distribution systems unit 2

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Load Characteristics

At a given irradiance and cell temperature, a PV system can produce power atvoltages

ranging between zero and the open circuit voltage, V OC" Between these limits,the output

current, It is a function of voltage only. An I-V curve shows the possiblepoints, or I-V pairs,

at which the system may operate. Electrical loads also have acharacteristic I-V curve. Thischapter describes the I-V characteristics of three general types of electrical loads used in

direct-coupled applications: fixed voltage, resistive, and inductive motor loads.In a direct-

coupled PV system, the load is connected so that the array and load voltage are the same. The

intersection of the load I-V curve and the array I-V curve, if there is one, determines the

operating voltage and current of the system. If the load and array I-V curves do not intersec4

there will be no power output from the array. To find the intersection of the load and array I-

V curves, an expression for load voltage as an explicit function of load current (V = f(I)) is

developed. This expression is substituted into the array I-V equation (Eqn. 2.67) for V. The

operating current, I, can be calculated implicitly from the resulting equation. Appendix B

details the operating point calculation procedure for each load type.

3.1 Fixed Voltage Loads

The I-V characteristic of a fixed voltage load is simple: For any current drawn by the load,

the voltage is constant The I-V "curve" is a straight venica1line on a currentvoltage

coordinate scale. The vertical line extends from zero amps to some upper-rated 113 current,

usually limited by a fuse or other protective device. The magnitude of the load voltage

depends on the specific application. Some fixed voltage applications include cathodic well

protection, DC appliances such as television and radio, and idealized battery loads. The long-

term performance model presented in Chapter 5 is, however, not applicable for systems withbattery energy storage.The operating current is found by substituting the load voltage into

Eqn. 2.67 and then solving for I. To be used effectively, an array should be designed so that

the number of modules in series produces a maximum power point voltage that, under typical

summer operating conditions, is close to the load voltage. The load and maximum power

point voltages should be designed to match at a high (summer) cell temperature. The reason

is that the maximum power point voltage decreases by about O.4%/C increase in cell

temperature (at constant irradiance); if the load voltage is designed to match the maximum

power point voltage at a low cell temperature, typical of winter operation, the load voltage

may exceed the array open circuit voltage at high (summer) cell temperatures and the power

output may drop to zero. Figure 31 shows how the power output and maximum power point

voltage vary with cell temperature for a 30 W Solarex module. Both power vs. voltage curves

are based on an irradiance of 1000 W/m2, but one curve is representative of winter operation,

at 10 C, and the other represents summer operation at 67 C. The cell temperature does not

vary as much within a day as it does from season to season. The daily variation in maximum

power point voltage is less than the O.4%/C 114 cell temperature sensitivity would indicate.

This is because the irradiance is not constant, and the sensitivity of maximum power point

voltage to irradiance opposes (although not - as strongly) the temperature dependence. The

net effect of varying irradiance and cell temperature is illustrated in Figure 32 in the

following section.Figure 31. Variation of Optimal Voltage with Cell Temperature


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3.2 Resistive

Figure 31. Variation of Optimal Voltage with Cell Temperature

3.2 Resistive Loads

Resistive loads are used for applications such as incandescent lighting, cooking, and heating.

The I-V characteristic of a resistive load is governed by Ohms' law, V = I x RL. where RL is

the load resistance. The I-V "curve" for a resistive load is a straight linebeginning at the

origin, with a slope of 1/ RL. The load I-V line continues out to the maximum current and

voltage of the device. The operating current is found by substituting the load voltage, V = I x

RL, into Eqn. 2.67 and then solving for I. A well matched direct-coupled resistive load and

array will have I-V curves that intersect near the maximum power point of the array.Choosing an optimal fixed resistance load is more difficult than choosing an optimal fixed

voltage load. The optimal resistive load is equal to the ratio VMP /IMP. While the maximum

power point voltage is relatively constant over a typical day's operation, the maximum power

point current isnot. The resistive load which yields the highest long-term output lies closer to

an optimal resistance at high irradiance, because the potential electric generation is greater

than at low irradiance levels. Figure 32 illustrates the typical hourly variation of optimal

resistive loads for a 75 W Applied Solar module. At each time shown, the optimal resistive

load passes through the maximum power point.


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The maximum power point voltage decreases from 17.3 V at 8 AM to 15.8 V at noon as the

cell temperature rises from -5 C to 38 C. The variation of maximum power point voltageover this temperature range is less than O.4%/C, but, as discussed in the previous section,

this is because the maximum power voltage also increases slowly with increasing irradiance.

In this example, the effect of irradiance on voltage is significant, because the irradiance at

noon is about 7 times higher than the 8 AM irradiance. The net effect is that the locus of

maximum power points over a typical day's operation occurs over a fairly narrow voltage

range.

Load Factor, Load Profile and Power Factor

So what's the difference between Load Factor, Load Profile and Power Factor? People in our

industry will say that a meter has a low, medium or high load factor.but do you know how to

calculate a load factor? If not, it's important to learn how to do this using historical energy

usageddata.LoadFactor(LF)This term refers to the the energy load on a system as compared

to its maximum or peak load for a given period. Load factor is most typically calculated on a

monthly or annual basis. When a customer creates his maximum demand on the system, he

will probably not continue to use electricity at that same level for the whole month, but will

use it at different levels throughout the month. The extent of his use for the month as

compared to his maximum use for that same month is called his "load factor". Load Factor iscomputed by dividing his kWh usage for the month by the product of the month's "peak" or


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maximum demand for him times the hours for the same period (730 for a month and 8,760

for a year). Here is the formula: Load Factor = Month's kWh Usage / (Peak Demand or KW x

730)So what is the difference between load factor and load profile? Load profile is not the

sameasLoadFactor.LoadProfileLoad profile is a graph of the variation in the electrical over

time. A load profile will vary according to customer type, (typical examples includeresidential, commercial and industrial), temperature and holiday seasons.

So.what is power factor? Is it the same as Load Factor? The answer is no. See the definition

of power factor, below, and make note of the difference between these two forms of

measurement.PowerFactor(PF)This term is used to express the relationship between "useless

current" and "useful power". It can be very confusing to explain and understand. Certain

types of electrical devices have a power factor of 100%, such as an electric stove, a light

bulb, toaster, etc., which means when the appliance is on, all available power is being used to

heat or illuminate and none is being wasted. Some other devices, especially induction motors

as commonly used today, are not being used at capacity and result in a demand on the system

greater than actually being used or put to good use. The actual work being done by the motor

results in a certain kilowatt (kW) demand that is measured by the ordinary meters for

measuring such demand. This motor, however, when "partially" loaded, makes an additional

demand on the electric system which is not measured by the ordinary meter, but such

additional demand requires capacity in the electric system in just the same way as the useful

demand requires capacity. When there is no useless current in evidence, the power factor is

said to be in "Unity". Power Factor is normally used in calculating kilowatts by the

expression wW = kVA x PF. To compute power factor, the expression would be: PF =

kW/kVA or (W/(E x I)). If an electric motor requires 100 kilowatts of useful power and is

operating at 50% power factor, the above formula would yield as follows: 100 kW = kVA x.50 PF. To solve for kVA, kVA =100 / .5 = 200. In other words, this motor requires 200

kilovolt-amperes (kVA) of capacity in the electric system although it only uses 100 kW of

useful power. The electric system is still having to provide 200 units of capacity in

transformers, lines, etc. to serve that motor. If power factor for that motor could be increased

to "unity", the motor would do no more useful work, it would take no more energy to perform

this work, but would make a demand of 100 kw on the electric system, and only 100 kw in

capacity in the electric system would be required to serve the motor. If that same 100 kw

motor is now working at 70% power factor, the kVA required would be 143, or 100 / .7. An

improvement over the 200 previously required. The higher the power factor of a load, the

betteritistoserve.Generally, if a customer pays an electricity bill with units of energy

measured as kVA, then the customer will benefit from savings by increasing power factor. If

the customer pays an electricity bill with units of energy measured as kW, then the utility

company will benefit from savings by increasing power factor. Frequently, however, utility

companies impose a power factor penalty charge on customers with poor PF, giving the

customer an economic incentive to increase power factor, even if the customer is billed based

onkWdemand.

The EMF is equal to: (I )M IA AF , = (3.2)


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MAF = mutual inductance between the armature and field, H The gross motor torque, T,

which is the sum of the frictional torque loss plus the load torque, is related to the motor

current by:T T T M I 2LOAD LOSS AF = + = (3.3)

To link the mechanical (speed, torque) characteristics of the load to the electrical

characteristics of the motor, an explicit expression of the load torque in terms of speed isneeded. Often, such an expression is unavailable. Instead, discrete load points where the

torque is calculated as a function of speed must be used, which means that I-V points must be

calculated one at a time. Section 3.3.4 details three cases: The first is a ventilator fan, where a

continuous speed-torque relationship is given [37]; the second case is for a centrifugal water

pump, where the torque must be calculated from a manufacturers

performance curve [39]; and the third case is for a positive displacement water pump

connected to a permanent magnet motor. For this case, the I-V characteristic is supplied

directly by the manufacturer, so no torque-speed conversions are needed [40]. Eqn. 3.3 can be

rearranged to solve for I directly in terms of T and MAF (Eqn. 3.4). Equation 3.4 is then used

to eliminate I from Eqn. 3.1. The result, Eqn. 3.5, is an explicit expression for the motor

voltage in terms of motor speed, torque, and the known motor constant MAF and (RA + RF).

With the considerable increase of the losses in electric utilities of developing countries, such

as Brazil, there is an investigation for loss calculation methodologies, considering both

technical (inherent of the system) and non-technical (usually associated to the electricity

theft) losses. In general, all distribution networks know the load factor, obtained by

measuring parameters directly from the network. However, the loss factor, important for theenergy loss cost calculation, can only be obtained in a laborious way. Consequently, several

formulas have been developed for obtaining the loss factor. Generally, it is used the

expression that relates both factors, through the use of a coefficient k. Last reviews introduce

a range of factor k within 0.04 - 0.30. In this work, an analysis with real life load curves is

presented, determining new values for the coefficient k in a Brazilian electric utility

The National Electricity Rules (NER) requires that distribution loss factors (DLFs) be

determined by a Distribution Network Service Provider (DNSP) for all connection points on

its distribution network either individually or collectively.


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According to the NER, DLFs notionally describe the average energy losses for electricity

transmitted on a distribution network between a distribution network connection point and a

transmission network connection point or virtual transmission node for the applicable

financial year. DLFs are to be used in the settlement process as a notional adjustment to the

electrical energy - expressed in MWh - flowing at a distribution network connection point ina trading interval to determine the adjusted gross energy amount for that connection point in

that trading interval. For more information, please refer to clauses 3.6.3 and 3.15.4 on the

National Electricity Rules website.

Methodology

In broad terms, the Rules require that site-specific DLFs are calculated for:

Embedded generators with greater than 10 MW of generation. All customers of greater than 10 MW demand or 40 GW.h annual consumption i.e.

Individually Calculated Customers (ICCs).

Generators of less than 10 MW or 40 GWh per annum capacity where the Generatormeets reasonable costs for Energex to perform the necessary calculations.

DLFs for all other customers may be calculated on an average basis, which means

determining DLFs for each voltage level of the network. The methodology used by Energex

involves a full recalculation of all DLFs (both average and site specific) every three years. In

the intervening years, site specific DLFs are calculated, but all average DLFs are simply

reviewed, based on allocation of the same proportion of network losses determined at the last

full recalculation. The annual DLF review also requires that a reconciliation of the previous

year's calculated DLFs be completed. The DLFs of the previous financial year are used to

calculate losses on the distribution network for that year. These are then compared to

historical metered data and reasons for discrepancies are explained or reconciled.

Site specific customer calculations

The methodology for determining DLFs for Site Specific Customers is identical whether it be

a full re-calculation (every third year), or only a review. Site specific DLFs are calculated

using load flow analysis based on the customers forecast demand data and network load datafor the year in which the DLFs are to be applied. The analysis involves load flow studies on

the directly connected network between the customer connection point and the transmission

network connection point. The directly connected network is defined as all parts of the

network which experience a change in power flow due to a change in customer loads. In

addition, iron losses of the transformers included in the directly connected network are

calculated and apportioned based on the ratio of customer load and network load flowing

through the transformer. Energex uses the Marginal Loss Factor methodology to calculate

site specific DLFs. This process involves determining the customer's losses by assessing the

relativity between the change in system load associated with a change in the customer's load.
https://www.energex.com.au/external-links/aemc_ruleshttps://www.energex.com.au/external-links/aemc_rules


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Calculation of average loss factors (for full recalculation)

Average DLFs are calculated for each significant supply level in the network, whereas DLFs

for major customers are calculated individually to determine the losses directly attributable to

their loads.

The average DLF categories applied by Energex are:

132/110 kV Network 33 kV Network 11 kV bus 11 kV line LV bus LV line

The method used to calculate average DLFs is to carry out load flow studies to determine the

losses at the coincident network peak, followed by the application of calculated Loss Load

Factors (LLFs) to obtain the actual losses. The transmission and sub-transmission systems are

modeled using appropriate load flow packages. Losses on the 11 kV distribution network are

calculated using forecast feeder peak demand data and feeder length data which is obtained

from Energex's corporate database. Losses at the LV bus are calculated based on the average

impedance of distribution transformers, and losses in the LV network are calculated as the

difference between the total losses (calculated by the difference between total purchases and

total sales), and the losses resulting from the higher voltage network studies. The DLFs for

the network are calculated based on the formula:

1.1 Calculation of Loss Load Factors

Loss Load Factors (LLFs) are calculated based on load duration curves, which are computed

from half-hour average demands over a full year. The load duration curve is squared and

averaged to obtain the LLF. The LLFs are applied to the losses calculated at peak demands to

determine the actual losses.

1.2 Transmission (132 and 110 kV) Network

Load flow studies are carried out down to the 33kV or 11kV busbar at all bulk supply points

and direct transformation substations. The 132/33kV, 110/33kV, 132/11kV and 110/11kV

transformer losses are subtracted from the transmission system losses.

Losses calculated by these studies are converted to annual energy losses using the LLF for

the system under consideration. The sum of the annual energy losses for all transmission


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network connection points excluding ICC losses are divided by the sum of all non-ICC

energy sales through the 132kV & 110kV networks to obtain the DLF, viz:

1.3 Bulk Supply Networks

The bulk supply systems are modeled from the 33kV busbar to the 11kV busbar including

33/11kV transformers. The peak losses in kW calculated from load flow studies are converted

to annual energy losses using the LLF. Losses attributed to the 132/33kV, 110/33kV,

132/11kV and 110/11kV transformers are added to the losses obtained from these load flows.

The total energy supplied is taken from billed sales figures and the DLF derived by dividing

the total losses excluding ICC losses by the total energy sales to non-ICC customers, viz:

The bulk supply and 11kV bus DLFs are separated from the total DLF using ratios. The ratios

used by Energex from 1 July 2013 are 0.617353208 for the Bulk Supply System DLF and

0.382646792 for the 11kV Bus DLF. The ratios are based on the 2013/14 full DLF review.

These ratios are validated during each full review, and if found to be no longer appropriate,

are recalculated, subject to the latest network configurations and consumption patterns. Theseratios will apply to years 2013/14, 2014/15 and 2015/16.

1.4 11 kV circuits

Losses on 11 kV feeders are calculated using the length of each feeder and forecast peak

demand data. The formula for determining 11kV losses is as follows:

The feeder lengths are obtained from Energex's corporate database, and allow calculation of

the resistance of each feeder based on average overhead and underground resistances per unit

length. The peak demand is also obtained from a corporate database, and a load growth is

applied to determine peaks during the forecast year. Average branching factors are calculated

for urban, rural and high-density feeders based on losses obtained for each 11kV feeder

during each full review. This data allows losses to be calculated for each 11kV feeder. An

annual loss energy is then produced for each feeder using LLFs, which are then summed to

produce the total 11kV feeder losses. The DLF is thus:


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1.5 LV bus and LV circuits

LV losses are generally determined as being the remaining losses when all calculated losses

for the higher voltage networks have been deducted from the total network losses (known

from purchases - sales). LV losses need to be appropriately allocated between the LV Bus

and LV Line categories. The calculated ratios used by Energex from 1 July 2013 are LV Bus

= 0.514371103 and LV line = 0.485628897 of total LV losses.

The conventional wisdom of the past few years has been that the region's power system is

becoming capacity constrained in part because of growing peak loads. But does the data

support this perception?A Councilpresentation on trends in regional energy and peak

electricity loads tells a different story. Since 1995, annual energy loads grew at an average

rate of only 0.40 percent, and winter peak loads haven't grown at all. What this portends for

the energy industry is a topic of interest as work begins on the Seventh Power Plan. What sort

of industry are we planning for? Utilities have traditionally planned system expansions to

meet the expectation of growing loads, but the trend of the past 20 years suggests this may

longer be the case.Energy efficiency is a big reason why. It has helped the region grow

economically without having to rely too heavily on adding new generating resources.

SYSTEM PLANNING

Demand and generation forecast

Evolution of the demand characteristics Methodologies for demand forecast in an assigned area Electric vehicle impact on the electrical demand Ways to regulate the impact of electrical vehicles in demand Vehicle-to-grid strategies RES-generation forecast

Performance requirements, results and benchmarking

Economical versus technical performance System reliability and degree of adequacy Methods for performance assessment Results of performance evaluation and benchmarking Satisfaction of customers and stakeholders Predictive assessment of power quality Reliability assessment in smartgrids
https://www.nwcouncil.org/media/6914325/p4.pdfhttps://www.nwcouncil.org/media/6914325/p4.pdf


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Network schemes and design criteria

Advanced network schemes for the best exploitation of distributed generation, energystorage and electric vehicles

Design of active networks and smartgrids Distribution systems for off-shore wind farms Low-losses design Dependence on local environment Co-existence and synergy with other infrastructures Distribution network design criteria to manage low probability high impact extreme

events

Distribution network schemes for developing countries Schemes for the connection of electric vehicles in car parks, public or private

buildings, and regulation rules

Network planning

Planning techniques in the smartgrid era Improving efficiency in distribution networks Optimal DER integration Storage and compensation systems planning Planning criteria for electrification in low load density areas, including quality of

supply issues

Integration in the network of speed charge installations for electric vehiclesDISTRIBUTION SYSTEM PLANNING & SECURITY STANDARDS

4.1 General:

4.1.1The Licenseeshall plan and develop its Distribution System, particularly to ensure that

subject to the availability of adequate generating and transmitting capacity, the systemis

capable of providing consumers with a safe, reliable, economical and efficient supply of

electricity.

4.1.2The Licensee's Distribution Systemshall conform to the statutory requirements of

Indian Electricity Act 1910, Electricity Supply Act 1948, and Indian Electricity Rules

1956.

4.2 Planning Procedure:

4.2.1The Licenseeshall prepare a long term load forecast for a period of 5 (five) years in

its Area of Supplytaking into account the probable load growth and consumption pattern of

the consumers. The Licensee shall adopt appropriate load forecasting methods using reliable

data and relevant indices. The methods may include one or more of the following methods.

i. Econometric regression analysis.ii. Appliance saturation methods.
http://www.orierc.org/Orders/standards/dsp.htm


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iii. End-use energy methods.iv. Any other reasonable and justifiable method.

4.2.2Consumers seeking to contract demands of 5MW and above shall submit application to

the Licenseealong with load data in the manner to be prescribed by the Licenseein

conformity with Distribution Code, as follows :

i. For contracting Loads up to l0 MW - 3years in advanceii. For contracting Loads in excess of 10 MW - 5years in advance

4.2.3The consumers shall inform in writing to the Licenseepromptly regarding changes, if

any, in their load demand and its scheduling.

4.2.4The Licenseeshall work out the annual Energy Demand and Peak Demand for each of

the succeeding five years relating to each point of interconnection on the basis of its load

forecast.

4.2.5By suitable sampling and installation of meters the Licenseeshall workout the

Diversity Factor/Coincidence Factor of each class of consumers fed from each point of

interconnection in the area of supply. The Licenseeshall maintain a record of such data and

update the same at last once in 5(five) years. The licensee shall prepare the long term load

forecast based on these data as refered to inpara 4.2.1.

4.2.6The Licenseeshall arrange to publish a Data Book listing all System Datarelating to

its Distribution Systemas detailed in the Distribution Code. The Data Book shall be

updated every year and copies of same shall be made available to any effected person upon

request on payment of fair copying charges:

4.3 Planning Standards Criteria

4.3.1 Standardization of Sizes and RatingsFor each voltage class of application such as 230/400Volts, 11,000 Volts, and 33,000 Volts,

conductors, insulators, lightning arresters, transformers, switchgear, etc. used in

the Distribution Systemshall be standardized with the objective of reducing the inventory.

Specifications for these materials shall at least conform to relevant Indian standards in

general.

4.3.2 Standardisation of Sub-Station LayoutsThe Licenseeshall develop standard layouts to fulfil the minimum requirements detailed

below.

4.3.2.1 33/11kV Sub-Station (20MVA and above)

a. The layouts shall generally conform to CBI&P manualon Layout of Sub-Stations asapplicable and provisions in Indian Electricity Rules, 1956 subject to the requirements

mentioned in Sub paragraph (b), below

b. The layout adopted shall include the following :-
http://www.orierc.org/Orders/standards/dsp.htm#4.2.1http://www.orierc.org/Orders/standards/dsp.htmhttp://www.orierc.org/Orders/standards/dsp.htm#4.2.1


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i. Independent Circuit Breaker control of 33kV Feeders and Transformers.ii. Independent Circuit Breaker control of 11KV Feeders.

iii. Provision of Tariff and Operational metering in accordance with Distribution Code.iv. Single bus sectionalised.

4.3.2.2 33/11kV Sub-Station (10 MVA above but less than 20MVA)

a. The layout shall generally conform to relevant Construction Standards of RuralElectrification Corporation Ltd. and provisions in Indian Electricity Rules, 1956

subject to the requirements mentioned in Sub-paragraph (b) below.

b. The layout adopted shall include the following :i. Independent Circuit Breaker control of 33kV Feeders and Transformers.

ii. Independent Circuit Breaker in each of 11KV Feeders.iii. Single Bus Sectionalised.

4.3.2.3 33/11kV Sub-Station (Less than 10MVA)

a. The layout shall generally conform to relevant Construction Standards of RuralElectrification Corporation Ltd / any other improved standards and provisions in Indian

Electricity Rules, 1956 subject to the requirements mentioned in sub paragraph (b) below.

b. The layout adopted shall include the following :i. Group circuit Breaker control of Transformers.

ii. Independent control of 11KV Feeders.iii. Single Bus.

4.3.2.4 11/0.4kV 3-phase Distribution Transformer Centres

a. Transformers up to 200 KVA capacity other than those meant for indoor applicationshall normally be pole mounted.

b. The layout of the distribution transformers shall generally conform to relevantConstruction Standards of Rural Electricity Corporation Ltd. and provisions in Indian

Electricity Rules, 1956. The Licensee may adopt more improved layout for urban

areas as per project report.

c. The distribution transformers shall be located as close to the load centres as possible.Transformers above 100 KVA capacity other than those meant for indoor installations

shall be outdoor plinth mounted with space for installation of a second Transformer.d. Moulded Case Circuit Breakers or Air Break Switches of suitable ratings shall be

provided on the secondary side of transformers of capacity above 100 KVA for

protecting the transformers from over load and short circuits. Fuse units of suitable

ratings shall be provided on the secondary side of transformers of capacity up to and

including 100 KVA for protecting the transformers from overload and short circuits.

4.3.2.5 11/0.23kV 1-phase Distribution Transformers (up to 16KVA Capacity.)

These transformers shall be pole mounted complying with provisions in Indian Electricity

Rules, 1956 for isolating the transformer during overload and short circuit conditions.


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4.3.3 Design Criteria for Distribution lines:These criteria shall apply to all distribution lines up to and including 33kV for both overhead

lines and under ground cables.

4.3.3.1 The lines shall be designed and constructed in accordance with relevant provision of

I.E. Rule 1956 applicable to overhead lines and under-ground cables.

4.3.3.2 The distribution network fed from 11/0.4kV transformers and 33/11kV transformers

shall be initially planned as independent networks within their respective service area. A

service area of any particular substation shall mean for this purpose, an area, load in which

shall normally be supplied by that sub- station by one or more number of feeders, as required,

without exceeding the specified KVA-KMLoadinglimit of any feeder within the area.

4.3.3.4 The Licensee shall take suitable measures, sufficiently in advance, to augment the

capacity of the feeders in the event of the specified KVA-KM Loadingof any feeder being

exceeded.

4.3.3.5 The design of the distribution lines shall incorporate features to enable their

augmentation, in future, with minimum interruption to power supply. The existing Rights of

Way shall be fully exploited.

4.3.3.6 KVA-KM Loadinglimits for conductors may be calculated in accordance with a

sample calculation shown at

4.3.4 Capacitive Reactance compensation:Shunt capacitors unswitched/switched type, shall be installed in the Distribution System at

suitable location for improvement of Power Factor, voltage profile and reduction of

transmission and distribution losses. The size and location of capacitor installations shall be

determined on the basis of reliable field data to avoid over voltages at light load periods.

(Useful formulae are given in the which may be applied for determining approximate size

and location of capacitor installations). The Licensee shall, however, undertake optimisation

study of shunt compensation to determine most appropriate sizes and locations for shunt

capacitor installations in comparision to other alternatives.

4.3.5 Service lines:The service Wires to consumers shall be laid in accordance with relevant Construction

Standards of Rural Electrification Corporation Ltd. for 230V/400V supply and shall conform

to provision in Indian Electricity Rules, 1956in all cases.

4.3.6 Metering Installations:For 230V/400V the layout of metering installation shall be in accordance with relevant

construction standards of Rural Electrification Corporation Ltd. The meters and associated

metering equipment including connections shall be enclosed in a suitable tamper proof box.

The tamper proof box shall be of sufficient strength and design with locking and sealing

devices and with adequate provision for heat dissipation and electrical clearances. The design

shall permit readings to be taken without access to the meter or its connections.

For HT and EHT Consumersthe meters, maximum demand indicators, secondary

connections, and other secondary apparatus and connections required shall be housed in a

separate metering panel, which shall be locked/sealed to prevent tampering.


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4.4 Security Standards:The Licensee's Distribution Systemshall be planned and maintained so as to fulfill the

following security standards except under Force Majeur Conditions beyond the reasonable

control of the licensee.

i. Loading in any current carrying component of the Distribution System(e.g.Conductors, Joints, Transformer, Switchgear, Cables, other apparatus etc.) shall not

exceed 80% of the respective thermal limit.

ii. In case of single contingency failure in or to any 33/11kV sub-station excludingequipment, controlling any outgoing 11KV Feeders, the load interrupted shall not

generally exceed 50% of the total demand on the sub-station. The licensee has to

bring it down to 20% within a period of three years.

iii. In case of breakdown of any 33/0.4kV or 11/0.4kV Distribution sub-station,theelectricity supply shall not be interrupted for more than 24 (Twenty four) hours except

in case of major failures involving Transformers, the interruption shall not be formore than 7 (seven) days.

iv. In case of a failure in any 11KV Feeder including its terminal equipment, supply shallnot normally be interrupted for more than 24 (Twenty four) hours but in no case shall

exceed 7 (seven) days.

v. There shall be at least two numbers of Transformers in each 33/11kV Sub-station.vi. In each 33/11kV sub-station of capacity 10 MVA and above there shall be at least two

incoming circuits.

5. OPERATING STANDARDS

5.1 General:These Operating Standards are aimed at operating the Licensee's Distribution

Systemsafely, efficiently and to ensure maximum system stability and security.

5.2 Operation Criteria:The operation criteria comprise of :

i. Load monitoring and balancingii. Voltage monitoring and control

iii. Interruption Monitoringiv. Data Loggingv. Load management

vi. Communicationvii. Safety co-ordination5.2.1.1 Load monitoring:

Licensee shall prescribe Rules and methods in its Operation manuals for monitoring load at

the following places.
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i. 33/11 kV Sub-stationsii. 33 kV Feeders

iii. 11 kV Feedersiv. 11/0.4 kV Sub-stations (in all phases on the secondary side)

5.2.1.2 Load Balancing:The unbalance of load between Phases in low tension distribution network fed by 33/0.4kV

and 11/0.4 kV distribution transformers shall not exceed 5% (five percent) of the average

load.

5.2.2 Voltage Monitoring and Control

5.2.2.1 Voltage monitoring at each 33/11 kV Sub-station shall be carried out by data logging.

5.2.2.2Voltage monitoring on the secondary side of 33/0.4kV and 11/0.4kV distribution

transformers shall be carried out at least once in one year during Peak Load hours to cover at

least two nos. of transformers in each 11KV feeder as follows:

i. One transformer towards the beginning of the feederii. One transformer towards the end of the feeder

5.2.2.3Improvement to voltage conditions shall be achieved by operating ON LOAD TAP

CHANGE CONTROL of transformers in the Distribution Systemwhere such facility exists.

The Licenseeshall contact over Telephone the operators of Transmission andBulk Supply

Licenseeat the point of interconnection, to correct voltage at the sending end as required.

5.2.3 INTERRUPTION MONITORING

5.2.3.1Licensee shall maintain accurate record of consumer interruption caused by

(a) Planned and unplanned outages of following equipments in the Distribution System.

a. 33KV line/equipmentsb. 33/11 KV Sub-Stationsc. 11 KV line/equipmentsd. 11/0.4KV Sub-Stations

or

(b) Outage of power supply from interconnection points with GRIDCO or other power

supplier

Each record shall contain at least the following information:

a. Name of Section, Sub-Division and Divisionb. locationc. Area affectedd. The name of affected lines/ Sub-Station/ equipments/ Interconnection point (i.e. with

Gridco or other power supplier)e. The date and time of interruption


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f. The date and time of restorationg. The duration of interruptionh. The cause of interruptioni. Whether the interruption is planned or unplanned

j. The protection device if any operated/not operatedk. Action taken for restoration of supplyl. Preventive action if any takenm. Weather conditionn. Damage/injury to property/life if any

5.2.3.2Based on the above records, the Licenseeis required to evaluate and monitor

electricity supply reliability indices as stated in "Statement of System Performance"

appended at the end of this document.

5.2.4 Data Logging:

All important data such as Voltage, Current, Power Factor, KWH, Transformer operational

data (e.g. Tap position, oil/winding Temperature, etc) shall be logged on hourly basis in all33/11kV sub-stations with installed capacity of 10 MVA and above and all other attended

sub-stations.

5.2.5 Load Management:

5.2.5.1 In the event of total or partial black outs of Transmission Systemor Regional

Systemthe Licenseeshall follow procedures as laid down in the GRID CODEunder the

Section contingency planning.

5.2.5.2 In the event of breakdown within its own System, the Licensee shall restore/maintain

supply within the limit specified under security standards (Sub Section 4.4) by taking

appropriate measures.

5.2.6 Communication:The Licensee shall establish reliable communication facilities at its major 33/11kV sub-

stations (10 MVA and above). All operating instructions, messages and data received from or

sent to the concerned Grid Sub-station/Grid Substations and SLDCshall be duly recorded at

such sub-station.

5.2.7 Safety Coordination:

5.2.7.1 The Licenseeand consumers shall abide by the general safety requirements of

the I.E.Rules 1956for construction, installation, protection, operation and maintenance of

electric supply lines and apparatus.

5.2.7.2Procedures laid down in the relevant section of the grid codeand distribution

codeshall be followed by the Licenseeand its consumers, in this regard.

5.2.7.3 The Licenseeand its consumers shall abide by provisions of I.E. Rules, 1956under

Chapter VII. "Electric supply lines, Systems and Apparatus for High and Extra High

Voltages."
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5.2.7.4The Licenseeshall develop its own Safety Manual to satisfy requirements of I.E.

Rulesand implement the same.

1. Conductor Data

Conductor Size --------------------------------------(6/3.35mm + 1/3.35mm)ACSR

Gross Area of Aluminium--------------------------52.95mm2

Copper Equivalent-----------------------------------32.26mm2

Resistance in ohms per KM (at 20C)------------0.5449*

Inductive reactance at 50 Hz in ohms per KM---0.421*

(For equivalent spacing of 1000mm)

* Appropriate values may be taken for any other temperature and equivalent spacing.

2. Assumptions

Length of line-------------------------1 KM

KVA loading--------------------------1000 KVA

3 phase voltage-----------------------11,000 V

3. Regulation

Percent Regulation (approx) = {I (R cos + X sine ) / E } x 100

Where

I = Current per phase in amp

R = Resistance per phase in ohms

X = Reactance per phase in ohms

Cos = Power Factor

E = Phase-Neutral voltage in volts

Percent Regulation = {48.2 (0.5449 x 0.8 + 0.421 x 0.6) / 6351} x 100 = 0.523%

For 1% Voltage Regulation the KVA-KM loading for the selected conductor size at 0.8 PF

will be 1912 KVA-KM. For any other Power Factor, voltage and conductor temperature the

Voltage Regulation may be calculated by substituting appropriate values of current,

Resistance Cos and Sine in the formula.

The Licenseeshall prepare a long term load forecast for a period of 5 (five) years in its Area

of Supplytaking into account the probable load growth and consumption pattern of the


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consumers. The Licensee shall adopt appropriate load forecasting methods using reliable data

and relevant indices. The methods may include one or more of the following methods.

i. Econometric regression analysis.ii. Appliance saturation methods.

iii. End-use energy methods.iv. Any other reasonable and justifiable method.4.2.2Consumers seeking to contract demands of 5MW and above shall submit application to

the Licenseealong with load data in the manner to be prescribed by the Licenseein

conformity with Distribution Code, as follows :

i. For contracting Loads up to l0 MW - 3years in advanceii. For contracting Loads in excess of 10 MW - 5years in advance

4.2.3The consumers shall inform in writing to the Licenseepromptly regarding changes, if

any, in their load demand and its scheduling.

4.2.4The Licenseeshall work out the annual Energy Demand and Peak Demand for each of

the succeeding five years relating to each point of interconnection on the basis of its load

forecast.

4.2.5By suitable sampling and installation of meters the Licenseeshall workout the

Diversity Factor/Coincidence Factor of each class of consumers fed from each point of

interconnection in the area of supply. The Licenseeshall maintain a record of such data and

update the same at last once in 5(five) years. The licensee shall prepare the long term load

forecast based on these data as refered to inpara 4.2.1.

4.2.6The Licenseeshall arrange to publish a Data Book listing all System Datarelating to

its Distribution Systemas detailed in the Distribution Code. The Data Book shall be

updated every year and copies of same shall be made available to any effected person

upon request on payment of fair copying charges:

4.3 Planning Standards Criteria

4.3.1 Standardization of Sizes and RatingsFor each voltage class of application such as 230/400Volts, 11,000 Volts, and 33,000 Volts,

conductors, insulators, lightning arresters, transformers, switchgear, etc. used in

the Distribution Systemshall be standardized with the objective of reducing the inventory.

Specifications for these materials shall at least conform to relevant Indian standards in

general.

4.3.2 Standardisation of Sub-Station LayoutsThe Licenseeshall develop standard layouts to fulfil the minimum requirements detailed

below.

4.3.2.1 33/11kV Sub-Station (20MVA and above)
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a. The layouts shall generally conform to CBI&P manualon Layout of Sub-Stations asapplicable and provisions in Indian Electricity Rules, 1956 subject to the requirements

mentioned in Sub paragraph (b), below

b. The layout adopted shall include the following :-i. Independent Circuit Breaker control of 33kV Feeders and Transformers.ii. Independent Circuit Breaker control of 11KV Feeders.

iii. Provision of Tariff and Operational metering in accordance with Distribution Code.iv. Single bus sectionalised.

4.3.2.2 33/11kV Sub-Station (10 MVA above but less than 20MVA)

a. The layout shall generally conform to relevant Construction Standards of RuralElectrification Corporation Ltd. and provisions in Indian Electricity Rules, 1956

subject to the requirements mentioned in Sub-paragraph (b) below.

b. The layout adopted shall include the following :i. Independent Circuit Breaker control of 33kV Feeders and Transformers.

ii. Independent Circuit Breaker in each of 11KV Feeders.iii. Single Bus Sectionalised.

4.3.2.3 33/11kV Sub-Station (Less than 10MVA)

a. The layout shall generally conform to relevant Construction Standards of RuralElectrification Corporation Ltd / any other improved standards and provisions in Indian

Electricity Rules, 1956 subject to the requirements mentioned in sub paragraph (b) below.

b. The layout adopted shall include the following :i. Group circuit Breaker control of Transformers.

ii. Independent control of 11KV Feeders.iii. Single Bus.

4.3.2.4 11/0.4kV 3-phase Distribution Transformer Centres

a. Transformers up to 200 KVA capacity other than those meant for indoor applicationshall normally be pole mounted.

b. The layout of the distribution transformers shall generally conform to relevantConstruction Standards of Rural Electricity Corporation Ltd. and provisions in IndianElectricity Rules, 1956. The Licensee may adopt more improved layout for urban

areas as per project report.

c. The distribution transformers shall be located as close to the load centres as possible.Transformers above 100 KVA capacity other than those meant for indoor installations

shall be outdoor plinth mounted with space for installation of a second Transformer.

d. Moulded Case Circuit Breakers or Air Break Switches of suitable ratings shall beprovided on the secondary side of transformers of capacity above 100 KVA for

protecting the transformers from over load and short circuits. Fuse units of suitable

ratings shall be provided on the secondary side of transformers of capacity up to and

including 100 KVA for protecting the transformers from overload and short circuits.


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4.3.2.5 11/0.23kV 1-phase Distribution Transformers (up to 16KVA Capacity.)These transformers shall be pole mounted complying with provisions in Indian Electricity

Rules, 1956 for isolating the transformer during overload and short circuit conditions.

4.3.3 Design Criteria for Distribution lines:

These criteria shall apply to all distribution lines up to and including 33kV for both overheadlines and under ground cables.

4.3.3.1 The lines shall be designed and constructed in accordance with relevant provision of

I.E. Rule 1956 applicable to overhead lines and under-ground cables.

4.3.3.2 The distribution network fed from 11/0.4kV transformers and 33/11kV transformers

shall be initially planned as independent networks within their respective service area. A

service area of any particular substation shall mean for this purpose, an area, load in which

shall normally be supplied by that sub- station by one or more number of feeders, as required,

without exceeding the specified KVA-KMLoadinglimit of any feeder within the area.

4.3.3.4 The Licensee shall take suitable measures, sufficiently in advance, to augment the

capacity of the feeders in the event of the specified KVA-KM Loadingof any feeder being

exceeded.

4.3.3.5 The design of the distribution lines shall incorporate features to enable their

augmentation, in future, with minimum interruption to power supply. The existing Rights of

Way shall be fully exploited.

4.3.3.6 KVA-KM Loadinglimits for conductors may be calculated in accordance with a

sample calculation shown atAnnexure-I.

4.3.4 Capacitive Reactance compensation:Shunt capacitors unswitched/switched type, shall be installed in the Distribution System at

suitable location for improvement of Power Factor, voltage profile and reduction of

transmission and distribution losses. The size and location of capacitor installations shall be

determined on the basis of reliable field data to avoid over voltages at light load periods.

(Useful formulae are given in theAnnexure-IIwhich may be applied for determining

approximate size and location of capacitor installations). The Licensee shall, however,

undertake optimisation study of shunt compensation to determine most appropriate sizes and

locations for shunt capacitor installations in comparision to other alternatives.

4.3.5 Service lines:The service Wires to consumers shall be laid in accordance with relevant Construction

Standards of Rural Electrification Corporation Ltd. for 230V/400V supply and shall conform

to provision in Indian Electricity Rules, 1956in all cases.

4.3.6 Metering Installations:For 230V/400V the layout of metering installation shall be in accordance with relevant

construction standards of Rural Electrification Corporation Ltd. The meters and associated

metering equipment including connections shall be enclosed in a suitable tamper proof box.

The tamper proof box shall be of sufficient strength and design with locking and sealing

devices and with adequate provision for heat dissipation and electrical clearances. The designshall permit readings to be taken without access to the meter or its connections.
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For HT and EHT Consumersthe meters, maximum demand indicators, secondary

connections, and other secondary apparatus and connections required shall be housed in a

separate metering panel, which shall be locked/sealed to prevent tampering.

4.4 Security Standards:The Licensee's Distribution Systemshall be planned and maintained so as to fulfill the

following security standards except under Force Majeur Conditions beyond the reasonable

control of the licensee.

i. Loading in any current carrying component of the Distribution System(e.g.Conductors, Joints, Transformer, Switchgear, Cables, other apparatus etc.) shall not

exceed 80% of the respective thermal limit.

ii. In case of single contingency failure in or to any 33/11kV sub-station excludingequipment, controlling any outgoing 11KV Feeders, the load interrupted shall not

generally exceed 50% of the total demand on the sub-station. The licensee has tobring it down to 20% within a period of three years.

iii. In case of breakdown of any 33/0.4kV or 11/0.4kV Distribution sub-station,theelectricity supply shall not be interrupted for more than 24 (Twenty four) hours except

in case of major failures involving Transformers, the interruption shall not be for

more than 7 (seven) days.

iv. In case of a failure in any 11KV Feeder including its terminal equipment, supply shallnot normally be interrupted for more than 24 (Twenty four) hours but in no case shall

exceed 7 (seven) days.

v. There shall be at least two numbers of Transformers in each 33/11kV Sub-station.vi. In each 33/11kV sub-station of capacity 10 MVA and above there shall be at least

two incoming circuits.

5. OPERATING STANDARDS

5.1 General:These Operating Standards are aimed at operating the Licensee's Distribution

Systemsafely, efficiently and to ensure maximum system stability and security.

5.2 Operation Criteria:The operation criteria comprise of :

i. Load monitoring and balancingii. Voltage monitoring and control

iii. Interruption Monitoringiv. Data Loggingv. Load management

vi. Communicationvii. Safety co-ordination
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5.2.1.1 Load monitoring:Licensee shall prescribe Rules and methods in its Operation manuals for monitoring load at

the following places.

i. 33/11 kV Sub-stationsii. 33 kV Feedersiii. 11 kV Feedersiv. 11/0.4 kV Sub-stations (in all phases on the secondary side)

5.2.1.2 Load Balancing:The unbalance of load between Phases in low tension distribution network fed by 33/0.4kV

and 11/0.4 kV distribution transformers shall not exceed 5% (five percent) of the average

load.

5.2.2 Voltage Monitoring and Control

5.2.2.1 Voltage monitoring at each 33/11 kV Sub-station shall be carried out by data logging.

5.2.2.2Voltage monitoring on the secondary side of 33/0.4kV and 11/0.4kV distribution

transformers shall be carried out at least once in one year during Peak Load hours to cover at

least two nos. of transformers in each 11KV feeder as follows:

i. One transformer towards the beginning of the feederii. One transformer towards the end of the feeder

5.2.2.3Improvement to voltage conditions shall be achieved by operating ON LOAD TAP

CHANGE CONTROL of transformers in the Distribution Systemwhere such facility exists.

The Licenseeshall contact over Telephone the operators of Transmission andBulk Supply

Licenseeat the point of interconnection, to correct voltage at the sending end as required.

5.2.3 INTERRUPTION MONITORING

5.2.3.1Licensee shall maintain accurate record of consumer interruption caused by

(a) Planned and unplanned outages of following equipments in the Distribution System.

a. 33KV line/equipmentsb. 33/11 KV Sub-Stationsc. 11 KV line/equipmentsd. 11/0.4KV Sub-Stations

or

(b) Outage of power supply from interconnection points with GRIDCO or other power

supplier

Each record shall contain at least the following information:

a. Name of Section, Sub-Division and Divisionb. Location


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c. Area affectedd. The name of affected lines/ Sub-Station/ equipments/ Interconnection point (i.e. with

Gridco or other power supplier)

e. The date and time of interruptionf. The date and time of restorationg. The duration of interruptionh. The cause of interruptioni. Whether the interruption is planned or unplanned

j. The protection device if any operated/not operatedk. Action taken for restoration of supplyl. Preventive action if any takenm. Weather conditionn. Damage/injury to property/life if any

Based on the above records, the Licenseeis required to evaluate and monitor electricity

supply reliability indices as stated in "Statement of System Performance"appended at the end

of this document.

Data Logging:All important data such as Voltage, Current, Power Factor, KWH, Transformer operational

data (e.g. Tap position, oil/winding Temperature, etc) shall be logged on hourly basis in all

33/11kV sub-stations with installed capacity of 10 MVA and above and all other attended

sub-stations.

Load Management:

In the event of total or partial black outs of Transmission Systemor Regional

Systemthe Licenseeshall follow procedures as laid down in the GRID CODEunder the

Section contingency planning.

In the event of breakdown within its own System, the Licensee shall restore/maintain supply

within the limit specified under security standards (Sub Section 4.4) by taking appropriate

measures.

Communication:The Licensee shall establish reliable communication facilities at its major 33/11kV sub-

stations (10 MVA and above). All operating instructions, messages and data received from or

sent to the concerned Grid Sub-station/Grid Substations and SLDCshall be duly recorded atsuch sub-station.

Safety Coordination:

The Licenseeand consumers shall abide by the general safety requirements of the I.E.Rules

1956for construction, installation, protection, operation and maintenance of electric supply

lines and apparatus. Procedures laid down in the relevant section of the grid

codeand distribution codeshall be followed by the Licenseeand its consumers, in this

regard.
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5.2.7.3 The Licenseeand its consumers shall abide by provisions of I.E. Rules, 1956under

Chapter VII. "Electric supply lines, Systems and Apparatus for High and Extra High

Voltages."

5.2.7.4The Licenseeshall develop its own Safety Manual to satisfy requirements of I.E.

Rulesand implement the same.

inform the public of the first phase results, key findings, and conclusions. The study team gave a PowerPoint

presentation summarizing the DRGPhase I report to the MN Public Utilities Commission.

This blog post should allow you to:

1. Understand Dispersed Generation

2. Watch and listen to the DG webinar presentation

3. Get a summary of important slides

4. Learn how to get more info and provide comments on the Study

\

What is Dispersed Generation?

Definition: Dispersed generation is a decentralized power plant, feeding into the distribution

level power-grid and typically sized between 10 and 150 MW. (source)Our electric utility

infrastructure in this country is based on a system of large power plants feeding power to

customers through a vast transmission and distribution system, collectively known as the

grid.Dispersed generation is a concept where smaller, highly efficient power plants would

be built along the existing grid, close to the end-user customer. It is similar in concept to the

move from large central computers to desktop computers on a network. Minnesota, with our

strong renewable energy capabilities, is ideally suited to take advantage of dispersed

generation across the state.

Dispersed generation offers a variety of advantages for many perspectives. Energy

consumers, power providers, and other stakeholders all have their own reasons for wanting

greater adoption of distributed generation. Distributed power generators are small compared

with typical central station power plants and provide unique benefits that are not available

from centralized electricity generation. Many of these benefits stem from the fact that the

generating units are inherently modular, which makes distributed power highly flexible. It

can provide power where it is needed, when it is needed. And because they typically rely on

natural gas or renewable resources, the generators can be quieter and less polluting than large

power plants, which makes them suitable for on-site installation at some customer locations.

The Minnesota NextGen Energy Act was passed in 2007 by the Minnesota Legislature, and

one of the requirements was a statewide study of Dispersed Renewable Generation Potential.

This study is being led by the Minnesota Department of Commerce, and the Phase 1 findings

are those shared during this webinar.
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distribution systems unit 2

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