dissertation theme: title: research question

DISSERTATION THEME: Architecture and Society

TITLE: Modernization of Japanese architecture during the Meiji period and its effect on Japanese Buddhist temples and shrines in the

Kansai and Kanto regions.

RESEARCH QUESTION: What is the impact of modernization during the Meiji period on Buddhist temples and shrines in the Kansai and Kanto regions of

Japan.

COURSE CODE:D60DA

WRITTEN BY:Sabina ShaybazyanH00310702

SUPERVISOR:Dr Harpreet Seth

Abstract

The Meiji Period in Japan, which began in 1868 and ended in 1912, put an end to the traditional

Japanese government, culture and society. Hence, this paper aims to explore and analyze the

impact of modernization during the Meiji period on Buddhist temples and shrines in the Kansai

and Kanto regions located in Japan. Modernization and changes in the political environment

significantly impacted the Japanese Buddhist temples and shrines. The analysis begins with a

historical overview on the 19th century modernization of the Meiji period in the Kansai and Kanto

regions. Furthermore, characteristics of traditional Japanese architecture are discussed through a

timeline with reference to Asuka, Heian, Kamakura, Azuchi-Momoyama and Edo periods,

followed by the discussion of the integration of foreign elements in modern materials used in

prevailing architecture, by illustarting the elements of modern architecture that is present accross

several case studies. Besides, by looking at certain temples and shrines and investigating the

change they underwent, a pattern has been drawn to demonstrate similar developments in

architecture in other countries that experienced a similar change as a result of modernization.

3

1. Introduction

The 19th century witnessed a rapid growth in industrial development, numerous scientific

discoveries and cultural improvements, which became key features of the century. Countries

across the globe began to modernize their political institutions, reshaped their economic activities

and due to developments in communication and transportation methods, increasingly engaged

with one another and adopted foreign influences. By focusing on Japan as a case study, this paper

aims to demonstrate the impact of modernization during the Meiji Period on the Japanese

Buddhist temples and shrines. The Meiji Period in Japan began in 1868 and ended in 1912, putting

an end to the traditional Japanese government, culture and society. This paper argues that

modernization and changes in the political environment significantly impacted the architecture of

Japanese Buddhist temples and shrines that were built during this period, in particular by

increasing the use of modern materials and bringing in elements of foreign architectural styles. In

addition, it aims to use qualitative research and case studies to conduct an in-depth exploration of

religious architecture, which was influenced by modernization during the Meiji period.

Firstly, this paper will provide a historical overview of the global shift towards modernization in

the 19th century and the Meiji era in Japan. Secondly, it will trace the traditional architectural

elements, which were common within Buddhist temples and shrines in the Japanese eras prior to

the Meiji period. The mentioned Japanese traditional characteristics of religious architecture will

set the drop for the argument on the modernization of the architecture during the Meiji Period. The

paper then moves towards its argument and demonstrates an increase in the incorporation of

modern materials and foreign architectural styles, by presenting a selection of Buddhist temples

and shrines in the Kanto and Kansai regions of Japan that have distinctive qualities of

modernization. In particular, the temples of Nishi-Honganji Dendôin (1912) and Tsukiji

Hongwan-ji (1934), designed by Ito-Chuta, illustrate the integration of foreign elements and

modern materials. Furthermore, the urban landscape of Okazaki (1881) and the Meiji Shinto

Shrine (1915) explore the innovative landscaping and construction methods with the influence

4

from the West. Lastly, this research paper aims to contextualize the modernization in Meiji Japan

by drawing connections with similar patterns of modernization in other countries, which also

adopted new materials and foreign styles of architecture. In particular, the Trinity Church in

Boston (1877) explores the unconventional plan of a church and an integration of innovative

materials. The Kuthudow Pagoda in Myanmar (1868) further breaks the rise in inventive methods

of construction. By contextualizing the Japanese case study within the global context, part of the

analysis of this paper aims to demonstrate how other countries that were influenced by

modernization also fused together traditional and modern notions of architecture and

implemented innovative construction techniques and materials.

5

2. Historical Overview

2.1 The 19th Century Modernization

The 19th century marked the beginning of the First and the Second Industrial Revolutions, which

led to significant social, political and economic reform and which culminated in substantial

urbanization, higher rates of growth, profit and development. Establishing itself in the British

Empire, the First Industrial Revolution took place between 1760 and 1830 and was famous for its

rapid development of transportation and production methods such as trains and factories. During

this time, the methods of production were moving away from manual production towards

automated and machine powered methods. The Second Industrial Revolution, which took place

internationally between 1850 and 1914, further increased automation and was famous for its rapid

increase in mass production and manufacturing, its development of electricity, cars and

communication technologies (Manvi, 2017).

The major developments in transportation and communication were achieved as a result of

railroads, steamships, telegraphs and canals. This meant that goods were accessed by more people

and the mass transportation of goods was done more efficiently by both land and sea. The

telegraph, which was invented by Samuel Morse, greatly improved communication between

different cities and countries and allowed people to share their knowledge, ideas and innovations

(Gyetvai-Balogh, 2007). The Second Industrial Revolution introduced a number of world

expositions were held to promote technological innovations. The first of such world expos, the

Crystal Palace Exhibition in England, took place in 1851. In Japan, the Meiji state spearheaded

the process of industrialization and began to modernize all spheres of activities, including

architecture, construction and design. From 1886 to the early 1900s, there was a clear

macroeconomic development, which were epoch-making years for the country (Namakura,

1990). During the Meiji Period, architectural works became more efficiently developed, some of

the important materials, such as steel were mass produced and foreign architectural methods and

styles were introduced. Moreover, urbanization and developments in transportation also made

architecture more accessible to the public, while cultural and intellectual progress led to an

6

increased interest towards evolving architectural designs and construction methods.

2.2 The Meiji Period in the Kansai and Kanto Regions

The 19th century also witnessed the Meiji Restoration which paved the way for the rapid

modernization and urbanization in Japan. In 1867. Japan has restored its imperial system and

following the path of industrialization, that was gaining momentum across the globe, Emperor

Meiji, who reigned over Japan from 1867 until his death in 1912, began to transform his

isolationist and feudal empire into a global industrial power. The period of his reign is also known

as the Meiji Period (1926-1868) and marks the turning point for modern Japanese practice (Visita,

2009). The tide of urbanization led to architectural modernization, which has continuously

advanced over the decades. Over this period, Japan has started making sense of the international

order of things and started adopting Western techniques, thoughts and priorities. However, Japan

has put a lot of effort into preserving nation’s traditional values and has been successful in

maintaining and reinterpreting its traditions in the period of modernization.

The Meiji Period (1912-1868) came after the Edo era, which lasted for from 1867-1603 and was

the final era of traditional Japanese Government, culture and society. Overthrowing the traditional

ways of rule and leadership, Emperor Meiji modernized the government institutions. A new

constitutional monarchy brought the rapid importation of eclectic foreign building styles. During

his reign, European modernist building styles began to appear, inspired both by the German

Bauhaus and the French-Swiss architect Le Corbusier. This radical scenario contrasted the

strongly time-honored Japanese construction methods and styles of Shinto shrines and Buddhist

temples (Perry, 2002).

Source:Artelino

7

The following study is based on the Buddhist Temples located within the Kansai and the Kanto

regions, which are home to many Buddhist temples and are considered to be the cultural and

historical hearts of Japan. The Meiji Emperor himself was born and formally crowned in Kyoto,

which is located in the Kansai region. It was the capital of Japan since 794. However, in 1868 the

Emperor of the Meiji moved his home to Tokyo and made it the capital. Tokyo is located in the

Kanto region of Japan, which was the empire’s largest island. The Meiji period highly influenced

both the cities in the Kansai region, such as Kyoto, Osaka, Kobe and Nara and also influenced the

cities in the Kanto region, such as Tokyo. Both regions are home to numerous Japan’s world

heritage sites and have many historic Buddhist temples and shrines. The world’s oldest wooden

Hōryū-ji temple can also be found in the Kansai region.

2.3 The Origin of Buddhism and the Kami and Buddhas Separation Act

During the 6th century, the introduction of Buddhism in Japan was a catalyst for large scale temple

construction using complex timber techniques (Collcutt and McMullin, 1986). However, the

history of Japanese architecture was dramatically altered by two major events during the Meiji

Restoration of 1868. The first was the Kami and Buddhas Separation Act of 1868, which legally

divided Buddhism from Shinto and Buddhist Temples from Shinto Shrines (Davis, 1989). To

understand the difference between a Buddhist temple and a Shinto shrine it is important to

understand the origin of Buddhism. Buddhism originated in the eastern part of ancient India and

traveled to China and then Japan. On the contrary, Shintoism was founded in Japan. The Shinto

state believed that the Japanese Emperor was a god, and that Japan was founded as a special and

a sacred place before the rest of the world and that this would later be used politically to assert the

right of Japan to dominance over China and its other neighbors Korea, Mongolia, and territories

in South East Asia. The Meiji Period has brought rise in Shinto, as the new government underlaid

the role of Buddhism, which they saw as a foreign religion. The Meiji government has vigorously

tried to distinguish the two religions and has elevated the Japanese nation’s state of Shintoism as

a national religion and identity. As Buddhism was attacked during the Meiji period, the Buddhist

temples were sacked, vandalized and burned in some instances.

8

It is important to note the history of separation between the two religions, Shinto and Buddhism

during the Meiji Period, as this division in two religions was also followed by the new manner in

which Imperial Japan tried to project its power as a modern state. While Shintoism was remodeled

and was turned into a Nationalistic religion of Japan, the newly reformed Buddhist temples began

to compete with other developed countries, undergoing an extreme phase of Westernization.

Western architects were initially imported from abroad, however later Japan has taught its own

architects and started to express its own style to preserve their traditions.

As a result, the “New Buddhist Movement” emerged. It was the most radical of the Middle and

Late Meiji Buddhist Movements. It was an organization that arose out of a meeting in 1894 that

rejected the “Old Buddhism” and its traditional rituals and priesthood. The old Buddhism was

considered to obstruct developments in ethics, education and religious views. At the beginning of

the Meiji era, the fall of the traditional system and the wave of changes and reformations

stimulated numerous significant changes in Japanese Buddhism (Nelson, 2012). Numerous

Buddhist practices have been forcefully secularized, monastic lands have been confiscated and

many Buddhist temples and works of art were destroyed.

9Figure 1, The Timeline.

3. Characteristics of Traditional Japanese Architecture

This chapter develops an understanding of traditional sacred architecture that developed over

different Japanese eras to prepare the readers for the case studies on the modernization of the

Buddhist temples and shrines in the Kansai and Kanto regions. The architecture of traditional

Japanese Buddhists temples was highly influenced by Korea and China, the two countries that

encouraged Buddhism in Japan. A traditional Japanese Buddhist temple usually has an illustration

of Buddha and a space for devotional activities of Buddhist’s practices. Temples are designed for

quiet meditations and typically prohibit large crowds. In general, Buddhist temples are clusters of

few structures, the number and the scale of which depend on the temple’s size. For instance, large

temples have a variety of halls, which are divided into spaces where people can pray and living

quarters for the monks. Smaller temples usually have a single hall, a resident monk’s house. Many

Japanese Buddhist Temples have cemeteries as well (Covell, 2005).

10

Pagoda of Hōryū-ji, Ikaruga, Nara

2. Historical Overview

2.1 The 19th Century Modernization

The 19th century marked the beginning of the First and the Second Industrial Revolutions, which

led to significant social, political and economic reform and which culminated in substantial

urbanization, higher rates of growth, profit and development. Establishing itself in the British

Empire, the First Industrial Revolution took place between 1760 and 1830 and was famous for its

rapid development of transportation and production methods such as trains and factories. During

this time, the methods of production were moving away from manual production towards

automated and machine powered methods. The Second Industrial Revolution, which took place

internationally between 1850 and 1914, further increased automation and was famous for its rapid

increase in mass production and manufacturing, its development of electricity, cars and

communication technologies (Manvi, 2017).

The major developments in transportation and communication were achieved as a result of

railroads, steamships, telegraphs and canals. This meant that goods were accessed by more people

and the mass transportation of goods was done more efficiently by both land and sea. The

telegraph, which was invented by Samuel Morse, greatly improved communication between

different cities and countries and allowed people to share their knowledge, ideas and innovations

(Gyetvai-Balogh, 2007). The Second Industrial Revolution introduced a number of world

expositions were held to promote technological innovations. The first of such world expos, the

Crystal Palace Exhibition in England, took place in 1851. In Japan, the Meiji state spearheaded

the process of industrialization and began to modernize all spheres of activities, including

architecture, construction and design. From 1886 to the early 1900s, there was a clear

macroeconomic development, which were epoch-making years for the country (Namakura,

1990). During the Meiji Period, architectural works became more efficiently developed, some of

the important materials, such as steel were mass produced and foreign architectural methods and

styles were introduced. Moreover, urbanization and developments in transportation also made

architecture more accessible to the public, while cultural and intellectual progress led to an

3.1 The Timeline of Historical Architecture

Figure 1, traces the timeline of Japanese architecture, mainly Japanese temples in Kansai region

and their context. Meiji period is highlighted in red and can be compared to the historic periods

prior to this era. The timeline differentiates each historic period in terms of its characteristics.

The timeline begins with the Asuka period, which lasted from 710-538 B.C. The architecture that

was the most prominent during this era was the Pagoda, which is analyzed later in under the Asuka

Period traditional architecture.The Asuka period is also known for fine arts, wooden structures

and appreciation for symbolism.Following the the Asuka period, the Heian era aroused in 794 and

lasted till 1185. The temples during this era appreciated the landscape and the surrounding nature.

Moreover, symmetry was another characteristic. The Kamakura period took place in 1185-1333.

Architecture became simplistic, with interest in defense and protection. During the

Azuchi-Momoyama period (1568-1600) castles and stone walls became prominent. The Edo

period was another era of fires and rebuilding. Finally, during the Meiji era, from 1868 to 1913,

the Western style was adopted, the materiality has changed to the use of stone and bricks as a

result of the Industrial Revolution.

3.2 The Asuka Period: Five Story Pagoda

As shown earlier in Figure 1, Early Japanese Buddhist temples consisted of

pagodas, which were famous during the Asuka period (538-710). The Asuka

period was responsible for transforming the Japanese architecture and fine arts.

Temples during this era were built of natural materials such as wood to integrate

natural resources and complement the surroundings. However, the use wood as the

primary material caused many traditional temples to burn down over different time

period. The pagoda of Hōryū-ji, located in Ikaruga, Nara, is one of the few wooden

temples from the Asuka period that remain today. Hōryū-ji pagoda temple, as well

as other building structures from this period were representing and symbolizing

many different things. For example, pagodas represented five different elements,

the sky, wind, fire, water and earth (Phuoc, 2010).

11

Byodoin Temple, Uji, Kyoto.

Traditional Kamakura Tea House

Matsumoto Castle

3.3 The Heian Period: Gardens and Landscape

During the Heian period (794-1185) temples were highly influenced by the

nature and surroundings, meaning that the temple layout was mainly based on the

landscape, like the surrounding gardens and ponds. Moreover, during this era the

Japanese architecture started developing more of their own style. Symmetry was

highly appreciated due to the complex surroundings of the nature. The Byoding

temple, was constructed back in 1052. It is a prime example of the Heian period’s

architecture. In 998, the temple was originally an aristocrat’s villa, which was

then transformed into a temple. It is situated on the west bank of the Uji River

and is surrounded by one of the oldest gardens with a natural layout (Young,

2007).

3.4 The Kamakura Period: Tea Houses

During the Kamakura era, as a result of the Genpei War, which ended in 1185,

many existing temples were destroyed. The new structures built after the war

became much simpler. The top priority when constructing the new temples

during this period was deference and protection. The construction of tea houses

gained popularity during the Kamakura period. They were the very small spaces

used to reduce tension and stress gained as a result of the war. The structure was

held up by pillars and conventional materials (Young, 2004).

3.5 The Azuchi-Momoyama Period: The Castles

The Azuchi-Momoyama era took place from 1568-1600. During this era, the

construction of castles was highly dominant. Each castle had a central tower

structure called Tenshu and was surrounded by moat filled water and large stone

walls. The Matsumoto castle, is one of the remaining Japanese leading historic

castles. The castle was built out of earth, stone and wood materials back in 1504

(Ramesh, 2020).

12

Historic Village at Hokkaido

The following study is based on the Buddhist Temples located within the Kansai and the Kanto

regions, which are home to many Buddhist temples and are considered to be the cultural and

historical hearts of Japan. The Meiji Emperor himself was born and formally crowned in Kyoto,

which is located in the Kansai region. It was the capital of Japan since 794. However, in 1868 the

Emperor of the Meiji moved his home to Tokyo and made it the capital. Tokyo is located in the

Kanto region of Japan, which was the empire’s largest island. The Meiji period highly influenced

both the cities in the Kansai region, such as Kyoto, Osaka, Kobe and Nara and also influenced the

cities in the Kanto region, such as Tokyo. Both regions are home to numerous Japan’s world

heritage sites and have many historic Buddhist temples and shrines. The world’s oldest wooden

Hōryū-ji temple can also be found in the Kansai region.

2.3 The Origin of Buddhism and the Kami and Buddhas Separation Act

During the 6th century, the introduction of Buddhism in Japan was a catalyst for large scale temple

construction using complex timber techniques (Collcutt and McMullin, 1986). However, the

history of Japanese architecture was dramatically altered by two major events during the Meiji

Restoration of 1868. The first was the Kami and Buddhas Separation Act of 1868, which legally

divided Buddhism from Shinto and Buddhist Temples from Shinto Shrines (Davis, 1989). To

understand the difference between a Buddhist temple and a Shinto shrine it is important to

understand the origin of Buddhism. Buddhism originated in the eastern part of ancient India and

traveled to China and then Japan. On the contrary, Shintoism was founded in Japan. The Shinto

state believed that the Japanese Emperor was a god, and that Japan was founded as a special and

a sacred place before the rest of the world and that this would later be used politically to assert the

right of Japan to dominance over China and its other neighbors Korea, Mongolia, and territories

in South East Asia. The Meiji Period has brought rise in Shinto, as the new government underlaid

the role of Buddhism, which they saw as a foreign religion. The Meiji government has vigorously

tried to distinguish the two religions and has elevated the Japanese nation’s state of Shintoism as

a national religion and identity. As Buddhism was attacked during the Meiji period, the Buddhist

temples were sacked, vandalized and burned in some instances.

3.6 Edo Period: Classical Architecture

Before the Meiji period comes the Edo era (1603-1868). This period brought

back a lot of classical architectural elements and techniques. Moreover, due to

fires and natural disasters being common during this period of time, architecture

was made to be simpler to make the future rebuilding process easier.

13

4. Modernizing Architecture: The Integration of Foreign Elements and Modern Materials

As a result of the Industrial Revolution, there was a significant development in transportation and

communication systems across the globe in the 19th century. The means of transportations such

as railways and steamboats were built and caused mass migration. As a result of this, architects

increasingly travelled and transferred their knowledge and ideas to different empires and regions.

They visited Meiji Japan and imported new styles to the empire. Furthermore, native Japanese

architects also returned after becoming familiar with Western architects and their styles, which

largely was the reason for the introduction of the International style of modernism into Japan.

Japan’s relations to Euro-American powers became more prominent and involved. Josiah Conder,

British architect, is referred to as the ‘father’ of modern architecture of Japan (Watanabe, 2013).

Conder was hired by the Meiji government in 1877 as a professor of architecture for the Imperial

College of Engineering (Tseng, 2004).

Japanese - Western Eclectic Architecture is an architectural movement of the late 19th and early

20th century, a style that emerged from eclecticism in architecture. This movement incorporated

Japanese architectural and Western architectural elements into one building design. The style

emerged in the city of Yokohama between 1853 and 1867, and spread in Japan after the Meiji

restoration. In 1880s, Japanese architects begun designing eclectic buildings that integrated both

Japanese and Western sources. The impact of the Meiji modernization is evident in some Japanese

Buddhist temples like the Nishi-Honganji Dendoin (1912) in Kyoto and Tsukiji Hon¬gwan-ji in

Tokyo (1934). Both of these temples are designed by Itô Chûta, a Japanese architect, and

architectural theorist of early 20th-century Imperial Japan.

The materials used for the construction and design of Buddhist Temples and shrines in the Kansai

and the Kanto regions evolved over different eras as a result of dramatic political and social

transformations, economic modernization and changes in feudal systems. The transition to new

manufacturing processes included the shift from manual production methods towards machinery,

new chemical manufacturing and iron production processes. Instead of traditional timber, Meiji

architecture was mainly distinguished by the use of brick and stone as construction materials. Not

14

only was the intention to replicate foreign structures, but also to prevent fires and stabilize

buildings in the case of natural disasters. Other rare materials like concrete, steel and glass were

also used for the first time. Buddhist temples and shrines have started incorporating forms of

ancient timber constructions with modern building materials. Traditional architecture opened up

to international influences and the Meiji temples and shrines increasingly replaced, and often

fused, the traditional methods with new innovative materials and styles.

Satellite images sourced from Google Earth:Accessed: 10.12.2020

Kyoto, Japan, Kansai Region

15

3.2 The Asuka Period: Five Story Pagoda

As shown earlier in Figure 1, Early Japanese Buddhist temples consisted of

pagodas, which were famous during the Asuka period (538-710). The Asuka

period was responsible for transforming the Japanese architecture and fine arts.

Temples during this era were built of natural materials such as wood to integrate

natural resources and complement the surroundings. However, the use wood as the

primary material caused many traditional temples to burn down over different time

period. The pagoda of Hōryū-ji, located in Ikaruga, Nara, is one of the few wooden

temples from the Asuka period that remain today. Hōryū-ji pagoda temple, as well

as other building structures from this period were representing and symbolizing

many different things. For example, pagodas represented five different elements,

the sky, wind, fire, water and earth (Phuoc, 2010).

4.1 Nishi-Honganji Temple Dendôin, Kyoto, 1912

As Itô and others pursued a viable native archi¬tectural history for Japan,

Japanese architects began at attempting deeper syntheses. Itô’s Dendôin, a

building for the Nishi Honganji temple in Kyoto, foreshadows the foreign

influence on Japanese Buddhist temples. Here Itô’s free use of historical

elements is visible in the Mughal-inspired window frames, quasi-Japanese

brackets, vaguely Islamic dome, and Victorian English brick-and-stone

polychromy (Choi, 2011). The Mughal inspired window frame, referred to as

jali, is a latticed screen with ornamental pattern. It is a form of Indo-Islamic

decoration in architecture and can be found within many tombs of Mughal

architecture such as the Akbar’s Tomb in Agra, India (Tola, 2020).

The light blue dome of the Dendoin has a direct connection to the Islamic

architecture where domes are a major structural feature of the mosques. The

first Islamic architecture to incorporate a dome element is the Dome of the

Rock, which is an Islamic shrine located in Jerusalem.

The influence of the Western world is evident in the use of Victorian English

brick and stone. The Victorian brickwork became a prominent material in

Britain from the mid 18th century. The steam power during the industrial

revolution enabled brick manufacturing to become more available. By the

19th century, machine-made bricks were transported all over the country

(Guardian, 2011).

Dendôin, Hongan-ji Buddhist Temple (1912)Itō Chūta

Dome of the Rock, Islamic Shrine

Mughal Window Frames Victorian Brick and Stone

Source:Viator

Source:Kansaiartbeat

Source:DailyArt Source:Flickr


Pipe Organ

Main Hall

Stained-glass window

Chuo City, Tokyo, Japan, Kanto Region

16

3.3 The Heian Period: Gardens and Landscape

During the Heian period (794-1185) temples were highly influenced by the

nature and surroundings, meaning that the temple layout was mainly based on the

landscape, like the surrounding gardens and ponds. Moreover, during this era the

Japanese architecture started developing more of their own style. Symmetry was

highly appreciated due to the complex surroundings of the nature. The Byoding

temple, was constructed back in 1052. It is a prime example of the Heian period’s

architecture. In 998, the temple was originally an aristocrat’s villa, which was

then transformed into a temple. It is situated on the west bank of the Uji River

and is surrounded by one of the oldest gardens with a natural layout (Young,

2007).

3.4 The Kamakura Period: Tea Houses

During the Kamakura era, as a result of the Genpei War, which ended in 1185,

many existing temples were destroyed. The new structures built after the war

became much simpler. The top priority when constructing the new temples

during this period was deference and protection. The construction of tea houses

gained popularity during the Kamakura period. They were the very small spaces

used to reduce tension and stress gained as a result of the war. The structure was

held up by pillars and conventional materials (Young, 2004).

3.5 The Azuchi-Momoyama Period: The Castles

The Azuchi-Momoyama era took place from 1568-1600. During this era, the

construction of castles was highly dominant. Each castle had a central tower

structure called Tenshu and was surrounded by moat filled water and large stone

walls. The Matsumoto castle, is one of the remaining Japanese leading historic

castles. The castle was built out of earth, stone and wood materials back in 1504

(Ramesh, 2020).

4.2 Tsukiji Hongwan-ji Temple, Tokyo, 1934

Tsukiji Hongwan-ji is a Buddhist temple in Tokyo completed in 1934. This

project by Itô is a mixture of different influences around the world. The

temple’s exterior and the elaborate stone façade evokes and replicates the

traditional shapes and motifs of ancient Indian Buddhist style and

architecture.

Moreover, the temple incorporates traditional elements of Christian churches

such as a stained-glass window with lotus motifs at the entrance of the main

hall. The stained-glass window in a Buddhist temple is an innovative material,

as it is untraditional.

As you proceed to the main hall, the space is occupied by chairs, which are

used instead of the traditional tatami mats. The tatami is a type of mat which

is used as a flooring material in many traditional Japanese temples for seating

purposes. The introduction of chairs in the Tsukiji Hongwan-ji temple once

again borrows the influence from the Christian churches where pews are used

for seating members of a congregation.

The pipe organ located in the back of the main hall, which can be assumed as

an untraditional element found in a Buddhist temple. The pipe organ in this

temple was designed by Walker, a pipe organ manufacturer in former West

Germany. The pipe organ indicates the German influence as the first organ was

permanently installed in 1361, in Halberstadt, a town in the German state of

Saxony-Anhalt (Kennedy, 2002). Furthermore, during the renaissance and

baroque periods, the pipe organ was prominent in many cathedrals and

catholic churches. The world’s largest cathedral organ is the Passau Cathedral

Organ, located in Passau, Germany (Eisenbarth, 2018).

Tsukiji Hongwan-ji Buddhist Temple (1934)Itō Chūta

Source:MATCHA

Source:Flickr

Source:MATCHA

Source:MATCHA

Kyoto, Japan, Kansai Region

17

Aqueduct Bridgeat Nanzen-ji Temple

Lake Biwa Canal

Heian Shrine

Lake Biwa Canal and Hein Shrine


4.3 Urban landscape of Okazaki, Kyoto, 1881

The Okazaki area in Kyoto is the home of significant museums, ancient

temples and shrines. This area became a symbol of modernization in Kyoto as

a result of the great public canalization project.

As a result of the Meiji Restoration the Okazaki area, changed from being a

religious place to an urban landscape project. As the capital moved to Tokyo

in 1868, the governor of Kyoto at the time was concerned about Kyoto’s

decline and therefore, commissioned the construction of the Lake Biwa Canal

in 1881. The governor was hoping to bring new wealth and industries to the

city by the new source of transportation. In 1890, the construction of the canal

was completed by Tanabe Sakuro and Masutomo Ohara. Tanabe has relocated

American experience to Japan and used a reference of the neoclassical culture

that was prominent in 19th century America. As a result of the canal the first

aqueduct bridge was constructed at the Nanzen-ji temple. The aqueduct bridge

near the Buddhist temple is a significant symbol of the cultural movement in

the Meiji period. The waterway flows amongst the Heian shrine, cultural

institutions, temples and museums of the Okazaki (Niglio & Inoue, 2015). Source:discoverkyoto

Source:Olimpia Niglio

Source:Olimpia Niglio

Chuo City, Tokyo, Japan, Kanto Region

18


4.4 Meiji Shinto Shrine, Tokyo, 1915

The Meiji Shinto shrine, located in Tokyo, was initially constructed in 1915

shortly after the emperor’s death to commemorate his role and influence

during the Meiji Restoration. The leaders of the Meiji shrine acknowledged its

significant to the nation and sought to strike a balance between indigenous

aesthetics and contemporary Western elements.

The inner garden of the Meiji shrine was opened in 1920. It is surrounded by

a vast forest, broad paths for worshippers and shrine structures. The shrine

buildings follow traditional wood construction methods and involve

traditional elements of asymmetric gabled roofs.

Completed in 1926, the outer garden of the shrine represents the influence of

Western architecture and innovative ideas of landscaping. The garden contains

conspicuous views of arches, green areas with symmetrical rows of trees and

sport facilities devoted to imported sports such as rugby and baseball.

Honda, Hongō Takanori, and Uehara Keiji led the creation of the shrine forest,

one of the Meiji shrine’s most ambitious components. Completing his forestry

studies in Japan and Germany, Honda was one of the top scholars in the field.

He is known for designing the first Western- style park in Japan, Hibiya Park.

Uehara travelled to the United States and Europe to research and experience

the Western landscaping after the opening of the Meiji shrine in hopes of

enhancing his views on urban planning and development. Instead of building

traditional parks, Uehara stressed the value of making “solemn” spaces where

users could witness the spirit of nature in its absolute and timeless shape

(Nippon, 2020).

Meiji Shrine, Outer GardenSource:Old Tokyo

Meiji Shrine, ForestSource:TokyoWeekender

Meiji Shrine, Inner GardenSource:Brian Adler

19

La Farge Windows

Trinity Church Main Hall, Cross Plan

Trinity Church


The Trinity Church, Boston

5. Contextualizing the Meiji Influence

This paper focused on Japanese religious architecture, mainly the Buddhist temples

and shrines. However, the modernization phase in the 19th century led to drastic

architectural changes not only in Meiji Japan but also in other territories around the

globe. Therefore, it is significant to trace the growth and development of other

countries, which underwent a similar period of modernization in the 19th century, at

the same time as the Meiji Restoration. To compare the impact of modernization on

the Meiji architecture, this section analyses the religious architecture in other parts of

the world, which was similarly built during the era of modernization.

5.1 The Trinity Church, Boston, 1877

The Trinity Church in Boston was built from 1872-77 Henry Hobson Richardson.

The first sketches of the Trinity Church by Richardson called for a classical design of

typical Gothic Revival Episcopal churches, which were dominating the architecture

of the churches at the time (Stebbins, 1968). However, the architect shortly decided

to base the church’s floor plan of an unconventional Greek cross plan, with a central

square clustered around a chancel, nave and transepts of identical size. This approach

reflected a progressive departure for American ecclesiastical design. The

hierarchical, conventional Episcopal designs were replaced by open auditorium plan

and provided a feeling of openness. Richardson gives credits to France’s

11th-century Romanesque churches, which was his inspiration for the building.

Between 1883-1902, American artist, John La Farge incorporated a radically new

and innovative construction method to the Trinity Church (Weinberg, 1974). The

construction method consists of a layering of both colored and opalescent glass set

within a lead line structure that supported and expressed the forms. Farge pioneered

the use of opalescent glass, which established the soft color transitions on the

windows. The five windows of the church are now considered among the most

famous of American stained glass of the time.

Source: Carol M. Highsmith

Source: Trinity Church guidebook

Source: Trinity Church guidebook

20


Lake Biwa Canal and Hein Shrine

5.2 Kuthudow Pagoda and its Kuthadow Inscriptions, Myanmar, 1868

The Kuthudow Pagoda is a Buddhist stupa, a domed shaped shrine located in

Myanmar. Myanmar is one of the long-lasting countries to believe in

Buddhism. The pagoda is known for its Kuthadow Inscriptions, which are

Buddhist scriptures inscribed in 1868 on a series of 729 stone slabs. Each

stone slab is located in a masonry shrine within the precincts of the Kuthadow

Pagoda. In 1900, in a set of thirty-eight volumes, a print copy of the Pitaka

inscribed text of the stone slabs came out.

The inscription was made by King Mindon and community of Myanmar over

the course of seven years, who was the last ruler in Myanmar monarchy. He

inscribed the large stone slabs with a Pali Canon Tripitaka, a Buddhist

scripture, which became a construction of the world’s largest book.

This collection became unique in the Buddhist world as it reflects the history

of Myanmar community. In particular, the complex stone slab inscriptions

enlightened the global communication, socio-economic and socio-political

integrity in Buddhism. The inscriptions received world significance as it

reflects the 19th century socio-economic, political and religious condition in

Myanmar. To conclude, these inscriptions depict the transition and

modernization of Myanmar and Myanmar’s sustainable political and

socio-economic status at the time (UNESCO, 2012).

Masonry ShrinesSource:Foriskak

Kuthadow Inscriptions

Source:Renown-travel

Kuthadow Pagoda

Source:123RF

21

Conclusion

The 19th century was an era of the Meiji Restoration, that was led by Emperor Meiji who began

to radically modernize and urbanize his feudal empire into a global power through

industrialization. It can be concluded that industrial revolution was a turning point in the

modernization of the Japanese architecture, specifically temples and shrines in the Kansai and

Kanto regions. What caused the architecture to modernize was the globalization caused by

Industrial Revolution, which allowed architects from around the globe to travel to Japan and to

express their knowledge and create impact on Japanese architecture.

Hence, modernization in Japanese architecture is not only evident through several case studies in

Japan that took place in numerous temples and shrines but also in urban scale projects such as

landscape design and urban infrastructures. As a result, Industrial Revolution and Meiji

Restoration have sparked a practice of Japanese architects drifting away from their conventional

methods in designs, which has broadened their perspective in the field of architecture.

22

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