were angry at those

who had parents, but came to realize that all the youth had different problems, including

the ones of being separated from their parents in prison due to genocide-related crimes.

31

On the other hand, youth who are not genocide survivors also changed their negative

attitudes toward youth who are genocide survivors. For example, one of the students once

believed that those students getting support from FARG (Genocide Survivors Assistance

Fund) were favored by the government just because they were Tutsi. This led her to

discriminate against her colleagues supported by FARG to the extent that she avoided

speaking to them or sitting together with one of them.

But through peace dialogue club in their school where they discussed on different issues

such as discrimination, scapegoating, prejudices, generalizations and rumors, they

developed their level of critical thinking and empathy which made them to be changed

and to change their parents. One of the girls, in the story, said

I leaned to seek my own information. I did not know about the genocide, but

people told me that there were Tutsi in my area and at home they told me not to

go to that place. They said, “Tutsi are dangerous, Don’t talk to them”. But now

my parents accept (that the two groups) need to socialize together. I used to be a

violent person. If someone takes my pen, I would fight him or her immediately.

I learned how to stay in peace, to harmonize, how much mutual respect can help.

(RPEP 2014, p.47)

In addition to these stories, the methods used by the facilitators of Aegis Trust also show

how useful critical thinking is to them. In the two different workshops I attended, the one

for the teachers and the other for the secondary students, the facilitators promoted

dialogue and group discussion. One of the facilitators put a strong emphasis on critical

thinking as a key element of peace as follows:

Critical thinking is very important in social relationship. When you see why

youth participated in the killings during the 1994 genocide against Tutsi is

because of blind obedience. Many of them (youth who participated in the

killings) did not have high education level or the other power which could help

them to get good job position. They lacked critical thinking. They did not ask

themselves why this? What will happen if I do this? What should I do? They

did not think critically. Therefore, to help youth develop high level of critical

32

thinking and empathy will make the future of our country to be better. With this,

the people will live in harmonious relationship. (The workshop’s facilitator, 15th

July 2015, Burera)

Also, critical thinking is included in the manual training tool developed by Aegis Trust.

In page from 17 to 18, this tool discusses what critical thinking is, why critical thinking is

important and how to teach critical thinking. In the workshop, for teachers, the facilitators

explained critical thinking by using the taxonomies of Bloom and Krathwohl (RPEP

2014, pp.15-16). Bloom taxonomy focuses on how teachers can help students to develop

critical thinking in different levels while Krathwohl taxonomy puts much emphasis on

developing empathy. For Aegis Trust, critical thinking itself is not enough; rather, it

should be combined with empathy for positive changes. One of the facilitators said that

“critical thinking itself is not enough because even those who planned 1994 genocide had

critical thinking. But they did not have empathy. Critical thinking results in positive

changes when it is combined with empathy” (The workshop’s facilitator, 15th

July 2015,

Burera).

3. The ways critical thinking is fostered in peace education program for

Rwandan youth.

“…. The best way to develop critical thinking in students is to ask

them the questions such as discuss, compare and contrast and analyze.

…” (The workshop’s facilitator, 15th

July 2015, Burera)

Through the abovementioned approaches used by Aegis Trust, critical thinking is

fostered with “interactive exercises developed” in different sessions (Interview, 15th

July

2015, Burera). According to my observation in two different workshops organized and

facilitated by Aegis Trust in its RPEP, they motivated the trainees to participate actively.

This was done in group discussion, dialogue, interactive exercises where the trainees

came up with their own conclusion.

On the side of teachers, they were encouraged to ask questions which help student to

think critically such as discuss, compare and contrast and analyze. For explaining the

Bloom taxonomy during the workshop for teachers, one of the facilitators said:

33

We had citizens who did not have critical thinking. [...] If we are teaching

children whom we ask list, outline and define in the exercises and exams we

give them, we are not developing their critical thinking skills. The best way to

develop critical thinking in students is to ask them the questions such as discuss,

compare and contrast and analyze. We have to teach them to think at high level

(critical thinking) in order to challenge bad leadership. We do not need citizens

who will obey blindly as the ones who did so in the 1994 genocide. We want

future citizens who think and analyze critically for positive change”. (The

workshop’s facilitator, 15th

July 2015, Burera)

On the side of secondary school students, the facilitator used participative approach

where students discussed different topics in groups such as history of Rwanda, genocide,

continuum of circle of violence, continuum of benevolence, Rwandan values which

promote peace and not being bystanders. After group discussion, each group was asked to

make a presentation of what have been discussed. The facilitator helped the students to

draw a conclusion rather than imposing his conclusion on them. He helped the

participants to think what to do and how to do it for better and peaceful outcome.

Additionally, facilitators used different stories from mobile exhibition to help youth to

develop their skills in critical thinking. For example, by using the story of Jacque and

Martin, the facilitator said:

Jacque and Martin were able to strengthen their relationship and to unify their

parents and community because they used critical thinking. They did not obey

blindly all they were told by their parents and their neighbors; rather, they used

their thinking. (The workshop’s facilitator, 15th

July 2015, Burera)

4. Challenges the NGO has faced in fostering critical thinking in their peace

education programs for youth in post-genocide Rwanda

“…I was afraid that I could be arrested.” (The workshop’s

participant, 15th

July 2015, Burera)

34

Aegis Trust faces different challenges in fostering critical thinking among youth. First,

the staff of Aegis Trust identified “the primitive understanding or pre-conceived ideas

from their families” as the challenge (Interview on 15th

July, Burera). Here, youth were

told different narratives about genocide by their parents or their elders. To Aegis Trust,

this is a challenge, especially when it comes to the discussion about the history Rwanda,

before, during and after the genocide. Second, one teacher during the workshop spoke of

fear of being arrested as another challenge:

I was afraid of giving space to my students for discussion on some sensitive

issues like 1994 genocide. This is because I did not have enough information,

knowledge and skills on how good I can facilitate the discussion. For that, I was

afraid that I could be arrested. (The workshop’s participant, 15th

July 2015,

Burera)

To respond to these challenges faced in fostering critical thinking among youth, the Aegis

staff said:

We should continue to help our youth to develop critical thinking and use it in

their daily lives as well as doing their own research to get more information. Not

only youth, but also their parent and/or family members should be educated too

(Interview with Aegis Trust staff on 15th

July 2015, Burera).

4.3 Shalom Educating for Peace (SEP)

4.3.1 Short presentation

Shalom Educating for Peace (SEP) is a peace education NGO registered under the law of

South Africa and working in Rwanda. SEP has been educating communities for peace

since 2008, reaching thousands of people in the Ndera, Rwamagana and Rulindo areas.

SEP as an educational organization has the vision of “empowering communities to

prevent violent conflict, non-violently resolve conflict, and build a culture of non-

violence and move towards reconciliation” (Website of SEP). This vision is implemented

through three principal activities: peace education, research and non-violent action.

Accordingly, several programs were developed by SEP such as a weekly radio broadcast

35

on peace, training in nonviolent communication, and peace education through sports,

theatre and song, amongst others.

SEP started to educate for peace because our region, Great Lake Region, experienced

many different forms of violent conflicts. The executive director of SEP states that the

NGO is “convinced that to build peace starts in the mind of people as found in the

preamble of UNESCO” (interview on 1st August 2015, Kigali). According to UNESCO

(1945), “since wars begin in the minds of men, it is in the minds of men that the defenses

of peace must be constructed”. SEP defines peace as “a way of life committed to non-

violent conflict resolution and striving to social and personal justice” (Interview on 1st

August 2015, Kigali).

According to SEP’s conception, peace exists “when we have citizens who are able to

resolve their conflicts in non-violent way and who are able to build social justice”. That is

why it is critical “to empower citizens with knowledge and skills on how to respond to

conflicts in non-violent way” through peace education (Interview on 1st August 2015,

Kigali). The themes/topics covered by SEP are mainly key concepts of peace education

such as peace, conflict and violence; life skills such as non-violent communication,

emotional management, conflict management and conflict transformation. The main

target groups of SEP are youth and community.

All the data I presented in this section were collected through semi-structured interview

and documentation. I visited the office of SEP twice for data collection activities.

4.3.2 Key findings

1. Peace education approaches used in promoting culture of peace among youth

in post- genocide Rwanda.

SEP implements its peace education programs by using the following different

approaches:

Peace Education through Sport: Through football or basketball, SEP empowers

participants with knowledge and skills in peace, conflict resolution and reconciliation.

36

When conflict arises in a game, the opportunity is used to help the participants resolve the

conflict using the tools they have been taught. This approach has been used in different

schools in Rwanda. (Website of SEP)

Peace through Radio Program: Members of SEP speak on a weekly community radio

program in Rwanda, called “Umucyo”, where peace principles are discussed and debated

and people can call in with their questions and comments. (Interview with executive

secretary of SEP on 24th

June 2015, Kigali)

Peace and Reconciliation Education through Song and Theatre (PREST): SEP seeks

to educate youth and communities through the use of song and theatre. After training

some groups of youth, choirs and communities in peace, they create a repertoire of songs

and plays that are performed for the community. Executive director of SEP said this

approach to be successful where it was used in different parts of Rwanda. (Interview with

executive secretary of SEP on 24th

June 2015, Kigali)

Ubupfura cultural content: The executive director of SEP said “we have realized that

corruption hinders peace-building efforts and undermines the process of sustainable

positive peace. When the leaders failed to perform their duties, we consider it as an

outcome of corruption” (Interview on 1stAugust 2015, Kigali). To respond to this

problem, SEP has initiated a pilot project, under the name of Ubupfura, with the aim of

developing anti-corruption education as a way of building positive peace. Through this

approach, SEP educates the community about the values necessary to fight against

corruption. The project is being piloted in Rulindo, in the Northern Province of Rwanda.

Tree planting approach: This is an approach developed by SEP in partnership with

Institute for Justice and Reconciliation (IJR) located in South Africa. The aim of this

approach is “to foster reconciliation between genocide survivors and genocide

perpetrators” (SEP 2015). According to SEP, planting a tree has “symbolic and practical

significance”. Therefore, to plant a tree in one another’s family, between genocide

survivors and genocide perpetrators, “symbolizes laying new foundations for a

transformed relationship, which need to be nurtured” (Interview with SEP executive

director, 24th

July 2015, Kigali). As stated by SEP (2015), the act of nurturing a planted

37

tree has a symbolic meaning and arguably fosters reconciliation process that can

transcend over one generation. In brief, this approach creates “a space of contact between

former enemies and to transform their relations from enmity to collaboration and

potentially to harmonious coexistence” (ibid).

All the above mentioned approaches were developed and used by SEP in order to educate

community and youth for peace.

2. To what extent is critical thinking considered as a key element in peace

education programs for youth in post-genocide Rwanda?

“….Critical thinking framed in the spirit of non-violence and

compassion can lead to sustainable peace. …” (Interview with

executive director of SEP on 1st

August 2015, Kigali).

SEP considers critical thinking as a key element in peace education, especially in the

context of Rwanda. But, critical thinking itself is not enough; rather, it should be framed

in the spirit of non-violence and compassion. This was emphasized by executive director

of SEP as follows:

I believe that critical thinking is very important in building culture of peace.

Critical thinking framed in the spirit of non-violence and compassion can lead to

sustainable peace. For us, education is the first step. Then after, critical thinking

which is based on knowledge, skills and values can lead to positive change.

(Interview with executive director of SEP on 1st August 2015, Kigali)

3. The ways critical thinking is fostered in peace education program for

Rwandan youth.

“…. This is an interactive radio show … We believe that it fosters

critical thinking …” (Interview with executive director of SEP on

24th

July 2015, Kigali).

In SEP, they foster critical thinking among youth through weekly radio show called

“Twubake amahoro” (Let’s build peace in English). This radio show is believed by SEP

38

to create a space for dialogue on the issues that hinder peace and propose the way

forward in building sustainable peace. The executive director asserts that:

We have a weekly radio show at radio Umuco. This is an interactive radio show

where we discuss on different topics related to peace. We believe that it fosters

critical thinking, not only among youth but also in the whole community.

(Interview with executive director of SEP on 24th

July 2015, Kigali)

With this weekly radio show, SEP invites different people who work in the field of peace

and discuss with the audience on different topics. Also, sometimes SEP goes to the

community and hears from the people about their daily life. Topics covered include the

main problems people are facing, how they live together and what they think are their

connectors as well as dividers.

4. Challenges the NGO has faced in fostering critical thinking in their peace

education programs for youth in post-genocide Rwanda

“… critical thinking is almost impossible when people are poor.”

(Interview with executive director of SEP on 24th

July 2015, Kigali)

Although SEP designs its peace education program to foster critical thinking, they face

some challenges. The executive director identified two main challenges:

Historical legacy: “When it comes to the history of Rwanda, people are not likely to talk.

No open discussion and truth telling is difficult about what happened in the past,

particularly about the genocide” (Interview on 1st

August 2015, Kigali). This is because

people are afraid of each other and they fear to talk about ethnicity which was banned by

the government.

Poor people‟s mindset: Poor people can be easily manipulated. “Many people think that

harmonious relationship is impossible when people are poor. They think that poverty is

the source of all conflicts and critical thinking is almost impossible when people are poor

(Interview on 24th

July 2015, Kigali).

39

As solutions to these challenges, SEP tries to create space for dialogue where people can

share their stories without blaming one another. In addition, SEP supports continuous

education as a way to address those challenges.

4.4 Never Again Rwanda

4.4.1 Short presentation

Never Again Rwanda (NAR) is an NGO which has the mission of “enhancing citizens’

capacity to analyze the root causes of conflict and facilitate dialogue among peers in

order to generate ideas and activities that work towards sustainable peace and socio-

economic development” (Website of NAR). Within NAR, there is a program of peace-

building which has the goal of promoting mutual understanding, respect and non-violent

conflict resolution among youth in order to build sustainable peace. As NAR has different

programs, in this study I focused on its peace-building program. In this program, different

activities are carried out such as:

Public speaking: This activity brings together secondary schools students from the GLR.

The students were given a theme related to peace to be developed and discussed and

after, the theme presented in five minutes. Thereafter, examiners mark the performance

of each group of students and the rewards are given to all participants. This activity aims

to develop critical thing skills among youth. (Website of NAR)

Peace Building Institute (PBI): NAR hosts PBI twice a year in Rwanda. Guided by the

theme, what can Rwanda teach the World, the PBI brings together “exceptional young

people” from around the world to discuss and learn about the history of genocide and its

prevention, transitional justice, and good governance and development. PBI lasts for two

weeks and the participants are mainly youth from different countries such as Uganda,

Kenya, USA, Tanzania, among others. (Website of NAR)

Commemoration conference: Experts in peace-building are invited and discuss on the

practice of “kwibuka”. In each year, National Commission for the Fight against Genocide

(CNLG) in collaboration with the government of Rwanda prepares different topics to be

covered in the week of commemoration scheduled from 7th

to 13th

April annually. In this

40

regard, NAR invites experts in peace-building and discuss with youth on some of the

topics provided in the period of commemoration. (Interview with NAR staff on 4th

August 2015, Huye)

Global umuganda: This activity aims to help genocide survivors who are poor and those

who need different supports. As the consequences of the 1994 genocide against Tutsi,

many genocide survivors, orphans, widows and widowers are still homeless and also,

others need special supports such as farming their land, building fence for their homes,

repairing their houses, building latrines and among others. Therefore, NAR works with

youth to help genocide survivors in the aforementioned activities. These activities are

mainly done in 100 days of commemoration from 7th

April to 4th

July every year.

((Interview with NAR staff on 4th

August 2015, Huye)

I attended the workshop on critical thinking scheduled from 11th

to 14th

August 2015.

Due to time availability and relevance of the topics for each day, I attended only the

second day of the workshop. The participants were 28 teachers from 14 secondary

schools, one in Nyanza district and the remaining in Huye district.

Apart from the data collected by using direct observation in the training, additional

information was collected through a semi-structured interview with one NAR staff and

also documentation of related materials such as the website of NAR.

4.4.2 Key findings

1. Peace education approaches used in promoting culture of peace among youth

in post- genocide Rwanda.

Different approaches are used by NAR to perform its activities which tend to promote

mutual understanding, respect and non-violent conflict resolution among youth in order

to build sustainable peace. This study identified the following approaches:

CINEDUC: This is an education through the use of cinema. NAR uses this approach to

educate youth where after projecting the movie, the participants engaged in the

discussion. This was expressed by one NAR’s staff: “After watching film, we had a time

41

for discussion where the participants reflect on what they had watched” (Interview on 4th

August 2015, Huye). This approach encourages youth to participate and to learn from

what they have watched.

Participatory Action Research (PAR): This approach is the same as focus group

discussion but with large number of participants. The NAR staffs go to the community to

meet with different category of people including youth and conduct a purposeful dialogue

where everyone participates. This approach helps NAR to be aware of what community

thinks on different issues related to peace and development. For example, questions for

discussion can be on human rights, good governance, corruption, among others. With the

chosen topic, NAR knew more about perspectives of the community in it. Finally, NAR

assisted the participants to draw their conclusion on the discussed issues and sometimes

NAR advocates the problems which are collected from the community to the decision

makers. (Interview with NAR staff on 4th

August 2015, Huye)

Critical thinking training: NAR organizes training for teachers on critical thinking.

This is an approach which was started in 2014. Brings secondary teachers together for the

training, NAR equip them with knowledge and skills which can help teachers to develop

critical thinking skills among their children. So far, only two trainings in critical thinking

were organized and facilitated by NAR. The first one took place in December 2014 and

the second one took place year from 11th

to 14th

August this year in Huye district.

(Interview with NAR staff on 4th

August 2015, Huye)

Conference: NAR also organizes conferences which bring together youth from the Great

Lakes Region (GLR). With this approach, NAR hosts annual parliamentarian discussion

where youth meet with parliamentarians and discuss peace related issues in the region

including good governance and development. (Interview with NAR staff on 4th

August

2015, Huye)

42

2. To what extent is critical thinking considered as a key element in peace

education programs for youth in post-genocide Rwanda?

“…. To empower youth with critical thinking skills is to help them

to make good decisions and to take good actions. …” (Interview

with NAR staff on 4th

August 2015, Huye)

NAR believes that critical thinking is a key element to peace-building in post-

genocide Rwanda. This is indicated in its vision which is “a future where

sustainable peace and development is driven by creative, involved and critical-

thinking citizens” (Website of NAR).

In addition, NAR is preparing a critical thinking toolkit (still under development) to be

used in teacher training in critical thinking. This toolkit shows how NAR considers

critical thinking as the key to develop critical consciousness among youth in post-

genocide Rwanda. For example, in this toolkit NAR explains why critical thinking is

crucial for challenging violence in its all forms.

Also, the NAR’s staff I interviewed argued that NAR considers critical thinking as a

solution to the problem of blind obedience which characterized youth in the 1994

genocide against Tutsi. He emphasized the importance of critical thinking among youth

because:

The future of our country will depend on youth as they constitute the great

percentage of Rwandan population. To empower youth with critical thinking

skills is to help them to make good decisions and to take good actions. We

believe that if youth had critical thinking skills, they would not agree to

participate in the genocide against Tutsi which took away the life of more one

million Tutsis only in 100 days. (Interview with NAR staff on 4th

August 2015,

Huye)

43

3. The ways critical thinking is fostered in peace education program for

Rwandan youth.

“…. We create a space for discussion and dialogue where everyone

expresses his or her view freely but with evidence.” (Interview with

NAR staff on 4th

August 2015, Huye)

The study found that almost all the approaches used by NAR are designed to foster

critical thinking. Starting by CINEDUC, participants analyze what they have watched in

the form of discussion. To clarify how CINEDUC fosters critical thinking, I am going to

use an example of “the danger of a single story”, a movie used in teacher training on

critical thinking. After watching the movie, the participants reflected on it by discussing

on different questions such as which message do you get from the story?; what is the

position of the actor?; do you agree with her position? Why or why not? After the

interesting discussion the participants had, the facilitator introduced a statement and

asked who agree, disagree and stay neutral and everyone explains why he/she does so.

The statement was “Single story are helpful because they give us an orientation and show

us what really matters!” On the side of those who agree, one participant said “Single

story is helpful because they help to formulate hypothesis to study and then it can be

accepted or rejected after the study”. On the side of those who do not agree, one said

“Single story is a source of humiliation. There is no truth in it. Single stories are also a

hindrance towards what matters”. Another participant said, “Single story disorients and

weakens people”. While on the side of those who chose to be neutral, one participant

said, “Single story has a truth in it which can be based on to find more information. The

problem is that it is incomplete”. This is a good example of how CINEDUC fosters

critical thinking.

In addition to CINEDUC, other approaches used by NAR such as Participatory Action

Research (PAR), conferences and critical thinking training create a space for discussion

where everyone is free to give his or her view points. NAR promotes the following

principles which they believe to foster critical thinking: creating a safe space (easy topic

to discuss, relevant topic, quite environment, creating groups with the group members

who have the same level of knowledge); mutual respect (not interrupting people when

44

they are speaking, not making noise when someone is talking); have enough time for

discussion; encourage quiet people to share their ideas without pushing them and

facilitator as a role model (with this principle, the facilitator should be a critical thinker

himself/herself by integrating the skills/values of critical thinking like respecting the ides

of others, opening a space for different opinions.)

According to my observation during one teacher training on critical thinking all the

aforementioned principles were respected by the facilitators. This was expressed by the

participants themselves in the following words:

“Topic was relevant because it is about the life we live every day”

“Facilitators respect everyone’s idea, point of view”

“Discussion was characterized by diversity of ideas”

“Facilitators treat the participants equally”.

Additionally, the NAR staff I interviewed confirmed NAR’s strong commitment to foster

critical thinking among youth: “We consider critical thinking as a key element to

sustainable peace. To foster it, we create a space for discussion and dialogue where

everyone expresses his or her view freely but with evidence” (Interview with NAR staff

on 4th

August 2015, Huye).

4. Challenges the NGO has faced in fostering critical thinking in their peace

education programs for youth in post-genocide Rwanda

“When you think critically…. you are accused of creating disorder.”

(Participant in the teacher training on critical thinking, 12th

August 2015,

Huye)

The study found that NAR faces different challenges in fostering critical thinking among

youth in its peace-building program. The main challenges identified are:

Cultural mindset: This is about the culture of silence. In Rwandan culture, people are

not likely to talk what they think. This can be found in Rwandan proverb which says

45

“Uhishe munda ntawumwiba” (He who hides in stomach, no one can steal him). The

NAR’s staff interviewed asserted, “Rwandese do not have culture of speaking what they

think. Especially, when it is a view which opposing the one of elder or authority, most of

young people prefer to keep quiet” (Interview with NAR staff on 4th

August 2015, Huye).

Fear of being in trouble: This was expressed in teacher training on critical thinking

where they said that critical thinking can bring someone in troubles. One young teacher

who attended the teacher training on critical thinking said, “It is difficult to think

critically on something you are required, in terms of politics” (Participant in the teacher

training on critical thinking, 12th

August, 2015, Huye). During the same training, another

teacher also said, “When you think critically and bring an idea which opposes the

standards/ structures or decision of the government leaders, you are accused of creating

disorder” (Participant in the teacher training on critical thinking, 12th

August, 2015,

Huye). To this challenge, people choose to act differently such as: “I prefer to follow

what the authority said instead of following critical thinking. This is because once you

think critically or say something against the idea of the authority, you run risk of being

fired. To keep our job, we have to obey blindly”, said one participant in the teacher

training on critical thinking held on 12th

August, 2015 at Huye. Another teacher also said,

“In this world, we have to think critically but it is limited to our heart because when you

speak out what you think, it creates conflict and troubles. To avoid this, it is better to

keep what you think in your heart” (Participant in the teacher training on critical thinking,

12th

August, 2015, Huye).

To address those challenges, NAR encourages youth to express their views in a polite

way. On one hand, the NAR staff said, “I agree that sometime critical thinking can put

someone in danger. But the answer is not to keep silent. To be successful, I think it is

better to maintain discipline and to know when and how to express your view” (Interview

with NAR staff on 12th

August 2015, Huye). On the other hand, one teacher who attended

the training recommended his colleagues to accept to be a sacrifice if they want to bring

about a positive change. He stated during the training as follows:

Once you have fear, you cannot do anything and to overcome fear means, to

accept all the risks. If we want to bring about a positive change, we have to

46

overcome fear and accept to sacrifice ourselves as Gandhi, Martin Luther King

and Mandela did. (Participant in the teacher training on critical thinking, 12th

August, 2015, Huye)

4.5 Comparison of the findings from three NGOs

Table 1: Comparison of the findings from the three NGOs

Questions Aegis Trust SEP NAR

Approaches

for

promoting

culture of

peace

Mobile

exhibition

Story telling

Audio visual

Eyewitness

Peace

education

through sport.

Peace through

radio

program.

PREST.

Ubupfura

cultural

content.

Tree planting

approach.

CINEDUC.

Participatory

Action and

Research.

Critical thinking

training.

Conferences.

Critical

thinking as

key element

of peace

education

Included in the

material

developed and

used

Not include in

the materials

used

Included in the

materials used

Ways to

foster critical

thinking

Interactive

exercises

developed

Group

discussion.

Interactive

radio show

Engage youth

in dialogue

Creating space

for discussion

47

Challenges Primitive

understanding

or pre-

conceived ideas

from their

families

Fear of being in

trouble.

Historical

legacy

Poor people’s

mindset

Cultural mindset.

Fear of being in

trouble.

In the Table 1 above, it is indicated that the three NGOs under this study have some

commonalties and differences in terms of the research questions. Concerning the

approaches used by each NGO to promote culture of peace in its peace education/peace-

building program, each NGO has its own approach to use. Although both Aegis Trust and

NAR use movie or film as an approach, they use it in different ways.

Concerning the extent to which critical thinking is considered as a key element of peace

education in their programs, all the three NGOs consider it as a key element in their

peace education programs. Aegis Trust and NAR include critical thinking in their

materials used in their trainings. Particularly, NAR organizes training specifically on

critical thinking. Another NGO, SEP, considers critical thinking as a key element to

peace education but it is not included in its materials (manual training or toolkits).

The next question concerning the ways in which critical thinking is fostered in their peace

education programs, all the three NGOs under this study engage youth in dialogue and

discussions. This is a common way of fostering critical thinking among youth through

their programs. In addition, Aegis Trust has developed interactive exercises to be used in

its different training sessions while SEP has been using an interactive radio show which

they believe is an effective tool for fostering critical thinking through asking and

answering questions and commenting on a discussed topic.

48

Concerning the final question, the challenges faced by NGOs in fostering critical thinking

among youth, the three NGOs also have commonalties and differences. Concerning

commonalties, Aegis Trust and NAR face the same challenge of dealing with youth who

have fear for expressing their views and ideas openly when it comes to politically

sensitive issues. Concerning differences, only Aegis Trust pointed out primitive

understanding or pre-conceived ideas that youth got from their families as a challenge to

them. For NAR, culture of silence is arguably to make most youth do not like to speak

their minds openly. While SEP considers both historical legacy and poor people’s

mindset (poor people are easily manipulated) as challenges.

4.6 Conclusion

This chapter has analyzed and interpreted the key findings of the study. The findings

show that there are commonalties and differences among the three NGOs in relation to

each research questions: approaches used to promote culture of peace; critical thinking as

a key element; how critical thinking is fostered; and challenges faced in fostering critical

thinking. The approaches used by the three NGOs studied are mobile exhibition,

storytelling, audio visual also known as CINEDUC, eyewitness, peace education through

sport, peace through radio program, PREST, Ubupfura cultural content and tree planting

approach.

The study finds that, critical thinking is considered by all the three organizations as a key

element in peace education programs and each NGO has a way to foster it in its program.

The common way used to foster critical thinking among youth in their programs is to

create space and engage youth in discussions and dialogue. Also, both SEP and Aegis

Trust use other different approach to foster critical thinking such as radio show program

for SEP and interactive exercise for Aegis Trust. Finally, this chapter has shown the

challenges faced by the NGOs in fostering critical thinking among youth such as

primitive understanding or pre-conceived ideas from their families, fear of being in

trouble, historical legacy, poor people’s mindset and culture of silence. To overcome

those challenges, some solutions were proposed including continuous education,

49

maintaining discipline in expressing views and to accept risk as Gandhi, Mandela and

Luther King did.

50

CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Introduction

This chapter discusses the findings of this study and the reviewed literature in relation

with research objectives. As this study aims to find out how NGOs’ peace education

initiatives foster critical thinking in their effort to promote culture of peace among youth

in post genocide Rwanda, this chapter also concludes and proposes recommendations.

5.2 Discussion

5.2.1 NGOs‟ peace education approaches in promoting culture of peace among

youth in post-genocide Rwanda.

One decade ago, from 2001 to 2010, was called the decade for culture of peace. Peace

education as a vehicle to achieve this culture of peace needs good approaches and

strategies which are appropriate in responding to the existing problems such as injustice,

discrimination, inequalities and other forms of violence. As I discussed in the preceding

chapters, there is no universal approach to peace education. Rather, peace education is

different due to the context of each society. In the case of Rwanda, this research has

found that even the NGOs under study understand peace education differently.

For example, on one hand, Aegis Trust defines peace education as “an outstanding and

paramount tool to be used to bring positive change in society and that help citizens to

develop critical thinking and positive values” (Interview with Aegis’ staff, 15th

July,

Burera). On the other hand, SEP explains peace education as a tool to be used in

empowering citizens with knowledge and skills on how to respond to conflicts in non-

violent way (Interview with executive director of SEP, 23rd

June, Kigali). Thus, the aim

of peace education for Aegis Trust is to bring about positive change based on critical

thinking and positive values while for SEP, it is to have citizens who respond to conflicts

in non-violent way based on knowledge and skills they have been equipped with.

Therefore, Aegis Trust focuses on critical thinking and positive values (empathy) while

SEP put much emphasis on skills and knowledge in conflict management.

51

The way peace education is understood shapes the activities and approaches to be used in

the programs of peace education. As presented in the previous chapter, each of the three

NGOs uses its own approaches to promote culture of peace among youth in its peace

education program. Most of the approaches used by Aegis Trust (mobile exhibition,

storytelling, audio visual materials and eyewitness) focus on the genocide, its causes,

consequences and ways of its prevention. Aegis Trust also uses peacemaker stories to

highlight different elements that are crucial for healing and developing positive

relationship for continuum benevolence (A model developed by Ervin Staub which

explains the process of doing good to others). Such stories include: Peace between two

hills: it was our own initiatives; A village that cares: we are responsible for everyone in

this community; Healing the wounds of the heart: now people look at what people need,

not at who they are and others.

Never Again Rwanda, my second case study, uses approaches which foster discussions

such as CINEDUC, PAR, conference and critical thinking training. Peace-building

program of NAR has the goal of promoting mutual understanding, respect and non-

violent conflict resolution among youth in order to build sustainable peace. These

approaches, which can be condensed into one “participative” or “democratic” approach,

are useful in fostering critical thinking (which will be discussed in the next section).

Some authors such as Hilker (2010), Duruz (2012) and Thomson (2013) criticize the

formal education in post-genocide Rwanda for not providing space for discussion,

especially when it comes to the history of Rwanda as it still contains, from the view

points of some Rwandans inside and outside the country, some controversial elements.

Democratic approaches used by NAR can be considered to be a solution to those

challenges if it is really applied to politically sensitive issues.

On the side of SEP, the third case study of my research, its approaches seem to be

different from those used by Aegis Trust and NAR. This can be rooted in the way SEP

conceives peace as well as peace education. Peace is, in SEP, “a way of life committed to

non-violent conflict resolution and striving to social and personal justice” (Quoted in the

previous chapter). Most of their approaches such as PREST, peace education through

sport, tree planting and ubupfura cultural content were developed and used by SEP based

52

on how they understand peace. For example, tree planting approach is used to foster

reconciliation between genocide survivors and genocide perpetrators. According to

Ramsbotham et al (2011), reconciliation can be seen as ultimate goal of conflict

resolution which is considered, by SEP, to be very important in their peace education

program.

Another example is the use of Ubupfura cultural content which aims to respond to the

problem of corruption. This was affirmed by the executive director of SEP as indicated in

the chapter four:

…. corruption hinders peace-building efforts and undermines the process

of sustainable positive peace….

Based on the findings from the three NGOs under the study, I argue that the approaches

used depend on their mission and their understanding of peace education. This causes me

to wonder if all of the approaches used are effective to promote cultural of peace. Further

researches are needed to find more on how culture of peace is promoted among youth in

post-genocide Rwanda in relation to the two dimensions of peace, positive and negative

peace (Galtung 1990).

5.2.2 The extent to which critical thinking is fostered

The reviewed literature shows that the key elements of peace education programs may be

different according to the context (Castro & Galace 2010; Term 2010). In the context of

Rwanda, the problem of “blind obedience” which made the massive youth participate in

the 1994 genocide possibly should be addressed by different peace-building actors. In

this regard, critical thinking must be a key element in peace education program for youth

in post-genocide Rwanda. As King (2014) argues, critical thinking skills “may make

individuals more resistant to leaders’ efforts to scapegoat and motivate to violence” (p.

34).

As presented in the previous chapter, all the three NGOs claim that critical thinking is a

key element in peace education in post-genocide Rwanda. One of the Aegis Trust’s staff

53

asserted that “critical thinking is very important in social relationship…..” (Quoted in the

previous chapter)

However, to consider critical thinking as a key element is one thing and to integrate it in

their peace education programs is another thing. In this regard, the study found that two

of the three NGOs under the study include critical thinking in their manual trainings.

5.2.3 How the approaches used for fostering critical thinking

In the previous section, I discussed the approaches used by the three NGOs to promote

culture of peace. Some of them put a strong emphasis on the aim to foster critical

thinking. As discussed by Johnson & Johnson (no publication year), critical thinking can

be fostered through open-minded discussion, debate and dialogue. The research findings

presented in the previous chapter show that most of the approaches used such as mobile

exhibition, storytelling, CINEDUC, PAR and training on critical thinking involve

discussion, debate and dialogue which are argued to foster critical thinking among youth.

In addition, the interactive exercises, for Aegis Trust and interactive radio show

programs, for SEP are believed by these NGOs to be effective in fostering critical

thinking too.

However, the research findings pointed to some limitations in the ways the identified

peace education approaches which are used to foster critical thinking. I will discuss those

limitations in relation to the challenges faced by the NGOs in the next section.

5.2.4 The challenges faced in fostering critical thinking in their peace education

programs

Even though critical thinking is considered as a key element to peace education, the

research has revealed that there are some challenges which are faced by the NGOs in

fostering critical thinking among youth in the post-genocide Rwanda. Among them are

fear of being in troubles or danger, poor people’s mindset and the cultural of silence.

Once critical thinking is practiced, it tends to result into good judgment and decision

making which are arguably to lead to actions for or against the exposed ideas. When it

54

comes to take actions against the exposed idea, especially when the idea was exposed by

one’s superior, authority or leader, people become afraid of being in troubles or dangers.

This was revealed by the study in observation I made in one of the three workshops I

attended as quoted in the previous chapter:

“…..bring an idea which opposes the standards, structures or decision of

the government leaders, you are accused to create disorder”.

The aforementioned statement explains the limitation of critical thinking in the context of

Rwanda. Thus, critical thinking seems to be applied to some issues, but when it comes to

politically sensitive issues, people prefer to obey blindly or keep silence. This was

expressed by one training participant as I already presented in the previous chapter: “I

prefer to follow what the authority said instead of following critical thinking.”

Although efforts are being made by different NGOs, including the three studied in this

research, to respond to the problem of “blind obedience” which characterized youth in the

1994 genocide against Tutsi, few research has been conducted to assess the impacts of

such efforts. Further research is urgently needed in this area, particularly for identifying

to what extent critical thinking is being applied by youth trained in peace education

programs to their life situation in Rwandan society and what specific challenges they are

facing in doing so.

Concerning the poor-people’s mindset, there is an assumption that when people are poor,

they can be easily manipulated. This can be observed in the members of different terrorist

groups. Most of the young people decide to join rebel groups because they are poor. This

happens after being promised different things which make them to survive. This was

argued by the executive director of SEP in the following words:

Many people think that harmonious relationship is impossible when

people are poor. … Poor people can be easily manipulated… (Quoted in

the chapter four)

The culture of silence is another challenge revealed by the study. As I mentioned in the

previous sections, people pretend to follow blindly or to keep silent to sensitive issues

55

related to politics. As I have already noted in the previous paragraph, some people prefer

to keep silence in order to avoid troubles. As already presented in the previous chapter,

one participant in the NAR’s teacher training on critical thinking affirmed that “[to] avoid

this, it is better to keep it in the heart”.

Additionally, this study revealed some limitations to the use of democratic approaches

used by some NGOs including NAR. While I was collecting the data for this study, I was

curious to know how NAR facilitators moderate discussion on the history of Rwanda

between participants who have different backgrounds (the youth who came from the

families accused of perpetrating the 1994 genocide and those who come from the families

or who are themselves genocide survivors). In response to my question related to this

issue, one of the NAR’s staff said to me, “In our NGO, we do not teach history. It is not

our duty to teach the history. What we do, we bring a topic related to peace and we

discuss on it” (Interview with NAR staff on 4th

August 2015, Huye). This statement

suggests that there is limitation on the application of democratic approaches to certain

sensitive issues in the context of Rwanda today. This was in fact confirmed by one

participant of NAR’s critical thinking training as already quoted in the previous chapter.

Therefore, solutions to the challenges discussed above are needed if we really want to

build sustainable peace in Rwanda. The research has revealed that the common way used

by Aegis Trust, SEP and NAR to address some of those challenges is the continuous

education for peace among youth as well as community. Additionally, NAR encourages

youth to be polite in expressing their ideas or views and also to know the right time and

right place to do so.

5. 3 General conclusion

This research has been carried out in the area of peace-building with the aim of finding

out how NGOs’ peace education initiatives foster critical thinking to promote culture of

peace among youth in post genocide Rwanda. As outlined in the first chapter, the

research report has been organized into five chapters. The first chapter was general

introduction which was followed by literature review. The third chapter focused on

56

methodology used throughout this study while the fourth chapter presented, analyzed and

interpreted the findings.

I drew upon case studies that comprise three different NGOs working with peace

education in post-genocide Rwanda. I have described and compared their initiatives of

peace education in relation to the four research objectives I developed.

Concerning the first objective about peace education approaches in promoting culture of

peace among youth in post-genocide Rwanda, the research has revealed that each of the

three NGOs under the study uses its own approaches. This is rooted in how those NGOs

understand peace education as well as their mission. The approaches used in their peace

education programs include mobile exhibition, storytelling, audio-visual materials and

eyewitness for Aegis Trust; Peace Education through Sport, Peace trough Radio Program,

PREST, Ubupfura cultural content and Tree planting approach for SEP; and CINEDUC,

PAR, critical thinking training and conference for NAR.

With regard to the second objective, the research found that critical thinking is considered

by all the three NGOs under the study as a key element in their peace education

programs. Two of the three NGOs under the study include critical thinking in their

training manuals.

For the third objective, the research confirmed that all the three NGOs attempt to foster

critical thinking by a range of approaches which involve discussion, debate and dialogue.

Some of those include mobile exhibition, storytelling, eyewitness, CINEDUC, training of

critical thinking, interactive radio show program and interactive exercises.

Concerning the last objective, the research pointed out some challenges faced in fostering

critical thinking among youth in post-genocide Rwanda. Some of them include fear of

being in troubles or dangers, poor people’s mindset and culture of silence. Reflecting on

the aforementioned challenges, the research puts forth an argument that continuous

education is crucial for youth in order to overcome existing fear and mindsets. In

addition, youth should be trained in non-violent communication skills so that they will be

57

able to express their ideas and views in a polite manner in the right time and at the right

place.

Generally, the three NGOs under the study have been using valuable approaches in their

peace education programs which in order to address the problem of blind obedience that

characterized youth in the 1994 genocide against Tutsi. Education is a process and it is

“the most powerful weapon to change the world” (Mandela cited in King 2014, p. 8). In

this regard, the challenges highlighted in this study should be addressed to forward a

society with “critical mass of people who will demand for and address the needed

personal and structural changes that will transform the many problems that relate to peace

into nonviolence” (Castro & Galace 2010, p. 23).

Additionally, to have people with critical thinking skills is not enough in order to bring

about positive changes. As emphasized by two NGOs under the study, critical thinking

should be combined with empathy for youth who have different background in the

context of Rwanda. And also, critical thinking framed in the spirit of non-violence and

compassion is arguably to bring about sustainable peace.

5.4 Recommendation

In this last section, I will propose some recommendations to the peace-building

practitioners, to the government of Rwanda and to future researchers.

On one hand, I proposed three recommendations to the peace-building practitioners in

post-genocide Rwanda.

Firstly, peace-building practitioners should find the strategies which tend to help

youth to overcome fear and engage in actions for peace.

Secondly, they should find out appropriate ways to help youth apply critical

thinking to politically sensitive issues that are beyond less sensitive socio-

economic problems. In this regard, one critical role of peace-building practitioners

is to create a safe space for youth.

58

Thirdly, peace-building practitioners and peace-building NGOs should find how

they can work together in order to share their approaches as well as experiences

so that they can learn from each other.

On the other hand, the government of Rwanda should provide a favorable environment in

which youth can exercise critical thinking skills and express their views freely without

fear. The government also should continue to support youth initiatives for peace and

reconciliation.

Lastly, future researchers should carry out research to identify to what extent critical

thinking is being applied by youth trained in peace education programs to their life

situation in Rwandan society and specific challenges they are facing in doing so.

59

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APPENDICES

APPENDIX 1: INTERVIEW GUIDE

Semi-structured interview with NGOs „staff

Introduction

My name is TUYISHIME Etienne, a student at PIASS in the faculty of development

studies, department of peace and conflict studies. I am conducting a study on Peace

Education Initiatives of NGOs in post-genocide Rwanda to fulfill the academic

requirements for the award of Bachelor’s Degree of Development Studies in Peace-

building and Development. Your responses and opinions will remain confidential and

will be used only for the purpose of this study. Thank you for your willingness to respond

to the following questions which is great help to this research. May God bless you!

No

Date

Section A: Demographic information

Q1. Name of the organization

Q2. Sex 1 Male

2 Female

Q3. Age

Q4.

Marital

status 1. Single

2.

Currently

married

3.Widowed 4.

Separated

5

Divorced

Section B: Education and work

Q5 Education 1. 2. 3. Masters 4. PhD

65

Secondary Bachelor

Q6

Job

position

Q7. In which year did you start working in peace education program?

Section C: General questions about Peace education

Q8 Different organization defines peace education in different ways. How do you

define Peace education in your organization?

Q9

Why peace education program in your organization?

Q10 Peace education encompasses different themes/topic according to the context. What

are the topics/themes which are covered by your peace education program?

A

B

C

D

E

Q11 What are the approaches used by your NGO to promote culture of peace among

youth through your peace education program?

a.

b.

c.

d.

e.

f.

Q.12 How do you use those approaches?

66

Q.13 Through your program, in what ways do you encourage youth to think critically?

Q.14 a. Do you have any successful story which shows how youth actually practiced

their critical thinking skills in their daily life as an outcome of your program?

1.Yes 2.No

b. If yes, what is it?

Q.15 a. Do you face any challenge in fostering critical thinking among youth in your

program?

1.Yes 2.No

b. If yes, what challenges are those?

67

Q16 How have you addressed each of those challenges?

Q.17 What else do you think you can possibly do?

Additional information

68

Thank you for your contribution!

69

APPENDIX 2: OBSERVATION GUIDE

1. Date:

2. Name of NGO:

3. Place:

4. Activity:

5. Context/ Background:

6. Aims and objectives:

7. Who are the participants and how many are they? (Target group)

8. Who are trainers/ facilitators and how many are they?

70

9. What are the key subjects covered?

10. What are the expected learning outcomes

11. What are the approaches used and how are they used?

12. What are the educational activities carried out?

13. Who are the partners and what is their contribution?

71

APPENDIX 3: The stories from mobile exhibition

1. UNINITING FAMILIES: “Our friendship changed our parents and our

community”

This is a story of how a friendship between a Tutsi boy, Jacque NKOMEZI and a Hutu

boy, UWIZEYIMAN Martin, changed their families and also many neighbors and school

colleagues.

Jacque and Martin met in senior one, when Jacque’s family moved to Musanze Distict

where Martin’s family farmed. Jacque’s father is a pastor, and his family moved around.

Jacque and Martin became friends, but they found that because Jacque was a Tutsi and

Martin was a Hutu, that this not so simple. When the boys began to spend vacations at

each other’s homes, both sets of parents worried for the safety of their children, and both

sets of parents found hostility amongst their neighbors. When Jacque moved into

Martin’s home in senior Three, Jacque parents worried because it was an area where the

genocide had been bad. And in fact the neighbors did threaten the family and Martin’s

mother wanted Jacque to leave but because of the importance of the relationship to her

son, she changed her thinking. Jacque’s parents were criticized for following their son to

live in a Hutu home. “Can’t you find a Tutsi family for him,” they said.

Jacque and Martin are very fortunate in their parents. Instead of turning away in fear the

parents decided to see for themselves what was going on in the other family. They paid

visit to each other. They discovered that they also liked each other and to this day the two

families are very good friends. They saw that their sons were like brothers and they

accepted the relationship. Now the parents think it is a good idea for Hutu and d Tutsi to

marry each other!

But it was not easy with the neighbors. Martin’s father had refused to participate in the

genocide, and still some of the neighbors seem him as suspect and a traitor to his group.

Some of the boys’ friend could not accept what they were doing, but the relationship

between Jacque and Martin was strong and they did not change anything because of what

72

other people thought or said. In fact, after senior three, they went to different schools and

they both became leaders in their schools, telling their story and supporting others to

make alliances across ethnicity.

Overtime, some neighbors saw that there was nothing to fear. Now Tutsi families visit

Martin’s family home. Jacques is comfortable walking visiting Martin’s village. He feels

accepted. Jacques’ parents have moved to near Rutsiro and Jacques’ father tells this story

in his church there. He says it is difficult for some to accept at the same level as the

families but that many are touched by the story and that it supports unity and

reconciliation. (RPEP 2014, p. 53)

73

2. YOUTH OVERCOME THE PAST: “We find our own truth”

When the club was organized students who felt alone became comfortable with their

colleagues; they found peace and comfort. Learning about Rwanda history and discussing

topics such as how people are made into outsiders and how generalization can hurt people

enabled them to realize that they needed to treat everyone as an equal and listen to them.

They stopped judging people by appearances. By sharing with their parents, they parents

also changed.

Youth who lost parents in the genocide were angry at those who had parents, but came to

realize that youth all had problems, for example, parents in prison. They stopped avoiding

each other, and began to work together and support each other. They began to realize

what rumors were, and that they had to try to find out for themselves the truth of a

situation so that they could decide how to respond.

One girl said: “I learned to seek my own information. I didn’t know about the genocide,

but people told me there were Tutsi in my area and at home they told me not to go to that

place. They said that Tutsi are dangerous and not to talk to them. But now, my parents

accept (that the two groups) need to socialize together. I used to a violent person. If

someone takes my pen, I would fight him or her immediately. I learned how to stay in

peace, to harmonize, how to much mutual respect can help”.

Here is a story of one student before she joined the dialogue. She was convinced that that

all students supported by FARG (Genocide Assistance Fund) are the only students

privileged/ favored by the Rwandan government because they are Tutsi. This led her to

discriminate against her colleagues supported by FARG in the way that she can’t speak to

them or seat together with one of them; coming to school she passed through the village

build for genocide widows but when she arrived in this village she closed her eyes

because she didn’t want to see any Tutsi. She assets that these ideas are also coming from

her family especially her parents who always complain the support given to genocide

survivors. After joining the dialogue clubs, she was changed. By the means of dialogue

organized at school especially on themes of discrimination and generalization, she knew

that she has been victim of bad ideas, now she has genocide survivor friends and she

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started the campaign of explaining her family in order to change their understanding even

though it’s a long process. (RPEP 2014, pp 46-47)