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ANNEX C Exposures to the public from man-made sources of radiation CONTENTS Page INTRODUCTION ................................................... 158 I. TESTING AND PRODUCTION OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS .............. 158 A. ATMOSPHERIC TESTS ..................................... 159 1. Number and yields of tests ................................ 159 2. Dispersion and deposition of radioactive debris ................ 160 3. Annual doses from global fallout ........................... 168 4. Local and regional exposures .............................. 172 B. UNDERGROUND TESTS .................................... 176 C. PRODUCTION OF WEAPONS MATERIALS .................... 177 1. United States .......................................... 177 2. Russian Federation ..................................... 177 3. United Kingdom ....................................... 179 4. France ............................................... 179 5. China ............................................... 180 II. NUCLEAR POWER PRODUCTION ................................ 180 A. MINING AND MILLING .................................... 180 1. Effluents ............................................. 181 2. Dose estimates ......................................... 181 B. URANIUM ENRICHMENT AND FUEL FABRICATION ............ 182 C. NUCLEAR REACTOR OPERATION ........................... 182 1. Effluents ............................................. 183 2. Local and regional dose estimates .......................... 186 D. FUEL REPROCESSING ..................................... 188 1. Effluents ............................................. 188 2. Local and regional dose estimates .......................... 188 E. GLOBALLY DISPERSED RADIONUCLIDES .................... 189 F. SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL AND TRANSPORT .................. 190 G. SUMMARY OF DOSE ESTIMATES ........................... 190 III. OTHER EXPOSURES ........................................... 191 A. RADIOISOTOPE PRODUCTION AND USE ..................... 191 B. RESEARCH REACTORS .................................... 192 C. ACCIDENTS .............................................. 192 CONCLUSIONS .................................................... 193

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Page 1: D:\My Documents\WordPerfect\WordPerfect 8.0\2000Report

ANNEX C

Exposures to the public from man-made sources of radiation

CONTENTS

Page

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

I. TESTING AND PRODUCTION OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158A. ATMOSPHERIC TESTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

1. Number and yields of tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1592. Dispersion and deposition of radioactive debris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1603. Annual doses from global fallout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1684. Local and regional exposures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

B. UNDERGROUND TESTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176C. PRODUCTION OF WEAPONS MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

1. United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1772. Russian Federation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1773. United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1794. France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1795. China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

II. NUCLEAR POWER PRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180A. MINING AND MILLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

1. Effluents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1812. Dose estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

B. URANIUM ENRICHMENT AND FUEL FABRICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . 182C. NUCLEAR REACTOR OPERATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

1. Effluents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1832. Local and regional dose estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

D. FUEL REPROCESSING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1881. Effluents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1882. Local and regional dose estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188

E. GLOBALLY DISPERSED RADIONUCLIDES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189F. SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL AND TRANSPORT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190G. SUMMARY OF DOSE ESTIMATES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

III. OTHER EXPOSURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191A. RADIOISOTOPE PRODUCTION AND USE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191B. RESEARCH REACTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192C. ACCIDENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192

CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

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ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION

Page

Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287

INTRODUCTION

1. The Committee has continually kept under review theexposures of the world population resulting from releases tothe environment of radioactive materials from man-madesources. Exposures from such sources reviewed in theUNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3] included atmospheric nucleartesting, undergroundnuclear testing,nuclear weaponsfabrica-tion, nuclear power production, radioisotope production anduses, and accidents at various locations. New information onman-made environmental exposures is considered in thisAnnex.

2. The testing of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere wasthe most significant cause of exposure of the world popula-tion to man-made environmental sources of radiation. Thepractice continued from 1945 to 1980. Although the testinghas ceased and the Committee's assessment of global dosesbased on measured 90Sr deposition remains an accurateevaluation of the resulting exposures, particularly for long-lived radionuclides, new data on the yields of individual testshave been made available. These allow more detailedcalculations of the dispersal of radionuclides throughout theworld following the injection of debris into the atmosphere.Estimates of total deposition and doses from individual radio-nuclides are re-evaluated in this Annex, which also considersexposures to individuals who lived near the test sites. Previousestimatesofexposures from atmospheric testing were basedonaccumulated average doses (dose commitments), but there isinterest as well in the annual doses received by individuals.Annual dose estimates are derived in this Annex.

3. Following the cessation of atmospheric testing, nuclearweapons continued to be tested underground. Several furtherunderground tests were conducted in 1998. Undergroundtesting results only infrequently in releases of radionuclides

to the environment and the exposure of individuals. Beyondthe testing of nuclear weapons, the military fuel cycle,involving the production of weapons materials and thefabrication of the weapons, has also resulted in releases ofradioactive materials to the environment. Information onexposures in areas surrounding the industrial sites of nuclearmaterials production and weapons fabrication are consideredin this Annex. Both historical and contemporary data notpreviously reviewed by the Committee are presented.

4. Nuclear power production continues in a number ofcountries, where it is an important component of electricalenergygeneration. Rather complete monitoring and reportingof radionuclides released, especially from nuclear reactors,provide adequate data to allow analysing exposures from thissource. Data on annual releases for 1990�1997 and analysisof longer-term trends are included in this Annex. Anothercontinuing practice, radioisotope production and uses,involves at the production stage rather trivial doses that can beonly roughly estimated from the total size of the industryworldwide and some approximate figures on fractionalreleases of the radionuclides produced. The Committeepreviously assessed these exposures. The exposures of familymembers ofpatients who received therapeutic treatments with131I are considered in this Annex.

5. Another source of exposures that may be consideredto be man-made is the use of fuels or materials containingnaturally occurring radionuclides. These are referred to asenhanced natural radiation exposures. It has been thepractice of the Committee to evaluate these along withother exposures from natural radiation. These evaluationsare included in Annex B, “Exposures from naturalradiation sources”.

I. TESTING AND PRODUCTION OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS

6. The testing of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere,which took place from 1945 until 1980, involved un-restrained releases of radioactive materials directly to theenvironment and caused the largest collective dose thus farfrom man-made sources of radiation. Previous assessmentsby the Committee of the total collective dose to the worldpopulation in the UNSCEAR 1982 and 1993 Reports [U3,

U6] are complete and still valid. In the latter Report [U3],transfer coefficients are given for the dose per unit releaseor per unit deposition density for over 20 radionuclides forthe inhalation, ingestion, and external exposure pathways.

7. The evaluation of doses to the hemispheric and worldpopulations from this practice has been based on the

158

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ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 159

measured global deposition density of 90Sr, limitedmeasurements of 95Zr deposition, and on estimated ratios ofthe deposition of other radionuclides to these. The annualdepositions of 90Sr were measured in some detail during theyears when testing in the atmosphere took place. This hasmeant that the collective doses could be evaluated moredirectly and with less uncertainty than would be the case ifuncertain estimates of the amounts of radionuclides producedin the tests and their dispersion in the environment had to berelied on. However, lack of sufficient data for other, andespecially the shorter-lived, radionuclides limits the reliabilityof the estimated ratios to 95Zr and 90Sr.

8. In recent years some further details of atmosphericnuclear testing have become available. In particular, thenumbers and total yields of the explosions have beenofficially reported, providing reliable basic input data, andestimates are being made of the local doses to populationsliving in the vicinities of the test sites. This information istaken note of by the Committee to complete the historicalrecord of this practice.

9. In its previous assessments, the Committee emphasizedthe estimation of the collective doses from atmosphericnuclear testing and did not evaluate annual doses in detail.Approximate magnitudes of annual doses were presented inthe UNSCEAR 1982 Report [U6]. The unfolding of collectivedoses to derive annual doses is presented below in more detailto illustrate the time dependence ofcontributions to the annualeffective doses already received by the world population fromvarious radionuclides and to estimate the future annualeffective doses from residual contamination.

10. The production of nuclear weapons involves securingquantities of enriched uranium or plutonium for fissiondevices and of tritium and deuterium for fusion devices. Thefuel cycle for military purposes is similar to that for nuclearelectrical energy generation: uranium mining and milling,enrichment, fuel fabrication, reactor operation, and repro-cessing. Releases of radionuclides mayoccur at all the variousstages but particularly during reprocessing and plutoniumseparation. Initial information on exposures from the opera-tion of military fuel cycle installations was included in theUNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3]. Some further data aresummarized in this Chapter. Discharges and hence exposureswere greatest in the early years when nuclear arsenals werebeing established.

A. ATMOSPHERIC TESTS

1. Number and yields of tests

11. Further information on the number and yields ofatmospheric nuclear tests has been reported by the countriesthat conducted the tests. In the UNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3],the number of tests by all countries was adjusted from 423 to520, an increase of more than 20%. The total has since beenmodified slightly, and at the same time the estimated total andfission yields have been revised downwards.

12. Compilations of data on atmospheric nuclear testshave been published within the last few years, first by theUnited States [D4], then by the former Soviet Union [M2],the United Kingdom [J3], and France [D3]. Informationwas provided on the date of each test, its name or designa-tion, location, type, purpose, and the total explosive yield.To verify production amounts of important globallydispersed fission radionuclides, it would also be necessaryto know the fission yield of each test or series of tests.

13. The data on atmospheric nuclear tests needed by theCommittee for exposure evaluations are given in Table 1,and a summary for each country and each test site isprovided in Table 2. The date, type, and total explosiveyield of individual tests are as reported by the country. Ina few cases, the total yields reported by the United Statesand the former Soviet Union were indefinite (“low”, “submegatonne”, or within a designated range). Specific valuesfor summations and analyses were estimated based onassumptions given in the footnotes to Table 1.

14. Assumptions are also needed to estimate the fissionand fusion yields of individual tests. Relatively low yieldexplosions may be assumed to be due to fission only, andvery high yield explosions were thermonuclear tests withsubstantial fusion yields. For the purpose of obtainingvalues for Table 1, all tests smaller than 0.1 Mt total yieldwere assumed to be due only to fission, unless otherwiseindicated. For tests in the range 0.5�5 Mt, fission yieldsaveraging about 50% have been reported to berepresentative [G4], and that value has been assumed here.For tests in the range 0.1�0.5 Mt, a fission yield of 67% isassumed. There were 17 tests in the range 5�25 Mt. Withno other indications available, fission yields of 33% wereassumed in Table 1 for these tests. However, the fissionyields of tests by the United States were arbitrarily adjustedto agree with the reported total fission yields for the years1952, 1954, and 1958. The large variation in assumedfission yields for the high-yield tests conducted in theseyears is consistent with unofficial reports that the test of 31October 1952 (Mike) had a relativelyhigh fission yield andwith the confirmation that some high-yield tests had veryhigh fission ratios [D7]. The largest test, 50 Mt, conductedby the former Soviet Union in 1961, was reported to havea fission yield of 3% and a fusion yield of 97% [M2].Special design measures were taken to obtain such a highfusion yield.

15. It would be desirable to have further information onthe fission and fusion yields of atmospheric nuclear tests tosubstantiate the somewhat arbitrary assumptions that mustbe made, particularly for the tests of the former SovietUnion. Because the largest atmospheric nuclear tests(�4 Mt) made such substantial contribution to the fission,fusion, and total yields, they are listed separately inTable 3. These 25 tests account for nearly 66% of the totalexplosive yield of all tests and about 55% of the estimatedfission yields. Tests with yields greater than 1 Mtaccounted for over 90% of the total fission yield.

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ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION160

Atmospheric testsUnderground tests

1945100

50

0

50

100

150

NU

MB

ER

1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

Number of tests

Atmospheric testsUnderground tests

YIE

LD

(Mt)

1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 200010

010

30

50

70

90

110

130

150

170 Atmospheric testsUnderground tests

YIE

LD

(Mt)

1945 1950

Total yield of tests

1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 200010

010

30

50

70

90

110

130

150

170

16. Some exceptions to the general fission/fusion assump-tions can be made for the atmospheric tests conducted byChina. These tests occurred in the latter part of the testperiod, and the individual tests were relatively well separatedin time. It was thus possible to obtain independent estimatesof fission yields from the stratospheric monitoring ofradionuclides that took place regularly throughout this testingperiod [K7, K8, K9, K10, L7, L8, T5]. The estimates offission yields from 90Sr and 95Zr stratospheric inventoriesinclude some inconsistencies and uncertainties, but the directevidence is used in preference to the assumptions.

17. The annual number and yields ofatmospheric tests byall countries are summarized in Table 4 and illustrated inFigure I. The number of tests (Figure I, upper diagram)was greatest during 1951�1958 and 1961�1962. There wasa moratorium in 1959, which was largely observed in1960, as well. The most active years of testing from thestandpoint of the total explosive yields (Figure I, lowerdiagram) were 1962, 1961, 1958, and 1954. The totalnumber of atmospheric tests by all countries was 543, andthe total yield was 440 Mt. The fission yield of allatmospheric tests is estimated at present to be 189 Mt.

Figure I. Tests of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere and underground.

2. Dispersion and deposition of radioactivedebris

18. Nuclear weapons tests were conducted at variouslocations on and above the earth's surface, includingmountings on towers, placement on barges on the oceansurface, suspensions from balloons, drops from airplanes, andhigh-altitude launchings by rockets. Depending on thelocation of the explosion (altitude and latitude) the radio-active debris entered the local, regional, or global environ-ment. For tests conducted on the earth’s surface, a portion ofthe radioactive debris is deposited at the site of the test (localfallout) and regionally up to several thousand km downwind

(intermediate fallout). This fraction varies from test to testdepending on the meteorological conditions, height of the test,the type of surface and surrounding material (water, soil,tower, balloon, etc.). For refractory radionuclides such as 95Zrand 144Ce, 50% of the debris is assumed to be deposited locallyin the immediate vicinity of the test site and a further 25% isdeposited regionally [B9, B10, H5]. For volatile radionuclidessuch as 90Sr, 137Cs and 131I, 50% of the fission yield, onaverage, is assumed deposited locallyand regionally [P1]. Theremainder of the debris and all of the debris from airbursts iswidely dispersed in the atmosphere. Airbursts are defined astests occurring at or above a height in metres of 55 Y0.4, whereY is the total yield in kilotonnes [P1].

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ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 161

ALT

ITU

DE

(km

)

High polar atmosphere High equatorialatmosphere

Upper equatorialstratosphere

High equatorialatmosphere

Upper equatorialstratosphere

Upper polar stratosphere

Northern hemisphere Southern hemisphere3030 090 90

High polar atmosphere

Upper polar stratosphere

oo oo o

10

0

20

30

40

50

Lower polar stratosphereLower polar stratosphere

Lower equatorialstratosphere

Lower equatorialstratosphere

EDDY DIFFUSION

GRAVITATIONAL SETTLEMENT

Troposphere Troposphere

HADLEY CELL CIRCULATION

19. Depending on the conditions of a test, the radioactivedebris can be initially partitioned or apportioned into variousregions of the atmosphere. A basic compartment diagramrepresenting atmospheric regions and the predominantatmospheric transport processes is shown in Figure II. Thisrepresentation was developed to describe atmosphericdispersion and deposition of radioactive debris produced inatmospheric nuclear testing [B1, U6]. The atmosphere isdivided into equatorial and polar regions (from 0� to 30� and30� to 90� latitude, respectively). The troposphere height is

variable with latitude and season, but for modelling purposesit is assumed to be at an average altitude of 9 km in the polarregion and 17 km in the equatorial region. The lowerstratosphere is assumed to extend to 17 km and 24 km,respectively, in the two regions and the upper stratosphere to50 km in both regions. Only a few tests injected materialabove the upper stratosphere, designated the highatmosphere, which extends to several hundred kilometres andincludes the remainder of the region from which debris willeventually be deposited on the earth's surface.

Figure II. Atmospheric regions and the predominant atmospheric transport processes.

20. Apportionment of debris in the atmosphere is based onthe stabilization heights of cloud formation following theexplosion. Empirical values derived from a number ofobservations are given in Table 5 [P1]. These results wereused for the earlier estimates of fallout production fromatmospheric testing that were quoted in the UNSCEAR 1982Report [U6]. Adjustments can now be made according to therevised values of total yields and the fission yield estimatesgiven in Table 1. The partitioned yield estimates are includedin Tables 1 and 2, and annual injections into the variousatmospheric regions are summarized in Table 6. The estimateof the relative fractions of debris injected into the stratosphereand troposphere for a particular test with yield less thanseveral megatonnes is somewhat uncertain for several reasons.The empirical estimates were only available for equatorialtests and were highly variable [F5]. Values for polar latitudesare based on meteorological considerations [F5], and theheight of the troposphere varies seasonally.

21. Partitioning of debris into atmospheric regions wasinitially formulated for the equatorial and polar regions.Injections from the Chinese test site at Lop Nor (40�N)indicate that a temperate region formulation would also be

useful. This was not apparent for earlier tests at the Nevadatest site (37�N) or the Semipalatinsk test site (52�N) becausethere was relatively little or no stratospheric input from testsat these sites. Releases from temperate sites can be partitionedby averaging the equatorial and polar results. Basically, thisaveraging procedure reduces the input to the upperstratosphericregion compared with the partitioning for a polarrelease. Details of the assumptions, justified by the empiricalnature of the modelling, are specified in the footnote toTable 6.

22. With the indication of the type of test given inTable 1, the apportionment of fission yield correspondingto local and more widespread tropospheric and strato-spheric portions has been made in Tables 1, 2 and 4. Thetropospheric and stratospheric injections listed in theseTables are for volatile radionuclides (e.g. 90Sr, 137Cs) anddo not reflect the additional local and regional depositionthat occurred for refractory radionuclides (e.g. 95Zr, 144Ce).

23. As indicated in the summaryTables 2 and 4, the locallyand regionally deposited debris amounts to about 29 Mt (forvolatile elements). Therefore, about 160 Mt is estimated to

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ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION162

ALT

ITU

DE

(km

)

High polar atmosphereHigh equatorial

atmosphere

Upper equatorialstratosphere

High equatorialatmosphere

Upper equatorialstratosphere

Upper polar stratosphere

High polar atmosphere

Upper polar stratosphere

10

0

20

30

40

50

Lower polar stratosphereLower polar stratosphere

UPPER STRATOSPHERE

LOWER STRATOSPHERE

TROPOSPHERE

HIGH ATMOSPHERE

EARTH'S SURFACE(1,1,1,1) (1,1,1,1)

(24,24,24,24) (24,24,24,24)

(6,6,9,9) (9,9,6,6)

(8,36,24,12) (24,12,8,36)

(3,6,12,10) (12,10,3,6)

(6,6,9,9) (9,9,6,6)

(12,

12,1

2,) (12,

,12,12)

8

8(24,24,24, )(24, ,24,24)8

8

(12,12,12, )(12, ,12,12) 88 ( , , ,24) ( ,24, , )8 88 88 8

Northern hemisphere Southern hemisphere3030 090 90oo oo o

have been widely dispersed, contributing to global fallout.This latter value, inferred from yield information, may becompared with the value of 155 Mt derived from global 90Srmeasurements (604 PBq deposited worldwide divided by theproduction estimate of 3.9 PBq Mt�1). Since about 2%�3% of90Sr decayed before deposition, the total dispersed amount(injection into atmosphere) inferred from measurements isalso about 160 Mt. The fission yield estimates thus providemuch better agreement with the measured deposition(corresponding to 155 Mt) than the previous fission yieldestimates of 189 Mt [B1, U6]. The estimate of the total debrisdeposited locally and regionally is somewhat uncertain due tothe likely high variations from test to test, however, as seen,this component is a small fraction of the debris injected intothe global atmosphere, and thus this uncertainty will haveonly a small impact on the uncertainty in the total global 90Srdeposition.

24. From extensive monitoring following individual testsand for the entire period of dispersion and deposition, con-siderable information was gained on the movement andmixing processes in the atmosphere. The radioactive debris

served as a tracer material. Aerosols in the atmospheredescend by gravity at the highest altitudes and are transportedwith the general air movements at lower levels. Eddydiffusioncauses irregular migration of air masses in the generaldirections indicated in Figure II in the lower stratosphere andupper troposphere. The circular air flow pattern in thetroposphere at lower latitudes is termed Hadley cellcirculation. These cells increase or decrease in size and shiftlatitudinally with season. The balanced pattern shown inFigure II is that for the months of March, April, May, andSeptember, October, November. The mean residence time ofaerosols in the lower stratosphere ranges from 3 to 12 monthsin the polar regions and 8 to 24 months in the equatorialregions. The specific seasonal values, determined fromempirical fitting to fallout radionuclide measurements, areindicated in Figure III. The most rapid removal occurs duringthe spring months. Removal half-times to the next lowerregion from the upper atmosphere are 6 to 9 months and fromthe high atmosphere, 24 months was found to be represen-tative [B1]. A removal half-time of infinity (�) in Figure IIImeans that no transfer takes place via the particular pathwayduring that season of the year.

Figure III. Schematic diagram of transfers between atmospheric regions and the earth’s surface considered inthe empirical atmospheric model [B1].

The numbers in parentheses are the removal half-times (in months) for the yearly quarters in the following order:March-April-May, June-July-August, September-October-November, December-January-February.

25. An empirical atmospheric compartmental modelbased on Figures II and III had been used to estimatesurface air concentrations and deposition of long-livedfallout radionuclides starting with estimated fissionproduction yields of each test [B1]. However, since rathercomplete measurements of 90Sr in air and deposition were

available and there were uncertainties in the reportedfission yields, this modelling work was not pursued.Improved estimates of fission yields changes this situationand allows the possibilityof examining in greater detail thedeposition of other radionuclides, such as 106Ru and 144Ce,and of projecting the measurement records beyond levels

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ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 163

Calculation

Calculation

Measurements

Measurements

1958

1958

1957

1957

1959

1959

1960

1960

1961

1961

1962

1962

1963

1963

1964

1964

1965

1965

1966

1966

1967

1967

1968

1968

1969

1969

1970

1970

1971

1971

1972

1972

1973

1973

1974

1974

1976

1976

1975

1975

1977

1977

1978

1978

1979

1979

1980

1980

1981

1981

1982

1982

1983

1983

10

10

10

10

10

10

10

10

10

10

10

10

CO

NC

EN

TR

AT

ION

(Bq

m)

CO

NC

EN

TR

AT

ION

(Bq

m)

-2

-2

-4

-4

-5

-5

-3

-3

-3-3

-7

-7

-6

-6

Northern hemisphere

Southern hemisphere

of detection capabilities. Estimates can also be made forshort-lived radionuclides such as 95Zr, however theuncertainty will be greater, since most of the depositionfrom these radionuclides is from highlyuncertain fractionsof the total debris that were injected into the troposphere ordeposited locally and regionally.

26. The parameters of the empirical model were set bycomparisons with data on tracer radionuclides released insome of the tests at specific times, such as 185W, 109Cd, and54Mn, as well as with the longer-term records of 90Sr. Thefit of the calculation to the 90Sr data in surface air is shown

in Figure IV for the northern hemisphere (upper diagram)and for the southern hemisphere (lower diagram). With theavailable estimates of fission yields of individualatmospheric tests, the model matches rather well themonthly data that show seasonal variations in the con-centrations. The model indicates the total 90Sr inventory inthe hemispheric troposphere. This has been converted to aconcentration with use of a volume parameter of 0.0001Bq m�3 per PBq, empirically determined from the 90Sr datafor mid-latitudes [B1]. Annual average calculated andmeasured concentrations of 90Sr in surface air of the mid-latitude regions are summarized in Table 7.

Figure IV. Strontium-90 concentration in air in the mid-latitude regions.The measurements averaged over several sites are compared with results of the atmospheric model calculation.

27. Measurements of 90Sr in surface air were maderoutinely at a number of locations around the world. Aglobal surface�air monitoring network was maintained bythe United States Naval Research Laboratory from 1957 to1962 [L6] and continued by the Environmental Measure-ments Laboratory of the United States Department ofEnergyfrom 1963 to 1983 [F4]. After 1983, the levels wereundetectable with the methods used. The representativemeasured concentrations of 90Sr in air shown in Figure IV

are derived from averaging the results of several sites inthe mid-latitudes of both hemispheres (see footnotes toTable 7).

28. Some slight deviations between the measured andcalculated results of 90Sr in air may be due to inaccurateestimation of injection amounts or of the initial parti-tioning of debris in the atmosphere or to variations in themeasured results or in the meteorology that may occur

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Cumulative deposit

Cumulative deposit

Annual deposition

Annual deposition

1945

1945

1950

1950

Northern hemisphere

Southern hemisphere

1955

1955

1960

1960

1965

1965

1970

1970

1975

1975

1980

1980

1985

1985

1990

1990

1995

1995

2000

2000

-410

-410

-310

-310

-210

-210

-110

-110

010

010

110

110

210

210

DE

PO

SIT

ION

(PB

q)D

EP

OS

ITIO

N(P

Bq)

310

310

from year to year. Furthermore, the measured results at thechosen representative mid-latitude sites may not berepresentative of the entire hemisphere as calculated fromthe model, particularly for years with relatively largetropospheric injections from low-latitude test sites. Debrisinjected into the equatorial troposphere at low latitudes willlikely remain in a low latitude band due to the Hadleycirculation patterns, as illustrated in Figure II. Somedeviations for tests conducted at high-latitude sites havealso occurred, for example the rapid depletion of the polarstratosphere in 1959 following the 1958 Soviet tests wasindicated by the measurements. Also notable is the absenceof a peak in 1962 in the southern hemisphere followinginjections into the troposphere and stratosphere of theequatorial region from tests in that year. Further deviationsoccur beyond 1980, when the low levels reached by themeasuredconcentrationsbecomeuncertain andsomeenhance-ment from resuspension of ground deposits may becomerelatively more important.

29. Long-term monitoring of 90Sr deposition based onprecipitation sampling was conducted with global networksoperated by the Environmental Measurements Laboratory ofthe United States [H1] and the Harwell Laboratory of theUnited Kingdom [P3]. Quite comparable results wereobtained. An earlier monitoring network based on gummed-film detectors at more than a hundred stations in manycountries was operated from 1952 to 1959 by the Health andSafetyLaboratory, which becametheEnvironmentalMeasure-ments Laboratory, in the United States [H8]. The results ofdeposition densities at individual sites have been averagedwithin latitude bands and multiplied by the area of the bandsto obtain estimates of the hemispheric and global depositionamounts. The annual results are shown in Figure V for thenorthern hemisphere (upper diagram) and southern hemi-sphere (lower diagram) and are compared to the estimatesderived from the atmospheric model. The agreement is quiteclose until the early 1980s, when uncertainties in themeasurements began to increase.

Figure V. Hemispheric depositions of 90Sr determined from global network measurements (points)and from atmospheric model calculations (lines).

30. Using the atmospheric model and the estimated fissionyields of individual tests, it is possible to distinguish thecontributions of the test programmes of individual countries

to the annual deposition of 90Sr. This is illustrated inFigure VI. In the northern hemisphere the contributions fromthe test programme of the United States dominated before

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Measured total

United Kingdom

1945

1945

1950

1950

Northern hemisphere

Southern hemisphere

1955

1955

1960

1960

1965

1965

1970

1970

1975

1975

1980

1980

1985

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1990

1990

1995

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2000

2000

-510

-510

-410

-410

-310

-310

-610

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-210

-110

-110

010

010

110

110

210

210Total

USSR

United States

United StatesFranceChina

DE

PO

SIT

ION

(PB

q)D

EP

OS

ITIO

N(P

Bq)

Measured total

United Kingdom

Total

USSR

United StatesFranceChina

Figure VI. Components of strontium-90 deposition from test programmesof countries calculated from fission yields of tests with the atmospheric model.

1958. From 1959 until 1967 the test programme of the formerSoviet Union contributed the greatest amounts to annual 90Srdeposition, and from 1968 until 1988 the deposition wasprimarily from the Chinese tests. In the southern hemisphere,the annual deposition was greatest from the tests of the UnitedStates before 1964 except for 1957 and 1958, when theequatorial tests of the United Kingdom took place. Sub-sequently, the greatest contributors to annual deposition werethe former Soviet Union during 1965�1967, France during1968�1976, and China during 1977�1988. Owing to slowerremoval ofdebris from inventories in the high atmosphereandupper stratosphere, the deposition of the test programmes ofthe United States and the former Soviet Union predominateagain in the 1990s, although at levels too low to bemeasurable.

31. A summary of the annual hemispheric totals ofmeasured and calculated 90Sr deposition is given in Table 7.The deposition rate of 90Sr was generallygreater by a factor ofabout 5 in the northern hemisphere from 1953 to 1965 andfrom 1977 to 1983. From 1967 to 1977 and since 1985, thefallout rates in both hemispheres have been roughly the same.The model results indicate a total global deposition of

610 PBq. Using the measurement results preferentially, whenavailable, the global deposition amount of 90Sr is unchanged,although the measurements indicate a slightly smallerproportion of the total deposition in the northern hemispherethan indicatedbythecalculations. The previous estimate ofthetotal deposition based on measurement results and measuredcumulative deposition up to 1958 was 604 PBq. Thecalculated results indicate a decay of about 2%�3% of theinjected amount of 90Sr prior to deposition (injected amount160.5 Mt × 3.9 PBq Mt�1 = 626 PBq; deposited amount610 PBq or 97.4% of the injected amount), corresponding toan average residence time of debris in the atmosphere ofabout1.1 years. The measured result of 604 PBq suggests anaverage residence time of about 1.3 years. The globalcumulative deposit reached a maximum in 1967�1972 of460 PBq (Table 7). By the year 2000, this will have decayed to250 PBq.

32. Since most of the atmospheric tests were conducted inthe northern hemisphere, the deposition amounts are greaterthere than in the southern hemisphere. Because of thepreferential exchange of air between the stratosphere andtroposphere in the mid-latitudes of the hemisphere and the air

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circulation patterns in the troposphere, there is enhanceddeposition in the temperate regions and decreased deposition(by a factor of about 2) in the equatorial and polar regions.The latitudinal distribution of 90Sr deposition determinedfromthe global measurements is given in Table 8. This latitudinalvariation is only valid for long-lived radionuclides, for whichmost of the deposition was from debris originally injected intothe stratosphere. As the half-life of the radionuclide decreases,a larger fraction of the fallout was from injections into thetroposphere, sincelarger fractionsofthestratosphericamountsdecayduring the relatively long stratospheric residence times.The variation with latitude for these radionuclides thus willdepend more on the latitude of injection. (The model indicatesthat about 90% of the deposited 90Sr is from stratosphericdebris, while for 95Zr only about one third is due tostratospheric debris and for 131I, less than 5%).

33. With demonstrated good agreement for 90Sr obtainablewith the empirical atmospheric model, the concentrations inair and the deposition of other long-lived radionuclides can becalculated. Previously, estimates were made from ratios to 90Srvalues. The atmospheric model can take better account ofdecay prior to deposition and can start with the fissionproduction values that are independent of estimates for otherradionuclides. The model can be very usefully applied forshort-lived radionuclides that could not be adequatelymonitored at the time the testing occurred. However, becausethe deposition of these short-lived radionuclides is sodependent on the fractions injected into the troposphere andthe amounts of local and intermediate fallout, the modeldeposition estimates are less reliable, and the results need tobe adjusted to agree with available data.

34. The radionuclides produced and globally dispersed inatmospheric nuclear testing that are important from a dosi-metric point of view are listed in Table 9. These are theradionuclides that were also considered in the UNSCEAR1993 Report (Annex B, Table 1) [U3]. For fission radio-nuclides, the production per unit energy released in the testsassumes 1.45 1026 fissions Mt�1. Multiplying by the fissionyield and the decay constant gives the normalized activityproduction. For radionuclides produced in fusion reactions orby activation primarily in thermonuclear tests (3H, 14C, 54Mn,55Fe), the normalized production can be estimated frommeasured inventories in the environment and the associatedtotal fusion energy of all tests. The values for 54Mn and 55Feare those quoted in the UNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3], whichmayyet be adjusted to take into account better estimates of theinventories and the total fusion energyof tests. The productionof transuranic radionuclides has been inferred from ratios to90Sr, as measured in deposition. These values are thus un-changed from previous estimates [U3]. The total productionof radionuclides in atmospheric testing associated with thegloballydisperseddebris (excluding local deposition at the testsites and regional deposition) and based on revised estimatesof fission and fusion energies is given in the last column ofTable 9. The fission yields in Table 9, which are assumed tobe representative of all atmospheric tests, are those forthermonuclear tests, since these contributed over 90% of thedebris. The fission yields for 89Sr and 125Sb has been revised

slightlyfrom those previouslyused [U3], based on the produc-tion ratios for thermonuclear tests reported by Hicks [H6].

35. The input data to the atmospheric model for thecalculation ofworldwide deposition of radionuclidesproducedin atmospheric testing are the fission and fusion yields ofindividual tests (Table 1), the normalized production ofradionuclides (Table 9), and the atmospheric partitioningassumptions (Tables 5 and 6). Because atmospheric transportis seasonal, it is necessary to work with monthly values ofinput and to calculate monthly deposition. For short-livedradionuclides it is necessary to use daily values to adequatelyaccount for decay before deposition. The total annual deposi-tion results are presented in Table 10 for each hemisphere andfor the world. Because thermonuclear fission yields were used,the estimates for years with mostly low-yield tests aresomewhat less certain, since the fission yields for low-yieldtests for some radionuclides vary significantly depending onthe mixture of fissile material used.

36. Only for 90Sr are there adequate measurements ofhemispheric deposition that could be used in place of thecalculated results. Limited data are available for 89Sr from thesampling network of the United States [H7]. Some data onother radionuclides are also available for a few sites duringparticular time periods. There are onlyminor discrepancies incalculated and measured results for 90Sr, but the measuredresults are used preferentially in Table 10, i.e. 1958�1985. Animportant component of the residual global contaminationfrom atmospheric testing is 137Cs. Because of the similarity inthe half-life of 137Cs (30.07 a) and 90Sr (28.78 a), depositionoccurs according to the ratio of fission yields and (inversely)half-lives: 137Cs/90Sr = 1.5. Thus, the estimates of 137Cs inTable 10 are based on this ratio times the measured 90Srdeposition for the period 1958�1985. The estimates for 144Ce,106Ru and 125Sb, 54Mn and 55Fe are based solely on thecalculated results. The calculated results for the refractoryradionuclides, 95Zr, 141Ce, 144Ce, 54Mn, and 55Fe take intoaccount the higher local and intermediate depositiondiscussed earlier. The estimates of annual deposition of 95Zr,91Y, 89Sr, 103Ru, 141Ce, 140Ba, and 131I have been normalized tothe total depositions reported at the bottom of Table 10. Theestimates of total deposition are based on comparisons withavailable data, production ratios, and relative half-lives. Theratios of total deposition for these radionuclides to 90Sr differsomewhat from those reported in the UNSCEAR 1993 Report[U3], because of revised assessment of the available data aswell as an adjustment to account for a greater proportion ofdeposition at low latitudes than assumed earlier.

37. A basic indication of deposition amounts determined bymeasurements and needed in dose calculations is thedeposition density, the activity of deposited radionuclides perunit ground surface area. Global measurements of 90Sr arerelated to the areas of the 10� latitude bands in which themeasurements were made. These areas are given in Table 8.From the evaluated fractional deposition in each band, thetotal hemispheric deposition is apportioned and the depositiondensities determined. By weighting these results with thepopulations in the bands, the population-weighted deposition

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1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 20000

20 -30

40 -50

60 -70

o

o

o

o

o

o

Southern hemisphere

Northern hemisphere

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

4.5

DE

PO

SIT

ION

DE

NS

ITY

(kB

qm

)-2

densityfor the hemisphere is obtained. With 89% of the worldpopulation in the northern hemisphere and 11% in thesouthern hemisphere, the hemispheric results may beweighted accordingly to obtain the world average depositiondensity. This latitudinal apportionment is valid only for thelong-lived radionuclides for which most of the depositionoriginated from debris injected into the stratosphere. Forshort-lived radionuclides, for which most of the depositionwas from debris injected into the troposphere, adjustmentsmust be made to account for the increased deposition at lowlatitudes resulting from tests of the United States and theUnited Kingdom in the Pacific. Since the population inthe northern hemisphere is about equally divided betweenlatitudes greater and less than 30�, an increase in the relative

fraction of the deposition below 30� has only a small impact(about 10%) on the population-weighted deposition density.However, because 86% of the population of the southernhemisphere lives between 0��30� latitude and almost all ofthe debris injected into the southern hemisphere tropospherewas at latitudes less than 30�, the value to convert from totaldeposition topopulation-weighteddeposition densityfor short-lived radionuclides (half-lives less than 30 days) for monthsin which the input was primarily from United States tests inthe Pacific would be 6.7 rather than 3.74 (see Table 8). Anintermediate weight of 5.7 based on 75% of the debris fromtropospheric injections and 25% from stratospheric injectionswould be more appropriate for radionuclides with half-lives ofabout 30 to 100 days.

Figure VII. Caesium-137 deposition density in the northern and southern hemispherescalculated from fission production amounts with the atmospheric model.

38. The hemispheric and world average cumulative deposi-tion densities are given in Table 11. The monthly depositionresults from the atmospheric model have been averaged overthe year. The model accounts for decay during the month ofdeposition as well as after deposition. The total deposition forlong-lived radionuclides (half-life >100 d) in the hemisphereis multiplied by the parameters in Table 8 (4.65 and 3.74Bq m�2 per PBq in the northern and southern hemisphere,respectively) to obtain the population-weighted depositiondensities of Table 11. For radionuclides with half-livesbetween 30 and 100 d, and <30 d, factors of 5.7 and 6.7Bq m�2 per PBq, respectively, were used for the southernhemisphere. A value of 4.0 was used for the northernhemisphere for all short-lived radionuclides. The worldaverage is the population-weighted sum of the hemisphericvalues: 0.89 times theaveragepopulation-weighted depositiondensityof the northern hemisphereplus0.11 times the averagepopulation-weighted deposition density of the southernhemisphere. For the long-lived radionuclides, the depositiondensities in particular latitudinal regions maybe obtainedwithuse of the factor given in the last column of Table 8. Forexample, the deposition density for 90Sr in the 40��50�latitude region of the northern hemisphere is 1.5 times thenorthern hemisphere average value.

39. An important component of the residual radiationbackground caused bydeposition of radionuclides produced in

atmospheric testing is that of 137Cs. Calculated depositiondensities of 137Cs in various latitude regions are shown inFigure VII. These levels were perturbed by additionaldeposition from the Chernobyl accident in 1986, especially inEuropean countries.

40. The world average deposition densities of radionuclidesproduced in atmospheric testing are illustrated in Figure VIII.Considerable variations are noted for the short-lived radio-nuclides, and these have by now decayed to negligible levels.When the tests were taking place, the deposition densities ofseveral short-lived radionuclides, especially 144Ce, 106Ru, and95Zr, were highest, but since 1965, 137Cs and 90Sr dominate inthe residual cumulative deposit.

41. The summations of the annual deposition densities ofTable 11 give the integrated deposition densities (Bq a m�2)for the radionuclides. Only for 90Sr and 137Cs are theresignificant contributions beyond the year 2000. The total inTable 11 extended for all time (1945 to infinity) may alsobe obtained from the total deposited amounts (Table 10)multiplied by the mean lives of the radionuclides (1/λ =half-life ÷ ln2) and the appropriate population-weightedconversion factor from Table 8. This demonstrates theconsistency of the annual calculation of deposition and thecumulative deposition density.

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���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���

����

����

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���

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��

����

�����

�����

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� ��

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Figure VIII. Worldwide population-weighted cumulative deposition density of radionuclides produced inatmospheric testing. The monthly calculated results have been averaged over each year. Several short-lived

radionuclides with half-lives and deposition patterns intermediate between 140Ba and 95Zr are not shown.

3. Annual doses from global fallout

42. The Committee provided a rough indication of theaverage annual doses to the world population from falloutradionuclides in the UNSCEAR 1982 Report [U6]. For1958�1979, the maximum dose rate was estimated to be0.14 mSv a�1 in 1963, and it had decreased by almost anorder of magnitude by 1979. Using available empiricalmodels, the annual doses can be estimated in much moredetail. The results of this exercise are presented in thisSection.

43. The basic input to dose calculations from falloutradionuclides has been the measured deposition density of90Sr. The measured annual hemispheric deposition amountsfor representative mid-latitude sites are listed in Table 7. Themeasurements, which began in 1958, were continued until1985. By then the stratospheric inventory from atmospherictests was largely depleted. Some of the monitoring sites wereaffected by the Chernobyl accident in 1986. Subsequently, alow, constant level of deposition has been measured thatreflects resuspended soil particles [A4, I5]. Longer-livedradionuclides in global fallout other than 90Sr have also beenmonitored, but they have been present in relatively constantratios to 90Sr. For short-lived radionuclides (half-life <100days), decay before deposition is significant. For theseradionuclides, the pattern of deposition was previously takento be that of 95Zr, with the magnitude estimated from theaverage value of the ratio determined by availablemeasurements. The empirical atmospheric model with inputfrom individual nuclear tests now allows the time course ofdeposition ofall radionuclidesproduced in atmospheric testingto be determined in greater detail and with better generalaccuracy.

44. Thegeneral procedures for deriving dose estimates fromthe measured or calculated deposition densities of radio-nuclides are presented in Annex A, “Dose assessmentmethodologies”. It is only necessary to summarize here thevalues of transfer coefficients needed for the annual dose

evaluations for the various pathways: external, inhalation, andingestion. The transfer coefficients P25 used to evaluate theeffective dose committed by unit deposition density of aradionuclide were given in the UNSCEAR 1993 Report(Annex B, Table 8) [U3].

45. Of the radionuclides contributing to external exposure,only 137Cs has a half-life greater than a few years. For thisradionuclide the depth distribution in soil has been taken tocorrespond to a relaxation length of 3 cm. Previous assess-ments of external doses from fallout assumed a plane sourcedistribution for the other radionuclides [U3, U4]. Thisassumption is now altered to provide a more realistic basis forthe dose estimation. A relaxation length of 3 cm is also usedfor the other long-lived radionuclides (half-lives >100 days).For radionuclides with half-lives between 30 and 100 days, arelaxation length of 1 cm is more appropriate. For the othershort-lived radionuclides (half-lives <30 days), a relaxationlength of 0.1 cm is assumed rather than a plane source, toaccount for ground roughness. The chosen relaxation lengthsare consistent with the values used in the UNSCEAR 1988Report [U5] to estimate external exposures from theChernobyl accident and more adequately reflect the observedpenetration of the radionuclides into the soil with time. Theparameters required to calculate the annual effective dosesfrom external irradiation are summarized in Table 12.

46. For the external irradiation pathway, the effectivedose rate per unit deposition density is derived bymultiplying the dose rate in air per unit deposition densityby the conversion factor 0.7, which relates the dose rate inair to the effective dose, and the occupancy-shieldingfactor, 0.2 fractional time outdoors + 0.8 fractional timeindoors × 0.2 building shielding = 0.36. The averageannual effective dose is then obtained bymultiplying by theaverage annual deposition density.

47. The values of annual doses due to external exposurefrom radionuclides produced in atmospheric testing aregiven in Table 13. The components of the world average

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Cd,i � b1 Fi � b2 Fi�1 � b3��

n�1e �λ

�n Fi�n(1)

Cb,i � c Cd,i � g��

m�0e�λbm Cd,i�m

(2)

external dose are illustrated in Figure IX (upper diagram).The short-lived radionuclide 95Zr, with its decay product95Nb, was the main contributor to external exposure duringactive testing. Of less significance were 106Ru, 54Mn, and144Ce. Beginning in 1966, 137Cs became the most importantcontributor, and presently it is the only radionuclidecontributing to continuing external exposure fromdeposited radionuclides.

48. Several radionuclides contribute to exposure via theingestion pathway. They are listed, along with the transfercoefficients, in Table 12. For the short-lived radionuclides(131I, 140Ba, 89Sr), the exposures occur within weeks or monthsfollowing deposition. For annual dose rates, it is sufficient toassume that the exposures occur evenly over the mean life ofthe radionuclide. The transfer coefficients relating dose rate todeposition density are obtained by dividing the transfercoefficients for the committed dose [U3] by the radioactivemean lives. These are the entries in Table 12.

49. In previous UNSCEAR assessments, exposures via theingestion pathway from the longer-lived radionuclides 90Srand 137Cs have been derived from empirical transfer modelsapplied to the measured deposition densityof 90Sr (the 137Cs to90Sr ratio of 1.5 is used to derive the deposition density of137Cs). The parameters of the models were evaluated fromregression fits to the measured concentrations of theseradionuclides in diet and the human body. These models applyto continuing deposition throughout the year, as occurredduring fallout deposition. Thus, the seasonal variability intransfers to diet is averaged out in a single annual value.

50. The model used to describe the transfer of 90Sr or137Cs from deposition to diet is of the form

where Cd,i is the concentration of the radionuclide in a foodcomponent d or in the total diet in the year i due to thedeposition density rate Fi in the year i, Fi�1 in the previousyear, and the sum of the deposition density rates in allprevious years, reduced by exponential decay. Theexponential decay with decay constant λ� reflects bothradioactive decay and environmental loss of theradionuclide. The coefficients bi and the parameter λ� aredetermined by regression analysis of measured depositionand diet data. The coefficients bi represent the transfer perunit annual deposition in the first year (b1), primarily fromdirect deposition, in the second year (b2), from lagged useof stored food and uptake from the surface deposit, and insubsequent years (b3), from transfer via root uptake fromthe accumulated deposit.

51. The transfer from diet to the human body (bone) for90Sr is described by a two-component model:

where Cb,i is the concentration of 90Sr in bone in the year i, cis a coefficient for short-term retention, and g is a coefficientfor longer-term retention, with removal governed by the decayconstant λb. The parameters c, g, and λb are determined byregression fits to monitoring data.

52. The retention of 137Cs in the body is relatively short-term (retention half-time of around 100 days). The annualdose per unit intake can therefore be expressed by a singletransfer coefficient, P34, which applies to the year of intake.The annual doses from 90Sr and 137Cs in the body areevaluated using the transfer coefficient P45. The values ofthe transfer coefficients used in calculating the annualeffective dose from ingestion of 90Sr and 137Cs, derived fromlong-term monitoring, are given in Annex A, “Doseassessment methodologies”.

53. Further exposure via ingestion of longer-lived radio-nuclides occurs from 55Fe and the transuranium elements. Thedosescommitted from thetransuranium radionuclidesareverysmall, and the contributions to annual doses are negligible. Atransfer model does not exist for 55Fe. Its half-life is only 2.73years; therefore, it is assumed, as for the short-lived radio-nuclides, that the dose-rate transfer coefficient is equal to thecommitment transfer coefficient [U3] divided by the radio-active mean life. This result is entered in Table 12.

54. The components of annual dose via the ingestionpathway from radionuclides produced in atmospheric testingare listed in Table 14 and illustrated in Figure IX (middlediagram). During active testing, 137Cs was the mostsignificant component, owing to its more immediate transferto diet and delivery of dose. Because of the longer-term,continuing transfer of 90Sr to diet and its longer retention inthe body, this radionuclide became the most importantcontributor to dose beginning in 1967. The short-livedradionuclideshave been relativelyinsignificant contributors toingestion exposure (see Figure IX).

55. For the inhalation pathway, exposures depend on theconcentrations of radionuclides in air, but because of theassociation between concentrations in air and depositiondensities through the deposition velocity, the transfercoefficients for the dose from inhalation can be given in termsof the measured deposition densities of the radionuclides.These transfer coefficients, P25, were given in the UNSCEAR1993 Report (Annex B, Table 8) [U3] and are repeated herein Table 12. These are the committed doses per unit intake.The dose from inhalation can be assumed delivered in thesame year that the deposition occurred. Subsequent exposuresfrom resuspension are accounted for in the measured airconcentrations and the derived deposition velocity, andalthough these exposures may continue for a few more years,including all of the exposure in the year of initial depositiondoes not introduce much error.

56. The estimates of annual doses from the inhalation ofradionuclides produced in atmospheric testing are given inTable 15, and several of the components are illustrated inFigure IX (lower diagram). Important contributors to

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1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

-310

-210

-210

-110

-110

010

010

110

110

210

210

Sb125

Mn54

AN

NU

AL

EFF

EC

TIV

ED

OS

E(

Sv)

µA

NN

UA

LE

FF

EC

TIV

ED

OS

E(

Sv)

µA

NN

UA

LE

FF

EC

TIV

ED

OS

E(

Sv)

µ

External exposure

1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

-310

Ingestion exposure

Sr90

I+131

Fe55

Inhalation exposure

1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

-310

-210

-110

010

110

210TotalTotal

Total

Total

Sr90Sr90Ce144Ce144

Ce144

Pu, AmPu, Am

Cs+137Cs+137

Cs137

Cs137

Ru106Ru106

Ru106

Zr+95Zr+95

Zr+95

Figure IX. Worldwide average doses from radionuclides produced in atmospheric testing.External exposure: Contributions from radionuclides 131I, 140Ba, 144Ce, 106Ru are included with 95Zr;Ingestion exposure: Contributions from 90Sr and 140Ba are included with 131I;Inhalation exposure: Contributions from short-lived radionuclides (131I, 140Ba, 141Ce, 103Ru, 89Sr, 91Y) are included

with 95Zr and from intermediate-lived radionuclides (54Mn, 125Sb, 55Fe) are included with 137Cs.

inhalation exposure were 144Ce, the transuranicradionuclides, 106Ru, 91Y, 95Zr, and 89Sr. Deposition, andthus the concentrations of these radionuclides in air,

dropped rapidly once atmospheric testing ceased in 1980.Even for the long-lived transuranic radionuclides,inhalation exposure became insignificant after 1985.

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1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

-210

-110

010

110

210

310

Total

External

Ingestion

Inhalation

AN

NU

AL

EF

FE

CT

IVE

DO

SE

(S

v)µ

H, C3 14

57. One further contribution to annual exposures comesfrom the globally dispersed radionuclides 3H and 14C. Inboth cases, there is no external exposure and onlynegligible exposure from inhalation. Exposure arises mostentirely from the ingestion pathway. Global models have

been formulated to describe the dispersion and long-termbehaviours of these radionuclides in the environment.Estimates of the annual doses from 3H and 14C produced inatmospheric testing are included in Table 14 andillustrated in Figure X.

Figure X. Worldwide average dose (mainly from ingestion pathway) from globally dispersed 3H and 14C.

58. The annual doses from tritium have been evaluatedusing the seven-compartment model presented by theUnited States National Council on Radiation Protectionand Measurements (NCRP) [N1]. With volumes andtransfer rates applicable for the hydrological cycle of theworld and intake of water by humans assumed to be 33%from the atmosphere, 53% from surface fresh waters,13.3% from groundwater, and 0.7% from ocean surfacewater (through fish) [N1], the dose per unit release is0.06 nGy PBq�1. Further details of the model are presentedin Annex A, “Dose assessment methodologies”.

59. The annual doses from 14C have been derived using themulti-compartment model described in Annex A, “Doseassessment methodologies”. The estimates are only approxi-mate, since widespread, immediate mixing in large regions

is assumed in the model formulation. To compensate for this,the hemispheric values have been adjusted to an initial ratioof 4 to 1 in the northern and southern hemispheres, reflectingthe deposition pattern of longer-lived radionuclides. This ratiowas maintained through 1970 and then reduced uniformly toa ratio of 1 to 1 by the year 2000, representing assumedcompletion of uniform mixing throughout the world. Thisprocedure provides more realistic estimates of doses in thehemispheres, but does not affect the estimated global average.The average annual global effective dose from 14C producedin atmospheric nuclear testing was at a maximum, 7.7 µSv, in1964 and has decreased by a factor of 4 since that time. Thedose would be estimated to be somewhat less when account istaken of the input of stable carbon into the atmosphere fromfossil fuel burning, which dilutes the 14C.

Figure XI. Contributions of pathways to worldwide average dose from radionuclides produced in atmospheric testing.

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ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION172

60. The estimates of the total annual effective doses fromradionuclides produced in atmospheric nuclear testing aresummarized in Table 16, and the world average contributionsfrom the main pathways are illustrated in Figure XI. Theseresults are for the hemispheric- and world-population-weighted averages of deposition of fallout radionuclides. Thedoses in more specific regions of the world may be obtainedby adjusting to the latitudinal distribution of depositiondetermined from measurement of 90Sr (Table 8). In thetemperate zones (40��50�), the annual doses from long-livedradionuclides are higher than the hemispheric averages byfactors of 1.5 in the northern hemisphere and 1.65 in thesouthern hemisphere. For the short-lived radionuclides (seeparagraph 37), the distribution with latitude is more uniformin the northern hemisphere, while the doses in the temperatezones of the southern hemisphere are about one third less thanthe hemispheric average. The hemispheric average annualdose was highest in 1963 in the northern hemisphere (0.13mSv) and in 1962 in the southern hemisphere (0.06 mSv).

61. The estimated world average annual dose fromatmospheric nuclear testing was highest in 1963 (0.11 mSv)and subsequently declined to less than 0.006 mSv in the1990s. External exposure generally made the highestcontributions toannual doses, when the annual doses from 14Cand 3H are not included, initially by short-lived radionuclidesand subsequently by 137Cs. Both external and ingestionexposure peaked in 1962. The annual doses at present are duealmost equally to external irradiation (53%) and ingestionexposures (47%). The dose from 14C (30% of the total) nowexceeds that from ingestion of other radionuclides. The dosesyet to be delivered at future times are also indicated inTable 16. The summation of annual doses for all time definesthe dose commitment, which is the dose quantity previouslyevaluated in UNSCEAR assessments of the exposure fromatmospheric nuclear testing [U3]. With use of the modelcalculations, the revised external dose coefficients, and the re-evaluation of the total deposition of short-lived radionuclides,the present dose estimates for some radionuclides differslightly from the previous assessment, although the currentestimated total effective dose commitment to the worldpopulation, 3.5 mSv, is little different from the result given inthe UNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3], 3.7 mSv.

4. Local and regional exposures

62. Since atmospheric nuclear tests were conducted inrelatively remote areas, exposures of local populations didnot contribute significantly to the world collective dosefrom this practice. Nevertheless, those individuals livingdownwind of the test sites received greater-than-averagedoses. In addition, individuals who might now or in thefuture occupy contaminated areas of the former test sitescould receive exposures through external or internalpathways. Efforts are being made to evaluate these sites toguide possible rehabilitation and resettlement, and work iscontinuing to reconstruct the exposure conditions and toestimate the local and regional doses that were received atthe time of the tests. Available information was presentedin the UNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3] and is summarized

here in Table 17. Further results, although still notsystematic and complete, are presented in this Section. Itwill be necessary to add details as the dose reconstructionefforts progress.

63. The locations of several test sites are shown in FiguresXII, XIII, and XIV. The areas within a few hundredkilometres of the site are generally designated as local andthose within a few thousand kilometres, regional. Distances of500 km and 1,000 km from the test sites are delineated in thefigures for reference purposes. The exposed populations weregenerally only those living in downwind, generally eastwarddirections.

(a) Nevada test site

64. The Nevada test site in the United States was thelocation for 86 atmospheric nuclear tests: 83 tests wereconducted from 1951 to 1958, and 3 more tests wereconducted in 1962. Additional cratering tests also injecteddebris into the atmosphere [N10]. Local areas were affectedby relatively few tests, but for those few tests they weremuch more affected than more distant areas of the UnitedStates, which received less deposition and exposure butwere more evenly affected by a larger number of tests. Theexternal exposures to local populations were estimated atthe time of testing to be low; however, public concernabout the health impact of the exposures grew. As aconsequence, rather detailed dose reconstruction projectswere undertaken in the 1980s.

65. Estimates of external exposures from atmospheric testsat the Nevada test site were reported by Anspaugh et al. [A1,A3]. Results were derived from survey meter and film badgemeasurements for 300 communities in the local areas(<300 km) around the test site in Nevada and in southwesternUtah. The distribution of individual cumulative exposures isgiven in Table 18. The effective dose exceeded 3 mSv in 20%of the population of 180,000. The highest effective doses werein the range 60�90mSv, and thepopulation-weighted averagevalue was 2.8 mSv [A1]. The exposures resulted primarilyfrom short-lived gamma-emitters (half-lives <100 days).The estimates were based on outdoor occupancy of 50%and a building shielding factor of 0.5; the usual UNSCEARassumptions are 20% and 0.2, respectively. Most of theexposures resulted from relatively few events; 90% of thecumulative collective dose of 470 man Sv resulted from 17events, the most significant being test Harry on 19 May1953 (180 man Sv), test Bee on 22 March 1955 (70man Sv), and test Smoky on 31 August 1957 (50 man Sv)[A3]. Collective doses that included areas furtherdownwind, encompassing all ofNevada and Utah and partsof several other western states, were estimated to have beeneven greater than for the local area, about 10,000 man Sv,primarily due to the exposure of the large population areasaround Salt Lake City [A7, B9]. All of the United Statesreceived some fallout from Nevada weapons tests [B10].Beck and Krey [B11] reported cumulative doses fromexternal exposure averaged about 1 mSv to persons livingin the midwest and east of the country.

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Ujae

Ujelang

Enewetak

Lae

Ebadon

Wotho

BikiniRongerik

RongelapAilinginae Taka Utirik

Bikar

MejitLemoLikiep

RoiKjawalein

Lib

NamuJabwot

Jaluit

KiliNamorik

Mili

Ebon

ButaritariMakin

KIRIBATI

Majuro ArnoAilinglapalap

Aur

Maloelap

Erikub

Wotje

M A R S H A L L

I S L A N D S

1010

5

170

170165

N O R T H

P A C I F I C

O C E A N

Ailuk

MARSHALLISLANDS

Equator

NORTHPACIFICOCEAN

SOUTHPACIFICOCEAN

FED. STATESOF MICRONESIA

Wake Island(USA)

Guam(USA)

NorthernMarianaIslands(USA)

PAPUANEW GUINEA

VANATU FIJI

KIRIBATI

TUVALU

NAURU

SOLOMONISLANDS

CoralSea

66. Internal exposures resulting from atmospheric testingat the Nevada test site have been estimated from depositionmeasurements and an environmental transfer model [K2,W2]. Absorbed doses to organs and tissues from internalexposure were substantially less than those from externalexposure, with the exception of the thyroid, in which 131Ifrom ingestion of milk contributed relatively higher doses.Estimates of absorbed doses in the thyroid of 3,545 locallyexposed individuals ranged from 0 to 4.6 Gy; the averagewas 98 mGy and the median 25 mGy [T4]. Fiveindividuals received absorbed doses greater than 3 Gy, andall of them drank milk from a family-owned goat [T4]. Thecollective absorbed dose to the thyroid of the population ofstates in the western United States was estimated to be140,000 man Gy [A7]. An extensive study has beencompleted by the National Cancer Institute of the UnitedStates of thyroid doses in all counties of the United Statesfrom 131I deposition following the atmospheric tests inNevada [B6, N10]. The individual thyroid doses ranged upto 100 mGy in local areas. For the entire population of theUnited States, the estimate was 20 mGy, with a collectiveabsorbed dose of 4 106 man Gy. Although not involvingexposure, it should be noted that plutonium migration from

an underground nuclear test conducted at the Nevada TestSite was detected 30 years following the test in a groundwater monitoring well 1.3 km from the test location [K12].In this very arid region, no migration had been anticipated.The authors concluded that colloid-facilitated transport wasimplicated in the field findings.

(b) Bikini, Enewetak test sites

67. An extensive nuclear test programme was conductedby the United States at locations in the Pacific (Table 1).The test resulting in the most significant local exposureswas the thermonuclear test Bravo on 28 February 1954 atBikini Atoll. Unexpectedly heavy fallout occurred in thelocal area eastward of the atoll (Figure XII). Within a fewhours of the explosion, fallout particles descended onRongelap and Ailinginae atolls, 200 km from Bikini,exposing 82 persons. The Japanese fishing vessel LuckyDragon was also in this area, and 23 fishermen wereexposed. Farther east, exposures occurred at RongerikAtoll (28 United States servicemen) and Utrik Atoll (159persons). These individuals were evacuated within a fewdays of the initial exposures.

Figure XII. Bikini and Enewetak test sites.The inner dotted circle indicates a distance of 500 km, the outer dashed circle 1,000 km from the test sites.

68. Average external exposures from the Bravo test, mainlyfrom short-lived radionuclides, ranged from 1.9 Sv onRongelap (67 persons, including 3 in utero), 1.1 Sv onAilinginae (19 persons, including 1 in utero), and 0.1 Sv onUtrik (167 persons, including 8 in utero) [L4]. The collectivedose from the exposures received by these individuals beforeevacuation was, therefore, 160 man Sv. Thyroid doses fromseveral isotopes of iodine and tellurium and from external

gamma radiation were estimated to be 12 Gy on average(42 Gy maximum) to adults, 22 Gy (82 Gy maximum) tochildren of 9 years, and 52 Gy (200 Gy maximum) to infantsof 1 year [L4].

69. The external exposure from the Bravo test to theservicemen on Rongerik Atoll was 0.8 Sv [L4]. For the 23Japanese fishermen, the external exposures from the fallout

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Semipalatinsk

Almaty

Bishkek

Ulaanbaatar

G A N S U

A L T A I

Barnaul

Irkutsk

Ulan-Ude

Bratsk

Xining

Yinchuan

Lanzhou

Chengdu

Lop Nor

New Delhi

Urümqi

Korla

KashiKashi

KYRGYZSTAN

R U S S I A

C H I N A

I N D I A

KAZAKHSTAN

Burqin

Aqmola

Golmud

90

45

30

105

105

M O N G O L I A

45

30

75 90

deposition on deck ranged from 1.7 to 6 Sv, mostly receivedon the first day of the fallout but continuing for 14 days, untilthe ship arrived in its port [C9]. The thyroid doses to thefishermen were estimated to have been 0.2�1.2 Gy from 131I,based on external counting, but since other short-lived iodineisotopes were also present, the total doses to the thyroid frominhalation during a period of five hours were estimated tohave been 0.8�4.5 Gy [C9].

70. There seem to have been no other tests that causedsignificant exposures to the population in the Pacific region.The populations of the atolls where tests were conducted hadbeen relocated prior to the testing. Exposures to residualradiation levels on Utrik and Rongelap atolls to residents whoreturned to these islands in 1954 and 1957, respectively, wereof the order of 20�30 mSv over the following 20�year periodfrom external irradiation and 20�140 mSv from internalexposure [C9]. During the temporary resettlement of BikiniAtoll from 1971 to 1978, total whole-body exposures wereestimated to have been 2�3 mSv a�1 [G5]. A radiologicalsurvey of residual radiation levels, primarily due to globalfallout deposition, was conducted throughout the Marshall

Islands in 1994 [S2], and more detailed surveys have beenmade of Bikini and Enewetak atolls, in order to evaluateeventual permanent resettlement [I4, R1]. Estimated effectivedoses caused by residual contamination to persons who mightreturn at present to Bikini Atoll were estimated to be 4 mSvwith a diet composed of both local and imported foods andabout 15 mSv for a diet of local origin only [I4]. Tests at otherlocations in the Pacific(ChristmasIslandandJohnston Island)were conducted in the high atmosphere, and there was littlelocal fallout deposition.

(c) Semipalatinsk test site

71. The Semipalatinsk test site is located in the northeastcorner of Kazakhstan (see map in Figure XIII). At thislocation, 456 nuclear tests were conducted, including 86atmospheric and 30 surface tests [M2]. The most affectedlocal populations lived mainly east and northeast of the testsite, in the Semipalatinsk region of Kazakhstan and the Altairegion of the Russian Federation. After some tests, traces ofradioactive contamination were also formed in southern andsoutheastern directions [G8].

Figure XIII. Lop Nor and Semipalatinsk test sites.The inner dotted circle indicates a distance of 500 km, the outer dashed circle 1,000 km from the test sites.

The measurement areas in Gansu Province (for Lop Nor) and the Altai Region (for Semipalatinsk)are shown within elliptical areas.

72. Two tests were most significant in exposing thepopulation of Kazakhstan: the first test on 29 August 1949and the first thermonuclear test on 12 August 1953. These and

two additional test (on 24 September 1951 and 24 August1956) are stated in [G8] to have contributed 85% of the totalcollective effective dose from all tests. There are several

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Emu

Derby

Wyndham

Alice Springs

Cooktown

Cairns

TownsvilleCloncurry

Rockhampton

Charleville

Bourke

Porto Augusta

Geraldton

Coolgardie

Albany

Ashburton

Dariing

MonteBello

Islands

Maralinga

Perth

Darwin

CAPEYORK

Brisbane

Sidney

CANBERRA

Q U E E N S L A N D

N O R T H E R NT E R R I T O R Y

S O U T H A U S T R A L I A

N E W S O U T HW A L E S

W E S T E R NA U S T R A L I A

Melbourne

Adelaide

132

132

144

144

1212

24

36

24

36

120

120

Adelaide

documents listing doses at specific locations for thepopulation in Kazakhstan [G8, S7, T1], but the presentedresults differ markedly. Example results from the latestpublication [S7] of accumulated effective doses for severaldistricts indicate effective doses in the range from 0.04 to2.4 Sv. The collective effective dose for ten districts isestimated to be 3,000�4,000 man Sv [S7]. The absorbed doseto the thyroid from the ingestion of radioiodines is quiteuncertain, but is estimated to be as high as 8 Gyto children inthe Akbulak settlement [S7].

73. The Altai region of the Russian Federation is about200 km from the Semipalatinsk Test Site. This populationexperienced exposure following about 40 explosions [S8].The most significant exposure was caused by the nucleartest of 29 August 1949 with other major exposuresfollowing tests on 3 September 1953, 1 August 1962, 4August 1962, and 7 August 1962. Effective doses of about2 Sv are estimated to have occurred in the Uglovski districtfollowing the 1949 test. The total collective dose to allresidents in 58 districts with a total population of 1.9million persons is estimated to be 42,000 man Sv [S8].

74. The results for Kazakhstan and the Altai region inthe Russian Federation must at present be regarded withcaution. There are significant discrepancies among thereported results for Kazakhstan, and the reported resultsfor the Altai region differ markedly when derived frommeasured results or model calculations. Validation ofresults based upon contemporary measurements of 137Cs

deposition density might be useful in resolving some ofthese discrepancies.

75. Investigation of residual contamination levels at theSemipalatinsk site has begun. In 1993�1994, an inter-national team performed a preliminary survey of the testsite and surrounding area [I9]. More significantly con-taminated areas were found at ground zero locations andsurrounding Lake Balapan. Projected annual doses wereestimated to be 10 mSv, mainly from external exposure, toindividuals making daily visits to these sites and 100 mSvto those who might permanently reside at these locations.Present annual effective doses to persons living outside thetest site boundaries were estimated to be of the order of0.1 mSv from residual contamination levels.

(d) Novaya Zemlya test site

76. The test site Novaya Zemlya in the Russian Arctic islarge and remote. Although an extensive atmospheric testprogramme was conducted there, most of the tests werecarried out at high altitudes, thus minimizing local fallout.There was one test with a 32 kt yield on the land surface on7 September 1957 [M2]. In addition, there were two testson the surface of the water and three tests underwater atthe site. Research programmes to investigate residualcontamination both on- and off-site have been initiated. Itmay be that reindeer herders and those who consumereindeer meat received low internal exposures, primarilyfrom 137Cs, that could be attributed to tests at this site.

Figure XIV. Maralinga, Emu and Monte Bello test sites.The inner dotted circle indicates a distance of 500 km, the outer dashed circle 1,000 km from the test sites.

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ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION176

(e) Maralinga, Emu test sites

77. The nuclear weapons testing programme of the UnitedKingdom included 21 atmospheric tests at sites in Australiaand the Pacific. The tests in the Pacific at Malden and theChristmas Islands in 1957 and 1958 were airbursts over theocean (six tests with submegatonne and megatonne yields) orexplosions of devices suspended by balloons at 300�450 mover land (one test of 24 kt and two tests each with 25 ktyield) [D2]. Local fallout would have been minimal followingthose tests. Twelve tests were conducted from 1952 to 1957 atthree sites in Australia: Monte Bello Islands, Emu, andMaralinga, which are shown on the map in Figure XIV.These were mainly surface tests with yields of 60 kt or less.For each of these tests, trajectories of the radioactive cloudwere determined, and local and countrywide monitoring ofairand deposition was performed [W1]. Estimates of externalexposures in local areas were not made for the earlier tests; forthe tests in 1956 and 1957, the external effective doses wereless than 1 mSv [W1]. The sizes of local populations were notindicated. Estimates of internal exposures were also made forthe entire Australian population. The average effective dosewas 70 µSv, and the collective effective dose was 700 man Svin this population [W1]. A number of safety tests wereconducted at the Maralinga and Emu sites in South Australia,resulting in the dispersal of 239Pu over some hundreds ofsquare kilometres. The potential doses to local inhabitants ofthese areas have been evaluated [D1, H2, W3]. Followingrehabilitation of the Maralinga test site it is estimated thatpotential doses to future inhabitants living a semi-traditionalnomadic lifestyle will be less than 5 mSv [D1].

(f) Algerian, Mururoa, Fangataufa test sites

78. The French nuclear testing programme began with fourlow-yield surface tests at a site near Reggane in the AlgerianSahara in 1960 and 1961 [D3]. There is no information onlocal exposures following these tests. Some residualcontamination remains at this site and at a nearby site, InEcker, where 13 underground tests were conducted. Smallquantities of plutonium were dispersed at these sites fromsafety experiments, which involved conventional explosivesonly. Investigations of the present radiation levels andpotential exposures of individual whomight utilize these areashave been initiated by the IAEA.

79. The subsequent programme of France was conducted atthe uninhabited atolls of Mururoa and Fangataufa in FrenchPolynesia in the South Pacific. Most of these tests involved thedetonation of devices suspended from balloons at heights of220�500 m [D3], limiting local fallout. Radiological monitor-ing has been conducted at surrounding locations. The closestinhabited atoll is Tureia (140 persons) at a distance of 120 kmto the north; only 5,000 persons lived within 1,000 km of thetest site. A larger population (184,000 persons in 1974) islocated 1,200 km to the northwest, at Tahiti. Under theconditions that normally prevail at the test site, radioactivedebris of the local and tropospheric fallout was carried to theeast over uninhabited regions of the Pacific. On occasion,however, some material was transferred to the central South

Pacific within a few days of the tests by westerly movingeddies. French scientists [B8] have identified five tests, follow-ing which regional population groups were more directlyexposed (Table 19). A single rain-out event caused exposuresin Tahiti after the test of 17 July 1974. Exposures resultedmainly from external irradiation from deposited radio-nuclides. Milk production on Tahiti is sufficient for onlyabout20% of local needs, and consumption is in any case low,which limited ingestion exposures. Estimated effective dosesto maximally exposed individuals after all five events were inthe range 1�5 mSv in the year following the test. A collectiveeffective dose of 70 man Sv was estimated for all localexposures at this test site. Estimates of exposures were basedon more extended measurements that were made beginning in1982. In that year the external exposures in the region were inthe range 1�10 µSva�1, internal exposures were 2�32 µSva�1,and total exposure was 3�33 µSv a�1, due mostly to residual137Cs deposition from global fallout. The collective effectivedose was estimated to be about 1 man Sv in 1982 for all ofFrench Polynesia [R2]. An international investigation of thepresent radiological conditions at Mururoa and Fangataufawas conducted during 1996�1998 [I7]. Residual contamina-tion levels were, on the whole, found to be negligibly low.Small areas with surface contamination from plutonium exist,but it was regarded as only remotely conceivable that aplutonium-containing particle could enter the body of anindividual, e.g. through a cut in the skin. Plutonium, tritium,and caesium in the sediments of the lagoons were consideredunlikely to cause non-negligible exposures at present or in thefuture to any repopulated individuals or to residents of otherislands throughout the Pacific region [I7].

(g) Lop Nor test site

80. The Chinese nuclear weapons testing programme wascarried out at the Lop Nor test site in western China,shown on the map in Figure XIII; 22 atmospheric testswere conducted between 1964 and 1980. Limitedinformation is available on local deposition following thetests. Balloons were used to follow the trajectory of thedebris clouds, and airborne and ground-based instrumentswere used to monitor the radiation levels. Estimates ofexposures were made over a downwind area to a distanceof 800 km [Z1]. Estimates of external exposures in cities ortowns within 400�800 km of the test site in GansuProvince ranged from 0.02 to 0.11 mSv (Table 20), with anaverage of about 0.04 mSv for three tests, which accountedfor over 90% of the dose from all Chinese tests [Z1].Indoor occupancy of 80% and a building shielding factorof 0.2 were assumed. A retrospective dose evaluation basedon soil sampling was conducted in 1987�1992 [R4]. Thedose commitment from 137Cs was estimated to range from1.5 to 10 mSv in the northwest Ganzu province.

B. UNDERGROUND TESTS

81. Testing of nuclear weapons underground was begunin 1951 by the United States and in 1961 by the formerSoviet Union. Following the limited nuclear test ban treaty

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of 1963, which banned atmospheric tests, both countriesconducted extensive underground test programmes. TheUnited Kingdom participated with the United States in afew joint underground tests. The underground test pro-grammes of France and China continued until 1996. Indiaconducted a single underground test in 1974 and fivefurther tests in 1998. Pakistan reported conducting six testsin 1998. A comprehensive test ban treaty was formulatedin 1996, but it has not yet been ratified by all countries orentered into force. Thus, it cannot yet be said that thepractice of underground weapons testing has also ceased.

82. The number of underground tests (Figure I, upperdiagram) has greatly exceeded the number of atmospherictests, but the total yield of the former (Figure I, lowerdiagram) has been much less. The largest underground testshad a reported yield of 1.5�10 Mt (27 October 1973, atNovaya Zemlya by the former Soviet Union) [M2] and lessthan 5 Mt (6 November 1971 at Amchitka, Alaska, by theUnited States) [D4], but most tests have been of a much loweryield, particularly if containment of nuclear debris wasdesired. Only with venting or diffusion of gases following thetests, as has happened on occasion, could local populations beexposed.

83. Underground test programmes were summarized in theUNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3] and the resultant exposureswere estimated. No further information has become availablethat could allow exposure estimates to be improved. It wouldbe desirable to have a more complete list of those tests inwhich venting occurred and estimates of the amounts ofradioactive materials thereby dispersed in the atmosphere.Thirty-twounderground tests conducted at the Nevada test sitewere reported to have led to off-site contamination as a resultof venting [H3].

84. The number of underground tests requires revision,based on recentlypublished information [D4, M2]. Severaltests involved the simultaneous detonation of two or morenuclear charges, either in the same or in separate boreholesor tunnels. These so-called salvo tests were done forreasons of efficiency or economy, but they also deterreddetection by distant seismic measurements. The testsusually involved two to four charges; the maximumnumber was eight. Since each charge has now beenidentified, they can be properly specified as separate tests.The annual numbers of underground tests conducted byeach country are given in Table 21. The total number oftests by all countries is 1,876.

85. The yields of individual underground tests have notbeen directlyspecified. Manyare simply reported to be withina range of energies, for example <20 kt or 20�150 kt. Theannual yields of underground tests at all locations have beencompiled by the National Defense Research Establishment inSweden [N6]. These estimates were included in theUNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3]. The total yield of all testsconducted through 1992 was 90 Mt. The yields ofsubsequent tests have not altered this total amount. Thetotal yield of all underground tests conducted by the former

Soviet Union has been reported to be 38 Mt [M2]. Theyields apportioned to other countries are listed in Table 22.

86. Table 22 provides a summary listing of all nuclearweapons tests, both atmospheric and underground. Thetotal number of tests was 2,419; this includes the twocombat explosions of nuclear weapons in Japan and anumber of safety tests. The latter had no nuclear yield, buttheyare conventionally included in listings ofnuclear tests.The total yield of all tests was 530 Mt.

C. PRODUCTION OF WEAPONSMATERIALS

87. In addition to weapons testing, the installationswhere nuclear materials were produced and weapons werefabricated were another source of radionuclide releases towhich local and regional populations were exposed. Someinformation on this practice was presented in theUNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3]. Especially in the earliestyears of this activity, the pressures to meet productionschedules and the lack of stringent waste dischargecontrols resulted in higher local exposures than in the lateryears. Efforts are being made to evaluate the exposures thatoccurred during all periods in which these installationsoperated. Although it may not be possible to systematicallyevaluate all such exposures, newly acquired information issummarized in this Section. Also, at some sites, weaponsare now being dismantled.

1. United States

88. Nuclear weapons plants in the United States includedFernald, in Ohio (materials processing); Portsmouth, in Ohio,and Paducah, in Kentucky (enrichment); Oak Ridge, inTennessee (enrichment, separations, manufacture of weaponsparts, laboratories); Los Alamos, in New Mexico (plutoniumprocessing, weapons assembly); Rocky Flats, in Colorado(manufacture of weapons parts); Hanford, in Washington(plutonium production); and Savannah River, in SouthCarolina (plutonium production). There are many more sitesat which such operations were conducted and wastes werestored or disposed. It has been estimated that there are some5,000 locations in the United States where contamination byradioactive materials has occurred, not all of which areassociatedwith weaponsmaterialsproduction [W4]. Estimatesof releases of radioactive materials during the periods ofoperation of the nuclear installations are summarized inTable 23. Also listed are the exposures estimated to have beenreceived by the local populations. This information might beextended when studies now underway are concluded, thusallowingbetter documentation ofthehistorical exposures fromthis practice.

2. Russian Federation

89. There were three main sites where weapons materialswere produced in the former Soviet Union: Chelyabinsk,Krasnoyarsk, and Tomsk. Relatively large routine releases

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occurred during the early years of operation of thesefacilities. In additions, accidents have contributed to thebackground levels of contamination and to the exposure ofindividuals living in the local and regional areas.

(a) Chelyabinsk

90. The Mayak nuclear materials production complex islocated in the Chelyabinsk region between the towns ofKyshtym and Kasli near the eastern shore of Lake Irtyash.Uranium-graphite reactors for plutonium production anda reprocessing plant began operating in 1948. Relativelylarge discharges of radioactive materials to the Techa Riveroccurred from 1949 to 1956 [D5]. The available informa-tion on exposures to the local population was summarizedin the UNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3].

91. Estimates of releases of radionuclides during the earlyyears of operation of the Mayak complex are presented inTable 24. Controls of releases were introduced in the early1960s. The maximum releases in airborne effluents, primarily131I, occurred from 1949 to 1956 [D6]. During the sameperiod, the discharges of radionuclides into the Techa Riveroccurred [D5, K3]. Of the 100 PBq released from 1949 to1956, 95 PBq were released in 1950 and 1951. Along with thefission products listed in Table 24, plutonium isotopes werealso released.

92. The individuals most highly exposed from the releasesto the Techa River were residents of villages along the river,who used the water for drinking, fishing, waterfowl breeding,watering of livestock, irrigation of gardens, bathing, andwashing. In April-May 1951, a heavy flood resulted incontamination of the flood plain used for livestock grazingand hay making. The collective dose to the most exposedpopulation from 1949 to 1956 was 6,200 man Sv (Table 25).Doses from external irradiation decreased in 1956, whenresidents of the upper reaches of the river moved to newplaces and the most highly contaminated part of the floodplain was enclosed. For some inhabitants, however, the TechaRiver contamination remains a significant source of exposureup to the present time.

93. On 29 September 1957, a fault in the cooling system ofa storage tank containing liquid radioactive wastes led to achemical explosion and a large release of radionuclides. Thetotal activitydispersed off-site over the territoryof the Chelya-binsk, Sverdlovak, and Tyumen regions was approximately74 PBq. The composition of the release is indicated inTable 24. Although the release was characterized mainly byrather short-lived radionuclides (144Ce, 95Zr), the long-termhazard was due primarily to 90Sr. An area of 23,000 km2 wascontaminated at levels of 90Sr greater than 3.7 kBq m�2 [N8].In 1957, 273,000 people lived in the contaminated area. Ofthem, 10,000 lived where the 90Sr deposition densityexceeded74 kBq m�2 and 2,100 where the levels were over3,700 kBq m�2. In areas where 90Sr contamination exceeded74 kBq m�2, the population was evacuated, and relocated firstfrom the most severelyaffected area within 7�10 days and theremaining population over the next 18 months. The main

pathways of exposure following the accident were externalirradiation and internal exposure from the consumption oflocal food products.

94. The Mayak complex was responsible for furtherexposure of the local population in 1967, when water recededfrom Lake Karachy, which had been used for waste disposal,and the wind resuspended contaminated sediments from theshoreline. The dispersed material, about 0.022 PBq, consistedmainly of 137Cs, 90Sr, and 144Ce (Table 24). The contaminatedarea, defined as having levels of 90Sr greater than 3.7 kBq m�2

and of 137Cs greater than 7.4 kBq m�2, extended 75 km fromthe lake. Approximately 40,000 people lived within this areaof 2,700 km2. The exposures from external irradiation and theconsumption of local foods were considerably less than thosefollowing the 1957 storage tank accident.

95. Present levels of exposure associated with operation ofthe Mayak complex have been estimated from the residualcontamination [K4]. For internal exposure, the average (andrange) of daily consumption of food were determined to bemilk 0.7 (0.5�1.0) kg, meat 0.14 (0.09�0.18) kg, bread 0.36(0.27�0.52) kg, potatoes 0.57 (0.2�1.0) kg, vegetables 0.24(0.14�0.43) kg, fish 0.05 (0.03�0.11) kg, mushrooms 0.02(0.01�0.03) kg, and berries 0.04 (0.01�0.06) kg [K4]. Thesevalues were used with the concentrations given in Table 26 toestimate the average annual dose from internal exposure of100 µSv. Average annual dose from external exposure isestimated to be 10 µSv. For the population of 320,000surrounding the Mayak complex, the annual collectiveeffective dose from present operations (1993�1996) isestimated to be 35 man Sv (Table 27).

(b) Krasnoyarsk

96. The Krasnoyarsk nuclear materials production complexis located about 40 km from the city of Krasnoyarsk. The firsttwo reactors at Krasnoyarsk were direct-flow typecommissioned in 1958 and 1961. A third, closed-circuitreactor, was commissioned in 1964. A radiochemical plant forirradiated fuel reprocessing began operation in 1964. In 1985,a storage facility for spent fuel assemblies from reactors in theSoviet republics of Russia and Ukraine was put into service.There are plans to reprocess this fuel from the civilian nuclearfuel cycle in the future at the Krasnoyarsk site.

97. Radioactive wastes discharges from the Krasnoyarskcomplex enter the Yenisei River. Trace contamination can befound from the complex to the estuary, about 2,000 km away[V1]. An estimate of the collective dose from radioactivedischarges of the Krasnoyarsk complex during 1958�1991 ispresented in Table 25 [K5]; the estimate is derived from dataon the content of radionuclides in water, fish, flood plain, andother components of the river ecosystem [N9, V1]. On thewhole, the collective dose was about 1,200 man Sv. The mostimportant contributor (70%) tothisdosewasfish consumption[K6]. External exposure from the contaminated flood plainaccounted for 17% of the collective dose. The main radio-nuclides contributing to the internal dose from fish consump-tion were 32P, 24Na, 54Mn, and 65Zn. The main contributor to

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the external dose (over 90%) was gamma-emitting radio-nuclides, primarily 137Cs, 60Co, and 152Eu. Individual doses tothe population varied over a wide range, from 0.05 to2.3 mSv a�1. The main portion of the collective dose (about84%) was received by the population living within 350 km ofthe site of the radioactive discharges.

98. In 1992, the direct-flow reactors of the Krasnoyarskcomplex were shut down. This considerably reduced theamount of radioactive discharges to the Yenisei River, and theannual collective dose to the population was decreased by afactor of more than 4. Present estimates of average doses(1993�1996) are 30 µSv a�1 (external) and 20 µSv a�1

(internal). With a local population of 200,000, the annualcollective effective dose is estimated to be 10 man Sv(Table 27).

(c) Tomsk

99. The Siberian nuclear materials production complex islocated in the town of Tomsk-7 on the right bank of the TomRiver 15 km north of the city of Tomsk. The Siberiancomplex was commissioned in 1953. It is the largest complexfor the production of plutonium, uranium, and transuranicelements in the Russian Federation. The Siberian complexincludes five uranium-graphite production reactors that beganoperation in 1958�1963, enrichment and fuel fabricationfacilities, and a reprocessing plant [B7].

100. Radionuclides in liquid wastes are discharged into theTom River, which flows into the Ob River. An estimate of thecollective dose from radioactive discharges of the Siberiancomplex from 1958 to 1992 is presented in Table 25. Theexposure pathways considered in the dose evaluation were theingestion of fish, drinking water, waterfowl, and irrigatedproducts and external exposure from the contaminated floodplain. The collective effective dose was estimated to be 200man Sv. The largest contributor (73%) to this dose was fishconsumption. The main radionuclides contributing to theinternal dose from fish consumption were 32P and 24Na. Thelargest portion of the collective dose (about 80%) was receivedby the population living within 30 km of the site of radioactivedischarges.

101. In 1990�1992, three of the five reactors of the Siberiancomplex were shut down. This considerably reduced theamount of radioactive discharges to the Tom River and theannual collective dose to the population. The average annualdoses to the local population are estimated to be 0.4 µSv(external) and 5 µSv (internal). For the local population of400,000, the collective effective dose at present (1993�1996)is estimated to be 2.2 man Sv (Table 27).

102. On 6 April 1993, an accident occurred at theradiochemical plant of the Siberian complex that resulted inthe release of radioactive materials [B7, G6, I6]. A narrowtrace of radioactive contamination 35�45km longwas formedin a northeasterly direction from the complex (based on traceconcentrations of 95Zr and 95Nb in soil). The total area of thecontamination with dose rate levels at the time of the accidenthigher than the natural radiation background was estimated

to be about 100 km2 [M8]. The dominant radionuclides insnow samples from the contaminated area were 95Zr, 95Nb,106Ru, and 103Ru. Traces of 239Pu and 144Ce were also detected.A non-uniformity of contamination was noted, with thepresence of hot particles in the composition of radioactivematerials deposited on the snow. There are no populatedplaces in the area of the pattern, except for the village ofGeorgievka, which has a population of 73 persons (including18 children). The cumulative dose from external exposure tothe inhabitants of Georgievka from the accident during 50years of permanent residence will amount to 0.2�0.3 mSv[B7], which is negligible, compared to the dose from naturalbackground radiation over the same period.

3. United Kingdom

103. The production of nuclear materials and thefabrication of weapons began in the 1950s in the UnitedKingdom. The work was carried on for several years atsites such as Springfields (uranium processing and fuelfabrication), Capenhurst (enrichment), Sellafield (produc-tion reactors and reprocessing), Aldermaston (weaponsresearch), and Harwell (research). Subsequently, workrelated to the commercial nuclear power programme wasincorporated at some of these sites. In the earliest years ofoperation of these installations, the radionuclide dischargesmay be associated almost wholly with the military fuelcycle.

104. Plutonium production reactors were operated in theUnited Kingdom at Sellafield (two graphite-moderated,gas-cooled reactors known as the Windscale piles) and,later, at Calder Hall on the Sellafield site and Chapelcrossin Scotland. A fire occurred in one of the Windscalereactors in 1957, resulting in the release of radionuclides,most notably 131I, 137Cs, 106Ru, 133Xe, and 210Po. The promptimposition of a ban on milk supplies in the affected regionreduced exposures to 131I. The collective effective dose fromthe accident was estimated to be 2,000 man Sv.

4. France

105. A nuclear programme in France began in 1945 with thecreation of the Commissariat à l'Energíe Atomique (CEA).The nuclear research laboratoryat Fontenay-aux-Roses beganactivities in the following year. The first experimental reactor,named EL1 or Zoé, went critical in 1948, and a pilotreprocessing plant began operation in 1954. A secondexperimental reactor, EL2, was constructed at the Saclaycentre. From 1956 to 1959, three larger production reactorsbegan operation at the Marcoule complex on the Rhône River.Thesegas-cooled, graphite-moderated reactors, designatedG1,G2, and G3, operated until 1968, 1980, and 1984. A full-scalereprocessing plant, UP1, was built and operated from 1958,also at the Marcoule site. Two more plants to reprocess fuelfrom commercial reactors were constructed at La Hague in thenorth of France: UP2, completed in 1966, and UP3, in 1990.

106. Although some systematic reporting of radionuclidedischarge data is available beginning in 1972 [C10], some

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of this may reflect the reprocessing of commercial reactorfuel. It should be possible to estimate plutonium productionamounts at the various installations, and some reports ofenvironmental monitoring (e.g. [M9]) maygiveindicationsof early operating experience.

5. China

107. A nuclear weapons development programme wasinitiated in China that led to the first nuclear explosion of thatcountry, conducted in 1964. The Institute of Atomic Energywas created in 1950. The first experimental reactor wasconstructed in Beijing, and a uranium enrichment plant wasbuilt at Lanzhou in Ganzu Province in western China. Thefirst nuclear test was of an enriched uranium device. Pluton-

ium production and reprocessing were conducted at theJiuquan complex, also located in Ganzu Province. Theproduction reactor began operation in 1967 and thereprocessing plant in 1968. Production and reprocessing alsooccurred in Guangyuan in Sichuan Province, where largerinstallations were constructed. The weapons were assembledat the Jiuquan complex.

108. Assessment of exposures from nuclear weaponsproduction in China have been reported by Pan et al. [P4,P5, P6]. Exposures to populations surrounding specificinstallations were estimated. This experience relates to themilitary fuel cycle, since the commercial nuclear powerprogramme started only in the last decade.

II. NUCLEAR POWER PRODUCTION

109. The Committee has routinely collected data on releasesof radionuclides from the operation of nuclear fuel cycleinstallations. In the UNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3], anoverview was provided of annual releases of radionuclides forthe general types of reactors and other fuel cycle installationssince the beginning of the practice of commercial nuclearpower generation. Data for individual mines, mills, reactors,and reprocessing plants were given for the years 1985�1989.In this Annex, the data for another five-year period,1990�1994, anda three-year period, 1995�1997, areassessed.

110. Thegeneration ofelectrical energybynuclear meanshasgrown steadily from the start of the industry in 1956. Therelatively rapid rate of expansion that occurred from 1970 to1985, an increase in energy generation of more than 20% peryear, slowed to a pace averaging just over 2% per year from1990 to 1996 [I1]. At the end of 1997, there were 437 nuclearreactors operating in 31 countries. The total installed capacitywas 352 GW, and the energygenerated in 1997 was 254 GW a[I1]. It is projected [I1] that nuclear energy will continue tosupplyabout 17%ofthetotal electrical energygenerated in theworld, as at present, or possibly a few percent less.

111. The nuclear fuel cycle includes the mining andmilling of uranium ore and its conversion to nuclear fuelmaterial; the fabrication of fuel elements; the production ofenergy in the nuclear reactor; the storage of irradiated fuelor its reprocessing, with the recycling of the fissile andfertile materials recovered; and the storage and disposal ofradioactive wastes. For some types of reactors, enrichmentof the isotopic content of 235U in the fuel material is anadditional step in the fuel cycle. The nuclear fuel cycle alsoincludes the transport of radioactive materials between thevarious installations.

112. Radiation exposures of members of the public resultingfrom discharges of radioactive materials from installations ofthe nuclear fuel cycle were assessed in previous UNSCEARreports [U3, U4, U6]. In this Annex, the trends in normalized

releases and the resultant doses from nuclear reactor operationare presented for the years 1970�1997. The doses areestimated using the environmental and dosimetric modelsdescribed in Annex A, “Dose assessment methodologies”.

113. The doses to the exposed individuals vary widely fromone installation to another, between different locations andwith time. Generally, the individual doses decrease markedlywith distance from a specific source. To evaluate the totalimpact of radionuclides released at each stage of the nuclearfuel cycle, the results are evaluated in terms of collectiveeffective dose per unit electrical energy generated, expressedas man Sv(GW a)�1. Onlyexposures to members of the publicare considered in this Annex. Occupational exposuresassociated with nuclear power production are included inAnnex E, “Occupational radiation exposures”.

A. MINING AND MILLING

114. Uranium mining involves the removal from theground of large quantities of ore containing uranium andits decay products. Underground and open-pit mining arethe main techniques. Underground mines produced 40% ofthe world´s total uranium production in 1996 and open-pitmines, 39% [O1]. Uranium is also mined using in situleaching, which produced 13% of the world uranium in1996 [O1]. The remaining 8% was recovered as a by-product of other mineral processing. Milling operationsinvolve the processing of the ore to extract the uranium ina partially refined form, known as yellowcake.

115. Uranium mining and milling operations are con-ducted in several countries. Production in recent years isgiven in Table 28. In 1997 about 90% of world uraniumproduction took place in 9 countries: Australia, Canada,Kazakhstan, Namibia, Niger, the Russian Federation,South Africa, the United States, and Uzbekistan. It is notedthat oversupply, leading to large stockpiles and low prices,

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has led to considerable reductions in output since 1989[O1]. However, beginning in 1995, production of uraniumwas substantially increased in some countries, mainlyAustralia, Canada, Namibia, Niger, and the United States.The world production in 1997 was 35,700 t uranium.

1. Effluents

116. There are few new data on releases of radionuclides,mainly radon, in mining and milling operations. Limiteddata for underground mines, based on concentrations inexhaust air, were given in the UNSCEAR 1993 Report[U3] for Australia, Canada, and Germany. There were noestimates of releases in open-pit operations. For under-ground mines the release of radon, normalized to theproduction of uranium oxide (U3O8), ranged from 1 to2,000 GBq t�1, with a production-weighted average of 300GBq t�1. Based on the estimated uranium (fuel) require-ments for the reactor types presently in use, 250 t uraniumoxide are required to produce 1 GW a of electrical energy[U3]. This leads to an average normalized radon releasefrom mines of approximately 75 TBq (GW a)�1.

117. In the UNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3], the averagenormalized radon release from mills in Australia andCanada, also from the limited data available, was estimatedto be 3 TBq (GW a)�1 [U3]. These values are not expectedto change with current mining and milling practices. Formining operations in arid areas, liquid effluents areminimal, and radionuclide releases via this pathway areestimated to be of little consequence.

118. The mining and milling processes create variouswaste residues in addition to the uranium product. Thetailings consist of the crushed and milled rock from whichthe mineral has been extracted, together with anychemicals and fluids remaining after the extractionprocess. The long-lived precursors of 222Rn, namely 226Ra(half-life 1,600 a) and 230Th (half-life 80,000 a), present inthe mill tailings provide a long-term source of radonrelease to the atmosphere. Based on available data, theradon emission rates were estimated in the UNSCEAR1993 Report [U3] to be 10 Bq s�1 m�2 of tailings during theoperational phase of the mill (assumed to be five years) and3 Bq s�1 m�2 from abandoned but stabilized tailings(assumed period of unchanged release of 10,000 years).Assuming that the production of a mine generates about1 ha (GW a)�1, the normalized radon releases are 3 and1 TBq (GW a)�1 for the operational and abandonedtailings, respectively. The in situ leach facilities have nosurface tailings and little radon emissions after closure.Release estimates from mining and milling operations aresummarized in Table 29.

119. In a recent study of eight major uranium productionfacilities in Australia, Canada, Namibia, and Niger [S6],measured emission rates were reported to range frombackground to 35 Bq s�1 m�2 from the tailings of presentlyoperating mills. Following decommissioning, therelease ratesare at present or are expected to be no more than 7 Bq s�1 m�2

[S6]. For many of the uranium mill tailings, the long-termmanagement involvessubstantial water-saturatedcover,whichreduces the radon emission rate to 0�0.2 Bq s�1 m�2. Takinginto account present tailings areas yet to be rehabilitated withgood present techniques and the anticipated future practice,the emission rate from abandoned mill tailings can beassumed to be less than 1 Bq s�1 m�2. This value is adopted forthe present evaluation. The previous estimate was 3 Bqs�1 m�2 [U3]. For comparison, the average emission ratecorresponding to soils in normal background areas is 0.02Bq s�1 m�2 [U3].

2. Dose estimates

120. The methodologyused bythe Committee toestimate thecollective dose from mining and milling is described in theUNSCEAR 1977 and 1982 Reports [U4, U6]. The doseestimate is based on representative release rates from a modelmine and mill site having the typical features of existing sites.An air dispersion model is used to estimate the radonconcentrations from releases as a function ofdistance from thesite, and the most common environmental pathways areincluded to estimate dose. Thus, the results are not applicableto any given site without duly considering site-specific databut are meant to reflect the overall impact of mining andmilling facilities.

121. The previously estimated exposures for the model mineand mill site assumed population densities of 3 km�2 at0�100 km and 25 km�2 at 100�2,000 km. The collectiveeffective dose factor for atmospheric discharges in a semi-aridarea with an effective release height of 10 m was 0.015man Sv TBq�1 [U3], based on the dose coefficient for radon of9 nSv h�1 per Bq m�3 (EEC). As the dilution factor at 1 kmhas been reduced from 3 10�6 to 5 10�7 s m�3, the dose per unitrelease of radon becomes 0.0025 man Sv TBq�1. Using thisfactor, the collective effective dose per unit electrical energygenerated is estimated to be 0.2 man Sv (GW a)�1 duringoperation of the mine and mill and 0.00075 man Sv (GW a)�1

per year of release from the residual tailings piles. For theassumed 10,000-year period of constant, continued releasefrom the tailings, the normalized collective effective dosebecomes 7.5 man Sv (GW a)�1 (Table 29). The variousrevisions in the parameters have led to a considerablereduction from the previously estimated value of 150 man Sv(GW a)�1 [U3].

122. An alternative assessment of exposures from milltailings has been proposed in a study prepared for theUranium Institute [S6]. In this study, site-specific datarelating to currently operating mills in four countries(Australia, Canada, Namibia, and Niger) were utilized.Differences from the UNSCEAR results arise from the useof a more detailed dispersion model, much-reducedpopulation densities (<3 km�2 within 100 km and from 2 to7 km�2 in the region between 100 and 2,000 km), and moreambitious future tailings management with substantialcovers to reduce radon emissions. The overall result (adjust-ing for the radon dose coefficient of 9 nSv h�1 per Bq m�3, asused above) is 1.4 man Sv (GW a)�1 over a 10,000-year

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period, which although less by a factor of 5, it is in reason-able agreement with the estimate derived in the previousparagraph.

123. In France, exposures from mill tailings at Lodevemining site were assessed considering measurements ofradon releases prior toand after remediation [T6]. Calcula-tions were based on a Gaussian plume dispersion model,and actual population densities of 63 km�2 at 0�100 kmand 44 km�2 at 100�2,000 km were used. Before re-mediation the average measured flux was found to be28 Bq m�2 s�1. The average annual effective dose toindividuals within 10 km from the tailings was assessed tobe about 20 µSv. Considering that 12,850 tonnes ofuranium were extracted during the whole duration ofprocessing, the collective effective dose to the populationliving within 2,000 km of the tailings and over a period of10,000 years was estimated to be 380 man Sv (GWa)�1.This value is much higher than the estimate of the previousparagraph, which is due to higher radon fluxes andpopulation densities and to the different atmosphericdispersion model. After remediation of the site, the radonfluxes were found not to be different from the background,and the collective dose was assess to be almost zero.

124. For the model mining and milling operations, theannual release of radon is of the order of 80 TBq (GW a)�1

(Table 29). With annual average production of 4,000 t inthe main producing countries (Table 28: 36,000 t mostlyfrom 9 countries) and assuming the collective dose isreceived by the population within 100 km from the mineand mill sites (3 km�2 to 100 km = 90,000 persons), theannual dose is estimated to be about 40 µSv [4,000 t ÷250 t (GW a)�1 × 80 TBq (GW a)�1 × 0.0025 man Sv TBq�1

÷ 90,000 persons]. This dose rate would be imperceptiblefrom variations of the normal background dose rate fromnatural sources.

125. The Committee recognizes that considerable devia-tions are possible from the representative values ofparameters selected for the more general conditions ofpresent practice. For example, much higher populationdensities are reported in areas surrounding the mills inChina [P4], and previously abandoned tailings may nothave been so carefully secured as is evidently possible.Although careful management of tailings areas would beexpected in the future, the extremes of leaving the tailingsuncovered to providing secure and covered impoundmentcould increase or decrease the estimated exposure by atleast an order of magnitude. Further surveys of site-specificconditions would be useful to establish realistic parametersfor the worldwide practice.

B. URANIUM ENRICHMENT AND FUELFABRICATION

126. For light-water-moderated and -cooled reactors (LWRs)and for advanced gas-cooled, graphite-moderated reactors(AGRs), the uranium processed at the mills needs to be

enriched in the fissile isotope 235U. Enrichments of 2%�5%are required. Before enrichment, the uranium oxide (U3O8)must be converted to uranium tetrafluoride (UF4) and then touranium hexafluoride (UF6). Enrichment is not needed forgas-cooled, graphite-moderated reactors (GCRs) or heavy-water-cooled and -moderated reactors (HWRs).

127. In fuel fabrication for LWRs (PWRs and BWRs) andAGRs, the enriched UF6 is chemically converted to UO2. TheUO2 powder is sintered, formed into pellets, and loaded intotubes (cladding) of Zircaloy and stainless steel, which aresealed at both ends. These fuel rods are arranged in arrays toform the reactor fuel assemblies. The fuel pins for HWRs areproduced from natural uranium or slightly enriched uraniumsintered into pellets and clad in zirconium alloy. The naturaluranium metal fuel for GCRs is obtained by compressing theUF4 with shredded magnesium and heating. The reduceduranium is cast into rods that are machined and inserted intocans.

128. The releases of radioactive materials from theconversion, enrichment, and fuel fabrication plants aregenerallysmall and consist mainlyof uranium series isotopes.Available data from operating installations were reported inthe UNSCEAR1993 Report [U3]. For the model installations,the normalized collective effective dose from these operationswas estimated to be 0.003 man Sv (GW a)�1. Inhalation is themost important exposure pathway. The collective doses fromliquid discharges comprise less than 10% of the totalexposure.

C. NUCLEAR REACTOR OPERATION

129. The reactors used for electrical energy generation areclassified, for the most part, by their coolant systems andmoderators: light-water-moderated and -cooledpressurized orboiling water reactors (PWRs, BWRs), heavy-water-cooledand -moderated reactors (HWRs), gas-cooled, graphite-moderated reactors (GCRs), and light-water-cooled, graphite-moderated reactors (LWGRs). These are all thermal reactorsthat use the moderator material to slow down fast fissionneutrons to thermal energies. In fast breeder reactors (FBRs),there is no moderator, and the fission is induced by fastneutrons; the coolant is a liquid metal. FBRs are making onlyminor contributions to energy production. The electricalenergy generated by these various types of reactors from 1970through 1997 is illustrated in Figure XV and the data since1990 for individual reactor stations are given in Table 30 [I3].

130. The Committee derives average releases of radio-nuclides from reactors based on reported data, and theseaverages are used to estimate the consequent exposures for areference reactor. Mathematical models for the dispersion ofradionuclides in the environment are used to calculate, foreach radionuclide or a combination of radionuclides, the dosesresulting from released activity. The geographical location ofthe reactor, the release points, the distribution of thepopulation, food production and consumption habits, and the

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Figure XV. Contributions by reactor type to total electrical energy generated worldwide by nuclear means.

environmental pathways of radionuclides are factors thatinfluence the calculated dose. The same release of activityandradionuclide composition from different reactors can give riseto different radiation doses to the public. Thus, the calculatedexposures for a reference reactor provide only a generalizedmeasure of reactor operating experience and serve as astandardized parameter for analysing longer-term trends fromthe practice.

1. Effluents

131. Theradioactivematerials released in airborneand liquideffluents from reactors during routine operation are reportedwith substantial completeness. The data for 1990�1997 areincluded in Tables 31�36: noble gases in airborne effluents(Table31), tritium in airborne effluents (Table32), iodine-131in airborne effluents (Table 33), particulates in airborneeffluents (Table 34), tritium in liquid effluents (Table 35), andradionuclides other than tritium in liquid effluents (Table 36).Each table also includes a summary of the total releases andthe normalized releases (amount of radionuclide released perunit electrical energy generated) for each year of the five-yearperiod 1990�1994 and for the three-year period 1995�1997for each type of reactor and for all reactors together. Averagenormalized releases of radionuclides from each reactor type infive-year periods beginning in 1970 and for the three-yearperiod 1995�1997 are presented in Table 37.

132. The normalized releases have traditionally beencompiled for each reactor type. This is justified by thedifferent composition of the releases, e.g. for noble gases, 41Arfrom GCRs and krypton and xenon isotopes from other typesof reactors. In this case, different dose factors are required toestimate the doses. For other release components, e.g. 14C or131I, there may be no inherent differences between reactortypes, and atypical releases from one or a few reactors maydominate the normalized release values. In this case, theaverage normalized releases reflect only the prevailingoperating experience, which cannot be taken as representativeof the releases from a particular reactor type. With relativelycomplete data, little extrapolation is needed for estimating the

collective doses from the total releases, and the normalizedvalues are retained by reactor type mainly for convenience.

133. The release experience of individual reactors duringthe last five-year period (1990�1994) is evaluated inFigure XVI and shown as the characteristic distributions ofthe different reactor types. All reactors with relativelycomplete entries in Tables 31�36 (four or five years of datafor both release amount and energygenerated) are includedin the figures. Each point has been derived from the totalrelease of the radionuclide in 1990�1994 divided by theelectrical energy generated in the same period. Thisevaluation of normalized release partly eliminatesvariations in annual values during the five-year period.There are, however, substantial differences in values fromone reactor to another. Some factors affecting releases ofradionuclides include the integrity of the fuel, the wastemanagement systems, and procedures and maintenanceoperations conducted during the period of interest.

134. To obtain the characteristic distribution diagrams, thedata are put in ranked order. The cumulative fractional valueof point i of n points is specified as i/(n + 1). The inverse ofthe standard normal cumulative distribution ofeach fractionalpoint is then derived. The value expresses the standarddeviation of the data point from the centre of the distribution.In Figure XVI, the abscissa has been transformed to apercentage scale (0 = 50%, 1 SD = 84.14%, 2 SD = 97.73%,etc.). With a logarithmic scale on the ordinate, a straight lineindicates a log-normal distribution. A steep slope indicateswide variations in the data. Breaks in the line indicateseparate subpopulations of the available data. Outlier pointsare readily identified in these plots.

135. The distribution of normalized releases from reactorsare approximately log-normal, often with a wide distributionof the data. The normalized releases of noble gases(Figure XVI) span seven orders of magnitude. There may besome differences in the composition of noble gases reported inairborne effluents, particularly the short-lived isotopes. The

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ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 185

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Figure XVI. Normalized release of noble gases, tritium, iodine-131 and particulates in airborne effluentsand tritium and other radionuclides in liquid effluents from reactors during 1990�1994.

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ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION186

distributions for PWRs and BWRs are similar, but withdeviations to higher normalized releases from BWRs in theupper range of the distribution. The highest values for BWRsare from the reactors Big Rock Point, Ringhals 1, and Tarapur1�2, ranging from 3,400 to 41,000 TBq (GW a)�1. The meanvalue for all BWRs is 18 TBq (GW a)�1. The distributions forGCRs and HWRs are similar and somewhat higher than thosefor PWRs and BWRs.

136. The normalized releases of tritium in airborne effluents(Figure XVI) are less wide ranging. The distributions forPWRs and BWRs are identical; the distribution for GCRs issomewhat higher, with fewer values available, however. Thedistribution for HWRs is much higher, reflecting the largeamounts of tritium produced in the moderator of thesereactors. Among HWRs, those in Canada and the reactorsFugen, Embalse, and Wolsong 1 are all below 800 TBq(GW a)�1, while Karachi, Atucha 1, and the Indian reactorsare at higher values.

137. The distribution of 131I releases in airborne effluents(Figure XVI) are quite wide and are somewhat higher forBWRs and HWRs than for PWRs. There are fewer values forGCRs; however, when several reactors with data for threeyears in 1990�1994 are included, the distribution is similar tothat of BWRs and HWRs.

138. The distributions of particulate releases are also shownin Figure XVI. The strikingly high values in Table 34 for theSwedish BWR Ringhals 1 in 1994 and 1995 are attributableto damage in fuel elements beginning in 1993 and a problemin delaying releases of radionuclides entering turbine room air[N3]. These releases were to a large extent due to rather short-lived nuclei. Nuclei with half-lives of less than 83 minutesgave rise to98% of the released activity. Authorized dischargelimits were not exceeded; the atmospheric releases reached amaximum of 36% of the total dose limit for individuals(0.1 mSv a�1) of the hypothetical critical group. The averagevalue for 1990�1994 for this reactor [17 TBq (GW a)�1] is thehighest in the distribution for BWRs (Figure XVI). Relativelyhigh values [0.04�0.1 TBq (GW a)�1] were also derived forthe BWRs Forsmark 1�3, Tarapur 1�2, and Oskarshamn1�3. The distributions ofparticulate releases are verydifferentfor the different reactor types and are somewhat higher forBWRs and GCRs than for PWRs.

139. Normalized releases of tritium in liquid effluents(Figure XVI) are fairly uniform about the mean values formost of the reactors. The distribution for BWRs is lowest andfor HWRs, highest. Intermediate are the distributions forPWRs and GCRs. The mean value for the group is about1 TBq (GW a)�1. The GCRs seem to form two distributions,with newer reactors at the higher end and the older reactors atthe lower end, the opposite of the case for the noble gasreleases. The HWRs are gathered about a mean normalizedrelease of tritium in liquid effluents of about 400 TBq(GW a)�1; at the lower extreme is the Pickering 5�8 station[28 TBq (GW a)�1] and at the higher end [1,100�3,700 TBq(GW a)�1] are Bruce 1�4, Kalpakkam 1�2, and Atucha 1.

140. A wide range (eight orders of magnitude) is necessaryto illustrate the normalized releases of radionuclides otherthan tritium in liquid effluents (Figure XVI); this may be aresult of the radionuclides identified and of the hold-up timesprovided in the waste treatment systems. The distributions aresimilar, although that for GCRs is somewhat higher. A dualityin the GCR distribution is again noted, this time taking thepattern for noble gases mentioned above (higher normalizedreleases from the older reactors).

141. The radionuclide composition of releases has beenexamined for the various reactor types. In general, thereleases of noble gases from PWRs are dominated by 133Xe,with a half-life of 5.3 days, but short-lived radionuclides suchas 135Xe (half-life = 9.2 h) are also present. For the BWRs thecomposition of the noble gas releases is more varied, withmost krypton and xenon radionuclides included. The releasesof particulates from BWRs are also variable and difficult togeneralize from the limited data available. The radionuclides88Rb (half-life = 17.8 min), 89Rb (half-life = 15.2 min), 138Cs(half-life = 33.4 min), and 139Ba (half-life = 83.1 min) wereprominent in the large releases mentioned above from theRinghals 1 reactor. The radionuclide compositions of liquidreleases from PWRs seem to vary from reactor to reactor; thecobalt isotopes (58Co, 60Co) as well as the caesium isotopes(134Cs, 137Cs) are usually present. In some cases, large relativeproportions of 110mAg and 124Sb are reported. It may be thatsome differences are accentuated by the various measuringand reporting practices at reactor stations.

142. The longer-term temporal trends in normalized releasesof radionuclides for the various reactor types are illustrated inFigure XVII. The trends are shown for the time designated“pre-1970" to 1994, averaged over five-year time periods, andfor the three-year period from 1995 to 1997. Except for theatmospheric releases of particulates, the normalized releasesare either fairly constant or slightlydecreasing. The increasedrelease of particulates to air reflects the operation of a specificreactor and is not characteristic of all reactors.

2. Local and regional dose estimates

143. The concentrations of the released radionuclides in theenvironment are generally too low to be measurable exceptclose to the nuclear facility and then for a limited number ofradionuclides only. Therefore, dose estimates for the popula-tion (individual and collective doses) are generally based onmodelling the atmospheric and aquatic transport and environ-mental transfer of the released radioactive materials and thenapplying a dosimetric model.

144. The environmental and dosimetric models previouslyused for dose estimates were described in the UNSCEAR1982 and 1988 Reports [U4, U6]. Based on the review inAnnex A, “Dose assessment methodologies”, the values of thedose coefficients for some radionuclides have been revised.The dose assessment procedures are applied to a model sitewith representative environmental conditions. The averagepopulation density is 20 km�2 within 2,000 km of the site.Within 50 km of the site, the population density is taken to be

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ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 187

Noble gases

Tritium (air) Tritium (liquid)

Carbon-14

Other (liquid)

Iodine-131

Particulates

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Figure XVII. Trends in releases of radionuclides from reactors.Values of 1970�1974 are assumed to apply prior to 1970.

400 km�2. For the model site the collective effective doses perunit release (man Sv PBq�1) for the different releasecategories and reactor types are presented in Table 38.Because of the variability in annual releases, normalizedreleases [TBq (GW a)�1] have been averaged over a five-yearperiod (Table 37) to assess the collective dose.

145. The collective effective dose per unit electrical energygenerated [man Sv (GW a)�1] is obtained by multiplying thenormalized releases per unit electrical energy generated

(Table 37) by the collective effective dose per unit release(Table 38). The resulting estimates for 1990�1994 are givenin Table 39. The total normalized collective effective dose forall reactors, weighted bythe relative energyproduction ofeachreactor type (Table 39), is 0.43 man Sv (GW a)�1. Theradionuclide releases were generally similar to those thatprevailed in the preceding five-year assessment period [U3],but revisions in the dose coefficients have reduced thenormalized collective effective dose by a factor of 3.

Figure XVIII. Local and regional collective effective doses from average annual releases of radionuclidesfrom reactors. The increasing trend in electrical energy generated is indicated with scale on left in units of GW a.

146. From the total energy generated and the normalizedcollective dose, the local and regional collective dose from theoperation of nuclear power plants during 1990�1994 isestimated to be 490 man Sv. During 1985�1989 thecorresponding collective dose was 390 man Sv. This is anincrease of just over 25%, which is nearly the same as theincrease in the energy generated by nuclear reactors(1985�1989: 936 GW a; 1990�1994: 1,147 GW a). Toreduce the effect of variability in annual releases, thecalculation of the collective dose is based on normalizedreleases averaged over five-year periods (Table 37). However,

outliers in the data set can still have a substantial impact onthe dose estimate. If, for example, the particulate releases fromthe Ringhals 1 reactor are excluded, the corresponding doseestimates will be 0.39 man Sv (GW a)�1 and 450 man Sv,respectively. However, this point could not be taken out of thedata set without examining other possible outliers for1990�1994 and for earlier years.

147. It should be noted that the average normalized dosesderived here may not apply to specific reactors of a particulartype. There may be further variations in release compositions,

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population densities, and local environmental pathways thatcould significantlychange the collective dose contributions. Ina few cases, reactor operators report estimates of doses to localresidents based on possible exposure scenarios. The data have,however, not been collected or assessed by the Committee.

148. The temporal trends of the local and regional collectiveeffective doses for the different radionuclide categories over alonger time are shown in Figure XVIII. The collective dosefrom 131I has decreased for a number of years, and thisdecrease continues for the latest five-year and three-yearperiods. The collective doses from tritium (airborne andliquid), 14C, and particulates have been increasing through the1990�1994 period. Overall, the total collective dose has beenrelatively constant since 1970�1979, even though theelectrical energy generated has continuously increased.

149. For the model site, the annual average effective doses toindividuals, estimated from the release data and assuming thetotal collective dose for a reactor type exposes a single localpopulation group (400 km�2 to 50 km), are 5 µSv for PWRsand GCRs, 10 µSv for BWRs and HWRs, 2 µSv for LWGRs,and 0.04 µSv for FBRs. In comparison, reported annualindividual doses from a number of reactor sites are in therange 1�500 µSv.

D. FUEL REPROCESSING

150. Fuel reprocessing is carried out to recover uranium andplutonium from spent fuel for reuse in reactors. Most spent

fuel from reactors is retained on-site in interim storage,pending decisions on ultimate disposal or retrievable storage.Only about 5%�10% of fuel is submitted to the reprocessingstage of the nuclear fuel cycle. The main commercial repro-cessing plants are in France, Japan, and the United Kingdom.

1. Effluents

151. Relatively large quantities of radioactive materials areinvolved at the fuel reprocessing stage. The radionuclides arefreed from their contained state as the fuel is brought intosolution, and the potential for release in waste discharges isgreater than for other stages of the fuel cycle. Routine releaseshave been largely in liquid effluents to the sea. Operatingstandards have been considerably improved at these plantsover the years, with substantial reductions occurring inreleased amounts.

152. Some revisions and additions have been made to therelease quantities previously reported by the Committee. Also,more direct data on fuel throughput, which were previouslyestimated from 85Kr discharges, are available. Therefore, theannual release data for fuel reprocessing plants from 1970through 1997 are given in Table 40. The average normalizedreleases per unit of energy generated in five-year periods(except for 1970�1979, a 10-year period) are summarized inTable 41 and shown in Figure XIX. It can be observed thatthe releases to both air and sea of most radionuclides havebeen decreasing over the long term. This is particularly so forthe releases of 106Ru, 90Sr, and 137Cs to the sea and for 137Csand 131I to the air (Table 41).

Figure XIX. Trends in releases of radionuclides from fuel reprocessing plants.Average values ere derived for 1970-1979 and assumed to apply also prior to 1970.

2. Local and regional dose estimates

153. Collective doses from nuclear fuel reprocessing can beestimated from the normalized releases per unit of energygenerated, the electrical energy equivalent of the fuelreprocessed, and the collective dose per unit release ofradionuclides [U3]. This analysis is given in Table 41. For theentire period of fuel reprocessing, the total collective effective

dose is estimated to be 4,700 man Sv. Liquid releases of 137Cscontributed 87% of the total dose. The collective effective dosefrom each radionuclide is shown in Figure XX. In the mostrecent five-year period (1990�1994) the dose from 14Cexceeded that from 137Cs. During the 1980s and 1990s, thecollective dose from fuel reprocessing has been decreasing,even though the amount of fuel reprocessed has beenincreasing (Figure XX).

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-310

-210

-110

010

110

210

410

310

1970-1974Pre-1970 1975-1979 1980-1984 1985-1989 1990-1994 1995-1997

CO

LL

EC

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Iodine-129

Krypton-85

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Caesium-137

Carbon-14

Total

Tritium

Figure XX. Local and regional collective effective doses from average annual release of radionuclides fromfuel reprocessing plants. The amount of fuel reprocessed is indicated by the heavy dashed line (units GW a).

154. From the data provided in Table 41, it may bedetermined that the annual components of collective dosefrom fuel reprocessing are of the order of 20�30 man Sv. Ifthis were received only by a single local population (3.1 106

persons within 50 km), the effective dose commitment toindividuals would be about 10 µSv per year of operation. Thisdose commitment is delivered over a longer-term, especiallyfrom 14C, and is distributed, as well, among separate installa-tions (in three countries).

E. GLOBALLY DISPERSED RADIONUCLIDES

155. Radionuclides that are sufficiently long-lived and easilydispersed in the environment can give rise to global doses.The radionuclides of specific interest are 3H, 14C, 85Kr, and129I, with half-lives of 12.26, 5,730, 10.7, and 1.6 107 years,respectively. The large uncertainties involved in estimatingdoses over prolonged time periods are due to problems inpredicting environmental pathways, population distributions,dietary habits, climate change, etc. The uncertainties of dosecalculations increase when the integration is carried out forvery long periods of time, hundreds or thousands of years oreven longer. In this assessment, as was done for the case ofcollective dose from mill tailings, the global dosecommitments are truncated at 10,000 years.

156. The normalized releases of the globally dispersedradionuclides given in Tables 37 and 41 are summarized inTable 42. From the electrical energy generated or the energyequivalent offuel reprocessed, the total activityrelease of theseradionuclides may be calculated (Table 43). Applying thefactors of collective dose per unit release to these results givesestimates of the collective effective dose commitments(Table 44). For the very long-lived radionuclides (14C and129I), a world population of 1010 was assumed at the time of the

release, and for 3H and 85Kr, a population of 5 109 wasassumed.

157. The total collective effective dose per unit electricalenergy generated is obtained from the normalized releasesfrom reactors and reprocessing plants (Table 42) and thefactors of collective dose per unit release (as revised inAnnex A, “Dose assessment methodologies”). In normalizingto the total energy generated, the contribution from thereprocessing plants is weighted according to the fraction of thefuel reprocessed (0.11 for 1990�1994). The estimates of thenormalized collective dose commitments are 41 and 43man Sv (GW a)�1 for 1990�1994 and 1995�1997,respectively, which are due mostly to 14C (Table 44).

158. The commitment calculations may be used to indicatethe maximum dose rate for a continuing practice. The 14Ccollective dose commitment (10,000 years) based on presentpractice is roughly 40 man Sv (GW a)�1. This means that acontinuing practice of 250 GW a energyproduction each yearinto the future, as at present, would result in an maximumdose rate of 1 µSv a�1 [40 man Sv (GW a)�1 × 250 GW a/a ÷1010 persons]. A limited practice of nuclear power generationwould result in progressively less annual dose, e.g. a 100 or200 year practice would cause 0.1 or 0.16 µSv a�1,respectively (1950�2000 actual practice with 50 or 150 yearprojected releases as at present). This is illustrated inFigure XXI.

159. In a similar fashion, the maximum dose rates for theother globally dispersed radionuclides may be determined.These are of the order of 0.1 µSv a�1 for 85Kr and 0.005µSv a�1 for 3H and 129I. For limited duration practice, themaximum annual dose rates reached will be less. These arethus negligible annual dose rates for these globally dispersedradionuclides.

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100-year practice

200-year practice

1950 2050 2100 2150 220020000

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.10

0.12

0.14

0.16

0.18

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Figure XXI. Average annual dose rate from globally dispersed 14C released from nuclear installations based onactual practice 1950�2000 and projection of current releases for the duration of the practice.

The equilibrium annual dose rate for a constant, continuing practice is 1 µSv a�1.

F. SOLID WASTE DISPOSALAND TRANSPORT

160. Solid wastes arise at various stages of the nuclear fuelcycle. They include low- and intermediate-level wastes,mainly from reactor operations, high-level wastes from fuelreprocessing, and spent fuel for direct disposal. Low- andintermediate-level wastes are generallydisposed ofbyshallowburial in trenches or concrete-lined structures, but there arealsomoreadvanceddisposal sites. High-level wastesand spentfuel are retained in interim storage tanks until adequatesolutions for disposal have been devised and disposal siteshave been selected.

161. Doses from solid waste disposal have been estimatedbased on the projected eventual migration of radionuclidesthrough the burial site into groundwater. These estimatesdepend criticallyon the assumptions used for the containmentof the solid wastes and the site characteristics and are,accordingly, highly uncertain in a general sense. Theapproximate normalized collective effective dose from low-and intermediate-level waste disposal is, however, quite low,of the order of 0.5 man Sv (GW a)�1, due almost entirely to14C [U3, U4].

162. A repository for high-level waste and spent fuel has notyet been constructed. The radiological impact assessment ofsuch a repository has to rely on modelling of the long-termbehaviour of the waste packages and the migration of releasedradionuclides near the site and at greater distance over a longperiod of time. To carry out such performance assessments, anumber of site-specific data, including waste characterizationand transport models, are needed. Such assessmentshavebeenperformed, mainly to help in formulating design criteria forthe hypothetical repositories.

163. The transportation of radioactive materials of varioustypes between nuclear fuel cycle installations may causemembers of the public who happen to be near the transport

vehicles to be exposed. Doses can be estimated only byapplyinghypothetical assumptions. Aconservativeestimateis,in this case, of the order of 0.1 man Sv (GW a)�1 [U4].

164. Decommissioning of nuclear facilities gives rise toradioactive waste, and some experience is accumulating. Theinformation available indicates that exposures of the publicfrom the decommissioning practice will be very small.

G. SUMMARY OF DOSE ESTIMATES

165. The normalized collective effective doses to members ofthe public from radionuclides released in the various stages ofthe nuclear fuel cycle are summarized in Table 45. The localand regional collective dose in the twomost recent assessmentperiods is 0.9 man Sv (GW a)�1. The largest part of this doseis received within a limited number of years after the releasesand is mainly due to the normal operation of nuclear reactorsand mining operations. The global dose, which is estimatedfor 10,000 years, amounts to 50 man Sv (GW a)�1. The maincontribution is from globally dispersed 14C (reactors andreprocessing). The longer-term trends in collective effectivedoses per unit electrical energy generated show decreases,attributable to reductions in the release of radionuclides fromreactors and fuel reprocessing plants. The components ofnormalized collective effective dose have decreased by muchmore than an order of magnitude for releases fromreprocessing plants, bya factor of 7 for releases from reactors,and by a factor of 2 for globally dispersed radionuclides,compared to the earliest assessment period, 1970�1979.

166. The local and regional collective dose from thebeginning of nuclear power production can be derived fromthe normalized collective doses (Table 45) and the electricalenergy generated in each period (Table 43). The result isabout 5,000 man Sv from fuel reprocessing, 3,000 man Svfrom reactor operations, and 900 man Sv from mining and

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milling. This analysis is summarized in Table 46. In recentyears, the annual total from all these operations amounts to200 man Sv received by the local and regional population.Assuming that the current practice of nuclear powerproduction continues for 100 years, the maximum per caputdose can be estimated from the truncated collective dose perunit electrical energygenerated. Figure XXI shows that about10% of the dose from globally dispersed radionuclides iscommitted in the first hundred years, and using Table 45, the

collective effective dose in the hundredth year of the practice,from globally dispersed radionuclides, would be 5 man Sv(GW a)�1. For an annual production of 250 GW a thisamounts to 1,250 man Sv per year, which when added to thelocal and regional dose of 200 man Sv per year gives a totaldose of nearly 1,500 man Sv in the last year of the practice.The maximum annual effective dose arising from 100 yearsof the practice of nuclear power production is then less than0.2 µSv per caput for a global population of 1010 persons.

III. OTHER EXPOSURES

A. RADIOISOTOPE PRODUCTIONAND USE

167. Radioisotopesarewidelyused in industry,medicine, andresearch. Exposures may occur from trace amounts releasedin production or at subsequent stages of the use or disposal ofthe radionuclide-containing products. For very long-livedradionuclides such as 14C, all of the amount utilized mayultimately reach the environment. For short-lived radio-nuclidessuch asmost radiopharmaceuticals, radioactivedecayprior to release is an essential consideration. The isotopes usedmost widely in medical examinations and nuclear medicineprocedures are 131I and 99mTc.

168. Estimates ofdoses from radioisotopeproduction and useare uncertain, owing to limited data on the commercial pro-duction of the radioisotopes and on the release fractions fromproduction and use. The main radionuclides of interest are 3H,14C, 125I, 131I, and 133Xe. The estimated annual collective effect-ive dose from the practice is of the order of 100 man Sv [U3].

169. An important use of radionuclides is in medicaldiagnostic examinations and in therapeutic treatments.Medical radioisotopes or their parent radionuclides can beproduced in a reactor (by fission of uranium, e.g. 99Mo, 131I, orby activation, e.g. 59Fe) or in a cyclotron (by nuclear reaction,e.g.123I, 201Tl). The main radioisotope, used in 80% of alldiagnostic examinations, is 99Mo. In many countries theproduction, isolation, and incorporation of the radioisotopesinto generators, diagnostic kits, or pharmaceuticals are oftensubdivided in different facilities [K11]. As an example, severalresearch reactors in neighbouring countries supply99Moto theradioisotope production plant in Belgium [W6]. Threedifferent facilities are involved in the Netherlands in thegeneration of 99Mo, its extraction and incorporation into 99mTcgenerators [L10]. This subdivision of the manufacturingprocess hampers quantification of the fractional releaseamounts from the overall production phase.

170. In its request for a permit in 1996, a medicalradioisotope production plant in the Netherlands reported acontrolled annual release of 131I to the atmosphere of at most300 MBq. Since it handles more than 52 TBq in a year, therelease fraction would be less than 0.001%. The maximum

annual dose to an individual from this release would 1 µSv[L10]. This plant receives the 131I as raw material deliveredfrom another company. Therefore, the data are unsuited forthe entire production phase.

171. Over the period 1989�1992, a single facility supplied90% of the annual amount of 131I (35.9 TBq) used in Chinaand 100% of the 125I (0.98 TBq) [P7]. The average releasefraction was reported to be 0.01% for 131I ( a reduction from4.6% in 1975�1978) and 0.7% for 125I. The annual collectivedose was estimated to be 0.13 man Sv for 131I and 0.1�0.6man Sv for 125I, assuming a local population density of500 km�2. The collective dose per unit release of 131I is thus 36man Sv TBq�1. This maybe compared with 0.3 man SvTBq�1

that was estimated for release from a representative nuclearinstallation (Table 38).

172. Global usage of 131I in nuclear therapy is approximately600 TBq (Table 47). With application of the above dosefactors, and assuming the release fraction on production to be0.01%, the global annual collective dose from 131I productionand usage is 0.02�2 man Sv. A further contribution to thecollective dose arises from wastes discharged from hospitals.

173. Limited data on 131I releases from hospitals were citedin the UNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3]. Discharges of 131I fromhospitals in Australia and Sweden in the late 1980scorresponded to110�190 GBq per 106 population [U3]. Thereis high excretion of 131I from patients following oraladministration, but waste treatment systems with hold-uptanks are effective in reducing the amounts in liquid effluentsto 5 10�4 of the amounts administered to patients [J4]. Thisseems to be confirmed by the very low concentrations of 131Imeasured in the surface waters and sewage systems of severalcountries [U3]. This information seems not to besystematically collected.

174. With the estimated global annual usage of 131I intherapeutic treatments of 600 TBq, a release fraction of 5 10�4

and a dose coefficient of 0.03 man Sv TBq�1 for 131I releasedin liquid effluents (from Annex A, “Dose assessmentmethodologies”), the further contribution tothecollectivedoseis just 0.009 man Sv. The presence of the hold-up tanksshould reduce the release of 99mTc, the other majorradionuclide, to negligible levels.

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ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION192

175. Several recent studies consider the external exposure ofthe groups that are mainly exposed, i.e. parents, infants, whocome in contact with therapeutically treated patients or fellowtravellers on the journey home from the hospital [B12, C12,D8, G9, M11]. These assessments are based either on use ofintegrating dosimeters or on dose-rate measurements close tothe patients with appropriate occupancy factors. Assessmentsbased on the first approach gave doses of 0.04�7 mSv topartners and children of the patients treated forhyperthyroidism with 200�800 MBq of 131I [B12, M11].Average doses were 1 mSv to partners and 0.1 mSv tochildren [M11]. Treatment of thyroidcancer patientswith 4�7GBq of 131I resulted in doses below 0.5 mSv to familymembers [M11]. All of about 200 family members involvedin these studies were given advice, according to currentpractice, about limiting close contact with the patient. Doserates to fellow travellers ranged from 0.02�0.5 mSv h�1.

176. An approximate estimate of the collective dose to familymembers of patients therapeutically treated with 131I can bederived as follows. In developed countries about 20% oftherapeutic treatments with 131I are for thyroid cancer and80% for hyperthyroidism with average administered amountsof 5 GBq and 0.5 GBq, respectively. The weighted averageamount administered is thus 1.4 GBq per patient. For globalusage of 600 TBq of 131I, 430,000 patients could be treated.With average exposures of 0.5 mSv to 2�3 family members,the collective dose to those other than the patients could be400�600 man Sv.

177. The importance of inhalation of radioiodine exhaled bypatients treated with radioiodine (0.3�1.3 GBq), was assessedby whole body measurements of their relatives [W7]. Theeffective dose ranged from 0.3 to about 60 µSv (17 persons)with a median value of about 4 µSv. Diagnostic procedureswith most radionuclides are estimated to result in cumulativedoses of less than 40 µSv to someone who remains in theclose vicinity of the patient [B13]. Breast feeding followingmaternal radiopharmaceutical administration mayresult in aneffective dose to the infant of more than 1 mSv, if the feedingis not temporarily interrupted or ceased. This is the case for alimited number of treatments with radioiodine but also forsome with 99mTc and 67Ga [M11, M12].

178. The most important component in the overall dose tothegeneral population from radioisotopeproduction andusageis that to relatives of patients given therapeutic treatments.The dominant component of the global collective dose is from131I. It was assumed that decay between production and use ofthe isotope can be neglected, which means that the data onisotope consumption can be used. The resulting global annualcollective dose is estimated to range up to about 600 man Sv.The small doses to relatives of patients after diagnosticprocedures may add up to a comparable collective dose, sincetheir number exceeds that of the therapeutic treatments bytwoorders of magnitude. The dose to family members was notconsidered in the previous assessment bytheCommitteein theUNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3]. The earlier estimate of 100man Sv, of which 80% was from 14C, represented possiblereleases mainly at the production stage. Since this estimate is

quite uncertain and likely an overestimate, it is seen that theexposure of family members of patients treated with 131I maybe considered tobe the most important component ofexposureto radioisotopes used in medicine, industry and education.

B. RESEARCH REACTORS

179. Research reactors differ from reactors producingelectrical energy in their wide varietyof designs and modes ofoperation, as well as a wide range of use. Research reactorsare used for tests of nuclear fuels and different materials, forinvestigations in nuclear and neutron physics, biology, andmedicine, and for the production of radioisotopes. At the endof 1999, there were 292 nuclear research reactors operating inthe world, with a total thermal energyof 3,000 MW. The totaloperating experience exceeds 13,000 reactor-years. TheCommittee has not previously collected data on releases ofradionuclides from research reactors.

180. Exposures resulting from the operation of researchreactors are exemplified by some data reported from theRussian Federation. From 1993 to 1996, annual releases fromtwo research reactors in Obninsk averaged 0.7 PBq of noblegases, 5 GBq 131I, 0.3 GBq 90Sr, 0.6 GBq 137Cs, and 0.1 GBqplutonium [M8, M10]. The annual effective doses toindividuals in Obninsk were estimated not to exceed 30 µSv[M8]. Further data on research reactors are not available.

C. ACCIDENTS

181. Accidents involving releases of radionuclides to theenvironment occur from time to time. To the extent that theseresult in significant human exposures, they are reviewed andanalysed. A separate Chapter on accidents was included in theUNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3], and a brief account was givenof all earlier accidents. Since then only one accident hasoccurred at a nuclear installation involving some exposure ofthe local population. This was the accident on 30 September1999 at the Tokaimura nuclear fuel processing plant in Japan[J6]. A criticality event took place because of improperprocedures. During the 24-hour event and because of onlylimited shielding provided by the building, some directirradiation was measurable outside the plant site. There wasonly trace release of gaseous fission products. Three workersinside the plant received serious overexposures. Their doseswere estimated to be in the range 16�20 Gy, 6�10 Gy, and1�4.5 Gy (gamma equivalent dose). The doses to 169 otheremployees were determined from personal dosimeters, whole-body counting, and survey of their locations during theaccident [I8, J6, S9]. Doses to members of the public, about200 in all, who were living or working within 350 m of thefacility were estimated individually [F6]. Direct exposures topersons outside the site were estimated to be up to 21 mGy(gamma plus neutron). The highest dose, estimated bywhole-body counting, was received by a person at a constructioncompany just beyond the plant boundary.

182. Themisuseor mishandlingofradiation sources isgener-ally a hazard to workers. Improper administration of thera-

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ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 193

peutic treatment sometimes result in accidental overexposuresof patients. Lost or unregulated (orphaned) sources can causeexposures of the public. These topics are considered further inthe separate assessments by the Committee of occupationaland medical radiation exposures. The Committee has nootherinformation on recent accidents that may have involved

exposures of the public. The Committee has begun a morecomplete analysis of the doses and effects from the Chernobylaccident in the populations living nearest to the reactor inareas of the former Soviet Union. These results are presentedseparately in Annex J, “Exposures and effects of theChernobyl accident”.

CONCLUSIONS

183. Releasesof radioactive materials totheenvironment andexposures of human populations have occurred in severalactivities, practices, and events involving radiation sources.The main contribution to the collective doses to the worldpopulation in such cases has come from the testing of nuclearweapons in the atmosphere. This practice occurred from 1945through 1980. Each nuclear test resulted in unrestrainedrelease to the environment of substantial quantities ofradioactive materials. These were widely dispersed in theatmosphere and deposited everywhere on the earth’s surface.

184. The Committee has given special attention to theevaluation of exposures from atmospheric nuclear testing.Numerous measurements of the global deposition of 90Sr and137Cs and of the occurrence of these and other falloutradionuclides in diet and the human body were made at thetime the testing was taking place. The worldwide collectivedose from this practice was evaluated in the UNSCEAR 1982Report [U6], and a systematic listing of transfer coefficientsfor a number of fallout radionuclides was given in theUNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3].

185. New information has become available on the numbersand yields of nuclear tests. These data were not fully revealedearlier by the countries that conducted the tests because ofmilitary sensitivities. An updated listing of atmosphericnuclear tests conducted at each of the test sites is included inthis Annex. Although the total explosive yields of each testhave been divulged, the fission and fusion yields are stillmostly suppressed. Some general assumptions have beenmade to allow specifying the fission and fusion yields of eachtest in order to estimate the amounts of radionuclidesproduced in the explosions. The estimated total of fissionyields of individual tests is in agreement with the globaldeposition of the main fission radionuclides 90Sr and 137Cs, asdetermined by worldwide monitoring networks.

186. With improved estimates of the production of eachradionuclide in individual tests and using an empiricalatmospheric transport model, it is possible to determine thetime course of the dispersion and deposition of radionuclidesand to estimate the annual doses from various pathways ineach hemisphere of the world. In this way it has beenestimated that theworld average annual effective dose reacheda peak of 110 µSv in 1963 and has since decreased to about5 µSv, from residual levels in the environment, mainly of 14C,

90Sr, and 137Cs. The average annual doses are 10% higher thanthe world average in the northern hemisphere, where most ofthe testing took place, and much lower in the southernhemisphere. Although there was considerable concern at thetime of testing, the exposures remained relatively low,reaching at most about 5% of the background level fromnatural radiation sources.

187. The exposures to local populations surrounding the testsites have also been assessed using available information. Thelevel of detail is still not sufficient to document the exposureswith great accuracy. Attention to the local conditions and thepossibilities of exposure was not great in the early years of thetest programmes. However, dose reconstruction efforts areproceeding toclarifythis experience and todocument the localand regional exposures that occurred.

188. Underground testing caused exposures beyond the testsites only if radioactive gases leaked or were vented. Mostunderground tests had a much lower yield than atmospherictests, and it was usually possible to contain the debris.Underground tests were conducted at the rate of 50 or moreper year from 1962 to 1990. Although it is the intention ofmost countries to agree to ban all further tests, bothatmospheric and underground, the treatyhas not yet come intoforce. Further underground testing occurred in 1998. Thus, itcannot yet be stated that the practice has ceased.

189. During the time when nuclear weapons arsenals werebeing built up and especially in the earlier years (1945�1960),there were releases of radionuclides and exposures of localpopulationsdownwindor downstream ofnuclear installations.Since there was little recognition of exposure potentials andmonitoring of releases was limited, the exposure evaluationsmust be based on the reconstruction of doses. Results are stillbeing obtained that document this experience. Practices havegreatly improved and arsenals are now being reduced.

190. A continuing practice is the generation of electricalenergy by nuclear power reactors. In recent years, 17% of theworld’s electrical energy has been generated by this means.During routine operation of nuclear installations, the releasesof radionuclides are low, and exposures must be estimatedwith environmental transfer models. For all fuel cycleoperations (mining and milling, reactor operation, and fuelreprocessing) the local and regional exposures are estimated

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ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION194

at present to be 0.9 man Sv (GW a)�1. With present worldnuclear energy generation of 250 GW a, the collective doseper year of practice is of the order of 200 man Sv. Theassumed representative local and regional population sur-rounding a single installation is about 250 million persons,and the per caput dose to this population would be less than1 µSv. The collective doses from globally dispersed radio-nuclides are delivered over very long periods and to theprojected maximum population of the world. If the practice ofnuclear power production is limited to the next 100 years atthe present capacity, the maximum annual effective dose percaput to the global population would be less than 0.2 µSv.This dose rate is small compared to that from natural back-ground radiation.

191. Except in the case of accidents, in which more localizedareas can be contaminated to significant levels, there are noother practices that result in important exposures fromradionuclides released to the environment. Estimates ofreleases of isotopes produced and used in industrial andmedical applications are being reviewed, but these seem to beassociated with rather insignificant levels of exposure. Thehighest exposures, averaging about 0.5 mSv, may be receivedby family members of patients who have received 131Itherapeutic treatments. Possible future practices, such asweapons dismantling, decommissioning of installations, andwaste management projects, can be reviewed as experience isacquired, but these should all involve little or no release ofradionuclides and consequently little or no exposure.

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ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 195

Table 1Atmospheric nuclear tests

CHINA

Date Type of testYield (Mt) a Partitioned fission yield (Mt)

Fission Fusion TotalLocal andregional

Troposphere Stratosphere

Test site: Lop Nor

1964: 16 October Land surface 0.02 0 0.02 0.01 0.01

1965: 14 May Air 0.04 0 0.04 0.037 0.003

1966: 9 May27 October28 December

AirAirLand surface

0.20.020.2

0.10

0.1

0.30.020.3 0.10

0.110.02

0.056

0.09

0.044

1967: 17 June24 December

AirAir

1.70.02

1.30

30.02 0.02

1.7

1968: 28 December Air 1.5 1.5 3 1.5

1969: 29 September Air 1.9 1.1 3 1.9

1970: 14 October Air 1.9 1.1 3 1.9

1971: 18 November Land surface 0.02 0 0.02 0.01 0.01

1972: 7 January18 March

AirAir

0.020.1

00

0.020.1

0.020.08 0.02

1973: 27 June Air 1.4 1.1 2.5 1.4

1974: 17 June Air 0.3 0.3 0.6 0.065 0.235

1976: 23 January26 September17 November

Land surfaceAirAir

0.020.12.2

00

1.8

0.020.14

0.01 0.010.08 0.02

2.2

1977: 17 September Air 0.02 0 0.02 0.02

1978: 15 March14 December

Land surfaceLand surface

0.020.02

00

0.020.02

0.010.01

0.010.01

1980: 16 October Air 0.5 0.1 0.6 0.11 0.39

FRANCE

Date Type of testYield (Mt) a Partitioned fission yield (Mt)

Fission Fusion TotalLocal andregional

Troposphere Stratosphere

Test site: Algeria

1960: 13 February1 April

27 December

TowerLand surfaceTower

0.067 b

0.003 b

0.002 b

000

0.0670.0030.002

0.03350.00150.001

0.03260.00150.001

0.0009

1961: 25 April Tower 0.0007 b 0 0.0007 0.00035 0.00035

Test site: Fangataufa

1966: 24 September Barge 0.125 b 0 0.125 0.0625 0.0595 0.003

1968: 24 August Balloon 1.3 1.3 2.6 1.3

1970: 30 May3 August

BalloonBalloon

0.47250.072

0.47250

0.9450.072 0.07

0.47250.002

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Table 1 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION196

Date Type of testYield (Mt) a Partitioned fission yield (Mt)

Fission Fusion TotalLocal andregional

Troposphere Stratosphere

Test site: Mururoa

1966: 2 July19 July11 September4 October

BargeAir dropBalloonBarge

0.028 b

0.05 b

0.11 b

0.205 b

0000

0.0280.050.11

0.205

0.014

0.1025

0.0140.049

0.0921

0.0010.11

0.0104

1967: 5 June27 June2 July

BalloonBalloonBarge

0.015 b

0.12 b

0.022 b

000

0.0150.12

0.022 0.011

0.015

0.0110.12

1968: 7 July15 July3 August8 September

BalloonBalloonBalloonBalloon

0.115 b

0.45 b

0.15 b

0.64

000

0.64

0.1150.450.151.28

0.1150.450.150.64

1970: 15 May22 May24 June3 July

27 July6 August

BalloonBalloonBalloonBalloonBalloonBalloon

0.013 b

0.1500.012 b

0.4570.00005 b

0.297

00.074

00.457

00.297

0.0130.2240.0120.914

0.000050.594

0.013

0.012

0.00005

0.150

0.457

0.297

1971: 5 June12 June4 July8 August

14 August

BalloonBalloonBalloonBalloonBalloon

0.034 b

0.290.009 b

0.004 b

0.478

00.15

00

0.477

0.0340.44

0.0090.0040.955

0.034

0.0090.004

0.29

0.478

1972: 25 June30 June27 July

BalloonBalloonBalloon

0.0005 b

0.004 b

0.006 b

000

0.00050.0040.006

0.00050.0040.006

1973: 21 July28 July18 August24 August28 August

BalloonBalloonBalloonBalloonAir drop

0.011 b

0.00005 b

0.004 b

0.0002 b

0.006 b

00000

0.0110.00005

0.0040.00020.006

0.0110.00005

0.0040.00020.006

1974: 16 June7 July

17 July25 July15 August24 August14 September

BalloonBalloonBalloonAir dropBalloonBalloonBalloon

0.004 b

0.100.004 b

0.008 b

0.0960.014 b

0.221

00.05

0000

0.111

0.0040.15

0.0040.0080.0960.0140.332

0.004

0.0040.0080.0930.014

0.10

0.003

0.221

UNITED KINGDOM

Date Type of testYield (Mt) a Partitioned fission yield (Mt)

Fission Fusion TotalLocal andregional

Troposphere Stratosphere

Test site: Monte Bello Islands, Australia

1952: 3 October Water surface 0.025 0 0.025 0.0125 0.0125

1956: 16 May19 June

Tower (31 m)Tower (31 m)

0.0150.06

00

0.0150.06

0.00750.03

0.00750.0293 0.0007

Test site: Emu, Australia

1953: 14 October26 October

Tower (31 m)Tower (31 m)

0.010.008

00

0.010.008

0.0050.004

0.0050.004

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Table 1 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 197

Date Type of testYield (Mt) a Partitioned fission yield (Mt)

Fission Fusion TotalLocal andregional

Troposphere Stratosphere

Test site: Maralinga, Australia

1956: 27 September4 October

11 October22 October

Tower (31 m)Land surfaceAir drop (150 m)Tower (31 m)

0.0150.00150.0030.01

0000

0.0150.00150.0030.01

0.00750.00075

0.005

0.00750.00075

0.0030.005

1957: 14 September25 September9 October

Tower (31 m)Tower (31 m)Balloon (300 m)

0.0010.0060.025

000

0.0010.0060.025

0.00050.003

0.00050.0030.025

Test site: Malden Island, Pacific

1957: 15 May31 May19 June

Air burstAir burstAir burst

0.20.360.13

0.10.360.07

0.30.720.20

0.170.2650.12

0.030.0950.01

Test site: Christmas Island, Pacific

1957: 8 November Air burst 0.9 0.9 1.8 0.315 0.585

1958: 28 April22 August2 September

11 September23 September

Air burstAir burstAir burstAir burstAir burst

1.50.024

0.50.4

0.025

1.50

0.50.40

30.024

10.8

0.025

0.120.0240.3250.2850.025

1.38

0.1750.115

UNITED STATES

Date Type of testYield (Mt) a Partitioned fission yield (Mt)

Fission Fusion TotalLocal andregional

Troposphere Stratosphere

Test site: New Mexico

1945: 16 July Tower 0.021 0 0.021 0.011 0.01

Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan (combat use)

1945: 5 August9 August

Air dropAir drop

0.0150.021

00

0.0150.021

0.0150.021

Test site: Nevada

1951: 27 January28 January1 February2 February6 February

22 October28 October30 October1 November5 November

19 November29 November

Air drop (320 m)Air drop (330 m)Air drop (330 m)Air drop (335 m)Air drop (340 m)Tower (100 m)Air drop (340 m)Air drop (340 m)Air drop (430 m)Air drop (900 m)SurfaceSurface (-5 m)

0.0010.0080.0010.0080.0220.00010.00350.0140.0210.0310.0120.001

000000000000

0.0010.0080.0010.0080.0220.00010.00350.0140.0210.0310.00120.001

0.00005

0.00060.0005

0.0010.0080.0010.0080.022

0.000050.00350.0140.0210.0310.00060.0005

1952: 1 April15 April22 April1 May

Air drop (240 m)Air drop (320 m)Air drop (1050 m)Air drop (300 m)

0.0010.0010.0310.019

0000

0.0010.0010.0310.019

0.0010.0010.0310.019

1952: 7 May25 May1 June5 June

Tower (90 m)Tower (90 m)Tower (90 m)Tower (90 m)

0.0120.0110.0150.014

0000

0.0120.0110.0150.014

0.0060.00550.00750.007

0.0060.00550.00750.007

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Table 1 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION198

Date Type of testYield (Mt) a Partitioned fission yield (Mt)

Fission Fusion TotalLocal andregional

Troposphere Stratosphere

Test site: Nevada (continued)

1953: 17 March24 March31 March6 April

11 April18 April25 April8 May

19 May25 May4 June

Tower (90 m)Tower (90 m)Tower (90 m)Air drop (1835 m)Tower (30 m)Tower (90 m)Tower (90 m)Air drop (740 m)Tower (90 m)Airburst (160 m)Air drop (400 m)

0.0160.0240.00020.0110.00020.0230.0430.0270.0320.0150.061

00000000000

0.0160.0240.00020.0110.00020.0230.0430.0270.0320.0150.061

0.0080.0120.0001

0.00010.0120.022

0.016

0.0080.0120.00010.0110.00010.0110.0210.0270.0160.0150.0595 0.0015

1955: 18 February22 February1 March7 March

12 March22 March29 March29 March6 April9 April

15 April5 May

15 May

Air drop (230 m)Tower (90 m)Tower (90 m)Tower (150 m)Tower (90 m)Tower (150 m)Tower (150 m)Air drop (225 m)Air drop (1120 m)Tower (90 m)Tower (120 m)Tower (150 m)Tower (1560 m)

0.0010.0020.0070.0430.0040.0080.0140.0030.0030.0020.0220.0290.028

0000000000000

0.0010.0020.0070.0430.0040.0080.0140.0030.0030.0020.0220.0290.028

0.0010.00350.02150.0020.0040.007

0.0010.0110.01450.014

0.0010.0010.00350.02150.0020.0040.0070.0030.0030.0010.0110.01450.014

1957: 28 May2 June5 June

18 June24 June5 July

15 July19 July24 July25 July7 August

18 August23 August30 August31 August2 September6 September8 September

14 September16 September23 September28 September7 October

Tower (150 m)Tower (90 m)Balloon (150 m)Balloon (150 m)Balloon (210 m)Balloon (460 m)Tower (150 m)Rocket (6100 m)Tower (150 m)Balloon (150 m)Balloon (460 m)Tower (150 m)Balloon (460 m)Balloon (230 m)Tower (210 m)Tower (150 m)Balloon (150 m)Balloon (230 m)Tower (150 m)Balloon (460 m)Tower (150 m)Balloon (460 m)Balloon (460 m)

0.0120.00014

0.00000050.01

0.0370.0740.0170.0020.01

0.00970.0190.0170.0110.00470.0440.0110.00020.0010.0110.0120.0190.0120.008

00000000000000000000000

0.0120.00014

0.00000050.01

0.0370.0740.0170.0020.01

0.00970.0190.0170.0110.00470.0440.0110.00020.0010.0110.0120.0190.0120.008

0.0060.00007

0.0085

0.005

0.0085

0.0220.0055

0.0055

0.0095

0.0060.00007

0.00000050.01

0.0370.0720.00850.0020.0050.00970.0190.00850.0110.00470.0220.00550.00020.0010.00550.0120.00950.0120.008

0.002

1958: 19 September29 September10 October13 October15 October16 October18 October22 October22 October22 October26 October26 October29 October29 October30 October

Balloon (150 m)Balloon (460 m)Tower (30 m)Balloon (460 m)Tower (15 m)Balloon (140 m)Tower (22 m)Balloon (440 m)Balloon (460 m)Balloon (150 m)Balloon (460 m)Balloon (460 m)Tower (10 m)TowerBalloon(460 m)

0.0000830.002

0.0000790.0014

0.00000120.0000370.00009

0.0060.000120.000190.00490.0022

0.00000780

0.0013

000000000000000

0.0000830.002

0.0000790.0014

0.00000120.0000370.00009

0.0060.000120.000190.00490.0022

0.00000780

0.0013

0.00004

0.0000006

0.000045

0.00000390

0.0000830.002

0.0000390.0014

0.00000060.0000370.000045

0.0060.000120.000190.00490.0022

0.00000390

0.0013

1962: 11 July7 July

14 July17 July

Surface (- 1 m)SurfaceTowerSurface

0.00050.020.020.02

0000

0.00050.02 c

0.02 c

0.02 c

0.000250.010.010.01

0.000250.010.010.01

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Table 1 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 199

Date Type of testYield (Mt) a Partitioned fission yield (Mt)

Fission Fusion TotalLocal andregional

Troposphere Stratosphere

Test site: Bikini, Pacific

1946: 30 June24 July

Air dropUnderwater (-30 m)

0.0210.021

00

0.0210.021 0.011

0.0210.01

1954: 28 February26 March6 April

25 April4 May

SurfaceBargeSurfaceBargeBarge

9 d

7.3 d

0.0754.6 d

9.0 d

63.7

0.0352.34.5

1511

0.116.913.5

4.53.65

0.0372.34.5

0.037

4.53.65

0.0012.34.5

1956: 20 May27 May11 June25 June10 July20 July

Air dropSurfaceBargeBargeBargeBarge

1.6 d

1.25 d

0.183 d

0.551.5 d

2.3 d

2.22.25

0.1820.553.02.7

3.83.5

0.3651.14.55

0.6250.0920.2750.751.15

0.0760.0380.0770.1680.0180.005

1.520.5870.0140.1070.7321.145

1958: 11 May21 May31 May10 June14 June27 June29 June2 July

12 July22 July

BargeBargeBargeBargeBargeBargeBargeBargeBargeBarge

0.680.02510.0920.1420.2120.2750.0140.153.2 d

0.065

0.6800

0.0710.1070.137

00.076.10

1.360.02510.0920.2130.3190.4120.0140.229.3

0.065

0.340.01260.0460.0710.1060.1370.0070.075

1.60.0325

0.1750.01250.04460.0630.0910.1640.0070.076

0.0316

0.165

0.00140.0080.0150.024

1.60.0009

Test site: Enewetak, Pacific

1948: 14 April30 April14 May

TowerTowerTower

0.0370.0490.018

000

0.0370.0490.018

0.0190.0250.009

0.0180.0240.009

1951: 7 April20 April8 May

24 May

TowerTowerTowerTower

0.0810.0470.15

0.0455

00

0.0750

0.0810.0470.2250.0455

0.0410.0240.0750.0228

0.0390.0230.0660.0227

0.001

0.009

1952: 31 October15 November

SurfaceAir drop

5.7 d

0.254.70.25

10.40.5

2.850.2

2.850.05

1954: 13 May Barge 0.845 0.845 1.69 0.423 0.164 0.258

1956: 4 May27 May30 May6 June

11 June13 June16 June21 June2 July8 July

21 July

SurfaceTowerTowerSurfaceTowerTowerAir dropTowerTowerBargeBarge

0.040.000190.01490.01370.008

0.001490.00170.0152

0.240.9250.167

00000000

0.120.9250.083

0.040.000190.01490.01370.008

0.001490.00170.0152

0.361.850.25

0.020.0000950.007450.00685

0.0040.000745

0.00760.12

0.4630.084

0.020.0000950.007450.00685

0.0040.000745

0.00170.0076

0.100.1530.074

0.0200.3090.009

1958: 5 May11 May12 May16 May20 May26 May26 May30 May2 June8 June

14 June18 June27 June28 June1 July5 July

17 July22 July26 July6 August

18 August

SurfaceBargeSurfaceUnder waterBargeBargeBargeBargeBargeUnder waterBargeBargeBargeBargeBargeBargeBargeBargeBargeSurfaceSurface

0.0180.0810.6850.0090.0059

0.220.0570.01160.0150.0080.7250.0110.443 d

0.00520.2650.1700.135

10

0.00002

00

0.68500

0.110000

0.7250

0.445.90

0.1320.0850.067

100

0.0180.0811.37

0.0090.0059

0.330.0570.01160.0150.0081.45

0.0110.888.9

0.00520.3970.2550.202

20

0.00002

0.0090.0410.3430.00450.0030.11

0.02850.00580.00750.0040.3630.0055

0.221.5

0.00260.1330.0850.067

0.50

0.00001

0.0090.03880.1750.00450.00290.0940.02780.00580.00750.0040.1740.00550.151

0.00260.1090.0740.0600.138

00.00001

0.00120.167

0.0160.0007

0.188

0.0691.5

0.0240.0110.0070.363

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Table 1 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION200

Date Type of testYield (Mt) a Partitioned fission yield (Mt)

Fission Fusion TotalLocal andregional

Troposphere Stratosphere

Test site: Pacific

1955: 14 May Under water 0.03 0 0.03 0.015 0.015

1958: 28 April Balloon 0.0017 0 0.0017 0.0017

1962: 5 May11 May

RocketUnder water

0.050.02

00

0.05 c

0.02 c 0.01 0.010.05

Test site: Atlantic, 38��50�S

1958: 27 August30 August6 September

RocketRocketRocket

0.00150.00150.0015

000

0.00150.00150.0015

0.00150.00150.0015

Test site: Johnston Island, Pacific

1958: 1 August12 August

RocketRocket

1.91.9

1.91.9

3.83.8

1.91.9

1962: 9 July2 October6 October

18 October20 October26 October27 October30 October1 November4 November

RocketAir dropAir dropAir dropRocketRocketAir dropAir dropRocketRocket

0.70.0750.01130.7950.020.250.44.150.250.02

0.700

0.7950

0.250.44.150.25

0

1.40.0750.0113

1.590.02 c

0.5 c

0.88.30.5 c

0.02 c

0.0730.01130.341

0.285

0.70.002

0.4540.020.25

0.1154.150.250.02

Test site: Christmas Island, Pacific

1962: 25 April27 April2 May4 May8 May9 May

11 May12 May14 May19 May25 May27 May8 June9 June

10 June12 June15 June17 June19 June22 June27 June30 June10 July11 July

Air dropAir dropAir dropAir dropAir dropAir dropAir dropAir dropAir dropAir dropAir dropAir dropAir dropAir dropAir dropAir dropAir dropAir dropAir dropAir dropAir dropAir dropAir dropAir drop

0.1270.27

0.5450.335

0.10.10.050.25

0.0970.0730.00260.0430.3910.141.50.60.4

0.0520.00220.0815

3.830.630.51.94

0.0630.14

0.5450.335

000

0.250000

0.3910.071.50.60.4000

3.820.640.51.94

0.190.411.090.670.10.10.050.5

0.0970.0730.00260.0430.7820.21

31.20.8

0.0520.00220.0815

7.651.27

13.88

0.1140.2260.3360.2520.0970.0970.049

0.20.0940.0710.00260.0430.2810.1240.12

0.3450.28

0.0510.00220.0791

0.3460.3250.089

0.0140.0470.2090.0830.0030.0030.0010.05

0.0030.002

0.1100.0161.38

0.2550.12

0.001

0.00243.83

0.2840.1751.851

USSR

Date Type of testYield (Mt) a Partitioned fission yield (Mt)

Fission Fusion TotalLocal andregional

Troposphere Stratosphere

Test site: Semipalatinsk

1949: 29 August Surface 0.022 0 0.022 0.011 0.011

1951: 24 September18 October

SurfaceAir

0.0380.042

00

0.0380.042

0.019 0.0180.039

0.0010.003

1953: 12 August23 August3 September

SurfaceAirAir

0.040.0280.0058

0.3600

0.4 e

0.0280.0058

0.02 0.00890.0280.0058

0.011

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Table 1 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 201

Date Type of testYield (Mt) a Partitioned fission yield (Mt)

Fission Fusion TotalLocal andregional

Troposphere Stratosphere

1953: 8 September10 September

AirAir

0.00160.0049

00

0.00160.0049

0.00160.0049

1954: 29 September1 October3 October5 October8 October

19 October23 October26 October30 October

AirAirAirSurfaceAirSurfaceAirAirSurface

0.00020.00003

0.0020.0040.0008

0.0000010.0620.0028

0.01

000000000

0.00020.00003

0.0020.0040.0008

0.0000010.0620.0028

0.01

0.002

0.0000005

0.005

0.00020.00003

0.0020.0020.0008

0.00000050.0540.00280.005

0.008

1955: 29 July2 August5 August6 November

22 November

SurfaceSurfaceSurfaceAirAir

0.00130.0120.00120.167

0.8

000

0.0830.8

0.00130.0120.0012

0.251.6

0.000650.0060.0006

0.000650.0060.00060.1060.003

0.0610.797

1956 16 March25 March24 August30 August2 September10 September17 November14 December

SurfaceSurfaceSurfaceAirAirAirAirAir

0.0140.00550.0270.45

0.0510.0380.450.04

000

0.4500

0.450

0.0140.00550.027

0.90.0510.038

0.90.04

0.0070.002750.0135

0.0070.002750.01350.0200.0460.0360.0200.037

0.4300.0050.0020.4300.003

1957: 8 March3 April6 April

10 April12 April16 April22 August26 August13 September26 September28 December

AirAirAirHigh atmosphereAirAirAirAirAirAirAir

0.0190.0420.0570.34

0.0220.2130.26

0.00010.00590.0130.012

000

0.340

0.1070.26

0000

0.0190.0420.0570.68

0.0220.320.52

0.00010.00590.0130.012

0.0190.0390.050

0.0220.1150.0780.00010.00590.0130.012

0.0030.0070.34

0.0980.182

1958: 4 January17 January13 March14 March15 March18 March20 March22 March

AirAirAirAirHigh atmosphereAirHigh atmosphereAir

0.00130.00050.00120.0350.014

0.000160.0120.018

00000000

0.00130.00050.00120.0350.014

0.000160.0120.018

0.00130.00050.00120.033

0.00016

0.018

0.0020.014

0.012

1961: 1 September4 September5 September6 September9 September

10 September11 September13 September14 September17 September18 September18 September19 September20 September21 September26 September1 October4 October

12 October17 October19 October25 October30 October1 November2 November

AirAirAirAirSurfaceAirAirAirSurfaceAirSurfaceAirSurfaceAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAir

0.0160.0090.0160.0011

0.000380.000880.00030.0040.0004

0.040.0000040.000750.000030.00480.00080.00120.0030.0130.0150.00660.0040.0005

0.000090.00270.0006

0000000000000000000000000

0.0160.0090.0160.0011

0.000380.000880.00030.004 f

0.00040.04 f

0.0000040.000750.000030.00480.00080.00120.0030.0130.0150.00660.004 e

0.00050.000090.00270.0006

0.00019

0.0002

0.000002

0.000015

0.0160.0090.0160.0011

0.000190.000880.00030.0040.00020.037

0.0000020.000750.000015

0.00480.00080.00120.0030.0130.0150.00660.0040.0005

0.000090.00270.0006

0.003

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Table 1 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION202

Date Type of testYield (Mt) a Partitioned fission yield (Mt)

Fission Fusion TotalLocal andregional

Troposphere Stratosphere

1961: 3 November3 November4 November

SurfaceAirSurface

0.0000010.00090.0002

000

0.0000010.00090.0002

0.0000005

0.0001

0.00000050.00090.0001

1962: 1 August3 August4 August7 August

18 August18 August21 August22 August23 August25 August27 August31 August22 September24 September25 September28 September9 October

10 October13 October14 October20 October28 October28 October30 October31 October1 November3 November4 November5 November

11 November13 November14 November17 November24 November26 November1 December

23 December24 December24 December

AirAirAirSurfaceAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirSurfaceAirSurfaceAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirSurfaceAirAirAirAirSurfaceSurfaceSurfaceAirAirSurfaceSurfaceAirSurfaceSurfaceSurface

0.00240.00160.00380.00990.00740.0058

0.040.0030.00250.0040.0110.0027

0.000210.00120.0070.00130.0080.00920.00490.0040.00670.00780.00780.0012

0.010.0030.00470.00840.00040.0001

0.0000010.0120.018

0.0000010.000031

0.00240.0000010.0000070.000028

000000000000000000000000000000000000000

0.00240.00160.00380.00990.00740.00580.04 e

0.0030.00250.004 e

0.0110.0027

0.000210.00120.0070.00130.0080.00920.00490.004 e

0.00670.00780.00780.0012

0.010.0030.00470.00840.00040.0001

0.0000010.0120.018

0.0000010.000031

0.00240.0000010.0000070.000028

0.00495

0.00011

0.0035

0.0006

0.00020.00005

0.0000005

0.00000050.000016

0.00000050.00000035

0.000014

0.00240.00160.0038

0.004950.00740.00580.0370.0030.00250.0040.0110.00270.00010.00120.00350.00130.0080.00920.00490.0040.00670.00780.00780.0006

0.010.0030.00470.00840.0002

0.000050.0000005

0.0120.018

0.00000050.000015

0.00240.00000050.00000035

0.000014

0.003

Test site: Novaya Zemlya

1955: 21 September Under water 0.0035 0 0.0035 0.00175 0.00175

1957: 7 September24 September6 October

10 October

SurfaceAirAirUnder water

0.0320.81.450.01

00.81.45

0

0.0321.62.90.01

0.016

0.005

0.01540.003

0.005

0.00060.7971.45

1958: 23 February27 February27 February14 March21 March30 September30 September2 October2 October4 October5 October6 October

10 October12 October15 October18 October19 October19 October20 October21 October

AirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAir

0.430.1630.750.04

0.3250.60.45

0.1930.04

0.0090.0150.00550.0680.7250.751.450.04

0.0000010.2930.002

0.430.0870.75

00.325

0.60.45

0.09700000

0.7250.751.45

00

0.1470

0.860.251.50.040.651.20.90.290.04

0.0090.0150.00550.0681.451.52.90.04

0.0000010.44

0.002

0.0250.1030.0040.0370.0540.0050.0200.1120.0370.0090.0150.00550.0590.0040.004

0.0370.000001

0.1150.002

0.4050.0600.7460.0030.2710.5950.4300.0710.003

0.0090.7210.7461.45

0.003

0.178

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Table 1 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 203

Date Type of testYield (Mt) a Partitioned fission yield (Mt)

Fission Fusion TotalLocal andregional

Troposphere Stratosphere

1958: 22 October24 October25 October25 October

AirAirAirAir

1.40.5

0.1270.0001

1.40.5

0.0630

2.81

0.190.0001

0.0050.0900.0001

1.40.4950.037

1961: 10 September10 September12 September13 September14 September16 September18 September20 September22 September2 October4 October6 October8 October

20 October23 October23 October25 October27 October30 October31 October31 October2 November2 November4 November4 November4 November

AirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirUnder waterAirAirWater surfaceAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAir

1.350.0120.5750.006

0.60.415

0.50.2660.1730.167

22

0.0150.7250.0048

4.170.2

0.0161.5 b

2.50.2670.08

0.1870.0150.2670.006

1.350

0.5750

0.60.415

0.50.1340.0870.083

220

0.7250

8.330.10

48.5 b

2.50.1330.04

0.0930

0.1330

2.70.0121.15

0.0061.20.83

10.4 e

0.260.254 e

40.0151.45

0.004812.50.3

0.016505

0.4 e

0.120.28

0.0150.4 e

0.006

0.0024

0.008

0.0120.0050.0060.0050.0290.0050.1180.1070.106

0.0150.0040.0024

0.1130.008

0.1180.0630.1110.0150.1180.006

1.35

0.570

0.5950.3860.4950.1480.0660.061

22

0.721

4.170.087

1.52.5

0.1490.0170.076

0.149

1962: 5 August10 August20 August22 August22 August25 August27 August2 September8 September

15 September16 September18 September19 September21 September25 September27 September7 October9 October

22 October27 October29 October30 October1 November3 November3 November

18 December18 December20 December22 December23 December23 December23 December24 December24 December25 December25 December

AirAirAirAirWater surfaceAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAir

7.030.267

1.40.8

0.0062

2.10.080.951.55

1.6250.675

21.26.378.070.32

0.0154.1

0.1730.24

0.1870.160.26

0.0450.0730.0690.00830.00630.2870.00830.0024

0.558.071.55

0.0085

14.070.133

1.40.802

2.10

0.951.55

1.6250.675

21.2

12.7316.13

00

4.10.0870.12

0.0930.080.13

00.037

000

0.14300

0.5516.131.55

0

21.10.4 f

2.81.6

0.0064 f

4.20.081.93.13.251.354 f

2.419.124.2 f

0.320.015

8.20.260.360.280.240.39

0.0450.11

0.0690.00830.0063

0.430.00830.0024

1.124.23.1

0.0085

0.003

0.118

0.0030.003

0.0670.001

0.004

0.1730.015

0.1070.1180.1110.1040.1190.0410.0580.0590.00830.00630.1170.00830.00240.005

0.0085

7.030.149

1.40.797

22.1

0.0130.9491.55

1.6250.671

21.26.378.07

0.147

4.10.0660.1220.0760.0560.1410.0040.0150.010

0.170

0.5458.071.55

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Table 1 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION204

Date Type of testYield (Mt) a Partitioned fission yield (Mt)

Fission Fusion TotalLocal andregional

Troposphere Stratosphere

a Estimated fission and fusion yields unless otherwise indicated; reported total yields.b Reported fission or fusion yield.c Indefinite reported yield; value assigned as follows: low, 0.02 Mt; no indication, 0.05 Mt; submegatonne, 0.5 Mt.d Fission yield arbitrarily adjusted to obtain agreement with reported total fission yields for test series: 1952�1954 = 37 Mt (36 Mt from >1 Mt events),

1956 = 9 Mt (8 Mt from >1 Mt events), 1957�1958 = 19 Mt (14 Mt from >1 Mt events) [D7].e Thermonuclear explosion; fission yield estimated [G7].f Indefinite reported yield; value assigned as follows: 0.000001�0.02 Mt, 0.004 Mt; 0.02�0.15 Mt, 0.04 Mt; 0.15�1.5 Mt, 0.4 Mt; 1.5�10 Mt, 4 Mt;

>10 Mt, 24.2 Mt.

Test site: Totsk, Aralsk

1954: 14 September Air 0.04 0 0.04 0.037 0.003

1956: 2 February Surface 0.0003 0 0.0003 0.00015 0.00015

Test site: Kapustin Yar

1957: 19 January Air 0.01 0 0.01 0.01

1958: 1 November3 November

AirAir

0.010.01

00

0.010.01

0.010.01

1961: 6 September6 October

27 October27 October

AirAirHigh atmosphereHigh atmosphere

0.0110.04

0.00120.0012

0000

0.0110.04

0.00120.0012

0.0110.037 0.003

0.00120.0012

1962: 22 October28 October1 November

High atmosphereHigh atmosphereHigh atmosphere

0.20.20.2

0.10.10.1

0.30.30.3

0.20.20.2

Note: The dates of tests have been reported as Greenwich Mean Time.

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ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 205

a Includes 22 safety tests of the United States, 12 safety tests of the United Kingdom, and 5 safety tests of France not listed inTable 1.

Table 2Atmospheric nuclear tests at each test site

Test site Number oftests

Yield (Mt) Partitioned fission yield (Mt)

Fission Fusion TotalLocal andregional

Troposphere Stratosphere

China

Lop Nor 22 12.2 8.5 20.72 0.15 0.66 11.40

France

AlgeriaFangataufaMururoa

44

37

0.0731.974.13

01.772.25

0.0733.746.38

0.0360.060.13

0.0350.130.41

0.0011.783.59

Total 45 6.17 4.02 10.20 0.23 0.57 5.37

United Kingdom

Monte Bello IslandEmuMarilingaMalden IslandChristmas Island

32736

0.10.0180.0620.693.35

000

0.533.30

0.10.0180.0621.226.65

0.0500.0090.023

00

0.0490.0090.0380.561.09

0.000700

0.132.26

Total 21 4.22 3.83 8.05 0.07 1.76 2.39

United States

New MexicoJapan (combat use)NevadaBikiniEnewetakPacificAtlanticJohnston IslandChristmas Island

12

86234243

1224

0.0210.0361.0542.215.5

0.1020.0045

10.512.1

000

34.616.1

00

10.311.2

0.0210.0361.0576.831.7

0.1020.0045

20.823.3

0.0110

0.2820.37.63

0.025000

0.0100.0360.771.072.02

0.0270

0.713.62

00

0.00420.85.85

0.0500.0059.768.45

Total 197 81.5 72.2 153.8 28.2 8.27 44.9

USSR

SemipalatinskNovaya ZemlyaTotsk, AralskKapustin Yar

116912

10

3.7480.8

0.0400.68

2.85158.8

00.30

6.59239.60.0400.98

0.0970.036

00

1.232.93

0.0370.078

2.4177.8

0.0030.61

Total 219 85.3 162.0 247.3 0.13 4.28 80.8

All countries

Total 543 a 189 251 440 29 16 145

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ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION206

a Estimated from measured stratospheric inventories [L7, L8] and global deposition [F7].b Fission yield arbitrarily adjusted to obtain agreement with reported total fission yields for test series: 1952�1954 = 37 Mt (36 Mt from >1 Mt events),

1956 = 9 Mt (8 Mt from >1 Mt events), 1957�1958 = 19 Mt (14 Mt from >1 Mt events) [D7].c Officially reported value [M2].d Reported yield: >10 Mt.e Reported yield: 1.5�10 Mt.

Table 3Estimated fission and fusion yields of atmospheric nuclear tests of total yields equal to or greater than 4 Mt

Date Designation Type of test Test siteYield (Mt)

Fission Fusion Total

China

17 November 1976 Air Lop Nor 2.2 a 1.8 4

United States

28 February 19544 May 195426 March 195431 October 195212 July 195828 June 195830 October 196227 June 196225 April 195420 July 195610 July 1956

BravoYankeeRomeoMikePoplarOakHousatonicBighornUnionTewaNavaho

SurfaceBargeBargeSurfaceBargeBargeAir dropAir dropBargeBargeBarge

BikiniBikiniBikiniEnewetakBikiniEnewetakJohnston IslandChristmas IslandBikiniBikiniBikini

9.0 b

9.0 b

7.3 b

5.7 b

3.2 b

3.0 b

4.153.834.6 b

2.3 b

1.5 b

6.04.53.75.76.15.94.153.822.32.73.0

1513.511

10.49.38.98.37.656.95

4.5

USSR

30 October 196124 December 19625 August 196225 September 196227 September 196223 October 196122 October 196231 October 196127 August 19624 October 19616 October 196125 August 196219 September 1962

Test 130Test 219Test 147Test 173Test 174Test 123Test 183Test 131Test 160Test 113Test 114Test 158Test 168

AirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAir

Novaya ZemlyaNovaya ZemlyaNovaya ZemlyaNovaya ZemlyaNovaya ZemlyaNovaya ZemlyaNovaya ZemlyaNovaya ZemlyaNovaya ZemlyaNovaya ZemlyaNovaya ZemlyaNovaya ZemlyaNovaya Zemlya

1.5 c

8.077.036.378.074.174.12.52.12222

48.516.1314.0712.7316.138.334.12.52.12222

5024.221.119.1

24.2 d

12.58.25

4.24 e

44 c

4 c

Total

25 tests 106 183 289

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ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 207

a Includes two cases of military combat use in Japan.b Total includes additional 39 safety tests: 22 by the United States, 12 by the United Kingdom, and 5 by France.c Inferred from 90Sr measurements. Since radioactive decay of 2%�3% occurred prior to deposition of 90Sr, the estimated dispersed amount (injection

into atmosphere) would also be about 160 Mt.

Table 4Annual fission and fusion yields of nuclear tests and atmospheric partitioning, all countries

Year Number oftests

Yield (Mt) Partitioned fission yield (Mt)

Fission Fusion TotalLocal andregional

Troposphere Fission

194519461947194819491950195119521953195419551956195719581959196019611962196319641965196619671968196919701971197219731974197519761977197819791980

3 a

2

31

1811181620324691

359118

11856196568

312

1

0.0570.042

0.100.022

0.516.080.3530.91.1810.05.2526.5

0.07218.271.8

0.020.040.941.884.161.93.380.840.131.420.75

2.320.020.04

0.5

00

00

0.084.950.3617.40.8812.94.3730.3

068.398.5

00

0.201.303.441.12.400.62

01.10.46

1.800

0.1

0.0570.042

0.100.022

0.5911.00.7148.32.0622.99.6456.8

0.07286.5

170.4

0.020.041.143.187.60

35.781.460.132.521.21

4.120.020.04

0.6

0.0110.011

0.0530.011

0.182.89

0.09915.40.103.680.145.86

0.0360.0110.052

0.0100

0.280.011

000

0.01000

0.010

0.02

0

0.0460.031

0.0510.011

0.320.280.240.310.220.991.613.31

0.0351.155.77

0.0100.0370.41

0.0460

0.0950.0570.11

0.0210.19

0.090.020.02

0.11

00

00

0.0142.91

0.01315.20.865.313.5017.3

0.000917.166.0

00.0030.251.824.161.903.280.770.021.400.56

2.2200

0.39

TotalTotal 543 b 189 251 440 29 16 145

Total worldwide dispersion (troposphere and stratosphere) 160.5

Total measured global deposition 155 c

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ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION208

a Atmospheric heights: Troposphere <17 km, lower stratosphere 17�24 km, upper stratosphere 24�50 km.b Atmospheric heights: Troposphere <9 km, lower stratosphere 9�17 km, upper stratosphere 17�50 km.

Table 5Empirical estimates of the partitioning of yields from atmospheric tests into the troposphere and stratosphere[P1]

Totalyield(Mt)

Partitioned yield (Mt)

Equatorial airburst a (0��30� latitude) Polar airburst b (30��90� latitude)

TroposphereLower

stratosphereUpper

stratosphereTroposphere

Lowerstratosphere

Upperstratosphere

0.030.050.070.10.20.30.50.712357

10203050

0.030.0490.0680.0970.180.260.400.520.650.550.240.02

00.0010.0020.0030.020.040.100.180.351.452.764.434.975.253.002.10.5

0.552.034.7517.027.949.5

0.0290.0450.060.080.140.170.160.080.01

0.0010.0050.010.020.060.130.340.620.991.61.450.950.560.06

0.41.554.056.449.94203050

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ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 209

a Yields were partitioned according to values of Table 5. For sites at temperate locations (30��60� latitude) and yields of 1�4 Mt, input to the upperstratospheric region was reduced by one half, essentially averaging equatorial and polar partitioning assumptions; polar partitioning was maintainedfor the tropospheric portion. For tests in June, July, and August, inputs from temperate sites were assumed to be to the equatorial atmosphere and fromall other months to the polar atmosphere. Partitioning from equatorial sites (Christmas Island and high altitude tests at Johnston Island) were assumedequally divided between the northern and southern hemispheres.

Table 6Estimated annual injections of nuclear debris into atmospheric regions a

Year

Fission energy (Mt)

High equatorialatmosphere

Polar stratospherenorth

Equatorialstratosphere north

Equatorialstratosphere south

TroposphereTotal

North South Upper Lower Upper Lower Upper Lower North South

194519461947194819491950195119521953195419551956195719581959196019611962196319641965196619671968196919701971197219731974197519761977197819791980

0.341.93

0.0021.28

1.90

0.62

0.096

0.801.58

11.041.5

0.780.980.98

1.46

0.004

0.0110.760.441.466.05

6.149.48

0.0030.13

0.730.920.92

0.02

0.76

0.39

1.35

7.95

0.27

1.30

1.91

0.44

0.25

0.0101.55

0.0137.26

4.610.483.70

0.0009

7.02

1.26

1.150.24

0.63

1.09

0.00070.430.84

3.58

0.120.121.56

1.380.77

0.32

0.0460.031

0.0510.011

0.320.270.230.310.220.940.872.92

0.0351.153.96

0.0100.0370.19

0.020

0.0100.10

0.065

0.0900.0200.020

0.11

0.0130.009

0.0530.740.39

1.81

0.210.026

0.0950.0470.0110.0210.12

0.0460.031

0.0510.011

0.333.190.2515.51.086.305.1120.6

0.03618.2571.8

0.0100.0400.661.874.161.903.380.830.131.420.75

2.310.020.02

0.5

TotalNorthSouth

3.842.52

59.2 28.2 13.5 27.31.72 9.12

12.13.55

14416.9

Global 6.36 139 15.6 161

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Tab

le7

An

nu

alco

nce

ntr

atio

ns

inai

ran

dd

epo

siti

on

amo

un

tso

f90

Sr

pro

du

ced

inat

mo

sph

eric

nu

clea

rte

stin

g

Year

Ave

rage

annu

alco

ncen

trat

ion

inai

rof

mid

-lat

itude

s(m

Bq

m-3

)A

nnua

lhem

isph

eric

depo

sitio

n(P

Bq)

Cum

ulat

ive

depo

sit(

PB

q)

Nor

ther

nhe

mis

pher

eSo

uthe

rnhe

mis

pher

eN

orth

ern

hem

isph

ere

Sout

hern

hem

isph

ere

Nor

thSo

uth

Tota

l

Cal

cula

ted

aM

easu

red

bC

alcu

late

da

Mea

sure

dc

Cal

cula

ted

aM

easu

red

dC

alcu

late

da

Mea

sure

dd

Mea

sure

de

Mea

sure

de

Mea

sure

de

1945

1946

1947

1948

1949

1950

1951

1952

1953

1954

1955

1956

1957

1958

1959

1960

1961

1962

1963

1964

1965

1966

1967

1968

1969

1970

1971

1972

1973

1974

1975

1976

1977

1978

1979

1980

1981

0.00

20.

002

-f

0.00

20.

001

-0.

014

0.01

40.

061

0.16

0.24

0.22

0.22

0.36

0.33

0.14

0.14

0.67

1.41

0.87

0.40

0.18

0.08

60.

062

0.07

80.

088

0.09

00.

051

0.02

60.

037

0.02

00.

014

0.05

20.

031

0.01

40.

011

0.01

5

0.23

0.48

0.72

0.15

0.17

0.99

2.17

1.25

0.45

0.19

0.07

50.

098

0.07

00.

120.

110.

035

0.01

80.

056

0.03

20.

011

0.03

20.

035

0.01

10.

008

0.01

9

- - - - - - -0.

001

0.00

90.

053

0.05

50.

057

0.07

20.

081

0.06

10.

043

0.03

00.

185

0.13

90.

109

0.07

30.

054

0.03

60.

041

0.05

10.

056

0.04

90.

029

0.01

80.

020

0.01

20.

006

0.00

30.

003

0.00

20.

001

0.00

1

0.11

0.07

40.

056

0.07

50.

110.

160.

180.

160.

085

0.05

00.

046

0.08

90.

066

0.07

80.

053

0.02

40.

018

0.01

90.

007

0.00

30.

002

0.00

20.

003

0.00

2

0.01

70.

130.

000.

200.

04 -1.

161.

185.

0013

.019

.417

.917

.629

.427

.211

.311

.554

.611

571

.232

.914

.67.

005.

116.

347.

187.

374.

152.

173.

061.

671.

144.

252.

501.

110.

911.

23

23.3

38.9

9.69

13.0

53.4

97.0

61.3

28.6

12.1

6.24

7.22

5.45

7.62

6.97

3.19

1.18

4.46

2.16

1.00

3.01

3.70

1.16

1.11

1.85

- - - - - - -0.

050.

714.

384.

554.

706.

346.

734.

823.

522.

4915

.211

.58.

976.

024.

482.

993.

404.

204.

604.

042.

401.

461.

680.

990.

460.

270.

210.

150.

090.

07

9.45

6.84

6.22

6.44

9.75

11.4

15.6

13.2

7.66

4.07

3.76

5.21

4.74

5.56

3.55

1.13

1.45

1.27

0.77

0.81

0.67

0.39

0.39

0.29

0.17

0.29

0.29

0.47

0.50

0.49

1.61

2.72

7.52

20.1

38.5

55.0

70.9

92.2

128

135

145

194

285

339

359

362

360

358

355

354

353

347

340

336

331

324

319

315

308

302

297

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.05

0.75

5.02

9.35

13.7

19.6

28.5

34.5

39.9

45.3

53.8

63.8

77.7

88.9

94.3

96.1

97.5

100

103

106

107

105

104

103

101

100

97.8

95.8

93.9

92.0

0.17

0.29

0.29

0.47

0.50

0.49

1.61

2.77

8.27

25.1

47.8

68.7

90.4

121

163

175

190

248

349

416

448

457

456

456

455

457

458

454

445

441

433

425

418

413

404

396

387

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION210

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Tab

le7

(con

tinue

d)

Year

Ave

rage

annu

alco

ncen

trat

ion

inai

rof

mid

-lat

itude

s(m

Bq

m-3

)A

nnua

lhem

isph

eric

depo

sitio

n(P

Bq)

Cum

ulat

ive

depo

sit(

PB

q)

Nor

ther

nhe

mis

pher

eSo

uthe

rnhe

mis

pher

eN

orth

ern

hem

isph

ere

Sout

hern

hem

isph

ere

Nor

thSo

uth

Tota

l

Cal

cula

ted

aM

easu

red

bC

alcu

late

da

Mea

sure

dc

Cal

cula

ted

aM

easu

red

dC

alcu

late

da

Mea

sure

dd

Mea

sure

de

Mea

sure

de

Mea

sure

de

aA

nnua

lave

rage

ofm

onth

lyca

lcul

ated

valu

e.b

Ave

rage

ofm

easu

rem

ents

perf

orm

edm

onth

lyat

Was

hing

ton,

D.C

.,an

dM

iam

i(19

57-1

962)

,atN

ewY

ork

City

,Mia

mi,

and

Ster

ling,

Vir

gini

a(1

963-

1973

)an

dat

New

Yor

kC

ityan

dM

iam

i(19

74-1

963)

[F4,

L6]

.c

Ave

rage

ofm

easu

rem

ents

perf

orm

edm

onth

lyat

Ant

ofag

asta

and

Sant

iago

,Chi

le(1

958-

1976

)an

dat

Lim

a,Pe

ruan

dSa

ntia

go,C

hile

(197

7-19

83)

[F4,

L6]

.d

Mea

sure

din

glob

alm

onito

ring

netw

ork

[L9,

V2]

.e

Cal

cula

ted

from

deca

yed

mon

thly

mea

sure

dde

posi

tion;

prio

rto

1958

only

calc

ulat

edm

onth

lyde

posi

tion

valu

esar

eav

aila

ble.

fL

ess

than

0.00

1m

Bq

m-3

or0.

001

PBq.

gM

easu

red

valu

esin

clud

edpr

efer

entia

llyin

tota

l.h

Prev

ious

lyde

rive

dva

lue

base

don

mea

sure

dcu

mul

ativ

ede

posi

tion

prio

rto

1958

[U6]

.

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

0.00

30.

002

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

0.00

50.

001

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

0.00

2-

0.30

0.09

0.04

0.01

30.

005

0.00

20.

001

- - - - - - - - - - - -

0.47

0.33

0.27

0.07

8

0.05

50.

033

0.01

70.

008

0.00

40.

002

- - - - - - - - - - - - -

0.22

0.19

0.11

0.05

2

289

283

276

269

263

256

250

244

238

233

227

222

216

211

206

201

196

192

187

90.3

88.2

86.1

84.0

82.0

80.0

78.1

76.2

74.4

72.6

70.9

69.2

67.5

65.9

64.3

62.8

61.3

59.8

58.4

379

370

362

353

344

336

328

320

313

305

298

291

284

277

270

264

258

251

245

Tot

alg

6.1

mB

qa

m-3

8.9

mB

qa

m-3

1.3

mB

qa

m-3

1.7

mB

qa

m-3

499

PBq

470

PBq

460

PBq

h11

1PB

q14

2PB

q14

4PB

qh

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 211

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ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION212

a Distributions valid only for long-lived radionuclides where majority of fallout is from debris originally injected into the stratosphere.b Valid only for long-lived radionuclides. Value of 4.0 used for radionuclides with half-lives less than 100 d to reflect greater proportion of fallout from

debris injected into the troposphere at low latitudes.c Valid only for long-lived radionuclides. Value of 6.7 and 5.7 used for nuclides with half-lives less than 30 d and 30�100 d, respectively, to reflect

greater proportion of fallout from debris injected into the troposphere at low latitudes.

Table 8Latitudinal distribution of radionuclide deposition from atmospheric nuclear testing based onmeasurements of 90Sr a

Latitudeband

(degrees)

Areaof band

(1012 m2)

Populationdistribution

(%)

Integrateddeposition

of 90Sr(PBq)

Fractionaldeposition

in band

Depositiondensity per unit

deposition(Bq m-2 per PBq)

Latitudinalvalue relativeto hemispheric

value

Northern hemisphere

80�9070�8060�7050�6040�5030�4020�3010�200�10

3.911.618.925.631.536.440.242.844.1

00

0.413.715.520.432.7116.3

17.932.973.9

101.685.371.250.935.7

0.0020.0170.0710.1610.2210.1850.1550.1110.078

0.561.483.786.277.015.093.852.581.76

0.120.320.811.351.511.090.830.560.38

Total 255 100 460 1.0

Population-weighted value b 4.65 1.00

Southern hemisphere

80�9070�8060�7050�6040�5030�4020�3010�200�10

3.911.618.925.631.536.440.242.844.1

000

0.50.913

14.916.754

0.32.56.712.128.127.628.117.821

0.0020.0170.0460.0840.1950.1910.1950.1230.146

0.531.502.463.286.195.264.852.893.30

0.140.400.660.881.651.401.290.770.88

Total 255 100 144 1.0

Population-weighted value c 3.74 1.00

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ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 213

a For fission products, the value is 1.45 1026 fissions per Mt times the fission yield times the decay constant (ln2 / half-life) divided by 3.15 107 s a-1.b Corresponds to total globally dispersed fission energy of atmospheric tests of 160.5 Mt or fusion energy of 250.6 Mt (excludes releases associated with

local and regional deposition).c Estimate of Miskel [M3].d Production per unit fusion energy of atmospheric tests.e Estimated from total production up to 1972 [U6] and present data on fusion yields.f Because of mobility and half-lives of 3H and 14C, the release is associated with a total fusion energy of 251 Mt.g Estimated from ratios to 90Sr in global deposition.

Table 9Radionuclides produced and globally dispersed in atmospheric nuclear testing

Radionuclide Half-lifeFission yield

(%)Normalized production a

(PBq Mt-1)Global release b

(PBq)

3H14C

54Mn55Fe89Sr90Sr91Y95Zr

103Ru106Ru125Sb

131I140Ba141Ce144Ce137Cs239Pu240Pu241Pu

12.33 a5 730 a312.3 d2.73 a

50.53 d28.78 a58.51 d64.02 d39.26 d373.6 d2.76 a8.02 d

12.75 d32.50 d284.9 d30.07 a

24 110 a6 563 a14.35 a

3.173.503.765.075.202.440.402.905.184.584.695.57

740 c, d

0.85 c, e

15.9 c

6.1 c

7303.88748921

1 54076.04.62

4 2104 7301 6401915.90

186 000 f

213 f

3 9801 530

117 000622

120 000148 000247 00012 200

741675 000759 000263 00030 700

9486.52 g

4.35 g

142 g

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Tab

le10

An

nu

ald

epo

siti

on

of

rad

ion

ucl

ides

pro

du

ced

inat

mo

sph

eric

nu

clea

rte

stin

g

Year

Ann

uald

epos

ition

(PB

q)a

131 I

140 B

a14

1 Ce

103 R

u89

Sr91

Y95

Zr14

4 Ce

54M

n10

6 Ru

125 Sb

55F

e90

Sr13

7 Cs

No

rth

ern

hem

isp

her

e

1945

1946

1947

1948

1949

1950

1951

1952

1953

1954

1955

1956

1957

1958

1959

1960

1961

1962

1963

1964

1965

1966

1967

1968

1969

1970

1971

1972

1973

1974

1975

1976

1977

1978

1979

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

13.7

9.82 -b

15.9

3.34 -

96.5

90.5

69.5

144

70.1

303

278

961

0.25

10.4

395

126

040

.73.

0411

.046

.518

.52.

9911

.45.

883.

1330

.32.

4020

.2 -34

.06.

705.

530.

4735

.60.

023

- - - - -

24.3

17.2 -

28.0

5.95 -

171

165

129

322

127

556

511

178

05.

3118

.474

02

320

124

5.39

19.7

81.9

37.1

6.61

33.7

16.8

6.27

54.5

6.84

36.6

0.01

63.0

15.3

9.23

1.45

65.4

0.52 - - - - -

15.8

10.3 -

10.1

2.15

0.01

88.8

107

98.3

240

71.5

300

412

111

079

.16.

6659

31

960

435

2.07

14.5

60.4

38.7

7.85

68.9

33.4

18.0

41.1

13.4

29.4

0.58

45.2

36.5

3.04

0.91

49.7

6.87

0.00

05 - - - -

18.2

12.6

0.01

120

.64.

400.

028

124

123

143

437

97.8

489

434

155

012

813

.761

92

110

627

4.76

15.0

62.4

43.7

9.97

85.9

43.5

29.5

43.3

16.5

32.1

1.09

48.2

49.4

6.10

2.00

51.0

10.4

0.00

3- - - -

9.23

6.39

0.01

110

.52.

230.

023

62.7

62.4

84.4

253

55.5

263

234

822

109

7.19

319

116

050

14.

857.

7132

.125

.37.

3755

.830

.724

.022

.710

.418

.61.

1424

.435

.63.

191.

0825

.98.

190.

011

- - - -

11.9

8.24

0.01

913

.52.

860.

038

80.5

80.2

119

350

80.4

350

314

1089

182

9.84

414

158

082

511

.710

.041

.635

.112

.282

.147

.839

.730

.115

.026

.62.

1231

.355

.44.

381.

4533

.313

.20.

038

0.00

02 - - -

14.0

9.19

0.02

38.

911.

890.

028

76.8

92.3

118

284

79.6

322

421

113

626

47.

8454

72

160

127

021

.613

.355

.248

.418

.811

770

.959

.140

.221

.237

.73.

4639

.581

.63.

700.

9843

.919

.80.

083

0.00

05 - - -

6.95

4.70

0.05

04.

480.

930.

040

37.1

45.0

103

231

193

263

355

791

572

97.5

297

179

02

820

791

162

57.3

45.2

59.1

143

145

142

54.9

26.1

62.1

20.2

22.6

122

32.2

6.40

22.2

32.1

3.04

0.37

0.05

10.

0074

0.00

11

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.24

2.39

5.80

12.1

9.13

21.1

25.0

57.7

52.3

9.85

19.0

299

408

131

27.9

6.44

3.08

3.83

11.0

8.54

7.88

2.25

1.74

4.55

1.52

0.61

8.24

2.34

0.48

0.42

0.58

0.12

00.

025

0.00

500.

0010

0.00

01

3.19

2.28

0.02

93.

670.

760.

035

21.2

21.4

72.4

183

182

178

186

417

299

65.2

130

777

131

044

711

035

.822

.429

.064

.468

.868

.428

.112

.929

.110

.710

.454

.417

.94.

389.

4714

.41.

690.

250.

043

0.00

80.

002

0.20

0.15

0.00

20.

240.

049

0.00

31.

351.

375.

3513

.717

.716

.116

.230

.526

.08.

6110

.557

.311

256

.520

.97.

773.

553.

265.

466.

316.

463.

181.

512.

661.

260.

934.

292.

060.

740.

781.

180.

220.

054

0.01

40.

0039

0.00

11

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.10

0.95

2.89

6.08

6.51

11.3

14.6

28.6

31.4

10.4

10.9

158

265

138

50.2

17.1

6.34

4.03

6.47

5.84

5.47

2.35

1.42

2.81

1.33

0.57

4.41

2.12

0.75

0.38

0.37

0.07

70.

019

0.00

540.

0015

0.00

04

0.18

0.13

0.00

20.

202

0.04

20.

002

1.16

1.18

5.00

13.0

19.4

17.9

17.6

23.3

38.9

9.69

13.0

53.4

97.0

61.3

28.6

12.1

6.24

7.22

5.45

7.62

6.97

3.19

1.18

4.46

2.16

1.00

3.01

3.70

1.16

1.11

1.65

0.47

0.33

0.27

0.07

80.

0053

0.26

0.19

0.00

30.

300.

062

0.00

41.

731.

777.

5019

.529

.126

.926

.534

.958

.414

.519

.580

.114

691

.942

.918

.29.

3610

.88.

1711

.410

.54.

781.

776.

693.

231.

504.

515.

551.

741.

672.

470.

71 0.5

0.41

0.12

0.00

81

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION214

Page 59: D:\My Documents\WordPerfect\WordPerfect 8.0\2000Report

Tab

le10

(con

tinue

d)

Year

Ann

uald

epos

ition

(PB

q)a

131 I

140 B

a14

1 Ce

103 R

u89

Sr91

Y95

Zr14

4 Ce

54M

n10

6 Ru

125 Sb

55F

e90

Sr13

7 Cs

No

rth

ern

hem

isp

her

e(c

ontin

ued)

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

- - - - - - - - - - - - -

- - - - - - - - - - - - -

- - - - - - - - - - - - -

- - - - - - - - - - - - -

- - - - - - - - - - - - -

- - - - - - - - - - - - -

- - - - - - - - - - - - -

0.00

02 - - - - - - - - - - -

- - - - - - - - - - - - -

0.00

04 - - - - - - - - - - - -

0.00

03 - - - - - - - - - - - -

0.00

01 - - - - - - - - - - - -

0.00

230.

0011

0.00

050.

0003

0.00

020.

0001 - - - - - - -

0.00

350.

0016

0.00

080.

0005

0.00

030.

0002

0.00

01 - - - - - -

Tot

al4

000

750

06

000

750

04

300

600

07

500

956

01

144

489

244

679

747

470

6

So

uth

ern

hem

isp

her

e

1945

1946

1947

1948

1949

1950

1951

1952

1953

1954

1955

1956

1957

1958

1959

1960

1961

1962

1963

1964

1965

1966

1967

1968

1969

1970

1971

- - - - - -0.

004

4.33

3.07

1.39

0.00

0128

.225

114

70.

0007

0.00

000.

012

642

0.00

560.

0000

0.00

0174

.013

.914

.09

0.00

340

.521

.2

- - - - - -0.

024

7.72

5.41

9.48 -

62.5

442

273

0.04

50.

000

0.06

01

160

0.09

50.

000

0.00

113

030

.040

.80.

091

81.7

44.2

- - - - - -0.

043

2.73

2.16

24.5

10.

116

47.0

273

218

1.84

0.00

20.

1692

14.

870.

007

0.00

258

.335

.268

.94.

3388

.950

.6

- - - - - -0.

126.

045.

3173

.20.

7490

.434

327

84.

060.

010

0.21

21

060

11.2

0.04

00.

004

102

44.2

87.5

8.37

109

62.8

- - - - - -0.

077

2.99

3.37

51.5

1.23

50.8

172

150

4.27

0.03

50.

1355

413

.10.

140.

003

50.9

25.3

51.1

7.98

62.1

36.6

- - - - - -0.

124.

145.

6085

.13.

1575

.124

021

88.

850.

130.

1979

128

.00.

520.

010

70.6

37.8

76.9

15.5

92.7

55.8

- - - - - -0.

088

2.75

4.27

62.4

2.97

68.8

282

270

12.9

0.28

0.27

107

047

.51.

210.

027

60.1

50.9

107

24.9

129

78.5

- - - - - -0.

071

1.12

8.88

66.5

33.2

53.0

140

169

61.4

22.4

7.79

550

206

74.0

22.1

30.8

34.6

75.8

74.5

102

81.2

- - - - - -0.

003

0.00

90.

613.

211.

695.

1310

.515

.06.

242.

420.

8843

.122

.89.

963.

401.

781.

423.

424.

846.

735.

50

- - - - - -0.

061

0.92

8.19

59.0

35.1

39.0

73.0

82.4

37.4

16.0

6.39

231

102

44.2

16.0

20.8

16.3

33.2

36.2

46.2

37.9

- - - - - -0.

004

0.05

90.

704.

553.

893.

925.

916.

484.

002.

461.

4316

.110

.16.

413.

472.

661.

782.

743.

494.

043.

48

- - - - - -0.

001

0.00

40.

373

1.72

1.44

2.85

5.39

7.58

4.78

3.01

1.80

20.2

17.0

12.3

7.04

3.76

2.02

2.25

3.40

4.16

3.68

- - - - - -0.

004

0.05

10.

714.

384.

554.

706.

349.

456.

846.

226.

449.

7511

.415

.613

.27.

664.

073.

765.

214.

745.

56

- - - - - -0.

006

0.07

71.

065

6.57

6.83

7.05

9.51

14.2

10.3

9.34

9.66

14.6

17.1

23.4

19.8

11.5

6.11

5.65

7.82

7.11

8.34

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 215

Page 60: D:\My Documents\WordPerfect\WordPerfect 8.0\2000Report

Tab

le10

(con

tinue

d)

Year

Ann

uald

epos

ition

(PB

q)a

131 I

140 B

a14

1 Ce

103 R

u89

Sr91

Y95

Zr14

4 Ce

54M

n10

6 Ru

125 Sb

55F

e90

Sr13

7 Cs

So

uth

ern

hem

isp

her

e(c

ontin

ued)

1972

1973

1974

1975

1976

1977

1978

1979

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

3.58

11.0

44.5

0.00

050.

0003

0.00

000.

0000

0.00

000.

0007 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

6.22

23.4

82.1

0.02

90.

001

- - -0.

003

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

5.37

25.0

66.4

1.03

0.00

10.

041

- -0.

005

0.01

0- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

6.95

30.0

76.1

1.89

0.00

30.

110.

001

0.00

00.

006

0.02

4

- - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - -

4.57

16.4

39.6

1.69

0.00

60.

135

0.00

40.

000

0.00

30.

032

0.00

23 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

7.65

23.9

56.4

3.16

0.02

10.

300.

015

0.00

00.

005

0.07

10.

0068 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

11.5

32.7

76.1

5.00

0.04

80.

510.

033

0.00

10.

007

0.12

0.14

0.00

03 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

30.8

22.9

43.7

14.6

2.80

2.25

1.45

0.54

0.15

0.56

0.35

0.11

0.02

60.

0005

0.00

090.

0001 - - - - - - - - - - - -

2.25

1.37

1.37

0.77

0.17

0.16

0.11

0.04

50.

014

0.01

30.

0078

0.00

260.

0006

0.00

01 - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

15.8

10.7

19.1

7.31

1.73

1.21

0.86

0.38

0.13

0.29

0.19

0.07

50.

021

0.00

500.

0012

0.00

02 - - - - - - - - - - - -

1.81

1.09

1.52

0.78

0.28

0.17

0.13

0.08

0.04

00.

039

0.02

90.

015

0.00

620.

0022

0.00

080.

0002 - - - - - - - - - - - -

1.95

1.06

0.92

0.64

0.25

0.16

0.14

0.08

0.04

20.

024

0.01

30.

0060

0.00

230.

0008

0.00

030.

0001 - - - - - - - - - - - -

3.55

1.13

1.45

1.27

0.77

0.81

0.67

0.39

0.39

0.29

0.22

0.19

0.11

0.05

20.

0036

0.00

170.

0008

0.00

040.

0002

0.00

01 - - - - - - - -

5.32

1.70

2.17

1.90

1.15

1.22

1.01

0.59

0.59

0.43

0.33

0.28

0.17

0.07

70.

0055

0.00

260.

0012

0.00

060.

0004

0.00

020.

0001 - - - - - - -

Tot

al1

300

240

01

900

240

01

300

190

02

400

193

415

599

894

110

142

213

Wo

rld

1945

1946

1947

1948

1949

1950

1951

1952

1953

1954

1955

1956

13.6

9.82 -

15.9

3.34 -

96.5

94.9

72.6

145

70.1

331

24.3

17.2 -

28.0

5.95 -

171

172

134

331

127

618

15.8

10.3

0.00

410

.02.

150.

009

88.8

109

100

265

71.6

347

18.2

12.6

0.01

120

.64.

400.

028

125

129

149

510

98.5

579

9.23

6.39

0.01

110

.42.

230.

023

62.8

65.4

87.8

304

56.8

314

11.9

8.24

0.01

913

.52.

860.

038

80.7

84.4

125

435

83.6

426

14.0

9.20

0.02

38.

911.

890.

028

76.9

95.0

122

346

82.5

391

6.95

4.70

0.05

04.

480.

930.

040

37.1

46.1

112

298

227

317

0 0 0 0 0 00.

252.

406.

4115

.310

.826

.3

3.19

2.28

0.02

93.

670.

760.

035

21.2

22.3

80.5

242

217

217

0.20

0.15

0.00

20.

240.

049

0.00

31.

351.

436.

0618

.321

.620

.0

0 0 0 0 0 00.

100.

963.

267.

807.

9514

.1

0.18

0.13

0.00

20.

200.

042

0.00

21.

161.

235.

7117

.424

.022

.6

0.26

0.19

0.00

30.

300.

062

0.00

41.

741.

848.

5726

.135

.933

.9

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION216

Page 61: D:\My Documents\WordPerfect\WordPerfect 8.0\2000Report

Tab

le10

(con

tinue

d)

Year

Ann

uald

epos

ition

(PB

q)a

131 I

140 B

a14

1 Ce

103 R

u89

Sr91

Y95

Zr14

4 Ce

54M

n10

6 Ru

125 Sb

55F

e90

Sr13

7 Cs

aD

eriv

edfr

omes

timat

edfi

ssio

n/fu

sion

yiel

dsof

test

sw

ithat

mos

pher

icm

odel

.Mea

sure

dre

sults

used

pref

eren

tially

for

90Sr

and

137 C

sdu

ring

1958

-198

5.M

odel

valu

esfo

r13

1 I,14

4 Ba,

141 C

e,10

3 Ru,

89Sr

,91Y

,and

95Z

rno

rmal

ized

toto

talh

emis

pher

icde

posi

tion

estim

ated

from

avai

labl

em

easu

rem

ents

.Lat

itudi

nald

istr

ibut

ions

for

long

-liv

edra

dion

uclid

esm

aybe

estim

ated

byus

eof

para

met

ers

inT

able

8.b

Indi

cate

ses

timat

edva

lue

less

than

0.00

01PB

q.

1957

1958

1959

1960

1961

1962

1963

1964

1965

1966

1967

1968

1969

1970

1971

1972

1973

1974

1975

1976

1977

1978

1979

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

529

111

00.

2510

.439

51

900

40.7

3.04

11.0

121

32.4

17.1

11.4

46.4

24.4

33.9

13.4

64.7

0.00

134

.06.

715.

530.

4735

.60.

023

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

953

205

05.

3518

.474

03

470

124

5.39

19.7

212

67.1

47.5

33.8

98.5

50.5

60.7

30.2

119

0.03

963

.015

.39.

231.

4565

.40.

518

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

685

133

081

.06.

6759

32

880

440

2.07

14.5

119

73.9

76.8

73.2

122

68.6

46.5

38.4

95.8

1.61

45.2

36.5

3.04

0.92

49.7

6.88 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

777

182

013

213

.761

93

170

638

4.80

15.0

165

87.9

97.5

94.3

153

92.4

50.2

46.4

108

2.98

48.2

49.5

6.10

2.00

51.0

10.4 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

406

972

113

7.23

319

172

051

44.

997.

7183

.050

.658

.563

.892

.860

.727

.326

.858

.22.

8224

.435

.83.

201.

0825

.98.

220.

013

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

554

131

019

19.

9841

42

370

853

12.2

10.0

112

72.9

89.1

97.5

141

95.4

37.7

39.0

82.9

5.28

31.3

55.7

4.39

1.45

33.3

13.3

0.04

5- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

702

141

027

78.

1254

83

220

131

022

.813

.311

599

.312

614

219

913

851

.754

.011

48.

4639

.682

.13.

730.

9843

.919

.90.

220.

001

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

495

960

633

120

305

234

03

030

865

184

88.1

79.7

135

217

247

223

85.7

49.1

106

34.8

25.4

124

33.6

6.94

22.4

32.6

3.39

0.48

0.07

70.

008

0.00

20.

0003 - - - - - - - - - - - -

35.6

72.7

58.6

12.3

19.9

342

430

141

31.3

8.22

4.50

7.24

15.9

15.3

13.4

4.49

3.11

5.92

2.29

0.79

8.40

2.46

0.53

0.44

0.59

0.12

0.02

60.

005

0.00

10.

0001 - - - - - - - - - - - - -

259

500

336

81.3

136

101

01

420

491

126

56.5

38.7

62.1

101

115

106

43.9

23.7

48.2

18.0

12.1

55.6

18.8

4.77

9.60

14.7

1.88

0.33

0.06

40.

013

0.00

30.

0002 - - - - - - - - - - - -

22.1

37.0

37.0

11.1

11.9

73.4

122

63.0

24.3

10.5

5.33

6.00

8.95

10.4

9.94

4.99

2.60

4.18

2.04

1.21

4.45

2.19

0.82

0.82

1.22

0.25

0.07

0.02

0.00

60.

002

0.00

050.

0002 - - - - - - - - - - -

20.0

36.2

36.2

13.4

12.7

178

282

150

57.3

20.9

8.36

6.28

9.87

9.99

9.15

4.30

2.48

3.73

1.98

0.81

4.58

2.26

0.84

0.42

0.39

0.09

00.

025

0.00

80.

002

0.00

10.

0001 - - - - - - - - - - - -

24.0

32.7

45.8

15.9

19.4

63.2

108

76.9

41.8

19.8

10.3

11.0

10.7

12.4

12.5

6.74

2.31

5.91

3.42

1.77

3.82

4.37

1.55

1.50

1.93

0.69

0.52

0.39

0.13

0.00

890.

0039

0.00

190.

0010

0.00

050.

0003

0.00

020.

0001 - - - - - -

36.0

49.1

68.6

23.9

29.2

94.8

163

115

62.7

29.7

15.5

16.5

16.0

18.5

18.8

10.1

3.47

8.86

5.13

2.66

5.73

6.56

2.33

2.25

2.90

1.04

0.78

0.58

0.19

0.01

40.

0060

0.00

290.

0015

0.00

080.

0005

0.00

030.

0002

0.00

01 - - - - -

Tot

al5

300

990

07

900

990

05

600

790

09

900

1149

41

299

589

054

090

761

291

9

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 217

Page 62: D:\My Documents\WordPerfect\WordPerfect 8.0\2000Report

Tab

le11

Po

pu

lati

on

-wei

gh

ted

cum

ula

tive

dep

osi

tio

nd

ensi

tyo

fra

dio

nu

clid

esp

rod

uce

din

atm

osp

her

icn

ucl

ear

test

ing

Year

Cum

ulat

ive

depo

sitio

nde

nsity

(Bq

m-2

)a

131 I

140 B

a14

1 Ce

103 R

u89

Sr91

Y95

Zr14

4 Ce

54M

n10

6 Ru

125 Sb

55F

e90

Sr13

7 Cs

No

rth

ern

hem

isp

her

e

1945

1946

1947

1948

1949

1950

1951

1952

1953

1954

1955

1956

1957

1958

1959

1960

1961

1962

1963

1964

1965

1966

1967

1968

1969

1970

1971

1972

1973

1974

1975

1976

1977

1978

1979

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1.73

1.17 -b

1.94

0.43 -

12.2

11.2

9.33

18.2

8.70

38.0

33.5

121

4.06

1.31

49.8

155

10.2

0.38

1.40

5.39

2.57

0.65

1.46

0.74

0.39

3.88

0.30

2.58

0.00

4.08

0.96

0.57

0.19

4.50

0.03 - - - - -

4.92

3.31 -

5.49

1.21 -

33.7

29.6

30.6

65.0

23.5

111

96.1

356

17.2

3.69

141

449

51.6

1.05

4.04

15.3

8.05

2.02

6.63

3.23

1.43

11.3

1.37

7.35

0.00

11.4

4.05

1.43

0.75

12.6

0.78 - - - - -

7.53

5.28

0.22

5.02

1.02

0.15

36.9

41.1

70.9

121

27.6

151

182

522

135

3.57

200

896

434

1.75

7.70

28.0

21.3

5.53

30.6

16.8

14.2

21.8

6.03

15.3

0.89

15.2

25.5

1.94

0.91

16.6

12.5

0.00

5- - - -

9.99

7.84

0.61

12.3

2.51

0.52

63.1

55.9

119

261

56.1

285

235

869

249

9.38

225

114

071

07.

1810

.134

.428

.78.

7845

.327

.125

.328

.38.

4020

.52.

0318

.340

.24.

312.

3218

.319

.90.

032

0.00

01 - - -

5.96

5.27

0.72

7.80

1.73

0.51

38.5

36.0

87.5

187

50.6

186

165

568

237

8.97

126

774

667

19.4

6.70

22.0

20.9

8.68

37.1

25.5

24.9

19.4

6.27

15.6

2.64

10.4

35.2

3.95

1.59

9.94

17.1

0.11

0.00

1- - -

8.33

7.99

1.43

11.3

2.76

0.91

54.7

53.6

139

289

96.0

276

261

845

429

20.0

169

118

01

200

60.8

10.7

32.1

33.0

16.7

62.1

46.6

46.0

30.4

10.0

25.9

5.58

14.3

60.6

7.85

2.48

13.2

29.1

0.39

0.00

5- - -

10.2

10.1

1.96

8.04

2.10

0.73

51.3

67.3

155

255

95.1

276

358

944

605

30.6

229

173

01

950

133

16.3

45.8

49.3

28.0

95.8

76.3

75.0

44.3

15.2

40.2

9.86

18.0

94.8

12.2

2.02

17.8

45.2

0.16

50.

0006 - - -

8.70

21.7

17.0

16.2

12.1

6.99

57.2

128

362

637

982

105

01

340

234

03

460

210

01

150

394

010

300

874

04

660

217

01

040

619

582

693

749

566

308

302

235

134

350

340

184

94.4

168

69.0

28.4

11.7

4.80

1.97

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.49

1.30

20.2

36.2

52.0

68.4

104

179

290

197

109

625

156

01

430

825

407

193

98.8

70.0

61.5

54.5

37.1

20.6

21.9

18.4

10.2

23.1

24.4

14.2

7.14

5.51

2.45

1.09

0.48

0.22

0.10

4.17

11.4

10.4

13.2

11.8

7.83

39.5

77.8

251

526

976

102

01

090

157

02

240

156

095

92

100

529

05

250

339

01

910

105

063

348

347

548

238

824

121

116

710

719

320

513

478

.710

050

.825

.713

.06.

583.

33

0.28

0.96

1.15

1.46

1.58

1.38

3.61

7.41 23

.52

.711

615

217

523

432

230

626

234

166

584

980

167

354

343

535

530

126

022

117

914

812

198

.688

.981

.668

.555

.148

.337

.429

.022

.517

.513

.6

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.23

0.69

11.5

25.8

48.7

71.1

106

172

280

288

253

548

139

01

890

181

01

530

123

097

277

762

951

241

232

626

321

316

814

212

410

180

.464

.249

.938

.730

.123

.418

.1

0.25

0.96

1.36

1.85

2.25

2.35

4.62

8.99

25.9

61.4

146

222

281

368

535

604

634

795

114

01

480

162

01

670

167

01

660

165

01

640

163

01

620

159

01

560

154

01

510

1480

1470

144

01

410

138

01

350

132

01

290

126

01

230

0.38

1.44

2.05

2.78

3.39

3.54

6.95

13.5

38.9

92.2

219

333

423

554

805

910

955

120

01

710

222

02

440

252

02

520

251

02

490

248

02

480

246

02

410

238

02

350

230

02

260

224

02

200

216

02

120

208

02

040

199

01

950

190

0

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION218

Page 63: D:\My Documents\WordPerfect\WordPerfect 8.0\2000Report

Tab

le11

(con

tinue

d)

Year

Cum

ulat

ive

depo

sitio

nde

nsity

(Bq

m-2

)a

131 I

140 B

a14

1 Ce

103 R

u89

Sr91

Y95

Zr14

4 Ce

54M

n10

6 Ru

125 Sb

55F

e90

Sr13

7 Cs

No

rth

ern

hem

isp

her

e(c

ontin

ued)

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

- - - - - - - - - - - - -

- - - - - - - - - - - - -

- - - - - - - - - - - - -

- - - - - - - - - - - - -

- - - - - - - - - - - - -

- - - - - - - - - - - - -

- - - - - - - - - - - - -

0.81

0.33

0.14

0.05

70.

023

0.01

00.

0039

0.00

160.

0007

0.00

030.

0001 - -

0.04

30.

019

0.00

840.

0038

0.00

170.

0007

0.00

030.

0001

0.00

01 - - - -

1.68

0.85

0.43

0.22

0.11

0.05

60.

028

0.01

40.

0072

0.00

370.

0019

0.00

090.

0005

10.5

8.16

6.33

4.91

3.81

2.96

2.29

1.78

1.38

1.07

0.83

0.64

0.50

14.1

10.9

8.49

6.60

5.12

3.98

3.09

2.40

1.86

1.45

1.12

0.87

0.68

120

01

170

115

01

120

109

01

070

104

01

020

991

967

944

921

899

186

01

820

178

01

740

170

01

660

162

01

580

155

01

510

148

01

440

141

0

Tot

alc

1945

-199

920

00-2

099

2100

-219

9

2200

- �

510

152

03

080

466

03

440

556

07

590

5000

06

560

3330

00.

0003

816

01.

7514

600

2.3

5290

033

900

300

029

2

8100

055

300

555

062

0

1945

- �51

01

520

308

04

660

344

05

560

759

050

000

656

033

300

816

014

600

9000

014

200

0

So

uth

ern

hem

isp

her

e

1945

1946

1947

1948

1949

1950

1951

1952

1953

1954

1955

1956

1957

1958

1959

1960

1961

1962

1963

- - - - - -0.

0009

0.92

0.65

0.30 -

5.97

50.1

31.5

0.85 -

0.00

213

50.

006

- - - - - -0.

008

2.53

1.83

3.29

0.00

120

.913

796

.13.

23 -0.

0238

90.

17

- - - - - -0.

029

1.44

1.70

17.3

1.09

31.4

163

169

25.1

0.01

70.

059

642

31.3

- - - - - -0.

095

3.47

5.09

59.6

7.01

69.4

248

253

51.2

0.13

0.08

086

178

.5

- - - - - -0.

073

1.89

4.03

49.5

11.6

46.0

155

170

50.4

0.57

0.05

554

199

.6

- - - - - -0.

122.

757.

4388

.829

.174

.124

628

110

1.1

2.26

0.12

847

221

- - - - - -0.

093

1.87

5.95

68.3

27.0

71.5

296

380

151

4.76

0.24

121

038

2

- - - - - -0.

072

0.76

11.5

85.9

175

168

289

484

540

314

165

717

129

0

- - - - - -0.

003

0.00

90.

664.

58 9.1

11.5

23.8

41.6

50.9

32.8

18.7

57.4

118

- - - - - -0.

064

0.66

10.8

81.4

186

188

232

320

358

248

155

364

672

- - - - - -0.

005

0.04

90.

977.

4221

.129

.036

.149

.058

.955

.549

.661

.894

.9

- - - - - -0.

001

0.00

60.

433.

128.

1912

.521

.537

.553

.353

.749

.966

.411

8

- - - - - -0.

004

0.04

71.

017.

9225

.441

.857

.084

.511

713

715

618

521

9

- - - - - -0.

007

0.07

01.

5111

.938

.162

.885

.712

717

720

623

527

833

0

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 219

Page 64: D:\My Documents\WordPerfect\WordPerfect 8.0\2000Report

Tab

le11

(con

tinue

d)

Year

Cum

ulat

ive

depo

sitio

nde

nsity

(Bq

m-2

)a

131 I

140 B

a14

1 Ce

103 R

u89

Sr91

Y95

Zr14

4 Ce

54M

n10

6 Ru

125 Sb

55F

e90

Sr13

7 Cs

So

uth

ern

hem

isp

her

e(c

ontin

ued)

1964

1965

1966

1967

1968

1969

1970

1971

1972

1973

1974

1975

1976

1977

1978

1979

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

- -15

.62.

962.

990.

008.

594.

540.

732.

339.

460.

0014 - - - -

0.00

01 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

- -43

.110

.713

.60.

2527

.615

.02.

087.

8627

.70.

120

- - - -0.

001

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

0.06

70.

002

35.2

31.4

39.8

15.1

58.6

38.9

8.12

17.0

44.1

6.84

0.00

50.

028

0.00

2-

0.00

20.

009

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

0.46

0.00

4167

.257

.857

.031

.281

.660

.715

.323

.558

.613

.90.

036

0.08

40.

011

0.00

00.

002

0.02

3- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

1.84

0.02

337

.943

.439

.332

.353

.848

.315

.315

.336

.913

.90.

150.

130.

033

0.00

060.

0011

0.03

3- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

7.16

0.16

56.0

74.9

65.4

65.2

86.9

87.7

31.0

24.7

58.6

27.7

0.57

0.31

0.11

0.00

360.

0017

0.07

800.

0010 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

17.0

0.52

51.6

88.4

96.8

107

127

137

51.7

36.0

84.7

45.3

1.33

0.56

0.24

0.01

130.

0026

0.14

000.

0005 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

867

470

245

188

178

313

305

375

306

180

147

150

79.9

37.8

20.4

11.0

5.32

2.93

1.20

0.50

0.20

0.08

40.

035

0.01

40.

0058

0.00

240.

0010

0.00

040.

0002

0.00

01 - - - - - -

94.5

58.9

32.4

18.2

12.4

18.7

20.3

26.7

22.8

13.9

9.49

7.49

4.42

2.31

1.40

0.83

0.44

0.23

0.10

0.04

50.

020

0.00

890.

0040

0.00

180.

0008

0.00

030.

0002

0.00

01 - - - - - - - -

539

353

218

167

134

186

187

220

191

127

99 95 59.1

33.2

19.7

11.8

6.63

3.83

1.94

0.98

0.50

0.25

0.13

0.06

40.

033

0.01

70.

0083

0.00

420.

0021

0.00

110.

0005

0.00

030.

0001 - - -

102

95.9

83.9

730

62.5

60.4

57.8

58.3

54.8

46.9

40.2

35.8

29.5

23.6

18.8

14.9

11.8

9.26

7.19

5.57

4.32

3.36

2.60

2.02

1.57

1.22

0.94

0.73

0.57

0.44

0.34

0.27

0.21

0.16

0.12

0.10

142

144

130

110

91.5

81.3

74.1

71.8

65.9

55.8

46.4

39.0

31.8

25.3

20.1

16.0

12.7

9.93

7.71

5.99

4.65

3.61

2.80

2.18

1.69

1.31

1.02

0.79

0.61

0.48

0.37

0.29

0.22

0.17

0.13

0.10

262

313

341

355

359

368

377

388

396

395

389

386

380

374

368

361

353

346

339

331

324

317

309

302

294

287

281

274

267

261

255

249

243

237

231

226

394

472

514

536

542

557

571

587

601

599

591

587

578

570

561

551

541

530

520

509

498

487

476

466

455

445

435

425

415

406

396

387

379

370

362

353

Tot

alc

1945

-199

920

00-2

099

2100

-219

9

2200

- �

273

808

138

02

100

147

02

490

713

08

120

714

547

01

380

0.40

163

00.

3012

600

848

075

273

1920

013

400

139

015

5

1945

- �27

380

81

380

210

01

470

249

07

130

812

071

45

470

138

01

630

2190

035

000

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION220

Page 65: D:\My Documents\WordPerfect\WordPerfect 8.0\2000Report

Tab

le11

(con

tinue

d)

Year

Cum

ulat

ive

depo

sitio

nde

nsity

(Bq

m-2

)a

131 I

140 B

a14

1 Ce

103 R

u89

Sr91

Y95

Zr14

4 Ce

54M

n10

6 Ru

125 Sb

55F

e90

Sr13

7 Cs

Wo

rld

1945

1946

1947

1948

1949

1950

1951

1952

1953

1954

1955

1956

1957

1958

1959

1960

1961

1962

1963

1964

1965

1966

1967

1968

1969

1970

1971

1972

1973

1974

1975

1976

1977

1978

1979

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1.54

1.04 -

1.73

0.38 -

10.9

10.0

8.38

16.3

7.74

34.5

35.3

111

3.71

1.17

44.3

153

9.11

0.34

1.25

6.51

2.62

0.91

1.30

1.60

0.84

3.53

0.52

3.34

0.00

3.63

0.86

0.51

0.17

4.00

0.02

9- - - - -

4.38

2.94 -

4.89

1.07 -

30.0

26.6

27.4

58.2

20.9

101

101

327

15.7

3.29

125

443

45.9

0.93

3.60

18.4

8.34

3.29

5.93

5.91

2.92

10.3

2.08

9.59

0.02

10.1

3.61

1.27

0.67

11.2

0.70 - - - - -

6.70

4.70

0.20

4.47

0.91

0.13

32.9

36.8

63.3

110

24.7

138

180

483

123

3.18

178

868

390

1.56

6.86

28.8

22.5

9.30

28.9

21.4

17.0

20.3

7.24

18.5

1.54

13.6

22.7

1.73

0.81

14.8

11.2

0.00

46 - - - -

8.89

6.98

0.54

10.9

2.24

0.47

56.1

50.1

107

239

50.7

261

236

802

228

8.36

200

111

064

16.

448.

9538

.031

.914

.143

.833

.129

.226

.910

.124

.73.

3316

.335

.83.

842.

0616

.217

.70.

0280 - - - -

5.31

4.69

0.64

6.94

1.54

0.45

34.2

32.3

78.3

172

46.3

171

164

525

216

8.05

112

748

604

17.5

5.97

23.7

23.4

12.1

36.5

28.6

27.5

19.0

7.26

17.9

3.89

9.29

31.3

3.51

1.41

8.84

15.3

0.10

20.

0007 - - -

7.41

7.11

1.27

10.1

2.45

0.81

48.7

48.0

124

267

88.7

254

259

782

393

18.0

151

114

01

090

54.9

9.58

34.8

37.6

22.0

62.4

51.1

50.6

30.4

11.7

29.5

8.01

12.8

54.0

7.00

2.21

11.8

25.9

0.34

0.00

45 - - -

9.06

8.99

1.74

7.15

1.87

0.65

45.7

60.1

139

234

87.6

253

352

882

555

27.8

204

167

01

770

120

14.6

46.4

53.6

35.6

97.1

81.9

81.9

45.2

17.5

45.1

13.8

16.2

84.5

10.9

1.79

15.8

40.3

0.15

0.00

05 - - -

7.74

19.3

15.1

14.4

10.8

6.22

50.9

114

323

576

893

949

123

02

130

314

01

900

104

03

590

929

07

870

420

01

960

942

570

553

650

708

538

294

285

225

128

316

305

165

84.6

150

61.5

25.3

10.4

4.28

1.76

- - - - - -0.

441.

1618

.032

.747

.262

.295

.016

426

317

999

.556

21

400

128

074

136

617

489

.364

.357

.051

.435

.519

.920

.617

.29.

5920

.821

.912

.76.

414.

922.

190.

970.

430.

190.

086

3.71

10.1

9.24

11.7

10.5

6.97

35.2

69.3

224

477

889

926

992

142

82

030

142

087

11

900

478

04

730

306

01

720

954

578

450

444

453

366

229

198

159

102

176

185

121

70.8

89.7

45.4

23.0

11.6

5.88

2.98

0.25

0.85

1.03

1.30

1.40

1.23

3.22

6.60

20.7

47.7

106

139

160

214

293

278

239

311

602

767

723

608

491

394

323

274

238

202

164

137

113

91.0

81.7

74.7

62.6

50.3

44.0

34.1

26.5

20.5

15.9

12.4

- - - - - -0.

210.

6110

.323

.344

.364

.696

.715

725

526

223

049

51

250

169

016

301

370

110

087

570

056

846

337

429

623

919

415

312

911

291

.872

.958

.345

.335

.127

.321

.216

.5

0.22

0.86

1.21

1.65

2.01

2.09

4.11

8.01

23.2

55.5

133

202

257

337

489

553

581

728

104

01

340

148

01

520

152

01

520

151

01

500

150

01

480

146

01

430

141

01

380

136

01

340

132

01

290

127

01

240

121

01

190

116

01

130

0.33

1.28

1.82

2.47

3.02

3.15

6.19

12.0

34.8

83.4

199

304

386

507

736

833

876

110

01

560

202

02

230

230

02

300

229

02

280

227

02

270

225

02

210

218

02

150

211

02

080

206

02

020

198

01

950

191

01

870

183

01

790

175

0

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 221

Page 66: D:\My Documents\WordPerfect\WordPerfect 8.0\2000Report

Tab

le11

(con

tinue

d)

Year

Cum

ulat

ive

depo

sitio

nde

nsity

(Bq

m-2

)a

131 I

140 B

a14

1 Ce

103 R

u89

Sr91

Y95

Zr14

4 Ce

54M

n10

6 Ru

125 Sb

55F

e90

Sr13

7 Cs

aD

eriv

edfr

omes

timat

edfi

ssio

n/fu

sion

yiel

dsof

test

sw

ithat

mos

pher

icm

odel

.Inc

lude

sre

sidu

alde

posi

tion

from

prev

ious

year

s.M

easu

red

resu

ltsus

edpr

efer

entia

llyfo

r90

Sran

d13

7 Cs

duri

ng19

58-1

985.

Lat

itudi

nal

valu

esm

aybe

deri

ved

byus

eof

para

met

ers

inT

able

8.T

here

sults

for

the

wor

ldar

eth

epo

pula

tion-

wei

ghte

dav

erag

esof

the

nort

hern

and

sout

hern

hem

isph

eres

(89%

and

11%

ofth

ew

orld

popu

latio

n,re

spec

tivel

y).

bIn

dica

tes

estim

ated

valu

ele

ssth

an0.

0001

Bq

m-2

.c

Inte

grat

edde

posi

tion

dens

ityw

ithun

itsB

qa

m-2

.

Wo

rld

(con

tinue

d)

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

- - - - - - - - - - - - -

- - - - - - - - - - - - -

- - - - - - - - - - - - -

- - - - - - - - - - - - -

- - - - - - - - - - - - -

- - - - - - - - - - - - -

- - - - - - - - - - - - -

0.72

0.30

0.12

00.

050

0.02

10.

0085

0.00

350.

0014

0.00

06 - - - -

0.03

80.

017

0.00

760.

0034

0.00

150.

0007

0.00

030.

0001

0.00

01 - - - -

1.51

0.76

0.39

0.20

0.10

0.05

00.

025

0.01

30.

0065

0.00

330.

0017

0.00

080.

0004

9.58

7.44

5.77

4.48

3.47

2.69

2.09

1.62

1.26

0.98

0.76

0.59

0.46

12.8

9.92

7.70

5.98

4.65

3.61

2.80

2.18

1.69

1.31

1.02

0.79

0.61

110

01

080

105

01

030

100

097

895

493

290

988

786

684

582

5

171

01

670

163

01

590

156

01

520

149

01

450

142

01

390

136

01

330

130

0

Tot

alc

1945

-199

920

00-2

099

2100

-219

9

2200

-�

482

144

02

900

438

03

220

522

07

130

4540

05

920

3030

00.

0007

742

01.

813

200

2.1

4844

031

000

275

026

8

7410

050

700

509

056

9

1945

- �48

21

440

290

04

380

322

05

220

713

045

400

592

030

300

742

013

200

8300

013

100

0

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION222

Page 67: D:\My Documents\WordPerfect\WordPerfect 8.0\2000Report

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 223

a Values from Beck [B2], converted with 0.869 rad R-1, 0.01 Gy rad-1, 0.7 Sv Gy-1 and applying a shielding/occupancy factor of 0.36. Relaxation lengthof 0.1 cm assumed for 131I and 140Ba, 1 cm for 141Ce, 103Ru and 95Zr; 3 cm for remainder.

b Transfer coefficient P25 [U3 (page 127)] divided by the mean life of the radionuclide (T½ divided by ln 2) applied to the average cumulative deposition.c Transfer coefficient P25 [U3 (page 127)] applied to the annual deposition density (nSv per Bq m-2). The exposure occurs only in the year of deposition.d Includes decay product.e Time�dependent model used for components of annual dose.

Table 12Coefficients for evaluating annual effective doses from radionuclides produced in atmospheric nucleartesting

RadionuclideDose coefficient (nSv a-1 per Bq m-2)

External a Ingestion b Inhalation c

131I140Ba141Ce103Ru89Sr91Y95Zr

144Ce54Mn106Ru125Sb55Fe90Sr

137Cs238Pu239Pu240Pu241Pu

241Am

3.2818.5 d

0.3762.72�

11.3 d

0.175 d

3.260.809 d

1.64�

2.24�

1330.357�

0.601�

0.506�

e

�e

0.170.0140.0340.0330.160.18

0.1041.30

0.0221.70

0.0450.0043

4.600.1180084084012920

Page 68: D:\My Documents\WordPerfect\WordPerfect 8.0\2000Report

Tab

le13

Ext

ern

alex

po

sure

tora

dio

nu

clid

esp

rod

uce

din

atm

osp

her

icn

ucl

ear

test

ing

Year

Wor

ldw

ide

aver

age

annu

alef

fect

ive

dose

(µSv

)

131 I

140 B

a,La

141 C

e10

3 Ru

95Zr

,Nb

144 C

e,P

r54

Mn

106 R

u,R

h12

5 Sb13

7 Cs

Tota

l

1945

1946

1947

1948

1949

1950

1951

1952

1953

1954

1955

1956

1957

1958

1959

1960

1961

1962

1963

1964

1965

1966

1967

1968

1969

1970

1971

1972

1973

1974

1975

1976

1977

1978

1979

0.00

510.

0034

-a

0.00

570.

0012 -

0.03

60.

033

0.02

70.

053

0.02

50.

110.

120.

370.

012

0.00

380.

150.

500.

030

0.00

110.

0041

0.02

10.

0086

0.00

300.

0043

0.00

530.

0028

0.01

20.

0017

0.01

1-

0.01

20.

0028

0.00

170.

0006

0.08

10.

055

-0.

091

0.02

00.

0001

0.56

0.50

0.51

1.08

0.39

1.89

1.87

6.09

0.29

0.06

12.

338.

230.

850.

017

0.07

0.34

0.16

0.06

0.11

0.11

0.05

40.

190.

039

0.18

0.00

030.

190.

067

0.02

40.

012

0.00

250.

0018

0.00

010.

0017

0.00

03 -0.

012

0.01

40.

024

0.04

10.

009

0.05

20.

068

0.18

0.04

60.

0012

0.06

70.

330.

150.

0006

0.00

260.

011

0.00

840.

0035

0.01

10.

0081

0.00

640.

0076

0.00

270.

0069

0.00

060.

0051

0.00

850.

0006

0.00

03

0.02

0.02 -

0.03

0.01 -

0.15

0.14

0.29

0.65

0.14

0.71

0.64

2.19

0.62

0.02

0.55

3.03

1.75

0.01

80.

024

0.10

0.08

70.

038

0.12

0.09

00.

080

0.07

30.

027

0.06

70.

009

0.04

50.

098

0.01

00.

006

0.10

0.10

0.02

00.

082

0.02

10.

0074

0.52

0.69

1.58

2.67

1.00

2.89

4.01

10.1

6.32

0.32

2.32

19.0

20.2

1.37

0.17

0.53

0.61

0.41

1.11

0.93

0.93

0.51

0.20

0.51

0.16

0.18

0.96

0.12

0.02

0

0.00

140.

0034

0.00

260.

0025

0.00

190.

0011

0.00

890.

020

0.05

70.

100.

160.

170.

210.

370.

550.

330.

180.

631.

631.

380.

740.

340.

160.

100.

100.

110.

120.

094

0.05

10.

050

0.03

90.

022

0.05

50.

053

0.02

9

- - - - - -0.

0014

0.00

380.

059

0.11

0.15

0.20

0.31

0.53

0.86

0.58

0.32

1.83

4.54

4.17

2.41

1.19

0.56

0.29

0.21

0.19

0.17

0.12

0.06

50.

067

0.05

60.

031

0.06

80.

071

0.04

1

0.00

300.

0082

0.00

750.

0095

0.00

850.

0056

0.02

80.

056

0.18

0.39

0.72

0.75

0.80

1.15

1.64

1.15

0.70

1.54

3.86

3.82

2.47

1.39

0.77

0.47

0.36

0.36

0.37

0.30

0.18

0.16

0.13

0.08

0.14

0.15

0.10

0.00

040.

0014

0.00

170.

0021

0.00

230.

0020

0.00

530.

011

0.03

40.

079

0.17

0.23

0.26

0.35

0.48

0.46

0.39

0.51

0.99

1.27

1.19

1.00

0.81

0.65

0.53

0.45

0.39

0.33

0.27

0.23

0.19

0.15

0.13

0.12

0.10

0.00

070.

0029

0.00

410.

0055

0.00

680.

0071

0.01

40.

027

0.07

80.

190.

450.

680.

861.

141.

651.

861.

962.

463.

494.

534.

985.

155.

165.

135.

115.

095.

085.

044.

964.

894.

834.

734.

654.

604.

53

0.22

0.20

0.03

70.

230.

068

0.02

51.

341.

482.

845.

363.

217.

679.

1622

.412

.54.

798.

9738

.137

.516

.612

.110

.18.

347.

157.

667.

357.

216.

685.

806.

175.

405.

456.

195.

164.

84

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION224

Page 69: D:\My Documents\WordPerfect\WordPerfect 8.0\2000Report

Tab

le13

(con

tinue

d)

Year

Wor

ldw

ide

aver

age

annu

alef

fect

ive

dose

(µSv

)

131 I

140 B

a,La

141 C

e10

3 Ru

95Zr

,Nb

144 C

e,P

r54

Mn

106 R

u,R

h12

5 Sb13

7 Cs

Tota

l

aE

stim

ated

valu

ele

ssth

an0.

0001

µSv

.

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

0.01

30.

0001 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

0.21

0.01

3- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

0.00

560.

0042 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

0.04

40.

048

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

0.18

0.46

0.00

17 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

0.01

50.

026

0.01

10.

0044

0.00

180.

0007

0.00

030.

0001

0.00

01 - - - - - - - - - - -

0.02

10.

016

0.00

710.

0032

0.00

140.

0006

0.00

030.

0001

0.00

01 - - - - - - - - - - -

0.05

70.

072

0.03

70.

019

0.00

940.

0048

0.00

240.

0012

0.00

060.

0003

0.00

020.

0001 - - - - - - - -

0.08

30.

073

0.05

60.

044

0.03

40.

026

0.02

00.

016

0.01

20.

0095

0.00

740.

0057

0.00

440.

0034

0.00

270.

0021

0.00

160.

0012

0.00

100.

0008

4.44

4.36

4.27

4.18

4.09

4.00

3.91

3.82

3.73

3.65

3.57

3.49

3.41

3.33

3.25

3.18

3.11

3.04

2.97

2.90

5.07

5.07

4.39

4.25

4.14

4.03

3.93

3.84

3.75

3.66

3.57

3.49

3.41

3.33

3.26

3.18

3.11

3.04

2.97

2.90

1945

-199

920

00-2

099

2100

-219

9

2200

- �

1.58

26.7

1.09

12.0

81.3

7.94

19.2

24.5

12.2

0.00

316

611

411

.41.

3

353

114

11.4

1.3

1945

- �1.

5826

.71.

0912

.081

.37.

9419

.224

.512

.229

247

9

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 225

Page 70: D:\My Documents\WordPerfect\WordPerfect 8.0\2000Report

Tab

le14

Ing

esti

on

exp

osu

reto

rad

ion

ucl

ides

pro

du

ced

inat

mo

sph

eric

nu

clea

rte

stin

g

Year

Wor

ldw

ide

aver

age

annu

alef

fect

ive

dose

(µSv

)

131 I

140 B

a,La

89Sr

55F

e90

Sr13

7 Cs

Tota

l3 H

14C

Tota

l

1945

1946

1947

1948

1949

1950

1951

1952

1953

1954

1955

1956

1957

1958

1959

1960

1961

1962

1963

1964

1965

1966

1967

1968

1969

1970

1971

1972

1973

1974

1975

1976

1977

1978

1979

0.21

0.14 -a

0.23

0.05

1-

1.45

1.33

1.11

2.16

1.03

4.59

4.69

14.8

0.49

0.16

5.89

20.4

1.21

0.04

60.

170.

870.

350.

120.

170.

210.

110.

470.

069

0.44 -

0.48

0.11

0.06

80.

023

0.00

160.

0011 -

0.00

170.

0004 -

0.01

10.

010

0.01

00.

021

0.00

750.

036

0.03

60.

120.

0056

0.00

120.

045

0.16

0.01

60.

0003

0.00

130.

0066

0.00

300.

0012

0.00

210.

0021

0.00

100.

0037

0.00

070.

0034 -

0.00

360.

0013

0.00

050.

0002

0.00

320.

0028

0.00

040.

0042

0.00

090.

0003

0.02

10.

019

0.05

0.10

0.02

80.

100.

100.

320.

130.

0048

0.06

70.

450.

360.

010

0.00

360.

014

0.01

40.

0072

0.02

20.

017

0.01

70.

011

0.00

440.

011

0.00

230.

0056

0.01

90.

0021

0.00

09

- - - - - -0.

0001

0.00

030.

0052

0.01

20.

022

0.03

30.

049

0.07

90.

130.

130.

120.

250.

630.

860.

820.

690.

560.

440.

350.

290.

230.

190.

150.

120.

100.

077

0.06

50.

057

0.04

6

0.00

440.

0088

0.00

590.

0082

0.01

00.

0060

0.03

40.

072

0.18

0.53

1.02

1.32

1.46

1.77

2.50

2.45

1.94

3.11

5.58

6.56

5.47

4.45

3.83

3.57

3.42

3.30

3.22

3.00

2.72

2.60

2.50

2.30

2.19

2.15

2.02

0.02

70.

040

0.01

60.

032

0.03

10.

0063

0.18

0.32

0.92

2.69

4.69

5.25

5.10

6.06

9.15

6.53

3.62

10.3

21.9

21.8

12.7

6.29

3.32

2.71

2.57

2.70

2.86

2.17

1.33

1.55

1.57

1.10

1.25

1.57

1.25

0.24

0.19

0.02

20.

280.

093

0.01

31.

691.

752.

285.

536.

8011

.311

.423

.212

.49.

2711

.734

.629

.729

.319

.212

.38.

076.

856.

546.

516.

445.

854.

284.

734.

183.

973.

643.

853.

33

0 0 0 0 0 0 - - 0.2

0.7

0.2

0.7

0.6

0.8

0.8

0.4

0.7

7.2

2.7

1.6

1.2

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.6

0.4

0.4

0.3

0.3

0.2

0.2

0.1

0.2

0.1

0.09

0 0 0 0 0 0 -0.

06 0.1

0.3

0.6

0.8

1.1

1.6

1.9

2.0

2.9

5.5

7.4

7.7

7.5

7.1

6.6

6.1

5.5

5.0

4.6

4.3

4.0

3.8

3.5

3.3

3.1

2.9

2.6

0 0 0 0 0 0 -0.

06 0.3

1.0

0.8

1.5

1.7

2.4

2.7

2.4

3.6

12.7

10.1

9.3

8.7

8.1

7.4

6.7

6.1

5.4

5.0

4.6

4.3

4.0

3.7

3.4

3.3

3.0

2.7

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION226

Page 71: D:\My Documents\WordPerfect\WordPerfect 8.0\2000Report

Tab

le14

(con

tinue

d)

Year

Wor

ldw

ide

aver

age

annu

alef

fect

ive

dose

(µSv

)

131 I

140 B

a,La

89Sr

55F

e90

Sr13

7 Cs

Tota

l3 H

14C

Tota

l

aIn

dica

tes

estim

ated

valu

ele

ssth

an0.

0001

µSv

.

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

0.53

0.00

38 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

0.00

400.

0002 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

0.00

530.

0092 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

0.03

70.

029

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

1.85

1.77

1.66

1.53

1.44

1.35

1.26

1.18

1.11

1.04

0.98

0.92

0.86

0.81

0.76

0.71

0.67

0.63

0.59

0.56

0.92

0.98

0.85

0.67

0.63

0.57

0.52

0.50

0.48

0.47

0.45

0.44

0.43

0.41

0.40

0.39

0.38

0.37

0.36

0.35

3.35

2.79

2.51

2.20

2.07

1.92

1.78

1.68

1.59

1.51

1.43

1.36

1.29

1.22

1.16

1.10

1.05

1.00

0.95

0.90

0.08

0.07

0.06

0.05

0.04

0.04

0.03

0.03

0.03

0.02

0.02

0.02

0.02

0.02

0.01

0.01

0.01

0.01

0.00

90.

009

2.5

2.5

2.4

2.4

2.3

2.3

2.2

2.2

2.2

2.1

2.1

2.0

2.0

1.9

1.9

1.9

1.8

1.8

1.7

1.7

2.6

2.6

2.5

2.5

2.3

2.3

2.2

2.2

2.2

2.1

2.1

2.0

2.0

1.9

1.9

1.9

1.8

1.8

1.7

1.7

1945

-199

920

00-2

099

2100

-219

9

2200

- �

64.2

0.51

1.9

6.6

97.0

8.6

0.02 -

154

10 0.50

0.03

324

19 0.52

0.03

23.7

0.10

144

120

502

180

167

120

502

180

1945

- �64

.20.

511.

96.

610

616

534

423

.82

494

251

7

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 227

Page 72: D:\My Documents\WordPerfect\WordPerfect 8.0\2000Report

aE

stim

ated

valu

ele

ssth

an0.

0001

µSv

.

Tab

le15

Inh

alat

ion

exp

osu

reto

rad

ion

ucl

ides

pro

du

ced

inat

mo

sph

eric

nu

clea

rte

stin

g

Year

Wor

ldw

ide

aver

age

annu

alef

fect

ive

dose

(µSv

)

131 I

140 B

a14

1 Ce

103 R

u89

Sr91

Y95

Zr14

4 Ce

54M

n10

6 Ru

125 Sb

55F

e90

Sr13

7 Cs

Pu,

Am

Tota

l

1945

1946

1947

1948

1949

1950

1951

1952

1953

1954

1955

1956

1957

1958

1959

1960

1961

1962

1963

1964

1965

1966

1967

1968

1969

1970

1971

1972

1973

1974

1975

1976

1977

1978

1979

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

0.00

830.

0059

-a

0.00

960.

0020 -

0.05

80.

055

0.04

20.

087

0.04

20.

190.

200.

600.

0002

0.00

630.

240.

840.

025

0.00

180.

0067

0.03

70.

013

0.00

360.

0069

0.00

860.

0046

0.01

90.

0028

0.01

8-

0.02

10.

004

0.00

330.

0003

0.02

2- - - - -

0.00

120.

0009 -

0.00

140.

0003 -

0.00

850.

0083

0.00

650.

016

0.00

630.

028

0.03

00.

092

0.00

030.

0009

0.03

70.

130.

0062

0.00

030.

0010

0.00

540.

0022

0.00

080.

0017

0.00

170.

0008

0.00

280.

0006

0.00

27 -0.

0031

0.00

080.

0005

0.00

010.

0033 - - - - -

0.00

190.

0012 -

0.00

120.

0003 -

0.01

10.

013

0.01

20.

030

0.00

870.

037

0.05

60.

140.

0096

0.00

080.

072

0.26

0.05

30.

0003

0.00

180.

0085

0.00

540.

0024

0.00

840.

0059

0.00

330.

0051

0.00

210.

0050

0.00

010.

0055

0.00

440.

0004

0.00

010.

0060

0.00

08 - - - -

0.00

210.

0015 -

0.00

240.

0005 -

0.01

50.

015

0.01

70.

053

0.01

20.

059

0.05

80.

190.

015

0.00

160.

073

0.27

0.07

40.

0006

0.00

180.

0094

0.00

610.

0030

0.01

00.

0074

0.00

480.

0052

0.00

260.

0053

0.00

020.

0057

0.00

580.

0007

0.00

020.

0060

0.00

12 - - -

0.00

520.

0036 -

0.00

590.

0013 -

0.03

60.

036

0.04

80.

150.

032

0.15

0.15

0.45

0.06

20.

0041

0.18

0.71

0.29

0.00

280.

0044

0.02

30.

017

0.00

930.

032

0.02

40.

017

0.01

30.

0075

0.01

50.

0008

0.01

40.

020

0.00

180.

0006

0.01

50.

005

- - - -

0.00

760.

0053 -

0.00

860.

0018 -

0.05

20.

052

0.07

70.

230.

052

0.23

0.23

0.72

0.12

0.00

630.

271.

100.

530.

0075

0.00

640.

035

0.02

70.

016

0.05

40.

041

0.03

20.

020

0.01

20.

023

0.00

20.

020

0.03

60.

0028

0.00

090.

021

0.00

9- - - -

0.00

010.

0052

0.00

34 -0.

0033

0.00

07 -0.

029

0.03

40.

048

0.11

0.03

40.

140.

170.

420.

097

0.00

290.

270.

800.

470.

0080

0.00

880.

0237

0.02

50.

0086

0.05

20.

031

0.02

30.

017

0.01

30.

014

0.00

130.

015

0.03

00.

0014

0.00

040.

016

- - - -

0.03

80.

025

0.00

030.

024

0.00

500.

0002

0.20

0.24

0.56

1.28

1.06

1.45

1.98

4.35

3.11

0.54

1.60

9.93

15.3

4.29

0.88

0.33

0.26

0.36

0.81

0.84

0.81

0.31

0.15

0.36

0.12

0.12

0.66

0.17

0.03

50.

120.

170.

016

0.00

200.

0003 -

- - - - - - -0.

0002

0.00

050.

0011

0.00

080.

0020

0.00

240.

0054

0.00

480.

0009

0.00

170.

028

0.03

70.

012

0.00

260.

0006

0.00

030.

0004

0.00

100.

0008

0.00

080.

0002

0.00

020.

0004

0.00

010.

0001

0.00

080.

0002 - -

0.00

01 - - - -

0.02

20.

016

0.00

020.

026

0.00

540.

0002

0.15

0.15

0.52

1.33

1.30

1.28

1.36

2.99

2.13

0.47

0.92

5.63

9.31

3.17

0.79

0.27

0.17

0.23

0.48

0.52

0.51

0.21

0.10

0.22

0.08

0.07

50.

380.

130.

031

0.06

70.

102

0.01

20.

0018

0.02

710.

0001

- - - - - -0.

0003

0.00

030.

0010

0.00

260.

0034

0.00

310.

0031

0.00

580.

0049

0.00

160.

0020

0.01

10.

021

0.01

10.

0040

0.00

150.

0007

0.00

070.

0011

0.00

130.

0013

0.00

060.

0003

0.00

050.

0002

0.00

020.

0008

0.00

040.

0001

0.00

010.

0002 - - - -

- - - - - - - -0.

0001

0.00

010.

0001

0.00

020.

0003

0.00

050.

0006

0.00

020.

0002

0.00

290.

0047

0.00

250.

0009

0.00

030.

0001

0.00

010.

0001

0.00

010.

0001 - -

0.00

01 - -0.

0001 - - - - - - - -

0.00

330.

0024 -

0.00

380.

0008 -

0.02

20.

023

0.09

70.

260.

380.

350.

350.

460.

750.

200.

261.

041.

871.

200.

570.

250.

130.

150.

110.

150.

140.

067

0.02

50.

088

0.04

30.

021

0.05

90.

072

0.02

30.

022

0.03

20.

0094

0.00

660.

0053

0.00

16

0.00

010.

0001 -

0.00

01 - -0.

0008

0.00

080.

0035

0.00

920.

014

0.01

30.

013

0.01

70.

027

0.00

700.

0093

0.03

70.

067

0.04

30.

020

0.00

880.

0045

0.00

520.

0041

0.00

550.

0051

0.00

240.

0009

0.00

310.

0016

0.00

070.

0021

0.00

260.

0008

0.00

080.

0011

0.00

030.

0002

0.00

020.

0001

0.01

40.

010

0.00

020.

016

0.00

30.

0002

0.09

00.

092

0.40

1.05

1.55

1.43

1.43

1.89

3.09

0.81

1.06

4.24

7.66

4.90

2.34

1.01

0.52

0.59

0.47

0.63

0.59

0.28

0.10

0.36

0.18

0.08

40.

240.

290.

094

0.09

00.

130.

038

0.02

70.

022

0.00

65

0.10

0.07

80.

006

0.09

70.

026

0.00

20.

630.

721.

814.

514.

615.

216.

0012

.09.

912.

154.

6524

.336

.214

.24.

631.

981.

181.

391.

992.

292.

150.

950.

431.

110.

440.

371.

430.

710.

190.

370.

480.

048

0.03

40.

027

0.00

8

Tot

al2.

580.

400.

770.

932.

564.

072.

9252

.50.

1135

.20.

085

0.01

49.

220.

3337

.814

9

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION228

Page 73: D:\My Documents\WordPerfect\WordPerfect 8.0\2000Report

Tab

le16

An

nu

alef

fect

ive

do

sefr

om

rad

ion

ucl

ides

pro

du

ced

inat

mo

sph

eric

nu

clea

rte

stin

g

Year

Ave

rage

annu

alef

fect

ive

dose

(µSv

)

Nor

ther

nhe

mis

pher

eSo

uthe

rnhe

mis

pher

eW

orld

Ext

erna

lIn

gest

ion

aIn

hala

tion

Tota

lE

xter

nal

Inge

stio

na

Inha

latio

nTo

tal

Ext

erna

lIn

gest

ion

aIn

hala

tion

Tota

l

1945

1946

1947

1948

1949

1950

1951

1952

1953

1954

1955

1956

1957

1958

1959

1960

1961

1962

1963

1964

1965

1966

1967

1968

1969

1970

1971

1972

1973

1974

1975

1976

1977

1978

1979

1980

1981

1982

0.25

0.22

0.04

20.

260.

077

0.02

81.

501.

653.

175.

883.

528.

409.

3824

.213

.65.

269.

9839

.641

.318

.313

.310

.99.

017.

668.

257.

777.

637.

216.

246.

535.

825.

956.

795.

645.

285.

545.

554.

78

0.27

0.21

0.02

50.

310.

100.

014

1.90

2.02

2.92

7.17

8.26

14.0

13.5

27.7

16.6

12.6

16.7

50.0

43.7

42.3

30.4

21.8

16.7

14.6

13.6

12.7

12.2

11.2

9.17

9.27

8.51

7.97

7.43

7.39

6.56

6.46

5.77

5.41

0.12

0.08

70.

0046

0.11

0.02

70.

0016

0.72

0.80

2.01

4.95

5.03

5.76

6.40

13.2

10.8

2.30

5.23

26.5

40.2

15.6

5.04

2.07

1.23

1.42

2.11

2.38

2.25

1.00

0.43

1.16

0.46

0.41

1.59

0.79

0.21

0.41

0.52

0.08

3

0.64

0.52

0.07

10.

680.

210.

043

4.12

4.48

8.10

18.0

16.8

28.2

29.3

65.2

41.0

20.2

31.9

116

125

76.2

48.7

34.8

26.9

23.7

24.0

22.9

22.1

19.4

15.8

17.0

14.8

14.3

15.8

13.8

12.0

12.4

11.8

10.3

-b - - - - -0.

0016

0.08

20.

141.

140.

661.

837.

387.

822.

980.

970.

8325

.36.

622.

141.

783.

252.

933.

032.

933.

883.

782.

392.

233.

222.

061.

431.

361.

321.

271.

241.

211.

18

- - - - - -0.

0010

0.15

0.34

1.35

1.89

3.03

9.47

8.15

4.17

3.45

3.79

25.5

7.36

8.32

8.53

9.11

5.68

4.84

4.49

5.62

5.08

4.21

3.54

4.08

2.72

2.47

2.33

2.20

2.03

1.92

1.87

1.81

- - - - - -0.

0014

0.03

20.

171.

280.

791.

152.

722.

991.

160.

760.

658.

162.

732.

021.

381.

240.

761.

151.

091.

531.

310.

590.

360.

690.

240.

093

0.09

10.

072

0.04

00.

036

0.03

00.

022

- - - - - -0.

0039

0.27

0.65

3.77

3.34

6.01

19.6

19.0

8.31

5.18

5.26

59.0

16.7

12.5

11.7

13.6

9.37

9.02

8.52

11.0

10.2

7.19

6.14

7.98

5.01

4.00

3.78

3.59

3.34

3.20

3.11

3.01

0.22

0.20

0.03

70.

230.

068

0.02

51.

341.

482.

845.

363.

217.

679.

1622

.412

.54.

798.

9738

.137

.516

.612

.110

.18.

347.

157.

667.

357.

216.

685.

806.

175.

405.

456.

195.

164.

845.

075.

074.

39

0.24

0.19

0.02

0.28

0.09

0.01

1.69

1.81

2.58

6.53

7.60

12.8

13.1

25.6

15.1

11.7

15.3

47.3

39.8

38.6

27.9

20.4

15.5

13.6

12.6

11.9

11.4

10.4

8.58

8.73

7.88

7.37

6.94

6.85

6.02

5.93

5.36

4.97

0.10

0.07

70.

0041

0.10

0.02

40.

0014

0.64

0.72

1.81

4.55

4.57

5.26

6.00

12.1

9.75

2.13

4.73

24.5

36.0

14.1

4.63

1.98

1.18

1.39

1.99

2.28

2.15

0.96

0.42

1.11

0.44

0.37

1.43

0.71

0.19

0.37

0.47

0.07

6

0.57

0.47

0.06

0.60

0.19

0.03

93.

674.

017.

2316

.415

.425

.828

.360

.137

.318

.629

.011

011

369

.344

.632

.525

.022

.122

.321

.520

.818

.114

.816

.013

.713

.214

.612

.711

.111

.410

.99.

43

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 229

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Tab

le16

(con

tinue

d)

Year

Ave

rage

annu

alef

fect

ive

dose

(µSv

)

Nor

ther

nhe

mis

pher

eSo

uthe

rnhe

mis

pher

eW

orld

Ext

erna

lIn

gest

ion

aIn

hala

tion

Tota

lE

xter

nal

Inge

stio

na

Inha

latio

nTo

tal

Ext

erna

lIn

gest

ion

aIn

hala

tion

Tota

l

aIn

clud

esco

ntri

butio

nfr

omgl

obal

lydi

sper

sed

3 Han

d14

C.

bE

stim

ated

valu

ele

ssth

an0.

0001

µSv

.

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

4.64

4.51

4.40

4.29

4.18

4.08

3.99

3.90

3.81

3.72

3.63

3.55

3.47

3.39

3.31

3.24

3.16

5.01

4.79

4.57

4.36

4.19

4.04

3.90

3.76

3.63

3.50

3.37

3.26

3.14

3.03

2.92

2.81

2.71

0.04

00.

060

0.00

870.

0006

0.00

03 - - - - - - - - - - - -

9.69

9.36

8.98

8.65

8.38

8.12

7.89

7.65

7.43

7.22

7.01

6.81

6.61

6.42

6.23

6.05

5.87

1.15

1.12

1.10

1.07

1.05

1.02

1.00

0.97

0.95

0.93

0.91

0.89

0.87

0.85

0.83

0.81

0.79

1.77

1.72

1.68

1.64

1.62

1.61

1.60

1.60

1.61

1.62

1.63

1.65

1.68

1.72

1.76

1.82

1.89

0.01

80.

010

0.00

50.

0003

0.00

02 - - - - - - - - - - - -

2.93

2.85

2.78

2.71

2.66

2.63

2.60

2.58

2.56

2.55

2.54

2.54

2.55

2.57

2.59

2.63

2.68

4.03

3.93

3.84

3.75

3.66

3.57

3.49

3.41

3.33

3.26

3.18

3.11

3.04

2.97

2.90

4.65

4.41

4.26

4.01

3.91

3.82

3.63

3.55

3.38

3.31

3.14

3.07

3.01

2.86

2.81

2.66

2.61

0.03

80.

055

0.00

80.

0006

0.00

02 - - - - - - - - - - - -

8.94

8.60

8.30

7.94

7.75

7.57

7.29

7.12

6.87

6.72

6.48

6.33

6.20

5.97

5.85

5.63

5.51

1945

-199

920

00-2

099

2100

-219

9

2200

- �

382

124

12 1.4

531

141

512

180

164

107

626

463

218

1

115

31 3.1

0.3

178

126

502

180

3532

815

753

218

0

353

114

11 1.3

492

139

512

180

149

994

253

622

181

1945

- �52

02

900

164

358

014

92

530

352

720

479

286

014

93

490

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION230

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ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 231

a Exposures from Bravo test of 28 February 1954 to residents of Rongelap, Utrik, and Ailinginae atolls.b External exposure to local population only.c Population in settlements bordering the test site. The extended population of Semipalatinsk and Altai regions was 1.7 million in 1960.d Maralinga, Emu, and Monte Bello Island.

a Assumed to be geometric mean of range.

Table 17Local doses from atmospheric nuclear testing

Test site PopulationMaximum absorbed dose

in thyroid of children(Gy)

Maximumeffective dose

(Sv)

Collectiveeffective dose

(man Sv)Ref.

United StatesNevadaPacific a

180 000245

1200 1.9

500 b

160[A1][L4]

Former USSRSemipalatinsk 10 000 c 20 4 600 [T1]

United KingdomAustralian sites d 700 [W1]

Table 18Distribution of cumulative effective doses to individuals exposed in local areas downwind of the Nevada test site[A1]

Effective dose (mSv) Number of individuals Collective effective dose (man Sv)

Range Mean a 1951�1958 1961�1963 1951�1958 1961�1963

<0.06�0.60.6�33�66�30

30�6060�90

0.21.34.2134273

61 00080 00019 00020 000

52045

180 000480

0000

1210480260223.2

360.6

Total (rounded) 180 000 180 000 460 40

Table 19Estimated local exposures from atmospheric nuclear tests conducted by France at the South Pacific testsite[B8]

Location Date of test PopulationEffective dose (mSv) Collective

effective dose(man Sv)External Inhalation Ingestion Total

GambierIslands

2 July 19668 August 1971

4068

3.40.9

0.180.002

1.90.24

5.51.2

0.20.5

Tureia Atoll 2 July 196712 June 1971

516545

0.70.9

0.0230.003

0.170.043

0.91.3

0.70.08

Tahiti(Mahina)

17 July 1974 84,000 0.6 0.08 0.06 0.8 67

Total 70

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ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION232

a Includes cratering tests carried out by the United States and the USSR, some of which released radionuclides to the atmosphere.

Table 20Effective dose estimates from external exposures at locations 400�800 km downwind of the Lop Nor testsite[Z1]

City PopulationDistance from test site

(km)Absorbed dose in air

(mGy)Effective dose

(mSv)

Xihu )Anxi )Tashi )QiaowanYumenzhen )Yumanshi )JintaJiayuguan

60 000

(Village)

159 000

99 00089 000

500500560600

740720

0.070.060.100.140.120.020.450.44

0.20.20.30.040.03

0.0060.110.11

Table 21Underground nuclear tests a

YearNumber of tests

China France India Pakistan United Kingdom United States USSR

19551957195819611962196319641965196619671968196919701971197219731974197519761977197819791980198119821983198419851986198719881989199019911992199319941995199619971998

1

11

1

122

11

2

21222

113341

259

1110121210988888966

51

1

5 6

2

21

1

1

2131112111

111

15

1410574548394942726160283227252320232015141618191817141618151098

11

9151923232421293122273527365552433734375210

3929118

Total 22 160 6 6 24 908 750

All countries 1 876

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ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 233

a Includes 5 safety tests.b Includes 12 safety tests.c Includes 22 safety tests and 2 combat explosions.

a Radionuclide composition included, additionally, 89Sr (8.8%) and other (27.9%).

Table 22Summary of nuclear testing

CountryNumber of tests Yield (Mt)

Atmospheric Underground Total Atmospheric Underground Total

ChinaFranceIndiaPakistanUnited KingdomUnited StatesUSSR

2250 a

33 b

219 c

219

22160

66

24908750

44210

66

571 127969

20.710.2

8.1154247

13

24638

2213

10200285

All countries 543 1 876 2 419 440 90 530

Table 23Radionuclide releases and estimated local exposures from nuclear weapons material production andfabrication plants in the United States

Location Release period Airborne release(GBq)

Liquid release(GBq)

Cumulative effective dose (mSv)Reference

Airborne Liquid

Fernald 1954�1980 50�150 (U) [S5]

Oak Ridge 1942�1984 �1 000 000 (131I) 25 400 (137Cs) [H9, W5]

Rocky Flats 1953�1983 (routine)1957 (fire)

1965�1969 (storage area)

8.8 (U) / 1.7 (Pu)1.9 (Pu)260 (Pu)

0.00150.0130.072

[R3][M4][M5]

Hanford 1944�1987 27 300 000 (131I) 481 000 000 (24Na) 12 15 [H4, S3]

Savannah River 1954�1989 140 (Pu) 23 (Pu) 0.12 0.0024 [C1]

Table 24Releases of radioactive materials associated with the early operation of the materials production complexat Chelyabinsk-40 in the eastern Urals region of the Russian Federation[D5, K4, N8]

Circumstances of release Time periodRadionuclide composition (%) Total

activityrelease(PBq)

90Sr 95Zr 106Ru 137Cs 144Ce

Routine operationAtmospheric effluentsLiquid effluents to Techa River a

1948�19561949�1956 11.6 13.6 25.9 12.2 100

Accident at waste storage site 1957 5.4 24.9 3.7 0.036 66.0 74

Resuspension from shoreline of LakeKarachay 1967 34 48 18 0.022

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ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION234

a Dry weight.

Table 25Estimated collective effective dose from operation of weapons material production centres in the formerSoviet Union [D5, K4, K5, N8]

Production centre Time period Population exposedCollective effective dose

(man Sv)

ChelyabinskDischarges to Techa RiverWaste storage accident

1949�19561957

28 000273 000

6 2002 500

KrasnoyarskDischarges to Yenesei River 1958�1991 200 000 1 200

TomskDischarges to Tom/Ob Rivers 1958�1992 400 000 200

Total 10 100

Table 26Present (1990�1993) levels of contamination surrounding the Chelyabinsk site [K4]

Location MaterialDeposition density (kBq m�2) Concentration (Bq kg�1)

90Sr 137Cs 90Sr 137Cs

Techa River WaterBottom sedimentsFish

7�2340�2 000 a

50�560

0.06�0.23100�280 000 a

4�10

Eastern Urals

Agricultural areas SoilPotatoesGrainMilkBeef

3.7�74 7.4�370.2�6.70.5�12.60.2�6.30.2�1.7

0.5�3.80.3�2.90.2�4.50.3�2.6

Forest areas SoilMushroomsBerries

37�74 000 37�740400�1 100

700�16 000110�1 600

150

Lakes removed from use WaterBottom sedimentsFish

17�120

70 000�110 000

0.7250�860 a

1 700

Lakes of multipurpose use WaterBottom sedimentsFish

0.10�0.3420�300 a

30�220

0.06�0.3680�240 a

8�26

Table 27Present (1993�1996) exposures from nuclear materials production/processing centres in the RussianFederation [B7, K4]

Installation PopulationAnnual effective dose (mSv) Annual collective

effective dose(man Sv)External Internal Total

ChelyabinskKrasnoyarskTomsk

320 000200 000400 000

0.010.03

0.0004

0.100.02

0.005

0.110.05

0.0054

35102.2

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ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 235

a Values in parentheses are estimates.b Uranium is produced as a byproduct from imported phosphates.c Decommissioning product.

a Normalization basis: production, 250 t (GW a)�1; tailings, 1 ha (GWa)�1.b Dose coefficient: 0.0025 man Sv TBq�1.c Normalized release rate: TBq a�1 (GWa)�1.d Assuming release period of five years.e Assuming release period of 10,000 years and unchanging population density.

Table 28Production of uranium[O1]

CountryAnnual production of uranium (t) a

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

ArgentinaAustraliaBelgium b

BrazilBulgariaCanadaChinaCzech RepublicFranceGabonGermanyHungaryIndiaKazakhstanMongoliaNamibiaNigerPakistanPortugalRomaniaRussian FederationSloveniaSouth AfricaSpainUkraineUnited StatesUzbekistan

93 530

395

4058 729(800)2 1422 841709

2 972524

(230)(7 120)

893 2112 839(30)111210

3 78053

2 460213

(1 000)3 420

(2 100)

183 776

380

2408 160(800)1 7782 477678

1 207415

(200)(7 350)

1012 4502 963(30)28160

3 0500

1 712196

(1 000)3 0602 100

1232 334

360

1509 297(955)1 5392 149589232430150

(2 802)105

1 6602 965(23)28120

2 6402 c

1 669187

1 0002 1702 680

1262 256

3424100

9 155(780)950

1 730556116380148

2 70054

1 6792 914(23)32

(120)2 697

01 699184

1 0001 1802 600

802 208

4010670

9 647(780)541

1 05365047413155

2 24072

1 8952 975(23)24120

2 5410

1 671256

1 0001 2792 015

653 712

25106

010 473(500)600

1 01665235210

(155)1 630

202 0162 974(23)18120

2 1600

1 421255

1 0002 3241 644

284 974

2800

11 788(500)59894056040200

(200)1 320

02 4523 160(23)15100

2 0000

1 436255500

2 4201 459

355 520

2700

12 029(500)59074847240200

(200)1 000

02 9053 497(23)17100

(2 000)0

1 100255500

2 1702 000

Total 49 571 43 987 36 035 33 237 31 611 33 154 34 996 35 692

Table 29Radon releases in airborne effluents and collective dose from uranium mining and milling

SourceRelease

per unit production(GBq t�1)

Release rateper unit area(Bq s�1 m�2)

Normalizedrelease a

[TBq (GWa)�1]

Normalized collectiveeffective dose

[man Sv (GWa)�1] b

Mining 300 75 0.19

Milling 13 3 0.0075

Mill tailingsOperational millClosed mill

101

3 c

0.3 c0.04 d

7.5 e

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ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION236

Table 30Worldwide installed capacity and electrical energy generated by nuclear reactors[I3]

CountryCapacity

(GW)

Electrical energy generated (GW a)

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

PWRs

ArmeniaArmenia 1-2 0.376 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.239 0.163

BelgiumDoel 1-4Tihange 1-3

2.712.791

2.1912.442

2.2842.359

2.2962.413

2.0802.468

1.9232.489

2.2212.266

2.2352.472

2.4782.643

BrazilAngra 1 0.626 0.235 0.149 0.172 0.046 0.005 0.266 0.261 0.341

BulgariaKozloduy 1-6 3.538 1.542 1.387 1.213 1.417 1.612 1.852 1.919 1.877

ChinaGuangdong 1-2QinshanMaanshan 1-2

1.8120.2881.78

--

1.397

--

1.446

--

1.369

-0.1991.462

1.3310.1881.522

1.1490.2361.468

1.3160.2371.585

1.4160.2301.411

Czech RepublicDukovany 1-4 1.632 1.343 1.272 1.398 1.441 1.481 1.396 1.375 1.426

FinlandLoviisa 1-2 0.89 0.743 0.776 0.751 0.798 0.756 0.736 0.779 0.868

FranceBelleville 1-2Blayais 1-4Bugey 2-5Cattenom 1-4Chinon B1-B4Chooz-A (Ardennes)Chooz B1-B2Cruas 1-4Dampierre 1-4Fessenheim 1-2Flamanville 1-2Golfech 1-2Gravelines 1-6Nogent 1-2Paluel 1-4Penly 1-2St. Alban 1-2St. Laurent B1-B2Tricastin 1-4

2.623.643.645.23.55

0.305-

3.5553.561.762.662.625.462.625.322.662.67

1.7953.66

1.6252.5412.0761.9942.5850.169

-2.6632.0780.9801.7020.2083.9951.6153.3340.3301.5831.2882.554

1.8882.6881.9082.3852.4940.152

-2.3502.4861.0691.5811.0893.9181.7353.5630.9631.8151.1472.381

1.9132.5561.3803.7182.825

0-

2.4902.4610.8071.8780.8073.9431.8413.1951.4921.2771.2682.673

1.9172.5822.3553.5792.598

0-

2.5792.7001.2931.9731.1543.9761.9293.7861.8991.5761.2232.698

1.6912.3152.3063.6242.573

0-

2.5472.3451.3111.7731.7174.0121.6873.2761.9101.6781.4182.703

1.7922.8412.4153.7132.884

0-

2.5472.5131.2501.8981.7044.2451.7013.7421.9461.8591.1142.784

1.6663.0812.3674.0782.789

0-

2.8022.6661.4112.0532.0414.0701.9073.3982.2021.8801.3242.991

2.0882.9772.5484.0382.842

00.9982.4852.4861.3281.7582.0324.0201.9973.8141.8921.7311.2662.677

GermanyBiblis A-BBrokdorfEmslandGrafenrheinfeldGreifswaldGrohndeIsar 2Mülheim-KärlichNeckarwestheim 1-2ObrigheimPhilippsburg 2StadeUnterweser

2.3861.3261.2421.2351.632

1.31.31

1.2192.020.34

1.2680.641.23

1.6160.9521.1460.903

01.1561.058

01.7630.1350.9720.4800.969

1.2381.0841.0601.113

01.1371.107

01.6940.1201.1310.2620.740

1.6571.2321.1601.102

01.1901.124

01.7670.2151.0730.4850.997

1.7901.0781.1961.010

01.2191.164

01.7660.2991.1960.5141.236

1.7651.1681.2021.104

01.1721.199

01.8980.3001.1740.6110.877

1.1831.1321.1981.135

01.2301.146

01.8830.2471.2040.4980.911

1.3551.2051.2051.088

01.2091.172

01.9030.3171.2810.5751.131

1.8801.2841.2161.157

01.3541.245

01.8660.3161.2690.5651.134

HungaryPaks 1-4 1.84 1.472 1.473 1.594 1.575 1.510 1.507 1.531 1.501

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Table 30 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 237

CountryCapacity

(GW)

Electrical energy generated (GW a)

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

JapanGenkai 1-4Ikata 1-3Mihama 1-3Ohi 1-4Sendai 1-2Takahama 1-4Tomari 1-2Tsuruga 2

2.1851.9221.574.49

1.6923.221.10

1.115

0.8430.9521.3561.3851.4062.2770.5140.822

0.8090.9040.8071.6711.2852.1400.7781.057

0.7710.8150.6552.7801.4912.4620.8320.924

0.9640.8090.7073.6141.4202.5200.9870.895

1.7511.1980.9343.3791.2952.3410.9610.892

1.7461.6910.7682.8551.3062.5520.9261.053

1.7591.4601.1953.8451.4322.4150.8770.921

2.4201.6481.3183.3461.5032.6310.9820.745

NetherlandsBorssele 0.481 0.329 0.311 0.323 0.380 0.379 0.387 0.402 0.248

Republic of KoreaKori 1-4Ulchin 1-2Yonggwang 1-4

2.9511.843.7

2.3881.3371.468

2.4151.5881.530

2.4571.6041.522

2.5001.6221.559

2.5021.5721.754

2.5631.7082.389

2.6231.6863.185

2.4581.5823.298

Russian FederationBalakovo 1-4Kalinin 1-2Kola 1-4Novovoronezh 2-5

3.81.9

1.6441.72

1.3621.3681.3171.033

1.6741.2801.2791.064

2.0381.4021.1391.049

1.7301.2321.0851.183

1.5651.0160.7740.793

1.4281.1950.9820.940

1.9361.0300.9381.015

1.7631.0360.9331.234

SlovakiaBohunice 1-4 1.632 1.274 1.240 1.261 1.163 1.280 1.296 1.286 1.233

SloveniaKrsko 0.62 0.501 0.539 0.430 0.430 0.503 0.522 0.498 0.547

South AfricaKoeberg 1-2 1.844 0.966 1.047 1.062 0.835 1.106 1.289 1.342 1.441

SpainAlmaraz 1-2Asco 1-2José Cabrera 1Trillo 1Vandellos 2

1.861.860.161.071.00

1.6111.5490.1090.7270.837

1.6251.5560.1200.7400.820

1.5151.5930.1280.9060.767

1.6261.5420.1040.8440.789

1.5791.5830.0020.9050.823

1.5301.4480.0400.8530.864

1.5041.5960.1120.8710.857

1.4481.6360.0930.8860.827

SwedenRinghals 2-4 2.63 1.987 2.177 1.969 1.790 2.211 1.966 2.153 2.184

SwitzerlandBeznau 1-2Gösgen

0.70.94

0.5930.814

0.5840.815

0.5540.846

0.5490.846

0.6560.875

0.6180.893

0.6290.905

0.6620.910

UkraineKhmelnitski 1Rovno 1-3South Ukraine 1-3Zaporozhe 1-6

0.951.6952.854.75

0.7421.3411.5562.680

0.5901.1971.8082.933

0.6941.5012.0343.500

0.6261.2371.8862.944

0.7201.2381.6712.614

0.6511.1801.8062.645

0.5131.2291.8143.712

0.7021.3172.1733.884

United KingdomSizewell B 1.188 - - - - - 0.614 0.966 0.959

United StatesArkansas One 1-2Beaver Valley 1-2Braidwood 1-2Byron 1-2Callaway 1Calvert Cliffs 1-2Catawba 1-2Comanche Peak 1-2Crystal River 3Davis-Besse 1Diablo Canyon 1-2Donald Cook 1-2

1.6941.6432.242.21

1.1181.65

2.2582.3

0.8210.862.162.08

1.2871.1941.6691.4850.9140.1531.5300.2870.4730.4751.8601.269

1.4461.1961.3201.7231.1391.0391.5930.6120.6230.6671.7221.772

1.2941.3641.8161.8250.9241.2221.8640.7920.6070.8731.9070.733

1.5381.0931.8331.7110.9581.4051.8011.2880.6940.6941.9211.862

1.5891.4301.6021.8611.1421.2861.9941.6700.6780.7291.7431.061

1.3331.3121.8431.8140.9421.4771.9041.9370.8260.8761.8581.598

1.5241.1971.7841.6781.0151.3811.7781.7270.2760.7371.9091.872

1.6221.1631.8641.8571.0221.5002.0302.002

00.8201.9501.190

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Table 30 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION238

CountryCapacity

(GW)

Electrical energy generated (GW a)

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

United States (continued)Farley 1-2Fort Calhoun 1R. E. GinnaHaddam NeckHarris 1Indian Point 1-3KewauneeMaine YankeeMcGuire 1-2Millstone 2-3North Anna 1-2Oconee 1-2-3PalisadesPalo Verde 1-3Point Beach 1-2Prairie Island 1-2Rancho Seco 1H. B. Robinson 2Salem 1-2San Onofre 1-3Seabrook 1Sequoyah 1-2South Texas 1-2St. Lucie 1-2Surry 1-2Three Mile Island 1TrojanTurkey Point 3-4Virgil C. Summer 1Vogtle 1-2Waterford 3Watts BarWolf CreekYankee NPSZion 1-2

1.6540.4780.47

0.5650.86

1.8290.5030.81

2.2582.0051.83

2.5380.73

3.6630.97

1.0030.8730.6652.2122.5861.15

2.2962.5

1.6781.5620.8081.0951.3320.8852.1661.0751.1701.1350.1672.08

1.3910.2760.3940.1360.7241.1710.4450.5551.2841.5441.5082.3000.3432.3510.8360.8710.0040.3791.3071.8810.4671.6011.4301.1241.2110.6070.6970.8870.6981.6230.982

-0.9010.0940.810

1.3880.3710.3980.4230.6771.2760.4200.7151.8680.7791.5192.1740.5562.8650.8350.967

00.5471.6521.8820.7781.8941.6561.5091.2070.6470.1710.2440.6101.8720.830

-0.6730.1131.072

1.2650.2900.3980.4440.6201.4430.4500.6121.6291.0641.3342.0170.5552.9230.8300.767

00.4641.1482.1180.8981.7902.0101.4351.3300.7920.5260.9210.8581.9590.870

-0.969

01.082

1.3840.3540.3990.4270.8590.8130.4360.6551.4111.4611.3602.3010.4052.5150.8730.927

00.4791.3071.6881.0330.3860.1551.1601.2300.681

01.1880.6971.9731.043

-0.903

01.406

1.5080.4700.3850.4340.6920.8720.4520.7571.7741.4951.6312.0440.5152.6450.8740.944

00.5311.3002.1070.7081.3651.6261.3461.2720.752

01.1150.5092.0720.905

-0.976

01.176

1.2380.3840.4150.4180.6810.7270.4330.0232.0491.2251.5832.2610.5323.0800.8190.969

00.5750.5281.5980.9571.7942.1951.2351.2860.729

01.2560.8632.1860.886

-1.149

01.415

1.4710.3570.3310.3170.8071.5640.3620.5781.8060.4021.4921.7640.6073.2930.7940.939

00.623

01.9851.1241.9382.3611.3931.5090.811

01.2460.8171.9621.0190.6330.940

01.477

1.4510.4360.445

00.6750.8580.270

01.559

01.7111.5670.6623.3690.1920.818

00.7070.2931.5410.9071.9462.2661.3951.3800.676

01.2210.8302.1210.7670.8680.964

00.123

BWRs

ChinaChin Shan 1-2Kuosheng 1-2

1.2081.902

0.7311.472

0.9331.488

0.9301.407

0.9541.349

0.8701.430

0.9181.472

0.9211.641

1.0631.526

FinlandOlkiluoto 1-2 1.465 1.325 1.325 1.323 1.348 1.337 1.333 1.353 1.421

GermanyBrunsbüttelGundremmingen B,CIsar 1KrümmelPhilippsburg 1Würgassen

0.7712.4880.871.26

0.8640.64

0.5461.9070.5771.0080.5940.125

0.4361.8660.7720.8830.7050.466

0.3981.9120.6700.9500.7430.432

01.6790.6360.7490.5270.449

01.8640.5880.2830.7500.384

0.3432.0610.7361.0520.721

0

0.5362.1550.6640.9410.791

0

0.5832.0800.6851.0560.732

0

IndiaTarapur 1-2 0.3 0.206 0.162 0.181 0.199 0.128 0.198 0.087 0.201

JapanFukushima Daiichi 1-6Fukushima Daini 1-4Hamaoka 1-4Kashiwazaki Kariwa 1-7Onagawa 1-2Shika 1Shimane 1-2Tokai 2Tsuruga 1

4.5464.2683.4697.9651.2940.5051.23

1.0560.341

2.7802.5621.6522.2010.325

-1.0120.8320.224

3.3833.2021.6242.5990.382

-0.9880.8020.258

3.0283.2391.5522.6220.470

-0.9320.7180.227

2.4532.9332.6103.4050.2630.3241.0620.9940.300

3.2483.0762.2583.9690.3910.3780.9700.8360.172

3.8373.5723.1614.5520.8490.3990.9530.7810.266

3.3213.5282.8475.1511.0160.3940.2910.8610.286

3.2953.5932.8786.6131.1690.5061.1221.0140.221

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Table 30 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 239

CountryCapacity

(GW)

Electrical energy generated (GW a)

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

MexicoLaguna Verde 1-2 1.30 0.232 0.464 0.428 0.539 0.464 0.860 0.858 1.144

NetherlandsDodewaard 0.05 0.047 0.047 0.048 0.049 0.048 0.045 0.045 0.008

SpainConfrentesS. Maria de Garona

0.990.46

0.8070.291

0.7990.420

0.8800.305

0.8010.419

0.7980.358

0.9350.437

0.8780.366

0.7870.384

SwedenBarsebeck 1-2Forsmark 1-3Oskarshamn 1-3Ringhals 1

1.23.0082.2070.75

0.9742.3551.6190.517

1.0402.6611.8710.644

0.6292.4841.4730.386

0.6822.5341.2500.456

0.9462.7741.4770.615

0.8992.6741.4840.647

0.9032.6801.6730.741

0.8712.4661.8620.255

SwitzerlandLeibstadtMühleberg

0.990.322

0.8670.283

0.8060.276

0.8600.276

0.8380.293

0.7980.302

0.8760.305

0.8800.302

0.8860.291

United StatesBig Rock PointBrowns Ferry 1-3Brunswick 1-2Clinton 1CooperDresden 2-3Duane Arnold-1Enrico Fermi 2FitzpatrickGrand Gulf 1Hatch 1-2Hope Creek 1Lasalle 1-2Limerick 1-2Millstone 1MonticelloNine Mile Point 1-2Oyster CreekPeach Bottom 2-3Perry 1Pilgrim 1Quad Cities 1-2River Bend 1Susquehanna 1-2Vermont YankeeWPPSS 2

0.0673.1951.58

0.9460.7641.5450.5381.0930.7571.1421.5251.0312.0721.0550.6540.5361.6820.62

2.0861.1410.67

1.5380.9362.07

0.5041.095

0.0490.0120.9600.4110.5831.0580.3450.8130.5250.8451.2140.4651.6961.4690.5820.5140.6230.4911.6250.7580.4841.1090.6381.6820.4130.661

0.0560.4340.9210.6900.5480.6360.4730.7060.3851.0411.1000.8451.7761.7440.2030.4111.1910.3371.1691.0250.3911.0090.7631.8110.4690.488

0.0310.9580.3640.5630.7110.8290.3920.840

00.9331.2390.8061.4001.6810.4130.5080.9220.5171.4680.8180.5410.8710.3151.5510.4260.651

0.0490.6590.4570.6710.4240.9160.3700.9460.5420.9021.1371.0071.4921.8510.6020.4411.3180.5331.6000.4540.4960.9310.6001.5490.3850.815

0.0470.8381.2310.8460.2540.6570.469

00.5681.0981.2310.8131.5271.8760.3760.4521.5150.4151.8630.5240.4370.6490.5581.7490.4930.771

0.0591.1371.3690.6970.4710.6130.4270.5860.5480.8921.3150.8071.6151.8890.4970.5431.2990.5931.8881.0400.5120.9570.9051.7840.4400.793

0.0421.9231.2440.6060.7240.5850.4500.5470.6041.0531.4550.7731.0211.957

00.4421.5270.4951.9500.8540.6080.8390.7831.9270.4340.635

0.0221.9291.474

00.6231.0990.4740.6370.7561.2351.3750.733

02.002

00.4181.3220.5791.9560.9310.4920.9350.7791.9200.4870.700

HWRs

ArgentinaAtucha 1Embalse

0.3350.600

0.1970.571

0.3110.514

0.2550.497

0.2740.545

0.3030.589

0.3050.445

0.2330.558

0.3110.541

CanadaBruce 1-4Bruce 5-8Darlington 1-4Gentilly-2Pickering 1-4Pickering 5-8Point Lepreau

3.3943.3713.5240.642.06

2.0640.635

1.6232.7590.1320.4660.8041.5840.609

2.1633.0190.2510.4481.1431.8380.621

1.8892.6990.2580.5621.2641.5220.551

1.1322.2772.5020.5881.6501.6690.607

1.6122.7423.0420.6171.4751.7320.598

1.6652.6483.1530.5160.8581.7050.184

1.4782.8572.9620.5980.7461.0260.524

0.9732.7042.1180.4811.1421.2110.394

IndiaKakrapar 1-2Kalpakkam 1-2Narora 1-2Rajasthan 1-2

0.2020.440.44

0.414

-0.222

-0.176

-0.1810.0510.125

-0.2000.1500.106

0.1700.0480.151

0.0150.2100.0870.060

0.2190.1550.226

0

0.2990.1920.273

0

0.2280.2110.3600.030

JapanFugen 0.165 0.099 0.128 0.109 0.119 0.110 0.143 0.115 0.077

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Table 30 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION240

CountryCapacity

(GW)

Electrical energy generated (GW a)

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

PakistanKarachi 0.125 0.043 0.042 0.057 0.042 0.060 0.053 0.035 0.044

Republic of KoreaWolsong 1 0.629 0.545 0.578 0.553 0.641 0.523 0.530 0.513 1.026

RomaniaCernavoda 1 0.650 - - - - - 0.135 0.565

United KingdomWinfrith 0.092 0.042 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

GCRs

FranceBugey 1Chinon A2-3St. Laurent A1-2

0.540.540.84

0.2290.1430.100

0.1550

0.282

0.1310

0.152

0.17900

0.16600

000

000

000

JapanTokai 1 0.159 0.103 0.102 0.120 0.021 0.072 0.095 0.134 0.109

SpainVandellos 1 0.48 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

United KingdomBerkeleyBradwellCalder HallChapelcrossDungeness ADungeness B1-B2Hartlepool A1-A2Heysham 1A-B, 2A-BHinkley Point AHinkley Point B, A-BHunterston A1Hunterston B1-B2Oldbury ASizewell ATorness A-BTrawsfynyddWylfa

0.1380.2450.1980.1920.4240.720.842.070.471.250.31.15

0.4340.421.250.390.84

00.1690.1570.1630.3420.1690.5640.8110.3030.864

00.9100.3330.3070.4440.3020.770

00.1840.1550.1550.3650.4710.5491.1830.3260.794

00.7720.3630.3140.5900.0370.851

00.1350.1620.1650.4280.3900.8251.5860.2420.858

00.7180.3900.2590.944

00.890

00.1870.1680.1740.3680.6620.9951.9240.3910.980

00.8280.4040.3450.872

00.824

00.2070.1700.1770.4040.5660.9131.9280.3721.025

00.9680.3980.3850.891

00.698

00.1760.1630.1760.3820.1700.8281.8030.4031.062

00.9700.3890.3210.994

00.764

00.1730.1590.1780.3130.6891.0081.8830.3070.905

00.3330.3810.0450.314

00.813

00.1360.157

0.4050.6060.9671.9890.3940.993

00.9770.4020.1991.045

00.858

LWGRs

LithuaniaIgnalina 1-2 2.76 1.792 1.782 1.671 1.260 0.757 1.214 1.446 1.239

Russian FederationBilibino 1-4Kursk 1-4Leningrad 1-4Smolensk 1-3

0.0443.73.71.85

0.0342.6052.4311.999

0.0292.4012.3952.175

0.0322.1202.0922.334

0.0242.3342.3292.228

0.0211.8522.1111.711

0.0141.8571.8881.762

0.0152.0012.0752.088

0.0141.9302.4091.738

UkraineChernobyl 1-3 2.575 1.815 1.509 0.602 1.327 1.089 1.228 1.210 0.463

FBRs

FranceCreys-MalvillePhenix

1.20.233

0.0670.112

00

00

00.004

0.0010.003

0.3870.0003

KazakhstanBn-350 0.135 - - 0.053 0.051 0.043 0.009 0.010 0.035

Russian FederationBeloyarsky 3 0.56 0.365 0.387 0.467 0.447 0.435 0.390 0.425 0.405

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Table 30 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 241

CountryCapacity

(GW)

Electrical energy generated (GW a)

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

United KingdomDounreay PFR 0.25 0.061 0.089 0 0.103 0.038 0 0 0

All reactors

All countriesPWRSBWRsHWRsGCRsLWGRsFBRs

224.172.919.813.915.02.4

138.748.09.97.210.70.61

145.351.911.47.610.30.48

151.849.210.78.48.90.52

152.951.212.49.39.50.61

157.152.813.89.37.50.52

161.760.012.88.78.00.40

169.459.612.57.68.80.82

167.761.612.49.27.80.44

Total 347.9 215.1 227.0 229.5 236.0 241.0 251.6 258.9 259.2

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ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION242

Table 31Noble gases released from reactors in airborne effluents

Country / reactorRelease (GBq)

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

PWRs

Armenia [A5]Armenia 2 25 600 29 000

Belgium [M1]Doel 1-4Tihange 1-3

15 60034 100

31 30016 600

26 40010 900

5 19040 500

97211 900

4 1204 120

2 05014 600

73.89 810

Brazil [C7]Angra 1 318 688 20 100 44 800 176 229 7 720 61 600

Bulgaria [C6]Kozloduy 1-6 541 000 402 000 202 000 210 000 264 000 250 000 390 000 203 000

China [C8, T2]Guangdong 1-2QinshanMaanshan 1-2

--

770

--

354

-6.4148

27.574

22 70030.7166

80 20055.2467

43 60036.6866

31 10015.128.4

Czech Republic [N2]Dukovany 1-4 1 670 10 700 11 800 18 600 20 000 48 300 31 500 5 590

Finland [F1]Loviisa 1-2 1 000 1 000 1 800 1 600 1 400 24 000 1 100 3 400

France [E1]Belleville 1-2Blayais 1-4Bugey 2-5Cattenom 1-4Chinon B1-B4Chooz-A (Ardennes)Chooz B1-B2Cruas 1-4Dampierre 1-4Fessenheim 1-2Flamanville 1-2Golfech 1-2Gravelines 1-6Nogent 1-2Paluel 1-4Penly 1-2St. Alban 1-2St. Laurent B1-B2Tricastin 1-4

60 000179 00042 00081 000

139 00071 000

-22 000

179 0008 2005 9006 40060 00046 000

129 0008 60010 0004 60030 000

44 000149 00045 00099 000

169 000129 000

-27 00075 00013 0006 50010 00043 00028 000

129 00011 00015 0001 90034 000

16 00029 00012 00048 00076 00050 000

-14 00034 0006 20015 0007 70057 00024 00040 0009 40013 0008 60028 000

46 00053 00019 00022 00040 00037 000

-27 00038 0007 90014 00010 00036 00029 00040 00012 00013 0009 10029 000

22 00067 00011 00026 00041 00045 000

-34 00056 0005 50011 00016 00020 00016 00030 00017 00012 0009 30025 000

20 00057 00013 00024 00044 00040 000

-19 00034 0006 80011 00014 00024 00016 00029 0009 90012 00018 00026 000

22 00017 00012 00022 00034 000

24016 00025 00018 0009 20011 00014 00025 00012 00028 00013 00010 00010 00026 000

23 00016 00010 00024 00025 000

21010 00017 00019 0007 10031 00022 00021 00015 00025 00013 00013 00011 00028 000

Germany [B3]Biblis A-BBrokdorfEmslandGrafenrheinfeldGreifswaldGrohndeIsar 2Mülheim-KärlichNeckarwestheim 1-2ObrigheimPhilippsburg 2StadeUnterweser

9 80041098

4 800360 000

140220

018 200

130110

2 2003 200

7 000720110510

1 100240

013 500

50480

1 9002 700

10 500300100150

0680280

015 500

1501 8001 6004 500

10 600180270

00

930330

06 1001 200360

1 3004 700

12 1001 000610

00

4 600150

04 000430

11 0002 1003 100

8 30035 000

60000

18 000220

03 700620

1 7001 7003 600

2 600800120160

025 000

1700

4 600330

1 1001 9003 500

4 4903 700100

00

240170

02 150200

5 8001 2003 500

Hungary [F2]Paks 1-4 178 000 146 800 195 400 166 000 183 700 174 300 81 300 44 200

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Table 31 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 243

Country / reactorRelease (GBq)

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

Japan [J1, J5]Genkai 1-4Ikata 1-3Mihama 1-3Ohi 1-4Sendai 1-2Takahama 1-4Tomari 1-2Tsuruga 2

6504.2250680593500.739.6

5202828056032

1 8003.86.5

370480

1 100530384401.62.9

2307.2200470306200.172.7

1700.57110600322000.413.6

1301.1160510392102.50.38

850.45190430373303.03.8

660.60190430343702.43.0

Netherlands [N7]Borssele 7 860 4 300 1 130 763 27 900 6 530 1 950 6 410

Republic of Korea [K1]Kori 1-4Ulchin 1-2Yonggwang 1-4

12 6006 1805 770

18 500241

7 290

102 000104

6 590

206 00056.6

59 20

14 00020.0

5 000

4 10041.0

11 000

6 000215

5 500

6 790680

4 220

Russian Federation [M6]Balakovo 1-4Kalinin 1-2Kola 1-4Novovoronezh 2-5

40 70056 700

272 00047 400

26 80030 300

359 90044 400

62 90036 700

275 50033 500

60 10031 900

178 30027 000

15 80027 00078 80024 300

13 50020 300

129 60024 300

6 88018 400

101 30033 800

6 38024 70075 60038 000

Slovakia [N2, S4]Bohunice 1-4 20 100 26 600 22 200 17 700 17 600 17 800 24 400 26 400

Slovenia [S1]Krsko 1 630 620 2 530 5 030 9 960 24 800 12 580 2 500

South Africa [C11]Koeberg 1-2 14 520 16 970 25 190 44 600 45 480 67 610 132 300 12 200

Spain [C2]Almaraz 1-2Asco 1-2José Cabrera 1Trillo 1Vandellos 2

4 790168 70045 90010 80079 600

7 48064 11034 900

17.123 400

7 06013 96050 100

17.24 330

13 20023 40056 2001 260306

4 83040 5004 67043657.2

29 70019 41031 1005 060144

52 9003 55021 800

87.2264

46 7002 38015 6008 030283

Sweden [N3]Ringhals 2-4 218 000 69 700 58 700 25 100 18 600 15 300 24 200 1 330

Switzerland [F3]Beznau 1-2Gösgen

29 0007 400

46 0005 100

30 0004 500

19 00011 000

28 0003 800

2 60019 000

2 60013 000

2 50024 000

Ukraine [G3]Khmelnitski 1Rovno 1-3South Ukraine 1-3Zaporozhe 1-6

56 20087 10051 400

101 000

32 00069 30052 800

154 000

74 80089 80078 200

200 000

21 30044 00098 300

122 000

14 300113 00032 800

117 000

57 000100 00048 900

122 000

74 10093 20070 20080 600

21 70089 10050 400

112 000

United Kingdom [M7]Sizewell B - - - - - - 6 110 4 360

United States [T3]Arkansas One 1-2Beaver Valley 1-2Braidwood 1-2Byron 1-2Callaway 1Calvert Cliffs 1-2Catawba 1-2Comanche Peak 1-2Crystal River 3Davis-Besse 1Diablo Canyon 1-2Donald Cook 1-2

32 9003 02090 30045 90033 40024 90039 50033 500

270 00040 3002 0806 960

77 1005 510

389 0003 8505 03095 10029 700

218 00052 20042 9001 7102 620

95 9005 7408 62013 90014 800

217 00031 70065 10029 1001 34091.0

7 570

2 59020 600

102 0004 51029 9007 92048 0007 1001 41012 900

79.276 200

14 4007 62056 100

1 2205 74033 400

814 3205 4607 23010 730

153 0005 8101 1004 2601 8203 1308 8101 046

11 10016 5005 030

16 65010 500

1 0105 1502 9405 330932386

17 8006 1803 860

1275 660

14 9007 9606 310

95

16482.5639

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Table 31 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION244

Country / reactorRelease (GBq)

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

United States (continued)Farley 1-2Fort Calhoun 1R. E. GinnaHaddam NeckHarris 1Indian Point 1-3KewauneeMaine YankeeMcGuire 1-2Millstone 2-3North Anna 1-2Oconee 1-2-3PalisadesPalo Verde 1-3Point Beach 1-2Prairie Island 1-2Rancho Seco 1H. B. Robinson 2Salem 1-2San Onofre 1-3Seabrook 1Sequoyah 1-2South Texas 1-2St. Lucie 1-2Surry 1-2Three Mile Island 1TrojanTurkey Point 3-4Virgil C. Summer 1Vogtle 1-2Waterford 3Watts BarWolf CreekYankee NPSZion 1-2

4 48017 00022 00054 00022 100

106 00085.5

35 00038 400

114 40035 300

327 0004 48095 600

2973 0608.14258

17 100110 000

3 960225 00010 40042 70016 60024 6007 62047 40027 8006 960

212 000-

37 0004 2504 070

17 20013 20019 000

226 00031 90054 400

67.041 80033 20015 3008 300

128 0002 320

143 000740

2 0700

83.620 600

140 0001 08052 5004 89094 0001 3004 5006 140682

16 10013 20079 600

-111 000

7 97010 200

26 2005 59020 000

10350 300

195 00059.2

14 80030 00023 50045 400

122 0002 76091 2001 8709402.56281

34 900205 000

33.87 66033 70036 600

60021 2007 6604 58012 5004 20025 600

-11 400

012 400

8 140343

5 18077 00012 90063 7001 3601 67035 8001 6009 30024 3003 44038 400

3741 360

012 43054 10072 600

4.02 8501 56012 8001 50088 6001 98016 8008 9908 68033 800

19 2000

98 200

7 7801 9601 840

7 070

16.2720

38 3001 7401 600

129 500656

16 500359879

2 14027 50013 500

4 2002 0206 31010 20012 500

9141 0905 0002 90076 800

068 600

2 69020 0001 660

8 210

6.4618

9 3203 6501 30047 7306 18012 100

9103 120

99.27 13025 800

1 17013 9008 40022 600

415

10341 40064 380

049 100

2 530307 000

3 170

1 590

1.5456962667700

3 3702 1409 81027140.3

4700.39

15 800

1 3901 170

14 80055.9711

21.967 8002 9707 19053 600

01 710

5 210

1 380

01 530292

0900

2 340823

66.227.7

36.9360

8 320

7 210

18 400540325

9.48 30020 500

0132

BWRs

China [T2]Chin Shan 1-2Kuosheng 1-2

26 7003 550

33 0002 910

99 2001 280

26 500784

7 510995

11 9001 870

2 290227

1 210334

Finland [F1]Olkiluoto 1-2 22 000 43 000 29 000 9 500 41 000 52 000 18 000 1 100

Germany [B3]BrunsbüttelGundremmingen B,CIsar 1KrümmelPhilippsburg 1Würgassen

4 8007 000

0.269014610

1 3001301.2450130

2 100

1 600110

6 1001 2001 400

02.8150540340

1 000

02193160

1 800960

6 6001.2400

17 000880

0

7 2000

15014 000

52021

3 900310810

11 000860

0

India [B4]Tarapur 1-2 5 940 000 7 629 000 6 348 000 9 410 000 6 560 000

Japan [J1, J5]Fukushima Daiichi 1-6Fukushima Daini 1-4Hamaoka 1-4Kashiwazaki Kariwa 1-7Onagawa 1-2Shika 1Shimane 1-2Tokai 2Tsuruga 1

00000-00

0.55

00000-00

3.9

000000000

000000000

00

190000000

000000000

000000000

000000000

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Table 31 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 245

Country / reactorRelease (GBq)

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

Mexico [C5]Laguna Verde 1-2 3 400 2 240 567 134 25 1 570 374 345

Netherlands [N7]Dodewaard 33 000 6 410 11 800 13 500 12 800 3 190 3 880 23 300

Spain [C2]ConfrentesS. Maria de Garona

26 70053 500

119 00073 700

136 00058 100

46 10073 100

21 40017 100

9 3207 470

5 150648

8 000294

Sweden [N3]Barsebeck 1-2Forsmark 1-3Oskarshamn 1-3Ringhals 1

59 100450 000

1 970 00056 670

407 000654 000

1 260 00071 800

24 600501 000546 000

1 440 000

16 000394 000279 000

12 700 000

20 50068 300

266 00024 300 000

22 10019 800

112 00015 700 000

17 90087 000

138 0006 690 000

7 32025 600

794 0001 310 000

Switzerland [F3]LeibstadtMühleberg

48 000110 000

38 00016 000

19 0003 600

29 0003 800

74 0002 700

17 0002 000

8 7002 000

8 5002 000

United States [T3]Big Rock PointBrowns Ferry 1-3Brunswick 1-2Clinton 1CooperDresden 2-3Duane Arnold 1Enrico Fermi 2FitzpatrickGrand Gulf 1Hatch 1-2Hope Creek 1Lasalle 1-2Limerick 1-2Millstone 1MonticelloNine Mile Point 1-2Oyster CreekPeach Bottom 2-3Perry 1Pilgrim 1Quad Cities 1-2River Bend 1Susquehanna 1-2Vermont YankeeWPPSS 2

205 0000

41 400356

6 920755

1 6905 96050 0005 03040 80030 70025 4001 2704 330

110 0006 03027 200

414 0003 10033 6002 95038 1002 670

188 00032 900

167 00077 70025 000

26.2958466

1 2202 30075 9001 17010 4007 1003 9202 630870

73 6005 57017 000

888 0004 11082 3001 56041 4002 130

112 00026 800

66 200618 00018 100

273519488

1 7507 7006 3307 84038 7005 1404 37031 700

16548 10013 80015 200

312 00012 10043 4001 82017 2002 120

219 0005 590

190 000148 00012 600

309238

1 7902 1105 74015 4003 490

141 0002 71038 6005 96012 20022 20020 0008 100

411 00025 30034 9001 41025 800

625140 000

5 220

246 00023 80017 660

431 470276

1 97018.1

14 5001 24063 800

16.31 5402 910400

20 1008 58012 500

646 0008 69068 6001 11025 000

439117 000

259

181 300

159 6005.62662

3 2601 820888

3 9502 17053 7005 550145

16 90013 20016 700

2 900656 00019 70086 6002 0506 150566329888

129 000

26 4004.80

71 7002 4401 4902 45023 8003 460

157 000960

014 400

2 36035 3004 15017 8001 0307 510629228666

81 800

35 0000

536 0008 9701 79030 1002 5101 440

183 500852

012 600

810

7 160998

8 460667127

HWRs

Argentina [C3]Atucha 1Embalse

89 000660 000

11 0001 200 000

3 000150 000

110 00042 000

240 00017 000

360 00044 000

320 000180 000

960 00030 000

Canada [A2]Bruce 1-4Bruce 5-8Darlington 1-4Gentilly 2Pickering 1-4Pickering 5-8Point Lepreau

518 00037 00021 00060 000

407 000237 000

0

903 00035 00067 00048 000

500 000212 00013 000

564 00041 00073 00033 000

326 000207 00011 000

435 000101 000146 00069 000

370 000215 000

4 900

248 00070 300

141 00059 000

344 000222 000

5 100

100 00067 000

110 00073 000

310 000220 000

2 200

88 00070 000

380 00054 000

310 000200 000

5 600

54 00074 000

295 00021 000

290 000210 000

5 900

India [B4]Kakrapar 1-2Kalpakkam 1-2Narora 1-2Rajasthan 1-2

-18 110 000

22 24011 620 000

-12 790 000

34 73010 380 000

-13 910 000635 000

4 760 000

5 539 000226 100

12 430 000

11 440 0002 579 0004 443 000

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Table 31 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION246

Country / reactorRelease (GBq)

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

Japan [J1, J5]Fugen 0 22 0 0 0 0 0 0

Pakistan [P2]Karachi 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Republic of Korea [K1]Wolsong 1-2 112 000 114 000 65 900 219 000 120 000 750 000 3 200 000 60 300

RomaniaCernavoda 1 - - - - - - 60 300 61 700

United Kingdom [N5]Wilfrith 0 3.27 7.85 2.1 0.42

GCRs

France [E1]Bugey 1Chinon A2-3St. Laurent A1-2

77 00032 00078 000

53 0009 10043 000

11 0006 70016 000

15 000110200

9 200110140

3 800210

-

-250

-

0220

-

Japan [J1, J4]Tokai 1 270 000 250 000 300 000 0 280 000 250 000 310 000 360 000

Spain [C2]Vandellos 1 891 432 959 334 0 0 0

U. K. [M7, N4, N5]BerkeleyBradwellCalder HallChapelcrossDungeness ADungeness B1-B2Hartlepool A1-A2Heysham 1A-B, 2A-BHinkley Point AHinkley Point B, A-BHunterston A1Hunterston B1-B2Oldbury ASizewell ATorness A-BTrawsfynyddWylfa

0595 000

2 500 0002 900 0001 123 000

16 8006 60015 300

2 148 00082 00086 00060 000

108 0001 872 000

5 6001 489 000

70 500

0650 000

2 500 0003 000 0001 170 000

30 00012 90015 600

2 511 00089 000

029 00081 000

1 8010 005 300

219 00030 000

0410 000

2 560 0003 000 0001 310 000

22 00012 50055 200

2 118 00095 000

021 000

143 0001 676 000

3 8000

56 000

0693 000

2 700 0003 200 0001 192 000

30 00020 20024 000

3 171 00039 000

030 000

207 0002 0230 00

5 0000

55 500

773 0002 800 0003 200 0001 244 000

23 00044 00023 000

3 060 00039 000

030 000

170 0002 347 000

8 1000

36 000

662 0002 700 0003 200 0001 195 000

7 00013 00050 000

3 200 00042 000

055 000

250 0001 952 000

7 0000

19 000

647 000

3 210 0001 190 000

27 90023 90023 60033 20033 200

049 500

112 000295 000

6 9900

43 900

510 0002 600 0002 730 000977 00019 30037 80028 900

3 030 00016 700

066 100

111 0001 230 000

12 2000

51 400

LWGRs

Lithuania [E2]Ignalina 1-2 2 370 000 1 800 000 700 000 480 000 290 000 283 000 158 000 99 700

Russian Federation [M6]Bilibino 1-4Kursk 1-4Leningrad 1-4Smolensk 1-3

297 3008 700 0001 606 0007 170 000

276 9006 030 0001 539 0004 473 000

345 4006 075 0001 392 0003 815 000

326 0006 285 0001 614 0002 257 000

418 7003 009 0001 789 0001 121 000

293 1001 113 0001 073 0001 022 000

395 7001 152 0001 036 000675 300

270 100611 700958 900686 600

Ukraine [G3]Chernobyl 1-3 3 730 000 3 770 000 3 200 000 3 800 000 1 700 000 900 000 610 000 91 900

FBRs

France [E1]Creys-MalvillePhenix

46 000 43 000 43 000 44 000 45 000 45 000 44 000 43 000

Kazakhstan [A6]Bn-350 140 000 165 000 139 000 117 000 108 000 48 300 48 400 102 000

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Table 31 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 247

Country / reactorRelease (GBq)

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

Russian Federation [M6]Beloyarsky 3 12 900 11 000 8 100 8 100 13 500 4 070 4 070 8 100

United Kingdom [N5]Dounreay PFR 12 100 18 900 0 6 050 11 100 0 0 0

Summaryparameter

ReactorRelease (TBq)

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

All reactors

Total release(TBq)

PWRsBWRsHWRsGCRs

LWGRsFBRs

All

5 90010 09031 89013 54023 870

211

85 500

4 88811 99026 31012 50017 890

238

73 810

3 71410 73020 78011 82015 530

190

62 760

3 04124 28019 91013 41014 760

175

75 570

2 24232 68019 93014 0908 328178

77 440

2 39317 2202 03613 6104 682

97

40 040

2 3217 4994 8686 0064 027

96

24 820

1 4363 1122 06211 7802 719153

21 260

Annualnormalizedrelease[TBq (GW a)-1]

PWRsBWRsHWRsGCRs

LWGRsFBRs

All

43210

3 2501 8802 240428

399

34231

2 3101 6301 740500

327

25218

1 9501 4101 750365

275

20474

1 6001 4401 550292

321

15619

1 4501 5101 100343

329

16300167

1 560588244

166

14141413803456117

102

9.559178

1 280349348

93

Averagenormalizedrelease1990-1994and 1995-1997[TBq (GW a)-1]

PWRsBWRsHWRsGCRs

LWGRsFBRs

All

27354

2 0501 5601 720380

330

13171252

1 240465209

120

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ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION248

Table 32Tritium released from reactors in airborne effluents

Country/reactorRelease (GBq)

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

PWRs

ArmeniaArmenia 2

Belgium [M1]Doel 1-4Tihange 1-3

752-

548-

774-

2 02012 800

1 9904 950

6135 970

2874 420

2275 050

Brazil [C7]Angra 1 5.85 27.8 2 930 611 2.26 17.4 110 3 480

Bulgaria [C6]Kozloduy 1-6

N o t r e p o r t e d

China [C8, T2]Guangdong 1-2QinshanMaanshan 1-2

--

847

--

2 270

-

5 33026.6

6 290

330193

5 110

232264

6 590

411405

5 580 8 430

Czech Republic [N2]Dukovany 1-4 447 432 416 325 466 410 412 308

Finland [F1]Loviisa 1-2 740 480 230 210 210 190 220 250

France [E1]Belleville 1-2Blayais 1-4Bugey 2-5Cattenom 1-4Chinon B1-B4Chooz-A (Ardennes)Chooz B1-B2Cruas 1-4Dampierre 1-4Fessenheim 1-2Flamanville 1-2Golfech 1-2Gravelines 1-6Nogent 1-2Paluel 1-4Penly 1-2St. Alban 1-2St. Laurent B1-B2Tricastin 1-4

A m o u n t s i n c l u d e d w i t h n o b l e g a s e s (Table 31)

Germany [B3]Biblis A-BBrokdorfEmslandGrafenrheinfeldGreifswaldGrohndeIsar 2Mülheim-KärlichNeckarwestheim 1-2ObrigheimPhilippsburg 2StadeUnterweser

590110480460

0760890270

1 090230

1 6001 1001 100

55022067044068730950180

1 230100

1 400430

1 200

61018051054010500

1 300150900130

1 500340410

69021078061012720

1 400100980130

1 200400480

580330

1 30052020530

1 30011063072

1 100670

1 100

530350

1 6005207.6360

1 3009060099960790

1 300

220370

2 0005502.6680

1 30080450150970330560

490320

1 9002901.719097040390130

1 1002 100350

Hungary [F2]Paks 1-4 480 2 100 3 400 4 000 4 500 4 630 4 330 4 780

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Table 32 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 249

Country/reactorRelease (GBq)

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

Japan [J1, J5]Genkai 1-4Ikata 1-3Mihama 1-3Ohi 1-4Sendai 1-2Takahama 1-4Tomari 1-2Tsuruga 2

700450

6 0001 900360

2 600370900

540410

6 5003 900320

2 900270

1 200

580490

7 1003 800530

4 600500720

560710

8 1004 700420

5 200360

1 400

1 100620

6 9008 000550

5 400280

2 300

690730

6 8006 300640

5 900350

2 300

850810

6 7008 300750

8 200430

2 200

880730

6 2007 500650

8 400510

3 400

Netherlands [N7]Borssele 446 210 353 565 386 343 371 177

Republic of Korea [K1]Kori 1-4Ulchin 1-2Yonggwang 1-4

10 000346592

7 580825

3 050

12 5001 2501 930

8 7601 1201 820

9 1001 9003 400

14 0001 9008 100

15 2001 9008 800

14 0003 5908 660

Russian Federation [M6]Balakovo 1-4Kalinin 1-2Kola 1-4Novovoronezh 2-5

R e p o r t e d t o b e � 0

Slovakia [N2, S4]Bohunice 1-4 963 1 045 1 066 924 890 1 090 922 581

Slovenia [S1]Krsko 2 460 2 050 1 510 1 960 1 720 1 310 1 160 1 050

South Africa [C11]Koeberg 1-2 3 640 7 070 5 610 5 270 3 130 2 840 4 610 10 200

Spain [C2]Almaraz 1-2Asco 1-2José Cabrera 1Trillo 1Vandellos 2

1 3001 322517

0170

4 1801 144266

085.8

6 9701 10366135534.7

10 1001 18519323925.3

5 4502 12134.990442.6

5 66019 410

25.390284.2

5 2603 55026.687756.7

6 3702 29088.9743180

Sweden [N3]Ringhals 2-4

N o t m e a s u r e d

Switzerland [F3]Beznau 1-2Gösgen

N o t m e a s u r e d

Ukraine [G3]Khmelnitski 1Rovno 1-3South Ukraine 1-3Zaporozhe 1-6

R e p o r t e d t o b e � 0

United Kingdom [M7]Sizewell B - - - - - - 579 565

United States [T3]Arkansas One 1-2Beaver Valley 1-2Braidwood 1-2Byron 1-2Callaway 1Calvert Cliffs 1-2Catawba 1-2Comanche Peak 1-2Crystal River 3Davis-Besse 1Diablo Canyon 1-2Donald Cook 1-2

4783 2403 18039.6

1 37016.7

3 370225980

1 0702 070366

8694 9603 61033.3

1 360428

4 61086.2500

2 3903 4701 070

1 1208 03010 000

1141 950362

6 150112555799

5 110725

64412 8001 440

343 370909

4 230222488829

5 770955

85212 4001 280

3 31046.3

3 450316

1 550831

16 9001 370

1 13012 800

525158

3 69093.0

5 270857

7795 4403 490

95913 100

1 3803 24098.9

6 8501 625576

1 3504 6603 300

8259 070

2 980213

6 2802 160

1 3105 11010 900

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Table 32 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION250

Country/reactorRelease (GBq)

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

United States (continued)Farley 1-2Fort Calhoun 1R. E. GinnaHaddam NeckHarris 1Indian Point 1-3KewauneeMaine YankeeMcGuire 1-2Millstone 2-3North Anna 1-2Oconee 1-2-3PalisadesPalo Verde 1-3Point Beach 1-2Prairie Island 1-2Rancho Seco 1H. B. Robinson 2Salem 1-2San Onofre 1-3Seabrook 1Sequoyah 1-2South Texas 1-2St. Lucie 1-2Surry 1-2Three Mile Island 1TrojanTurkey Point 3-4Virgil C. Summer 1Vogtle 1-2Waterford 3Watts BarWolf CreekYankee NPSZion 1-2

3 240273

4 5902 89057.7116221

1 3801 8504 0601 1503 740206

27 9004 7404 6601 080164

5 7104 5909.32433

1 5303 910800

1 2203 4102 94084.4

7 9607 590

-690138666

5 14012.6

3 09011 500

30.0281289338

2 3903 5701 8104 030181

49 3004 1802 600703166

4 1101 650507

1 070847

4 160900

18 1007 33010.8308

7 23016 200

-555231

2 630

3 490225

2 1306 96016.2225451147

2 2203 6901 8302 390231

36 4003 6601 570681158

5 2502 87058.1

1 8503 9702 240900

3 5201 0901.479.14

7 89011 500

-640108

2 090

2 68044

1 9102 3801 88018260270

3 0604 0601 7201 640314

47 1005 2902 330279294

6 2502 29023.4

1 470541924900

6 7801 60030682.9

8 2603 770

-95148

9 880

3 9709.9

1 630

0.5

161770

2 1201 3904 1001 590233

55 2003 0302 480

2062 5301 970

5485 9901 070600601

1 61053.1

1 1204 3805 590

314 810

1 41030.5

1 940

25.5

2 4301 1702 18043.6

7 5001 600381

43 8003 1401 460

5421 2501 580

6 3002 750600694

2 090

34510 6004 510

18.65 000

1 830144

1 520

924

819378

2 5701 8101 3002 650390

70 0002 7101 600

4456 9201 080

2 3505 450

800388401

5146 3903 330317

1 49014.3

10 500

3 360

340

581 1103 010618

2 9002 420420

5 5101 200

50511 7002 460

1 390

1 5004 800526

2073 9007 290

9.7887.0

BWRs

China [T2]Chin Shan 1-2Kuosheng 1-2

8331 290

1 2302 500

6621 760

8211 540

1 3401 250

1 2501 080

1 930765

1 590535

Finland [F1]Olkiluoto 1-2 100 130 350 430 310 130 210 300

Germany [B3]BrunsbüttelGundremmingen B,CIsar 1KrümmelPhilippsburg 1Würgassen

89200430795295

623805609961390

994707451130290

32300823166200

22470881375150

191 300

44458123

402 200

5646719.3

351 200

6042546

India [B4]Tarapur 1-2

Japan [J1, J5]Fukushima Daiichi 1-6Fukushima Daini 1-4Hamaoka 1-4Kashiwazaki Kariwa 1-7Onagawa 1-2Shika 1Shimane 1-2Tokai 2Tsuruga 1

2 5001 100820510190

-310580270

2 1001 100730560210

-410560250

1 9001 200720660190

0750570220

1 5001 20078079020013880550160

1 6001 200570

1 10021066990570140

1 6001 400640

1 40021090820390170

1 5001 600810

1 70031079870460160

1 9001 500860

2 000370100770420160

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Table 32 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 251

Country/reactorRelease (GBq)

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

Mexico [C5]Laguna Verde 1-2 0 105 73 540 657 1 520 651 1 180

Netherlands [N7]Dodewaard 10.8 119 71.8 39.6 15.2 25.9 9.5 11.2

Spain [C2]ConfrentesS. Maria de Garona

35.6497

33.1882

178312

496347

497273

290543

459370

1 180264

Sweden [N3]Barsebeck 1-2Forsmark 1-3Oskarshamn 1-3Ringhals 1

N o t m e a s u r e d

Switzerland [F3]LeibstadtMühleberg

220 330 590

United States [T3]Big Rock PointBrowns Ferry 1-3Brunswick 1-2Clinton 1CooperDresden 2-3Duane Arnold 1Enrico Fermi 2FitzpatrickGrand Gulf 1Hatch 1-2Hope Creek 1Lasalle 1-2Limerick 1-2Millstone 1MonticelloNine Mile Point 1-2Oyster CreekPeach Bottom 2-3Perry 1Pilgrim 1Quad Cities 1-2River Bend 1Susquehanna 1-2Vermont YankeeWPPSS 2

17922984700

485603

0448123

1 4803 0306.29

-1 4303 1602 060424

1 1500

5884 2901 6703 4203 5801 370

175102718193

0236514

0188206

1 26090325-

1 2102 3801 140283

1 4800

8055 550507

1 7103 130448

122703400176

0191278

1 07053328

1 850836

1 360-

1 4503 8502 060404

1 4702.11850

1 67086.2

1 940948

1 780

84.7346740422

0261

1 37087293847

2 4506 1404 810

31944

2 0603 570136844

0670

1 690200

1 610877

5 550

1001 290836

1 1600

213436

0295

1 9702 660160

4 8700

2182 6804 3201 310388

01 3301 050344

1 990813370

77

1 350570

0177547

0271

1 6801 61011.6

4 3300

10.81 570

4406 17024.3

1 7701 150

902 300824211

96.6

999440

097.4423

0701

3 250793702

0807

55811 400

02 6901 920106

3 100902285

85.5

860126

0221

2 6900

3 7705 770630237

0556

5 500

1 5702 720250

2 050596

HWRs

Argentina [C3]Atucha 1Embalse

620 00075 000

230 00055 000

410 00069 000

2 600 000140 000

1 400 000130 000

53 00083 000

1 100 00069 000

1 300 00077 000

Canada [A2]Bruce 1-4Bruce 5-8Darlington 1-4Gentilly 2Pickering 1-4Pickering 5-8Point Lepreau

1 628 000777 000118 000227 000629 000277 000250 000

1 193 000385 000231 000270 000635 000183 000170 000

1 100 000340 000110 000322 000592 000192 000400 000

1 650 000391 000130 000200 000518 000244 000640 000

999 000366 000330 000258 000481 000226 000520 000

610 000230 000270 000310 000590 000190 000310 000

700 000310 000200 000220 000370 000190 000240 000

350 000270 000190 000160 000440 000170 000200 000

India [B4]Kakrapar 1Kalpakkam 1-2Narora 1-2Rajasthan 1-2

830 00066 000

2 561 000

854 000182 500

1 768 000

1 119 000244 600820 000

2 100 000118 400703 300

1 620 000264 700765 900

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Table 32 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION252

Country/reactorRelease (GBq)

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

Japan [J1, J5]Fugen 1 200 1 300 1 600 1 200 1 800 1 300 1 000 1 200

Pakistan [P2]Karachi 89 400 77 300 56 800 281 000 220 000 309 000 184 700 130 900

Republic of Korea [K1]Wolsong 1-2 231 000 257 000 389 000 368 000 480 000 440 000 310 000 625 000

RomaniaCernavoda - - - - - - 1 370 25 500

United Kingdom [N5]Winfrith 8 390 3 990 4 620 4 250 10 930 366

GCRs

France [E1]Bugey 1Chinon A2-3St. Laurent A1-2

A m o u n t s i n c l u d e d w i t h n o b l e g a s e s (Table 31)

Japan [J1, J5]Tokai 1 480 570 420 170 260 540 480 290

Spain [C2]Vandellos 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.002

U. K. [M7, N4, N5]BerkeleyBradwellCalder HallChapelcrossDungeness ADungeness B1-B2Hartlepool A1-A2Heysham 1A-B, 2A-BHinkley Point AHinkley Point B, A-BHunterston A1Hunterston B1-B2Oldbury ASizewell A-BTorness A-BTrawsfynyddWylfa

2 760

670

4605 800

1 300

12 810

2 640

1 170

1302 900

1 900

10 190

14-

3 210

---

2 5301 57089769

2 6001 680

-1 300

-9 030

22814

3 000

---

2 0001 5501 620

354 6001 960

-1 700

797 790

51676

5 100

1452 540

-2 0502 6101 830

312 9001 860990

1 700134

14 980

111 2705 600

6202 4401 1203 2602 6202 500

165 0001 8901 4701 300155

10 300

9.6786

1 0301 5201 5603 0602 1002 100

0.62 1801 730871

1 26063

6 700

111 1004 400

5704 7801 6102 7202 9801 960

4.92 8101 480639

1 810277

5 290

LWGRs

LithuaniaIgnalina 1-2

O n l y a v e r a g e n o r m a l i z e d r e l e a s e r e p o r t e d

Russian Federation [M6]Bilibino 1-4Kursk 1-4Leningrad 1-4Smolensk 1-3

O n l y a v e r a g e n o r m a l i z e d r e l e a s e r e p o r t e d

Ukraine [G3]Chernobyl 1-3

FBRs

FranceCreys-MalvillePhenix

KazakhstanBn-350

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Table 32 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 253

Country/reactorRelease (GBq)

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

Russian FederationBeloyarsky 3

United Kingdom [N5]Dounreay PFR 3 200 3 100 2 300 3 700 2 000 1 700 790 570

Summaryparameter

ReactorRelease (TBq)

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

All reactors

Total release(TBq)

PWRsBWRsHWRsGCRs

LWGRsFBRs

All

16840.6

8 38824.3

3.2

8 624

23635.7

6 49619.5

3.1

6 791

21734.6

6 17123.3

2.3

6 448

23947.0

10 09025.3

3.7

10 400

23040.4

6 61537.9

2.0

6 925

24338.7

3 87340.1

1.7

4 196

26043.9

3 89625.5

0.79

4 226

19642.8

39 40032.7

0.57

4 212

Annualnormalizedrelease[TBq (GW a)-1]

PWRsBWRsHWRsGCRs

LWGRsFBRs

All

1.91.08507.6

52

62

2.60.865695.3

35

46

2.30.855783.9

-

42

2.51.18133.8

36

65

2.40.904814.7

53

42

2.50.753174.7

-

25

2.60.943313.5

-

25

2.20.913403.5

-

27

Averagenormalizedrelease1990-1994and 1995-1997[TBq (GW a)-1]

PWRsBWRsHWRsGCRs

LWGRsFBRs

All

2.30.946504.72649

51

2.40.863293.926-

26

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ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION254

Table 33Iodine-131 released from reactors in airborne effluents

Country/reactorRelease (GBq)

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

PWRs

Armenia [A5]Armenia 2 0.331 0.365

Belgium [M1]Doel 1-4Tihange 1-3

0.4850.295

0.6570.086

0.1920.039

0.0970.027

0.010.016

0.0320.0055

0.0080.052

0.00570.016

Brazil [C7]Angra 1 0.00047 0.356 0.481 0.00036 0.299 0.936

Bulgaria [C6]Kozloduy 1-6 5.6 4.5 10.6 8.0 2.2 1.50 1.98 2.68

China[C8, T2]Guangdong 1-2QinshanMaanshan 1-2

--0

--0

-

0 0

0.424

0

0.720

0

0.229

0

0.116

0

Czech Republic [N2]Dukovany 1-4 0.01 0.014 0.06 0.097 0.024 0.013 0.122 0.011

Finland [F1]Loviisa 1-2 0.017 0.16 0.025 0.033 0.00017 0.77 0.00087 0.000072

France [E1]Belleville 1-2Blayais 1-4Bugey 2-5Cattenom 1-4Chinon B1-B4Chooz-A (Ardennes)Chooz B1-B2Cruas 1-4Dampierre 1-4Fessenheim 1-2Flamanville 1-2Golfech 1-2Gravelines 1-6Nogent 1-2Paluel 1-4Penly 1-2St. Alban 1-2St. Laurent B1-B2Tricastin 1-4

A m o u n t s i n c l u d e d w i t h p a r t i c u l a t e s (Table 34)

Germany [B3]Biblis A-BBrokdorfEmslandGrafenrheinfeldGreifswaldGrohndeIsar 2Mülheim-KärlichNeckarwestheim 1-2ObrigheimPhilippsburg 2StadeUnterweser

0.00320.0007

00.0022

5.2000

0.02620.00004

00.0028

0.00029

0.00150.00084

00.0011

0000

0.0000820.0001

0.000180.061

0.000056

0.0240

0.0000740.0028

00.0013

0.000540

0.000960

0.000420.034

0.00076

0.0120

0.0003400

0.000700

0.00670.031

00.0031

0

0.0420.000350.0026

0.0000410

0.00500

0.01930.000052

0.0180.000210.0001

0.0170.0260.0013

00

0.03100

0.020.0087

0.000740.000260.0019

0.0300.0006

00.00015

00.0082

00

0.000710.0000060.00043

0.0020.000097

0.00690.0032

00.0013

0000

0.00420.000070.00450.004

0.00047

Hungary [F2]Paks 1-4 0.45 0.63 0.14 0.28 0.14 0.18 0.34 0.36

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Table 33 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 255

Country/reactorRelease (GBq)

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

Japan [J1, J5]Genkai 1-4Ikata 1-3Mihama 1-3Ohi 1-4Sendai 1-2Takahama 1-4Tomari 1-2Tsuruga 2

00

0.00150.0009

00.0003

00

00

0.00610.0011

00.22

00

00.00950.0190.0034

00.043

00

00

0.0100.0003

00.0004

00

00

0.00030.0002

00.0003

00

00

0.000200

0.000200

00000000

00

0.00180.0009

00.0038

00

Netherlands [N7]Borssele 0 0.046 0 0.017 0.029 0.0095 0 0.03

Republic of Korea [K1]Kori 1-4Ulchin 1-2Yonggwang 1-4

0.140.19

0.00033

0.190.0860.0077

16.00.000220.0015

13.20.00430.0062

0.0660.00052

0.018

0.01700.00019

0.156

0.00460.0300.017

0.00780.86

0.011

Russian Federation [M6]Balakovo 1-4Kalinin 1-2Kola 1-4Novovoronezh 2-5

1.551.022.070.71

0.160.113.782.70

0.320.19

11.610.27

1.620.415.540.14

0.120.543.110.27

0.140.683.650.41

0.680.141.891.08

0.130.073.301.10

Slovakia [N2, S4]Bohunice 1-4 1.72 1.79 1.43 1.59 1.38 2.05 1.88 0.87

Slovenia [S1]Krsko 0.012 0.007 0.096 0.41 0.30 0.75 2.74 1.45

South Africa [C11]Koeberg 1-2 0.55 1.28 0.56 0.32 0.26 0.31 0.13 0.16

Spain [C2]Almaraz 1-2Asco 1-2José Cabrera 1Trillo 1Vandellos 2

0.00060.0250.9030.0210.255

0.1240.0125

1.490

0.009

0.0260.0084.84

00.12

0.0110.0130.7020.0070.083

0.0140.0070.025

00.034

0.0140.0480.003

00.029

0.0890.00020.008

00.026

0.0950.00033

0.180.31

0.052

Sweden [N3]Ringhals 2-4 1.26 0.506 0.882 0.354 0.163 0.093 0.078 0.020

Switzerland [F3]Beznau 1-2Gösgen

0.240.041

0.015-

0.0160.004

0.0150.004

0.0270.007

0.0180.040

0.0250.010

0.0560.073

Ukraine [G3]Khmelnitski 1Rovno 1-3South Ukraine 1-3Zaporozhe 1-6

0.443.92

0.0120.1

0.450.95

0.0210.27

1.371.47

0.0122.44

0.571.10

0.00143.33

0.130.51

0.0072.4

0.301.39

0.0091.2

0.571.61

0.0281.89

0.320.84

0.0114.8

United Kingdom [M7]Sizewell B - - - - - - 0.049 0.034

United States [T3]Arkansas One 1-2Beaver Valley 1-2Braidwood 1-2Byron 1-2Callaway 1Calvert Cliffs 1-2Catawba 1-2Comanche Peak 1-2Crystal River 3Davis-Besse 1Diablo Canyon 1-2Donald Cook 1-2

0.00740.00510.0770.15

0.00530.0540.051

-0.0280.0870.0016

0.12

0.0810.260.40

0.00630.0006

0.490.0670.00070.0094

0.320.0220.031

0.0360.0280.00140.0160.0170.62

0.0210.0310.0200.011

-0.27

0.00020.250.12

0.0160.0230.52

0.0270.00370.0007

0.270.00020.0028

-0.0140.14

0.000560.16

0.0160

0.000180.0690.150.35

0.0400.0910.0310.0240.00160.0670.014

0

0.0210.230.33

0.0070.47

0.0170.00300.020

00.000050.000009

0.0940.0740.23

0.000080.041

0.00070.037

00

0.0010

0.076

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Table 33 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION256

Country/reactorRelease (GBq)

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

United States (continued)Farley 1-2Fort Calhoun 1R. E. GinnaHaddam NeckHarris 1Indian Point 1-3KewauneeMaine YankeeMcGuire 1-2Millstone 2-3North Anna 1-2Oconee 1-2-3PalisadesPalo Verde 1-3Point Beach 1-2Prairie Island 1-2Rancho Seco 1H. B. Robinson 2Salem 1-2San Onofre 1-3Seabrook 1Sequoyah 1-2South Texas 1-2St. Lucie 1-2Surry 1-2Three Mile Island 1TrojanTurkey Point 3-4Virgil C. Summer 1Vogtle 1-2Waterford 3Watts Bar 1Wolf CreekYankee NPSZion 1-2

0.00010.0650.19

0.094-

0.170.00004

0.160.0491.250.230.28

0.0690.20

0.0120.053

-0.000004

0.0500.51

-0.00730.0190.52

0.0490.0570.0560.23

0.0160.00100.022

-0.00310.00500.048

0.0600.00750.0590.62

-0.014

0.000010.24

0.0440.93

0.0941.50

0.00381.22

0.0130.0044

--

0.0850.47

0.00070.00020.0068

0.270.0190.0370.0160.0470.00870.0740.085

-0.0890.0008

0.28

0.00720.0110.0520.00020.0230.48

-0.14

0.0790.310.500.51

0.0270.46

0.0670.0070

-0.00004

0.0141.42

0.00010.00020.0820.21

0.0180.18

0.00840.00800.00790.0500.0007

-0.0006

0.000081.77

00.00080.0270.0980.0003

0.18-

0.150.0620.0520.0900.0920.0340.42

0.00450.025

0.0540.231.79

-0.000070.00020.0910.0230.27

00.0840.16

0.0170.00004

-0.026

00.41

0.160.00150.0060

0.013

00.0280.0210.0300.0151.18

0.0810.22

0.00030.001

0.0240.07

0.00030.000001

0.0270.15

0.0490

0.180.00780.0300.0040

00.0099

0.00460.11

0.0027

0.0016

-0.0110.0023

0.670.0090.300.230.36

0.00410.019

0.0191.76

0.00080.11

0.0810.20

0

0.000010.0300.029

00.34

0.00021.02

0.0061

0.00004

0.140.0044

0.000040.00360.0040.130.310.23

0.00130

00.10

0.000170.0014

0.0100.00011

0

0.000060.22

0.000020

0.00330

0.012

0.0049

0.0020

00.0004

00

0.0070.0040.044

00

00.30

0.064

0.140.00008

0

0.000030.0760.020

00

BWRs

China [T2]Chin Shan 1-2Kuosheng 1-2

11.90.102

5.000.0053

3.660.0011

0.990.0024

0.690.0034

0.130.052

0.0910.0022

0.1370.0030

Finland [F1]Olkiluoto 1-2 0.056 0.25 0.15 0.081 1.1 0.038 0.026 0.017

Germany [B3]BrunsbüttelGundremmingen B,CIsar 1KrümmelPhilippsburg 1Würgassen

0.020.015

0.000550.06

0.00140.019

0.0310.000920.00017

0.0770.0024

0.16

0.0290.00210.0016

0.320.00330.098

00.00025

0.0230.150.12

0.036

00.00036

0.0350.0360.59

0.045

0.000940.00029

0.0130.380.05

0

0.0170.00014

0.0230.22

0.0470

0.00110.00016

0.0570.14

0.0750

India [B4]Tarapur 1-2 5.0 4.7 5.0 4.9 3.6

Japan [J1, J5]Fukushima Daiichi 1-6Fukushima Daini 1-4Hamaoka 1-4Kashiwazaki Kariwa 1-7Onagawa 1-2Shika 1Shimane 1-2Tokai 2Tsuruga 1

0.00830

0.03700-00

0.0005

0.00910000-00

0.00006

0.007200000000

0.006700000000

0.002800000000

0.003700000000

0.003200000000

00.00002

0000000

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Table 33 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 257

Country/reactorRelease (GBq)

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

Mexico [C5]Laguna Verde 1-2 0.012 0.12 0.073 0.11 0.057 0.063 0.23 0.18

Netherlands [N7]Dodewaard 0.038 0.0035 0.0017 0.0014 0.0016 0.028 0.0024 0.0016

Spain [C2]ConfrentesS. Maria de Garona

0.0320.015

3.050.031

1.480.012

0.6040.105

0.380.083

0.1280.091

0.0520.031

0.240.011

Sweden [N3]Barsebeck 1-2Forsmark 1-3Oskarshamn 1-3Ringhals 1

0.0390.661.900.14

0.603.500.60

0.097

0.0571.100.64

0.063

0.00621.040.8420.0

0.00650.680.7335.0

0.0210.580.3412.3

0.00270.450.457.46

0.00790.230.464.20

Switzerland [F3]LeibstadtMühleberg

1.400.15

1.000.018

0.680.021

1.20.012

2.40.013

0.870.0054

0.710.0053

0.430.02

United States [T3]Big Rock PointBrowns Ferry 1-3Brunswick 1-2Clinton 1CooperDresden 2-3Duane Arnold 1Enrico Fermi 2FitzpatrickGrand Gulf 1Hatch 1-2Hope Creek 1Lasalle 1-2Limerick 1-2Millstone 1MonticelloNine Mile Point 1-2Oyster CreekPeach Bottom 2-3Perry 1Pilgrim 1Quad Cities 1-2River Bend 1Susquehanna 1-2Vermont YankeeWPPSS 2

0.077-

0.440.00570.013

-0.0096

0.130.0730.0190.22

0.0440.0800.00120.0271.38

0.0530.850.480.360.340.171.79

-2.043.21

0.0490.360.36

0.00110.00370.0680.00470.0900.0960.0750.17

-0.065

-0.0161.120.190.941.300.511.42

0.0581.45

0.00052.310.79

0.160.510.18

0.00200.00340.0380.0034

0.150.0038

0.281.37

-0.0520.0400.0083

1.230.0901.471.045.621.19

0.0430.30

0.00061.570.29

0.0950.19

0.0120.00470.00100.0370.0034

0.230.0180.0179.25

-1.100.42

0.0520.350.170.371.781.471.14

0.0470.81

-0.420.48

0.120.500.08

0.00220.00140.0110.00340.00470.056

-3.33

00.120.14

0.0120.32

0.0150.382.010.480.50

0.0261.78

0.00040.110.16

0.04

0.200.00360.00160.0230.00360.0440.0540.0041.51

0.0240.173.54

0.0560.14

0.111.871.010.23

0.0701.40

00.070.11

0.17

0.780.0160.71

0.0480.0029

0.180.0720.0241.82

0.015

00.21

0.0810.560.300.26

0.0330.51

00.0350.0023

0.02

1.360

0.650.22

0.00460.46

0.0070.0003

2.240.020

00.18

0.10

0.210.0500.90

00.015

HWRs

Argentina [C3]Atucha 1Embalse

0.0781.4

1.31.6

0.00890.07

0.490

0.440.26

0.351.7

0.0410.27

0.530

Canada [A2]Bruce 1-4Bruce 5-8Darlington 1-4Gentilly 2Pickering 1-4Pickering 5-8Point Lepreau

0.0630.12

0.0120

0.320.089

0

0.0550.13

0.0160.0190.12

0.0630.016

0.0400.0640.0180.00370.0890.0520.0030

0.0330.0570.0310.0037

0.130.0480.0002

0.0300.0590.036

00.10

0.0850.0051

0.0270.12

0.0340

0.0740.10

0

0.0190.0440.022

00.0730.0980.0015

0.0140.0350.020

00.0740.0990.021

India [B4]Kakrapar 1Kalpakkam 1-2Narora 1-2Rajasthan 1-2

0.160

1.43

0.240.021.00

0.261.550.46

0.512.300.78

0.052.970.31

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Table 33 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION258

Country/reactorRelease (GBq)

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

Japan [J1, J5]Fugen 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Pakistan [P2]Karachi 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Republic of Korea [K1]Wolsong 1-2 0 0.0012 0.00037 0 0 0.052 0.14 0

RomaniaCernavoda - - - - - - 0 0.0071

United Kingdom [N5]Winfrith 0.22 0.38

GCRs

France [E1]Bugey 1Chinon A2-3St. Laurent A1-2

A m o u n t s i n c l u d e d w i t h n o b l e g a s e s (Table 31)

Japan [J1, J5]Tokai1 0.0020 0.0014 0.0006 0.00005 0 0.0016 0.0005 0

Spain [C2]Vandellos 1 0.0002 0.0001 0 0 0 0 0

U. K. [M7, N4, N5]BerkeleyBradwellCalder HallChapelcrossDungeness ADungeness B1-B2Hartlepool A1-A2Heysham 1A-B, 2A-BHinkley Point AHinkley Point B, A-BHunterston A1Hunterston B1-B2Oldbury ASizewell ATorness A-BTrawsfynyddWylfa

--

0.58--

1.90.31.5-

0.4-------

--

0.57--

2.00.21.5-

0.41-------

--

1.05--

3.00.31.5-

0.14-------

0.61

6.00.31.4

0.1

0.40.31.4

0.1

0.30.31.5

0.1

0.0040.31.4

0.02

0.0040.191.40

0.02

LWGRs

Lithuania [E2]Ignalina 1-2 4.25 10.0 1.2 0.5 2.9 6.2 11.5 6.3

Russian Federation [M6]Bilibino 1-4Kursk 1-4Leningrad 1-4Smolensk 1-3

07.4720.73.41

01.0836.33.92

03.5188.89.99

07.2919.616.5

03.6530.312.2

06.7519.66.21

09.9929.25.67

010.717.523.8

Ukraine [G3]Chernobyl 1-3 10.8 6.77 2.85 7.96 4.66 5.40 7.84 1.96

FBRs

France [E1]Creys-MalvillePhenix

N o t r e p o r t e d

KazakhstanBn-350

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Table 33 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 259

Country/reactorRelease (GBq)

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

Russian Federation [M6]Beloyarsky 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

United Kingdom [N5]Dounreay PFR

Summaryparameter

ReactorRelease (GBq)

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

All reactors

Total release(GBq)

PWRsBWRsHWRsGCRs

LWGRsFBRs

All

32.333.43.904.6846.6

-

121

28.230.74.964.6858.1

-

127

60.729.12.625.99106

-

205

44.149.14.398.4151.9

-

158

15.355.64.352.2053.7

-

131

19.725.82.412.2044.2

-

94.2

19.415.60.711.7264.2

-

102

20.112.60.801.6260.3

-

95.4

Annualnormalizedrelease[GBq (GW a)-1]

PWRsBWRsHWRsGCRs

LWGRsFBRs

All

0.310.740.391.84.4

0.70

0.260.620.441.45.6

0.69

0.540.600.251.512

1.1

0.400.980.351.85.5

0.84

0.141.10.320.497.1

0.69

0.180.450.200.565.5

0.48

0.160.300.060.377.3

0.52

0.190.260.070.357.7

0.53

Averagenormalizedrelease1990-1994and 1995-1997[GBq (GW a)-1]

PWRsBWRsHWRsGCRs

LWGRsFBRs

All

0.330.810.351.46.8

0.81

0.170.330.110.426.9

0.51

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ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION260

Table 34Particulates released from reactors in airborne effluents

Country/reactorRelease (GBq)

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

PWRs

Armenia [A5]Armenia 2 2.34 2.77

Belgium [M1]Doel 1-4Tihange 1-3

0.1620.136

0.10.077

0.0750.017

0.0080.020

0.00060.032

0.00360.051

0.00280.033

0.00150.015

Brazil [C7]Angra 1 0.000009 0.000007 0.0000001 0 0.01 0.044

Bulgaria [C6]Kozloduy 1-6 2.4 1.7 3.8 2.3 2.0 1.50 1.92 1.86

China [C8, T2]Guangdong 1-2QinshanMaanshan 1-2

--0

--0

-

0.016 0.0044 0.0037 0.011 0.0019 0.011

Czech Republic [N2]Dukovany 1-4 0.099 0.10 0.21 0.21 0.15 0.13 0.080 0.24

Finland [F1]Loviisa 1-2 0.2 0.17 0.28 0.081 0.23 0.34 0.22 0.25

France [E1]Belleville 1-2Blayais 1-4Bugey 2-5Cattenom 1-4Chinon B1-B4Chooz-A (Ardennes)Chooz B1-B2Cruas 1-4Dampierre 1-4Fessenheim 1-2Flamanville 1-2Golfech 1-2Gravelines 1-6Nogent 1-2Paluel 1-4Penly 1-2St. Alban 1-2St. Laurent B1-BTricastin 1-4

0.590.520.540.251.0

0.099

0.210.55

0.0290.12

0.0491.40.180.26

0.0190.0890.0890.40

0.390.330.930.191.40.88

0.140.37

0.0390.19

0.0291.1

0.0990.39

0.0190.29

0.0290.44

0.570.530.440.350.90

0.019

0.110.37

0.0290.48

0.0190.750.280.24

0.0490.11

0.0390.35

2.20.310.440.230.30

0.012

0.250.84

0.0290.12

0.0281.10.650.18

0.0870.12

0.0390.33

0.180.440.380.220.86

0.012

0.520.69

0.0190.25

0.0192.10.171.30.31

0.0890.0390.13

0.210.800.320.170.41

0.006

0.171.1

0.0190.10

0.0394.30.150.54

0.0390.59

0.0790.13

0.250.330.330.18

0.0990.00040.0390.14

0.0990.0390.120.190.550.250.33

0.0960.13

0.0740.11

0.0890.110.380.17

0.0690.0002

0.870.0590.10

0.0290.120.800.350.150.130.120.11

0.0990.19

Germany [B3]Biblis A-BBrokdorfEmslandGrafenrheinfeldGreifswaldGrohndeIsar 2Mülheim-KärlichNeckarwestheim 1-2ObrigheimPhilippsburg 2StadeUnterweser

0.0110.000370.00060.0083

0.620.0001

0.0000370

0.00630.004

0.000450.0460.0019

0.0240.0012

0.000390.0033

0.120

0.0000130

0.00340.0086

0.000370.0210.0021

0.0140

0.000370.00190.063

0.000590.00034

00.00260.00490.0010.00490.001

0.010.0014

0.0000710.00150.038

0.000290.000036

00.00160.0120.00180.005

0.00099

0.030.000450.000680.00160.0210.0011

00

0.00710.0120.00180.00420.0014

0.00250

0.0000070.0027

0.280.00025

00

0.00120.018

0.000990.0790.0012

0.00200

0.000660.0026

0.160.000960.0018

00.00290.0092

0.000150.00100.0015

0.00840

0.000170.0020.0870.0012

0.000070

0.000270.0074

0.000530.000240.00079

Hungary [F2]Paks 1-4 1.14 1.30 0.45 1.30 1.28 0.49 0.74 1.30

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Table 34 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 261

Country/reactorRelease (GBq)

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

Japan [J1, J5]Genkai 1-4Ikata 1-3Mihama 1-3Ohi 1-4Sendai 1-2Takahama 1-4Tomari 1-2Tsuruga 2

00000000

00000000

00000000

00000000

00000000

00000000

00000000

00000000

Netherlands [N7]Borssele 0 0 0 0 0.0011 0 0 0

Republic of Korea [K1]Kori 1-4Ulchin 1-2Yonggwang 1-4

0.120.024

0.00078

0.0150.000040.0011

0.00140.0016

0.00015

0.950.00002

0

0.000070.0077

2.7

0.000070.0150.013

0.00270.00200.023

00.021

0.00062

Russian Federation [M6]Balakovo 1-4Kalinin 1-2Kola 1-4Novovoronezh 2-5

1.490.038.511.88

0.140.037.162.43

0.270.032.570.95

0.410.203.241.07

0.240.142.970.68

0.140.052.032.43

0.180.110.922.30

0.120.090.201.54

Slovakia [N2, S4]Bohunice 1-4 0.38 0.54 1.46 1.1 0.37 0.53 0.30 0.54

Slovenia [S1]Krsko 0 0 0 0.0034 0.0004 0.020 0.00017 0.0036

South Africa [C11]Koeberg 1-2 1.04 4.50 2.18 3.79 4.97 6.22 3.31 4.19

Spain [C2]Almaraz 1-2Asco 1-2José Cabrera 1Trillo 1Vandellos 2

0.0710.0320.0630.01

0.019

0.0330.020.25

0.0170.017

0.0060.0250.6680.0060.027

0.040.0280.3440.0060.021

0.0370.0240.0070.0050.037

0.0110.2190.0040.0060.004

0.0430.0160.0170.0020.008

0.00790.0360.00880.00220.025

Sweden [N3]Ringhals 2-4 0.017 0.014 0.0038 0.016 0.014 0.0051 0.00088 0.050

Switzerland [F3]Beznau 1-2Gösgen

0.00150.0024

0.00180.0013

0.00410.00067

0.000870.006

0.0020.006

0.0060.010

0.0060.010

0.0060.010

Ukraine [G3]Khmelnitski 1Rovno 1-3South Ukraine 1-3Zaporozhe 1-6

0.0350.33

0.0120.13

0.160.30

0.0210.15

0.100.48

0.0120.28

0.120.18

0.00140.28

0.0760.17

0.0070.17

0.0800.39

0.0090.17

0.100.13

0.0280.12

0.0760.16

0.0110.08

United Kingdom [M7]Sizewell B - - - - - - 0.0087 0.0051

United States [T3]Arkansas One 1-2Beaver Valley 1-2Braidwood 1-2Byron 1-2Callaway 1Calvert Cliffs 1-2Catawba 1-2Comanche Peak 1-2Crystal River 3Davis-Besse 1Diablo Canyon 1-2Donald Cook 1-2

0.0330.0190.00140.00150.00010.00910.0130.00140.00020.00110.0006

2.60

1.590.11

0.0120.0004

0.000040.00010.036

00.00750.0022

0.000260.058

1.840.029

00

0.00580.00200.036

00.00030.0240.0950.074

0.000220.56

00.00022

0.0390.28

0.00730.000140.00025

0.0160.00170.016

0.00040.045

0

0.000510.0440.0034

00.000350.00200.0130.078

0.150.73

00.00086

0.0570.0019

0.140

0.000090.0038

0.22

0.00040.048

0.00390.0002

0.000090.000560.000080.000230.00520.0057

1.10

0.00020.029

0.00010.00021

0.0360

0.0010.0010.46

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Table 34 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION262

Country/reactorRelease (GBq)

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

United States (continued)Farley 1-2Fort Calhoun 1R. E. GinnaHaddam NeckHarris 1Indian Point 1-3KewauneeMaine YankeeMcGuire 1-2Millstone 2-3North Anna 1-2Oconee 1-2-3PalisadesPalo Verde 1-3Point Beach 1-2Prairie Island 1-2Rancho Seco 1H. B. Robinson 2Salem 1-2San Onofre 1-3Seabrook 1Sequoyah 1-2South Texas 1-2St. Lucie 1-2Surry 1-2Three Mile Island 1TrojanTurkey Point 3-4Virgil C. Summer 1Vogtle 1-2Waterford 3Watts BarWolf CreekYankee NPSZion 1-2

00.00150.00110.0800.00290.0360.120.51

0.0270.00300.0220.0520.0100.0590.00830.0026

00.00500.00210.024

00.00250.0450.00300.059

0.000140.00480.00590.00430.0020

0-

0.00320.00100.0026

00.00440.0019

0.340.00170.0640.0710.0280.0280.0190.00590.0410.0073

0.100.12

0.0140

0.00640.00310.0280.0390.0210.0840.00700.0220.00290.00540.00130.00180.00330.0026

-0

0.000350.0070

0.00860.01

00.20

0.00700.0081

0.000060.0520.00670.0210.00370.0110.00840.0600.41

0.00240

0.00510.00250.0190.0410.00320.0130.00850.0110.00120.00070.0008

00.17

0.00037-

0.000050.00029

0.12

0.00110.000060.00056

0.360.00640.0410.00070.0600.00210.0260.0170.0310.0077

0.290.54

0.00260

0.00330.00074

0.0690.000020.00045

0.0200.00460.0065

0.0002500

0.00480.0021

0-0

0.000030.87

0.500.000110.00023

0.0041

0.00170.037

0.000240.00540.0026

0.110.00290.0950.08

0.0028

0.00010.00073

0.021

00.00130.0200.012

0.000460

0.00160.0140.00400.0028

0.000270.035

0.000890.000840.00014

0.34

0.000540.0370.00720.00520.0030.0150.00350.0560.16

0.005

0.00030.00077

0.018

0.0170.00790.006

0.000150

0.000020.00910.0027

0.000910.14

0.00040.00026

0.020

0.0015

0.00130.030

0.000060.00028

0.0120.01

0.00410.00950.00840.006

0.00130.00098

0.029

0.00160.0057

0.0070.000001

0

0.000250.012

0.000190

0.000040.00076

0.060

0.00024

0.0089

0.000210.000950.00170.00050.0010.0140.0032

0.000080.033

0.00060.00012

0.018

0.0052

0.0020.0012

0

0.00190.000900.00080

0.000030.032

BWRs

China [T2]Chin Shan 1-2Kuosheng 1-2

0.710.0039

0.220.075

0.0800.015

0.0390.0003

0.110.0003

0.0380.0024

0.0200

0.0120.000007

Finland [F1]Olkilouto 1-2 0.22 0.74 0.3 0.11 0.13 0.033 0.014 0.045

Germany [B3]BrunsbüttelGundremmingen B,CIsar 1KrümmelPhilippsburg 1Würgassen

0.0540

0.00630.00510.0730.045

0.0230

0.00190.0390.0230.17

0.0750

0.00870.0250.0220.058

0.0410

0.0110.0280.08

0.077

0.0340

0.0180.0190.0540.053

0.0340

0.0100.0340.0320.013

0.0340.000074

0.0160.0860.0210.012

0.0260.000062

0.0130.15

0.0250.041

India [B4]Tarapur 1-2 8.6 21.6 4.8 8.7 5.8

Japan [J1, J5]Fukushima Daiichi 1-6Fukushima Daini 1-4Hamaoka 1-4Kashiwazaki Kariwa 1-7Onagawa 1-2Shika 1Shimane 1-2Tokai 2Tsuruga 1

0.00810000-

0.000200

0.00170000-

0.00040

0.00005

0.00100000000

0.0003

0.001900000

0.00100

0.00004

0.003400000

0.00030

0.00008

0.000200000000

0.00060000000

0.0001

0.002000000

0.000400

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Table 34 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 263

Country/reactorRelease (GBq)

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

Mexico [C5]Laguna Verde 1-2 0.12 1.11 0.31 0.55 0.21 16.7 2.01 0.63

Netherlands [N7]Dodewaard 0.028 0.0086 0.0043 0.0045 0.0052 0.0049 0.0046 0.005

Spain [C2]ConfrentesS. Maria de Garona

0.1530.071

0.5450.032

0.4150.046

0.0770.139

0.0660.216

0.0490.077

0.0050.127

0.460.015

Sweden [N3]Barsebeck 1-2Forsmark 1-3Oskarshamn 1-3Ringhals 1

0.1982.727520.2

0.3713917865.0

0.7319958.8

0.022

0.4837.853.2323

0.4819.540.5

43 500

1.0084.414.0

44 700

3.061.8440.8

10 600

1.602.7730.5

1 740

Switzerland [F3]LeibstadtMühleberg

0.0360.049

0.00710.078

0.00190.013

0.0030.01

0.0110.007

0.0200.020

0.0200.020

0.0200.020

United States [T3]Big Rock PointBrowns Ferry 1-3Brunswick 1-2Clinton 1CooperDresden 2-3Duane Arnold 1Enrico Fermi 2FitzpatrickGrand Gulf 1Hatch 1-2Hope Creek 1Lasalle 1-2Limerick 1-2Millstone 1MonticelloNine Mile Point 1-2Oyster CreekPeach Bottom 2-3Perry 1Pilgrim 1Quad Cities 1-2River Bend 1Susquehanna 1-2Vermont YankeeWPPSS 2

0.130.0070

1.350.32

0.0285.450.160.440.63

0.0180.0940.16

0.0470.0270.0700.220.230.310.19

0.0520.0361.060.13

0.0320.642.34

0.0650.690.350.34

0.0171.45

0.0930.120.83

0.0830.0440.0160.19

0.00420.0760.220.590.210.28

0.0110.320.380.19

0.00850.681.53

0.0261.21

0.0970.0910.0150.840.110.10

0.0120.0460.20

0.0990.0480.0150.0470.250.320.640.14

00.521.09

0.0440.170.791.31

0.0460.760.280.68

0.0131.38

0.0770.11

0.0670.0031

3.880.0724.940.630.140.740.37

0.0860.29

0.0850.470.91

0.0520.0480.320.86

0.120.650.781.70

0.0160.58

0.0300.0052

0.770.0034

11.40.0017

0.1417.80.230.100.130.190.522.620.250.100.130.070.070.10

0.09

0.830.16

0.0120.520.11

0.0520.45

0.00320.45

0.0710.220.170.42

0.067

0.10.510.210.870.770.140.06

0.0250.25

0.13

0.240.0361.58

0.0790.0640.0560.0470.0014

2.430.14

0.0210.063

0.0930.150.75

0.0890.770.13

0.0290.0070.081

0.14

0.360.0025

2.420.30

0.0140.120.01

0.00591.85

0.095

0.0160.048

0.068

0.0870.660.24

0.0540.032

HWRs

Argentina [C3]Atucha 1Embalse

0.00110

0.0150.12

0.0150.025

0.180

0.0490.0036

0.0130.077

0.0380

0.0060

Canada [A2]Bruce 1-4Bruce 5-8Darlington 1-4Gentilly 2Pickering 1-4Pickering 5-8Point Lepreau

0.0810.14

0.0120.00037

0.290.018

0

0.0630.14

0.0460.0130.0870.019

0

0.0720.12

0.0460.0740.0890.0200.0040

0.0790.120.11

0.0520.0850.0210.0013

0.110.100.10

0.0700.0700.0410.0005

0.120.12

0.0850.0450.0700.026

0

0.0720.0750.0580.0300.0510.027

0

0.0700.0880.0650.1140.3550.039

0.00005

India [B4]Kakrapar 1Kalpakkam 1-2Narora 1-2Rajasthan 1-2

00

0.014

00

0.004

00

0.004

00

0.006

00

0.002

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Table 34 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION264

Country/reactorRelease (GBq)

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

Japan [J1, J5]Fugen 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Pakistan [P2]Karachi 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Republic of Korea [K1]Wolsong 1-2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

RomaniaCernavoda - - - - - - 0 0

United Kingdom [N5]Winfrith 0.19 0.021 0.00002 0.00002

GCRs

France [E1]Bugey 1Chinon A2-3St. Laurent A1-2

0.430.0250.21

0.380.0180.13

0.290.0110.14

0.170.0060.011

0.300.0080.005

0.380.0190.002

0.0090.0050.001

0.0050.0090.0007

Japan [J1, J5]Tokai 1 0.0021 0.011 0.0002 0.0002 0.0013 0.0001 0.0002 0

Spain [C2]Vandellos 1 0.02 0.004 0.003 0.002 0.0008 0 0.002

U. K. [M7, N4, N5]BerkeleyBradwellCalder HallChapelcrossDungeness ADungeness B1-B2Hartlepool A1-A2Heysham 1A-B, 2A-BHinkley Point AHinkley Point B, A-BHunterston A1Hunterston B1-B2Oldbury ASizewell A-BTorness A-BTrawsfynyddWylfa

0.010.07

--

0.170.070.040.050.300.57

0.0080.130.050.33

0.0450.280.11

0.010.07

--

0.110.060.040.050.230.46

0.00160.0490.070.37

0.0270.040.10

0.010.03

--

0.130.070.04

0.0120.150.32

0.00110.120.100.41

0.0130.020.16

0.010.05

0.210.070.040.070.230.40

0.00360.180.100.55

0.0260.010.13

0.010.26

0.260.040.040.070.230.31

0.00250.130.080.53

0.0710.010.11

0.010.16

0.40.010.040.080.160.08

0.00130.0740.100.36

0.0140.010.10

0.0040.21

0.330.0490.0350.0690.0770.0770.00020.0360.0910.0220.0150.00160.0087

0.0040.20

0.300.0350.0250.0990.17

0.0750.00020.0340.10

0.0730.0150.00230.074

LWGRs

Lithuania [E2]Ignalina 1-2 9.8 1.06 2.2 1.5 8.2 4.2 7.8 1.3

Russian Federation [M6]Bilibino 1-4Kursk 1-4Leningrad 1-4Smolensk 1-3

025.962.29.55

011.696.212.4

011.298.724.0

09.1828.18.64

08.5176.42.70

013.142.61.76

013.564.62.97

019.222.93.78

Ukraine [G3]Chernobyl 1-3 51.2 43.2 13.7 13.5 6.85 3.66 4.00 1.89

FBRs

France [E1]Creys-MalvillePhenix

0.008 0.012 0.011 0.011 0.012 0.013 0.013 0.013

Kazakhstan [A6]Bn-350 0.84 0.97 1.25 23.4 0.69 0.67 0.53 0.46

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Table 34 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 265

Country/reactorRelease (GBq)

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

Russian Federation [M6]Beloyarsky 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

United KingdomDounreay PFR

Summaryparameter

ReactorRelease (GBq)

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

All reactors

Total release(GBq)

PWRsBWRsHWRsGCRs

LWGRsFBRs

All

29.24020.752.921590.85

595

29.64160.512.331640.98

614

22.92730.492.141501.26

450

26.34420.652.2760.923.4

555

25.243 610

0.552.471030.70

43 740

26.544 820

0.562.0065.30.68

44 920

17.710 660

0.351.0492.90.54

10 770

18.21 7830.741.2249.00.47

1 852

Annualnormalizedrelease[GBq (GW a)-1]

PWRsBWRsHWRsGCRs

LWGRsFBRs

All

0.218.4

0.0760.43152.0

2.8

0.208.0

0.0440.32162.5

2.7

0.155.5

0.0460.27172.4

2.0

0.178.6

0.0530.256.447

2.4

0.17826

0.0400.27141.5

187

0.17781

0.0460.248.21.7

188

0.11204

0.0300.14110.7

45

0.1236

0.0700.136.31.1

8.2

Averagenormalizedrelease1990-1994and 1995-1997[GBq (GW a)-1]

PWRsBWRsHWRsGCRs

LWGRsFBRs

All

0.18178

0.0510.301412

40

0.13351

0.0480.178.41.0

81

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ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION266

Table 35Tritium released from reactors in liquid effluents

Country/reactorRelease (GBq)

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

PWRs

ArmeniaArmenia 2

Belgium [M1]Doel 1-4Tihange 1-3

63 00056 400

38 10034 500

43 90034 900

32 80035 200

32 80033 100

47 00041 200

31 30044 700

38 40047 300

Brazil [C7]Angra 1 12 200 11 400 49 300 6 560 587 5 130 4 640 19 500

Bulgaria [C6]Kozloduy 1-6

N o t r e p o r t e d11 690

China [C8, T2]Guangdong 1-2QinshanMaanshan 1-2

--

4 630

--

6 030

-1 6909 140

1 45016 900

22 2006 320

20 500

10 1004 82011 700

22 1003 58015 300

38 5002 9506 790

Czech Republic [N2]Dukovany 1-4 20 100 18 300 19 300 18 600 15 600 14 500 17 200 14 600

Finland [F1]Loviisa 1-2 12 000 14 000 10 000 12 000 11 000 12 000 9 400 12 000

France [E1]Belleville 1-2Blayais 1-4Bugey 2-5Cattenom 1-4Chinon B1-B4Chooz-A (Ardennes)Chooz B1-B2Cruas 1-4Dampierre 1-4Fessenheim 1-2Flamanville 1-2Golfech 1-2Gravelines 1-6Nogent 1-2Paluel 1-4Penly 1-2St. Alban 1-2St. Laurent B1-B2Tricastin 1-4

31 00058 00042 00035 00062 000

108 000

51 00052 00020 00048 000

50087 00023 000

100 0004 00030 00034 00049 000

39 00054 00030 00047 00049 00095 000

37 00052 00026 00037 0008 00080 00018 00082 00016 00024 00036 00033 000

37 00039 00015 00086 00052 00026 000

34 00073 00016 00034 0009 00070 00018 00073 00020 0009 00041 00032 000

38 00036 00046 00066 00033 000

800

46 00050 00017 00035 0008 40043 00026 00077 00033 00013 00033 00034 000

22 00032 00035 00069 00033 0001 000

55 00043 00020 00030 00030 00060 00022 00067 00023 00016 00024 00038 000

30 00046 00033 00080 00044 000

600

43 00044 00021 00031 00027 00039 00025 00075 00024 00022 00016 00025 000

36 00053 00033 00072 00044 0001600200

50 00044 00020 00035 00022 00051 00032 00070 00029 00043 00020 00046 000

33 00040 00038 00074 00059 000

10013 00037 00038 00022 00025 00033 00058 00022 00081 00024 00023 00017 00032 000

Germany [B3]Biblis A-BBrokdorfEmslandGrafenrheinfeldGreifswaldGrohndeIsar 2Mülheim-KärlichNeckarwestheim 1-2ObrigheimPhilippsburg 2StadeUnterweser

23 0009 4008 70012 0006 40014 0007 2002 00027 0003 50019 0003 40011 000

18 30015 0008 30014 000

20016 0008 600490

32 000890

17 0002 90011 000

25 00019 00013 00014 000

8314 00016 000

42024 0003 30015 0004 8009 000

30 00014 0009 50013 000

3115 00019 000

46030 0005 40013 0004 8008 500

26 00014 00013 00013 000

6918 00022 000

32038 0004 40013 0003 6007 700

21 00012 00010 00013 000

4512 00019 000

25035 0004 60017 0002 7006 000

15 00014 00012 00016 000

2610 00020 000

4934 0005 70015 0002 90012 000

25 00017 00015 00016 000

247 40017 000

18033 0005 10016 0002 70015 000

Hungary [F2]Paks 1-4 14 000 16 000 16 000 18 000 18 000 20 000 20 000 15 600

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Table 35 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 267

Country/reactorRelease (GBq)

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

Japan [J1, J5]Genkai 1-4Ikata 1-3Mihama 1-3Ohi 1-4Sendai 1-2Takahama 1-4Tomari 1-2Tsuruga 2

34 00033 00020 00016 00037 00035 00016 00023 000

26 00029 00013 00020 00036 00030 00011 00030 000

24 00025 00012 00029 00048 00055 00021 0007 500

36 00033 00018 00042 00039 00069 00024 00016 000

50 00038 00011 00063 00031 00033 00021 00012 000

58 00053 00017 00061 00042 00037 00019 00018 000

46 00040 00017 00059 00050 00057 00026 00014 000

61 00045 00016 00046 00036 00064 00030 00021 000

Netherlands [N7]Borssele 5 540 2 900 4 370 5 980 5 870 6 161 6 020 4 330

Republic of Korea [K1]Kori 1-4Ulchin 1-2Yonggwang 1-4

76 10013 10042 600

85 90014 30029 600

48 70035 30028 600

66 10029 90046 600

58 00028 00026 000

31 80021 30027 900

32 90020 80042 200

36 70021 90055 800

Russian FederationBalakovo 1-4Kalinin 1-2Kola 1-4Novovoronezh 2-5

A v e r a g e n o r m a l i z e d r e l e a s e e s t i m a t e d t o b e 30,000 GBq (GW a) -1

Slovakia [N2, S4]Bohunice 1-4 13 000 15 600 12 800 14 000 12 600 12 400 12 700 9 580

Slovenia [S1]Krsko 13 500 13 500 14 600 10 900 10 500 8 500 9 300 7 800

South Africa [C11]Koeberg 1-2 60 700 91 000 83 700 13 500 17 900 11 300 31 800 17 200

Spain [C2]Almaraz 1-2Asco 1-2José Cabrera 1Trillo 1Vandellos 2

47 20042 3001 74010 90014 600

48 60053 4001 34020 00017 200

53 70059 3002 94011 90010 400

70 60055 500

94319 80015 700

51 30035 800

51119 00014 700

42 80085 8001 02014 00013 400

49 30050 7002 59019 40016 600

54 10058 0002 16028 80020 700

Sweden [N3]Ringhals 48 800 45 400 53 100 43 400 34 300 21 000 24 600 22 500

Switzerland [F3]Beznau 1-2Gösgen

9 30011 000

8 90012 000

7 20012 000

12 00013 000

11 00011 000

12 00014 000

12 00013 000

12 00014 000

Ukraine [G3]Khmelnitski 1Rovno 1-3South Ukraine 1-3Zaporozhe 1-5

15 13 12

1 600

25

2 050

28

1 810

28

663

39

1 380

23

United Kingdom [M7]Sizewell B - - - - - - 37 600 44 200

United States [T3]Arkansas One 1-2Beaver Valley 1-2Braidwood 1-2Byron 1-2Callaway 1Calvert Cliffs 1-2Catawba 1-2Comanche Peak 1-2Crystal River 3Davis-Besse 1Diablo Canyon 1-2Donald Cook 1-2

29 60018 20048 10036 90037 7002 70022 0006 92018 9004 70035 80057 700

53 90017 90025 40052 90045 40037 60023 90017 00016 60012 10038 90057 400

29 70017 20070 90058 50021 90065 60028 60022 60013 50014 10045 10016 000

28 10020 50059 60076 20052 00023 50030 60018 60021 8006 70038 10022 200

35 40013 60045 700

38 10024 20021 70032 90012 20016 400

102 000212

34 10019 20069 60050 00029 30028 20018 10031 100

6 20058 090

300

42 40072 900

52 10043 30028 00023 70036 5009 70019 40035 50075 200

26 50020 100

25 30033 60023 90053 800

25 10049 600

111 000

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Table 35 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION268

Country/reactorRelease (GBq)

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

United States (continued)Farley 1-2Fort Calhoun 1R. E. GinnaHaddam NeckHarris 1Indian Point 1-3KewauneeMaine YankeeMcGuire 1-2Millstone 2-3North Anna 1-2Oconee 1-2-3PalisadesPalo Verde 1-3Point Beach 1-2Prairie Island 1-2Rancho Seco 1H. B. Robinson 2Salem 1-2San Onofre 1-3Seabrook 1Sequoyah 1-2South Texas 1-2St. Lucie 1-2Surry 1-2Three Mile Island 1TrojanTurkey Point 3-4Virgil C. Summer 1Vogtle 1-2Waterford 3Watts BarWolf CreekYankee NPSZion 1-2

52 1006 44011 90036 60026 90036 10014 0008 99033 90048 10061 90036 7005 510

032 30014 700

50713 10024 30087 0004 18031 60030 20021 00041 0007 8108 10023 80015 60043 40026 300

-21 8007 11025 200

30 5006 50013 900

171 00010 80040 10016 10014 40032 50021 10042 90041 8002 040

029 10020 600

36.46 96038 80086 30014 28061 10040 30030 00033 80013 3006 2507 55030 10040 50012 700

-26 5007 51034 400

59 5003 9207 88031 90033 40042 40010 7008 03032 00026 00034 40036 90029 90

015 40017 500

89514 60017 400

144 00018 50053 30050 40029 60036 00020 7007 25016 40022 50054 80018 300

-16 7002 33019 300

67 3008 8406 550

148 00020 50021 6008 73010 10028 70031 30025 60040 7007 770

017 20017 800

27531 30033 30052 70020 80020 7008 36018 80048 70013 90045 10019 00017 70028 20018 100

-37 000

18.545 900

50 1008 8205 100

37 400

6 07014 60017 80037 70045 80033 600

674

17 20013 800

7 99040 60033 000

18 20027 90019 20036 20013 200

33627 80027 80038 90024 700

22.625 100

46 7009 5003 610

11 800

8 7301 65023 90031 60036 10030 9004 660

19 60028 900

36 70014 30036 200

137 00027 80030 80019 500

10611 70011 30035 80043 700

7.0346 300

56 40018 1004 400

16 900

11 60011 00023 80014 80041 50032 5007 590

15 50023 200

36 6001 72053 700

46 70059 800

36 7006 180138

21 40060 50019 2008 26020 000

5.4246 800

35 800

11 000

154 71021 80010 70037 30022 9005 100

6 36020 900

33 3002 32011 400

60 600

41 10027 600

150

34 10054 40012 500

2.968 550

BWRs

China [T2]Chin Shan 1-2Kuosheng 1-2

1 8901 020

1 3902 670

1 5303 960

1 0902 800

9734 850

1 260729

1 480367

350160

Finland [F1]Olkiluoto 1-2 1 300 1 900 1 800 3 600 2 800 1 500 2 400 1 300

Germany [B3]BrunsbüttelGundremmingen B,CIsar 1KrümmelPhilippsburg 1Würgassen

1702 200460960460330

2903 000400950630460

2402 800

460650620410

744 800640610760440

234 5001 100130470330

1206 4001 30058057035

35011 0001 00068054038

24013 0001 20047049014

IndiaTarapur 1-2

Japan [J1, J5]Fukushima Daiichi 1-6Fukushima Daini 1-4Hamaoka 1-4Kashiwazaki Kariwa 1-7Onagawa 1-2Shika 1Shimane 1-2Tokai 2Tsuruga 1

2 7001 1002 10015068-

430980160

2 400870

1 3004258-

5101 600470

2 100460

1 000390383

4301 400380

1 900580

1 4001609016570

1 300210

1 400580

1 3001601557

1 00083097

1 100490

1 0001308.5140730

1 500110

1 10057068017021170

1 2001 700170

1 4001 0006008044200720

1 200190

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Table 35 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 269

Country/reactorRelease (GBq)

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

Mexico [C5]Laguna Verde 1-2 498 82 158 0.00005 1 970 1 960 531 781

Netherlands [N7]Dodewaard 147 152 245 163 90 26 19 18

Spain [C2]ConfrentesS. Maria de Garona

64.7157

23573.7

310427

516177

385371

99.4121

160165

511231

Sweden [N3]Barsebeck 1-2Forsmark 1-3Oskarshamn 1-3Ringhals 1

1 1001 9002 600711

1 0003 5002 500882

1 5002 6001 7001 270

5802 920740500

5302 3701 130860

5542 3401 190832

1 1001 9901 380790

7602 0001 360490

Switzerland [F3]LeibstadtMühleberg

930330

810380

950200

620300

570200

470340

710290

1 100320

United States [T3]Big Rock PointBrowns Ferry 1-3Brunswick 1-2Clinton 1CooperDresden 2-3Duane Arnold 1Enrico Fermi 2FitzpatrickGrand Gulf 1Hatch 1-2Hope Creek 1Lasalle 1-2Limerick 1-2Millstone 1MonticelloNine Mile Point 1-2Oyster CreekPeach Bottom 2-3Perry 1Pilgrim 1Quad Cities 1-2River Bend 1Susquehanna 1-2Vermont YankeeWPPSS 2

21.87.66

1 83096.2188755

-27.611469983643713.8

1 120749

0229

-870325136966

3 0902 150

027.9

9.29221

2 960165335474

-74.7282799

1 080907

0507311

028822.3540392377164

1 1301 710

067.0

40.01 0501 57087.3541158

-13.0105851

1 6504 6300.0011

389272

0331

-6553430.54463866

2 8500.0015

400

5.85459

1 7500

400862

013.853.3

2 3301 8802 280

0951907

0.0007877

0267346139

1 3601 1202 510

01 260

1.551 6302 580

0129551

090.023.9

5 9801 7006 0705.37

2 100747

0654

095.234334.7

1 7402 4003 760

0307

3.99

2 0400

2 78096.1

00

13.54 8501 7001 710

01 650485

0707

-1 480

650834758

2 9400

192

8.79

1 7500

198425

00

1687 9901 180418

2710

2263 420

542818202

1 2400

152

5.03

9620

218462

000

6 360890457

300

0.37

8751 040296

1 2800

HWRs

Argentina [C3]Atucha 1Embalse

530 000220 000

550 000520 000

770 000160 000

920 000200 000

2 200 000140 000

500 000230 000

550 000320 000

1 200 000160 000

Canada [A2]Bruce 1-4Bruce 5-8Darlington 1-4Gentilly 2Pickering 1-4Pickering 5-8Point Lepreau

1 221 000481 00012 600

163 000407 00030 000

160 000

3 241 000488 00071 000

248 000395 00032 000

110 000

1 700 000410 00046 000

263 0003 034 000

44 000320 000

1 480 000658 00057 700

241 000518 00012 600

470 000

1 440 000555 000130 000134 000555 000118 000260 000

1 900 000380 000140 000200 000440 000110 000170 000

1 200 000230 000120 000120 000430 000160 000480 000

310 000680 000112 000140 000350 00050 000

500 000

India [B4]Kakrapar 1-2Kalpakkam 1-2Narora 1-2Rajasthan 1-2

-142 800

9 95023 690

-211 50015 38031 170

-366 00034 20030 190

428 60058 68065 450

266 40049 02019 010

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Table 35 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION270

Country/reactorRelease (GBq)

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

Japan [J1, J5]Fugen 3 100 1 600 3 400 3 200 4 200 3 800 5 500 5 100

Pakistan [P2]Karachi 127 000 94 300 46 300 56 200 118 000 168 000 105 000 39 100

Republic of Korea [K1]Wolsong 1-2 51 800 93 200 42 000 46 300 180 000 170 000 50 000 94 700

RomaniaCernavoda - - - - - - 8 210 11 600

United Kingdom [M7, N5]Winfrith 39 330 13 280 13 790 74 010 59 980 1 610 3 900

GCRs

France [E1]Bugey 1Chinon A2-3St. Laurent A1-2

02 000

-

00-

00-

00-

9 6000-

1000-

2 8000-

8 2000-

Japan [J1, J5]Tokai 1 0.037 1.4 0.83 24 5.1 9.2 16 20

Spain [C2]Vandellos 1 141 74.3 18 300 105 114 45.6 206

U. K. [M7, N4, N5]BerkeleyBradwellCalder HallChapelcrossDungeness ADungeness B1-B2Hartlepool A1-A2Heysham 1A-B, 2A-BHinkley Point AHinkley Point B, A-BHunterston A1Hunterston B1-B2Oldbury ASizewell ATorness A-BTrawsfynyddWylfa

1 3501 380

-280713

7 200166 100202 100

913295 600

520353 000

1 7505 01082 0002 5205 380

2721 370

-1 870492

76 100140 900416 000

780277 000

250257 000

2715 610

132 000360

5 680

1573 920

-690451

93 300276 900525 000

706317 000

170245 000

2155 080

250 000222

2 750

2653 030

5004 430

268 900349 800854 700

779390 000

360362 000

2292 790

235 00074.7

5 920

29.12 170

490547

236 200289 400732 600

713336 000

200423 000

2633 570

220 000122

6 980

39.52 080

500296

15 080239 000584 800

757431 000

41.0449 000

23317 400

270 000232

7 560

37.21 360

3681 380

252 000353 000710 000

670319 000

22.9399 000

1861 130

298 000103

9 880

55.21 460

198135

247 000367 000816 000

810385 000

9.9413 000

1785 060

324 000298

7 020

LWGRs

LithuaniaIgnalina 1-2

Russian Federation [M6]Bilibino 1-4Kursk 1-4Leningrad 1-4Smolensk 1-3

O n l y a v e r a g e n o r m a l i z e d r e l e a s e r e p o r t e d

Ukraine [G3]Chernobyl 1-3

O n l y a v e r a g e n o r m a l i z e d r e l e a s e r e p o r t e d

FBRs

France [E1]Creys-MalvillePhenix

70 20 10 1 22 28 630 1

KazakhstanBn-350

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Table 35 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 271

Country/reactorRelease (GBq)

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

Russian FederationBeloyarsky 3

United KingdomDounreay PFR

Summaryparameter

ReactorRelease (TBq)

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

All reactors

Total release(TBq)

PWRsBWRsHWRsGCRs

LWGRsFBRs

All

2 93539.6

3 6221 128

00.070

7 725

3 08441.4

6 1151 316

00.020

10 560

2 99545.3

7 2831 740

00.010

12 060

2 95447.3

5 2902 479

00.001

10 770

2 56060.0

6 2252 262

00.022

11 110

2 67748.5

4 4122 018

00.028

9 155

2 81449.8

3 7802 349

00.63

8 994

2 55143.1

3 6562 575

00.001

8 814

Annualnormalizedrelease[TBq (GW a)-1]

PWRsBWRsHWRsGCRs

LWGRsFBRs

All

230.85367163

-1.0

41

240.81536183

--

53

220.95682215

--

60

210.93426271

--

51

181.14452247

-26

52

190.85361236

--

42

190.95321314

-1.6

41

180.82316284

--

41

Averagenormalizedrelease1990-1994and 1995-1997[TBq (GW a)-1]

PWRsBWRsHWRsGCRs

LWGRsFBRs

All

220.94490220

-1.8

51

190.87330280

-1.7

41

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ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION272

Table 36Other radionuclides released from reactors in liquid effluents

Country/reactorRelease (GBq)

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

PWRs

Armenia [A5]Armenia 2 22.9 15.4

Belgium [M1]Doel 1-4Tihange 1-3

15.541.5

22.343.7

4.453.6

23.640.9

8.623.8

37.822.5

18.952.3

26.424.3

Brazil [C7]Angra 1 0.430 0.197 0.167 0.548 0.182 0.214 0.19 1.08

Bulgaria [C6]Kozloduy 1-6 2.07 2.46 2.03 2.07 1.63 3.61 2.53 2.38

China [C8, T2]Guangdong 1-2QinshanMaanshan 1-2

--

0.313

--

0.736

-0.7322.75

0.6504.11

89.20.45

0.433

28.90.4120.336

9.320.5000.168

11.30.3360.522

Czech Republic [N2]Dukovany 1-4 0.19 0.34 0.094 0.41 0.31 0.17 0.095 0.077

Finland [F1]Loviisa 1-2 18 5.2 3.5 1.9 0.41 0.073 0.056 0.012

France [E1]Belleville 1-2Blayais 1-4Bugey 2-5Cattenom 1-4Chinon B1-B4Chooz-A (Ardennes)Chooz B1-B2Cruas 1-4Dampierre 1-4Fessenheim 1-2Flamanville 1-2Golfech 1-2Gravelines 1-6Nogent 1-2Paluel 1-4Penly 1-2St. Alban 1-2St. Laurent B1-B2Tricastin 1-4

25732551210718

17463432

0.281732818026612383

1040104139613

13201840

0.07736.0622.0302040

112551152010

9.01013110.7233.0244.06.06.024

1611269.09.55.5

5.97.66.86.91.1123.09.93.83.48.68.9

7.91018167.37.5

6.19.65.97.92.39.51.78.53.32.85.46.7

4.0149.67.01020

3.99.02.23.44.8183.09.21.83.02.36.4

6.14.9123.8104.40.24.47.02.72.01.7143.04.61.63.02.05.2

3.32.29.62.33.21.81.92.87.86.12.82.85.83.26.51.75.43.08.6

Germany [B3]Biblis A-BBrokdorfEmslandGrafenrheinfeldGreifswaldGrohndeIsar 2Mülheim-KärlichNeckarwestheim 1-2ObrigheimPhilippsburg 2StadeUnterweser

0.520

0.00870.044

3.70.030.060.32

0.0910.230.390.520.15

0.560

0.00330.0470.62

0.0930.00390.0660.0980.150.180.490.36

0.460

0.000650.0120.32

0.0130.0095

0.240.0450.210.490.450.21

0.480

0.00060.0320.170.04

0.00830.14

0.0210.110.610.320.23

0.830

0.00070.0170.16

0.0490.0004

0.150.0160.240.92

0.0490.11

0.730.11

0.000210.0170.0380.13

-0.0360.0280.520.440.370.16

0.520.026

0.000010.0110.160.11

0.000290.00890.1040.360.290.180.20

0.340.022

00.030.16

0.0460.0120.00840.0260.230.430.130.12

Hungary [F2]Paks 1-4 2.03 3.51 2.24 1.82 2.40 1.20 0.81 0.67

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Table 36 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 273

Country/reactorRelease (GBq)

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

Japan [J1, J5]Genkai 1-4Ikata 1-3Mihama 1-3Ohi 1-4Sendai 1-2Takahama 1-4Tomari 1-2Tsuruga 2

00

0.0160.0007

000

0.0043

00

0.00050000

0.00004

00

0.00300.00008

0000

00

0.00030.0001

000

0.0002

00

0.000100000

00

0.00050000

0.00009

00000000

00000000

Netherlands [N7]Borssele 1.9 1.3 0.83 0.58 0.73 0.62 0.38 1.3

Republic of Korea [K1]Kori 1-4Ulchin 1-2Yonggwang 1-4

48.71.481.18

0.611.670.41

4.940.540.24

1.030.930.13

1.801.400.23

0.860.570.21

0.430.260.22

0.110

0.016

Russian Federation [M6]Balakovo 1-4Kalinin 1-2Kola 1-4Novovoronezh 2-5

0.170.250.150.16

0.210.460.090.19

0.251.600.170.37

0.131.680.160.34

0.741.640.070.34

0.331.530.010.16

0.191.460.120.10

0.651.180.150.70

Slovakia [N2, S4]Bohunice 1-4 0.15 0.97 0.29 0.2 0.14 0.15 0.085 0.078

Slovenia [S1]Krsko 1.54 1.53 2.50 2.90 1.60 0.70 7.90 1.20

South Africa [C11]Koeberg 1-2 1.56 1.16 2.49 21.3 59.8 59.7 57.5 47.4

Spain [C2]Almaraz 1-2Asco 1-2José Cabrera 1Trillo 1Vandellos 2

28.733.212.60.7415.6

17.633.37.530.258.95

12.424.684.660.4314.6

7.8728.41.691.0510

17.431.93.840.9730.9

24.452.1

0.2310.68517.3

14.412.4

0.1940.76111.2

12.719.8

0.2021.3419.3

Sweden [N3]Ringhals 2-4 235 75.9 102 91.4 98.1 81.1 48.2 47.3

Switzerland [F3]Beznau 1-2Gösgen

6.20.011

4.30.0014

120.0034

8.50.13

30.005

2.10.20

3.00.20

1.80.20

Ukraine [G3]Khmelnitski 1Rovno 1-3South Ukraine 1-3Zaporozhe 1-6

0.00960.48

0.023

0.00930.55

0.024

0.00780.48

0.0180.13

0.00710.99

0.0140.42

0.00673.05

0.00670.17

0.00338.10

0.00830.81

0.00622.610.010.20

0.00161.94

0.00860.47

United Kingdom [M7]Sizewell B - - - - - - 19.9 21.3

United States [T3]Arkansas One 1-2Beaver Valley 1-2Braidwood 1-2Byron 1-2Callaway 1Calvert Cliffs 1-2Catawba 1-2Comanche Peak 1-2Crystal River 3Davis-Besse 1Diablo Canyon 1-2Donald Cook 1-2

96.694.115843.71.4352.372.40.4422.95.2210459.6

14211.674724.80.5958.828.21.806.666.8131.338.1

20112.638.71520.1753.134.414.860.34.0727.541.4

82.414.735.346.61.4857.033.115.519.61.9336.419.9

52.47.6238.2

0.3638.922.29.243.359.984.72.46

82.914.829.766.80.3820.623.24.6

2.9040.510.9

49.141.4

29.512.711.45.523.091.214.379.4

24.613.7

7.1917.84.94.2

9.948.649.3

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Table 36 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION274

Country/reactorRelease (GBq)

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

United States (continued)Farley 1-2Fort Calhoun 1R. E. GinnaHaddam NeckHarris 1Indian Point 1-3KewauneeMaine YankeeMcGuire 1-2Millstone 2-3North Anna 1-2Oconee 1-2-3PalisadesPalo Verde 1-3Point Beach 1-2Prairie Island 1-2Rancho Seco 1H. B. Robinson 2Salem 1-2San Onofre 1-3Seabrook 1Sequoyah 1-2South Texas 1-2St. Lucie 1-2Surry 1-2Three Mile Island 1TrojanTurkey Point 3-4Virgil C. Summer 1Vogtle 1-2Waterford 3Watts BarWolf CreekYankee NPSZion 1-2

6.1829.85.5599.527.050.77.626.9214841625.01150.29

00.434.81

0.007713.322722.4

0.08245.148559.01700.885.3310.413.247.327.0

-11.72.20132

17.477.05.6227.524.558.78.7015.377.018711.851.80.42

02.186.85

0.00758.7320919.64.5154.837026.21051.302.1527.222.511.333.7

-78.40.4962.2

13.921.812.76.4011.664.52.389.2924.216818.495.50.14

015.924.6

0.0188.1425517.34.4053.714337.914.60.963.3122.18.257.1248.5

-10.80.2367.0

13.319.25.0730.92.8830.74.445.9921.112717.917.40.52

08.587.22

0.0152.0225453.03.4056.232.153.10.773.283.9217.67.1456.322.3

-26.1

0.02738.2

11.313.33.38

5.9

3.326.2732.247.919.813.50.52

5.5619.5

1.9718510.5

74.118.01202.41.920.4822.517.328.3389

0.01141.6

11.052.11.46

6.0

3.049.122.9861.613.014.40.55

5.5916.5

3.2512612.1

32.776.32.12.554.082.764.2315.0140

0.01440.1

5.031144.79

2.7

2.155.913.5226.524.412.70.10

1.7820.7

2.9518.46.9

88.138.9

7.20.161.82

5.8337.630.21.81406

0.01633.1

7.37

2.4

0.583.292.8510.84.612.60.40

8.9532.3

0.9921.512.2

23.5

15.00.260.73

2.3421.350.0

0.0086.22

BWRs

China [T2]Chin Shan 1-2Kuosheng 1-2

20.39.06

6.1542.2

3.3917.3

2.138.70

2.9725.8

2.295.39

2.082.34

2.253.52

Finland [F1]Olkiluoto 1-2 31 22 17 9.5 11 24 16 9.5

Germany [B3]BrunsbüttelGundremmingen B,CIsar 1KrümmelPhilippsburg 1Würgassen

0.170.490.28

0.0160.650.4

0.460.5

0.0690.0150.250.52

0.170.510.16

0.0120.180.61

0.0880.550.25

0.0120.520.42

0.0230.990.25

0.0090.42

1

0.0580.480.15

0.0160.250.12

0.110.640.16

0.0140.840.11

0.0371.10.14

0.00280.92

0.098

India [B4]Tarapur 1-2 1 430 1 420 1 120 1 210 762

Japan [J1, J5]Fukushima Daiichi 1-6Fukushima Daini 1-4Hamaoka 1-4Kashiwazaki Kariwa 1-7Onagawa 1-2Shika 1Shimane 1-2Tokai 2Tsuruga 1

00

0.009100-

0.00060

0.0013

00

0.005200-

0.00150

0.0065

00

0.0024000

0.00240

0.0025

00

0.0006000

0.002200

000000

0.000500

000000

0.0000700

000000000

000000000

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Table 36 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 275

Country/reactorRelease (GBq)

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

Mexico [C5]Laguna Verde 1-2 18.8 9.5 11.2 5.66 23.5 20.1 1.14 0.88

Netherlands [N7]Dodewaard 9.12 9.24 8.35 6.68 8.89 12.9 13.3 5.5

Spain [C2]ConfrentesS. Maria de Garona

0.10.57

0.180.24

0.153.58

0.130.58

0.111.64

0.0630.591

0.1190.765

0.3920.650

Sweden [N3]Barsebeck 1-2Forsmark 1-3Oskarshamn 1-3Ringhals 1

45.423014070.0

10424516754.0

105118129111

26.1156102118

26.611868.3247

57.860.597.669.5

19472.413047.9

58.311551.1155

Switzerland [F3]LeibstadtMühleberg

0.494.7

0.242

0.171.8

0.183.7

0.51.9

0.41.7

0.42.0

0.43.7

United States [T3]Big Rock PointBrowns Ferry 1-3Brunswick 1-2Clinton 1CooperDresden 2-3Duane Arnold 1Enrico Fermi 2FitzpatrickGrand Gulf 1Hatch 1-2Hope Creek 1Lasalle 1-2Limerick 1-2Millstone 1MonticelloNine Mile Point 1-2Oyster CreekPeach Bottom 2-3Perry 1Pilgrim 1Quad Cities 1-2River Bend 1Susquehanna 1-2Vermont YankeeWPPSS 2

1.3511.216.90.9275.426.3

08.071.0123.912.655.10.9112.75.22

02.42

0.00250.5022.60.594.1827.36.29

00.57

4.5131.016.11.2684.828.2

07.961.1432.428.229.2

01.2450.3

06.220.891.384.371.4827.113.42.30

01.28

5.5589.21.830.671470.82

00.0056

0.434.4434.211.3

0.0111.0917.1

09.62

-0.972.210.121.4561.41.79

0.0013.51

3.591783.85

085.75.99

00.0550.0706.1431.313.4

05.374.74

04.33

02.095.740.852.2736.01.82

07.62

5.3041.51.67

0.0000412.51.48

00.40

0.0288.8736.83.320.1618.32.20

03.96

05.954250.102.221684.44

01.05

3.83

15.40

49.32.30

00

0.00213.114.352.0

016.50.95

0

-1.801.782.832.3210921.5

00.96

8.98

1.480.00003

41.80.98

00

0.3314.214.528.9

1.060

0.101.251.450.340.9316.92.07

00.41

0.90

0.540

48.10.53

000

4.8110.810.1

0.880

0

4.891.0819.60.36

0

HWRs

Argentina [C3]Atucha 1Embalse

1303.5

9320

932

602

6601.6

3304.3

6804.6

2302.0

Canada [A2]Bruce 1-4Bruce 5-8Darlington 1-4Gentilly 2Pickering 1-4Pickering 5-8Point Lepreau

204.03304.252102.0

203.07103.044104.0

305.02714482.22.0

26.55.15119.034.85.555.24

44.45.9166.9376.77.3

299.61242176.75.9

204.5206.5130

3.2

2114.89.85.07.35.22.7

India [B4]Kakrapar 1-2Kalpakkam 1-2Narora 1-2Rajasthan 1-2

-26.40.043.63

-23.60.942.93

-26.314.52.09

35.311.32.40

25.53.141.77

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Table 36 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION276

Country/reactorRelease (GBq)

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

Japan [J1, J5]Fugen 0.014 0.0047 0.011 0.0016 0 0 0 0

Pakistan [P2]Karachi 8.5 13.3 13.0 22.2 8.9 5.2 4.8 5.3

Republic of Korea [K1]Wolsong 1-2 0.20 0.20 0.30 0.55 0.43 0.17 0 0

RomaniaCernavoda 1 - - - - - - 0.04 7.15

United Kingdom [N5]Winfrith 3 994 665 115 55 63 29

GCRs

France [E1]Bugey 1Chinon A2-3St. Laurent A1-2

0.20.9-

21-

12-

0.91.4-

3.73.3-

0.64.0-

2.50.6-

6.90.4-

Japan [J1, J5]Tokai 1 0.034 0.016 0.016 0.0067 0.0015 0.0089 0.0064 0.0029

Spain [C2]Vandellos 1 8.77 9.29 30.7 17.9 30.4 19.8 58.3

U. K. [M7, N4, N5]BerkeleyBradwellCalder HallChapelcrossDungeness ADungeness B1-B2Hartlepool A1-A2Heysham 1A-B, 2A-BHinkley Point AHinkley Point B, A-BHunterston A1Hunterston B1-B2Oldbury ASizewell A-BTorness A-BTrawsfynyddWylfa

329324

-1103958.9207375138320504294281.833472

496453

-11037410.3363472927280403724677.025988

1561 380

-705078.0495561016210203973831516744

378603

2701 720

19524868615290345052749.84168

144725

31099651115372421210313942921.52454

134809

160802278.11898117150233634112.32553

49756

1118361820

6 9105709.01415.91865891.82161

72849

407922711

19.7707151654.12732333.81046

LWGRs

Lithuania [E2]Ignalina 1-2 25.8 3.1 22.6 4.2 7.7 16.6 5.9 6.1

Russian Federation [M6]Bilibino 1-4Kursk 1-4Leningrad 1-4Smolensk 1-3

0.100.03

0.0030.09

0.100.00040.0004

0.08

0.110.0020.0030.04

0.060.0010.0030.02

0.070.0070.0080.03

0.060.03

0.0010.02

0.080.0070.0030.03

0.040.0040.0030.03

Ukraine [G3]Chernobyl 1-3 61.8 36.3 24.8 17.0 18.9 28.1 45.1 40.0

FBRs

France [E1]Creys-MalvillePhenix

0.10 0.11 0.083 0.013 0.017 0.010 0.021 0.017

Kazakhstan [A6]Bn-350 22.6 21.5 17.4 15.2 14.1 7.8 7.4 7.4

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Table 36 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 277

Country/reactorRelease (GBq)

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

Russian Federation [M6]Beloyarsky 3 3.47 5.46 8.79 3.51 1.89 1.59 1.23 2.67

United KingdomDounreay PFR

Summaryparameter

ReactorRelease (GBq)

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

All reactors

Total release(GBq)

PWRsBWRsHWRsGCRs

LWGRsFBRs

All

4 6092 3294 5883 69387.826.2

15 330

3 5462 4611 6133 79439.627.1

11 480

2 3562 040394

4 12547.626.3

8 989

1 7182 055286

5 03021.318.7

9 130

1 9802 044888

4 07926.716.0

9 034

1 454662462

4 00844.89.4

6 640

1 605620786

10 35051.18.7

13 420

685511310

3 27546.210.1

4 837

Annualnormalizedrelease[GBq (GW a)-1]

PWRsBWRsHWRsGCRs

LWGRsFBRs

All

34484655338.261

72

25471415263.870

51

1641375115.450

39

1140235502.238

39

1339654453.533

39

1012384705.624

28

101267

1 3805.822

56

4.510273615.923

21

Averagenormalizedrelease1990-1994and 1995-1997[GBq (GW a)-1]

PWRsBWRsHWRsGCRs

LWGRsFBRs

All

19431305104.849

48

8.111447005.823

35

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ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION278

a Weighted by the fraction of energy generated by the reactor types.b Estimated value.c Data available for one year only.

Table 37Normalized releases of radionuclides from nuclear reactors

Release YearNormalized release [TBq (GW a)-1]

PWR BWR GCR HWR LWGR FBR Total a

Noble gases 1970-19741975-19791980-19841985-19891990-19941995-1997

530430220812713

44 0008 8002 200290350180

5803 2002 3002 1001 6001 200

4 800460210170

2 100250

5 000 b

5 000 b

5 5002 0001 700460

150 b

150 b

150 b

820380210

13 0003 3001 200330330130

Tritium 1970-19741975-19791980-19841985-19891990-19941995-1997

5.47.85.92.72.32.4

1.83.43.42.10.940.86

9.97.6 b

5.48.14.73.9

680540670690650330

26 b

26 b

26 b

26 b

26 b

26

96 b

96 b

96 b

4449

49 b

483844403616

Carbon-14 1970-19741975-19791980-19841985-19891990-1994

0.22 b

0.220.350.120.22

0.52 b

0.52 c

0.330.450.51

0.22 b

0.22 b

0.35 b

0.541.4

6.3 b

6.3 b

6.34.81.6

1.3 b

1.3 b

1.3 b

1.31.3 b

0.12 b

0.12 b

0.12 b

0.12 b

0.12 b

0.710.700.740.530.44

Iodine-131 1970-19741975-19791980-19841985-19891990-19941995-1997

0.00330.00500.00180.00090.00030.0002

0.150.41

0.0930.00180.00080.0003

0.0014 b

0.0014 b

0.00140.00140.00140.0004

0.00140.00310.00020.00020.00040.0001

0.080 b

0.080 b

0.0800.0140.0070.007

0.0033 b

0.0050 b

0.0018 b

0.0009 b

0.0003 b

0.0002

0.0470.12

0.0300.0020.00070.0004

Particulates 1970-19741975-19791980-19841985-19891990-19941995-1997

0.018 c

0.00220.00450.00200.00020.0001

0.040 c

0.0530.0430.0091

0.180.35

0.0010 b

0.00100.00140.00070.00030.0002

0.00004 b

0.000040.000040.0002

0.000050.00005

0.015 b

0.015 b

0.0160.0120.0140.008

0.0002 b

0.0002 b

0.0002 b

0.00020.0120.001

0.0190.0170.0140.0040.0400.085

Tritium(liquid)

1970-19741975-19791980-19841985-19891990-19941995-1997

113827252219

3.91.42.10.780.940.87

9.92596120220280

180350290380490340

11 b

11 b

11 b

11 b

11 b

11 b

2.9 b

2.9 b

2.9 b

0.41.81.7

194238414838

Other(liquid)

1970-19741975-19791980-19841985-19891990-19941995-1997

0.20 b

0.180.13

0.0560.0190.008

2.0 c

0.290.12

0.0360.0430.011

5.5 c

4.84.51.20.510.70

0.600.47

0.0260.0300.13

0.044

0.20 b

0.18 b

0.13 b

0.045 b

0.0050.006

0.20 b

0.18 b

0.13 b

0.0040.0490.023

2.10.700.38

0.0950.0470.040

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ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 279

a Previously assessed values [U3] indicated in parentheses unless unchanged.b Also assumed for LWGRs and FBRs.c Also assumed for HWRs.d Local and regional.e Expressed in terms of 131I.

a Local and regional components only.

Table 38Collective effective dose per unit release of radionuclides from reactors

Type of release Radionuclide PathwayCollective dose per unit release a

(man Sv PBq-1)

Airborne Noble gasesPWRBWRGCR

ImmersionImmersionImmersion

0.11 b c (0.12)0.43 (0.26)0.90 (0.011)

Tritium Ingestion 2.1 (11)

Carbon-14 Ingestion 270 d (1 800)

Iodine e ExternalIngestionInhalation

All pathways

4.525049

300 (340-510)

Particulates ExternalIngestionInhalation

All pathways

1 08083033

2 000 (5 400)

Liquid Tritium Ingestion 0.65 (0.81)

Particulates Ingestion 330 (20-170)

Table 39Normalized collective effective doses from radionuclides released from reactors, 1990-1994

Reactortype

Electricalenergy

generated(%)

Collective effective dose per unit electrical energy generated [man Sv (GW a)-1]

Airborne effluents Liquid effluents

Noble gases 3H 14C a 131I Particulates 3H Other

PWRBWRGCRHWRLWGRFBR

65.0421.953.655.044.090.24

0.0030.151.440.230.19

0.042

0.0050.0020.010

1.40.050.10

0.0590.140.380.430.35

0.032

0.00010.00020.00040.00010.002

0.00009

0.00040.36

0.00060.00010.0280.024

0.0140.0006

0.140.32

0.0070.0012

0.0060.0140.17

0.0430.0020.016

Weighted average 0.11 0.075 0.12 0.0002 0.080 0.031 0.016

Total 0.43

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Tab

le40

Rad

ion

ucl

ides

rele

ased

fro

mfu

elre

pro

cess

ing

pla

nts

Year

Fue

lre

proc

esse

d(G

Wa)

Rel

ease

inai

rbor

neef

fluen

ts(T

Bq)

Rel

ease

inliq

uid

efflu

ents

(TB

q)

3 H14

C85

Kr

129 I

131 I

137 C

s3 H

14C

90Sr

106 R

u12

9 I13

7 Cs

Fra

nce

(Cap

deLa

Hag

ue)

[C4]

1970

1971

1972

1973

1974

1975

1976

1977

1978

1979

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1.4

1.6

2.9

2.8

3.3

3.7

5.2

4.8

9.3

7.2

9.1

7.1

10.8

12.3

18.5

16.4

21.5

34.3

43.4

43.0

49.8

a

0.9

3.1

2.6

7.1

3.3

1.8

2.3

4.4

7.1

9.2

10 6.3

8.3

8.5

33 6.1

15 21 25 25 28 30 42 55 84 75 76

2.6

2.3 2 3.8

5.4

8.5

12 17

230

04

400

890

08

500

2700

024

000

1300

025

000

2900

024

000

3000

036

000

5100

050

000

2700

071

000

2900

035

000

2700

042

000

6300

010

000

095

000

120

000

180

000

230

000

260

000

300

000

0.00

021

0.00

220.

010.

0074

0.01

70.

0098

0.01

50.

021

0.02

70.

021

0.01

10.

014

0.02

10.

027

0.01

80.

023

0.01

10.

010

0.02

10.

032

0.03

80.

017

0.00

026

0.00

740.

10.

026

0.01

90.

067

0.01

10.

0000

70.

0001

0.02

80.

0003

30.

0003

10.

0001

80.

0005

0.00

051

0.00

057

0.00

041

0.00

054

0.00

059

0.00

077

0.00

053

0.00

074

0.00

038

0.00

058

0.00

049

0.00

078

0.00

150.

0012

0.00

081

<0.

0000

1

<0.

0000

1<

0.00

001

<0.

0000

1<

0.00

001

<0.

0000

1<

0.00

001

0.00

008

<0.

0000

1<

0.00

001

<0.

0000

1<

0.00

001

<0.

0000

1<

0.00

001

<0.

0000

1<

0.00

001

<0.

0000

1<

0.00

001

<0.

0000

1

61 78 84 110

281

411

264

331

729

539

539

710

810

117

01

460

260

02

310

296

02

540

372

03

260

471

03

770

515

08

090

961

010

500

1190

09.

949.

65

2 8.3

16 19 52 37.6

20 36.4

70 56 29.4

27.1

86.3

141.

810

9.6

47 68.5

57 39.5

28.5

15.8

29.8

17.5

24.6

15.6

29.6

10.6

3.7

100

143

140

132

269

415

278

270

401

374

387

331

469

337

351

437

403

525

259

275

150

18 11 8 14 15.2

16.9

19.6

0.1

0.1

0.13

0.13

0.20

0.26

0.33

0.46

0.48

0.65 1.1

1.5

1.7

1.6

89 243

33 69 56 34 35 51 39 23 27 39 51 23 30 29 10 7.6

8.5

13 13 5.6

3.0

4.4

11 4.6

2.4

2.5

Jap

an(T

okai

)[J

1,J5

]

1977

1978

1979

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

0.04

0.11

0.18

0.61

0.60

0.54

0.01

0.12 1.2

0.25

0.93

0.85 3.5

3.6

4.1

1.5

0.67

2.8

810

180

01

800

740

07

800

780

018

01

300

1000

0

0.00

016

0.00

081

0.00

032

0.00

070.

0004

10.

0005

60.

0000

90.

0000

40.

001

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

4.8

30 59 160

140

200

5.6

32 260

0.00

014

0.00

004

0.00

009

0.00

002

00.

0000

1<

0.00

001

0.00

006

<0.

0000

1

00.

0044

0.00

250.

0004

40.

0003

30.

0002

30 0 0

00.

0011

0.00

180.

0001

70.

0000

40.

0000

1<

0.00

01<

0.00

001

0.00

009

0.00

093

0.00

100.

0002

80.

0002

20.

0001

70.

0001

40.

0000

20

0.00

008

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION280

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Tab

le40

(con

tinue

d)

Year

Fue

lre

proc

esse

d(G

Wa)

Rel

ease

inai

rbor

neef

fluen

ts(T

Bq)

Rel

ease

inliq

uid

efflu

ents

(TB

q)

3 H14

C85

Kr

129 I

131 I

137 C

s3 H

14C

90Sr

106 R

u12

9 I13

7 Cs

aE

stim

ated

base

don

norm

aliz

ed85

Kr

rele

ase

of6,

020

TB

q(G

Wa)

-1.

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1.2

0.93

0.17 1.1

1.5

1.5

1.5

0.8

1.5

1.0

1.5 0

2.7

3.7

2.5

3.7

4.2

3.2

2.8

2.2

5.4

3.8

3.7

1.5

0.34

0.78

0.31

0.80

0.44

0.48

0.00

47

1300

012

000

270

09

800

1300

015

000

980

05

300

1800

08

600

1200

01.

6

0.00

230.

0001

40.

0000

90.

0002

40.

0000

240.

0003

00.

0003

00.

0002

40.

0003

30.

0001

60.

0001

60

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

� � � � � �

0.00

1�

240

260

74 240

360

330

380

160

490

220

240

3.6

� � � � � � � �

0.00

003

<0.

0000

10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

<0.

0000

1<

0.00

001

00.

0000

10.

0000

40.

0000

30.

0000

70.

0000

50.

0000

70.

0000

80.

0000

50.

0000

1

0.00

017

0.00

015

0.00

009

0.00

004

00.

0000

30.

0000

70.

0000

50.

0000

70 0 0

Un

ited

Kin

gd

om

(Sel

lafie

ld)

[B5,

J2]

1970

1971

1972

1973

1974

1975

1976

1977

1978

1979

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

2.6

3.2

3.2

2.1

1.8

2.5

2.2

3.7

3.1

3.0

2.7

1.7

3.8

2.4

2.8

3.7

3.8

4.5

2.7

5.7

3.8

6.9

7.1

6.8

443

443

303

443

443

444

444

296

222

290

252

459

360

268

349

268

171

78.3

186

677

593

619

324

860

550

580

530

170

9.0

10.0

17.3

24.3

17.3

20.3

32.3

26.3

8.6

7.3

8.5

19.3

9.5

7.3

7.3

7.3

5.7

9.8

3.6

4.2

4.1

5.8

2.5

11.4

4.2

4.2

3.8

1.8

3700

0

4400

044

000

3300

026

000

3500

031

000

5200

044

000

4180

037

100

2380

053

300

3400

039

700

5170

037

600

4460

027

400

5700

038

000

9700

010

000

095

000

0.02

20.

022

0.02

20.

022

0.02

20.

022

0.02

40.

018

0.00

780.

017

0.04

50.

027

0.03

30.

027

0.03

00.

021

0.03

00.

019

0.02

40.

024

0.01

20.

012

0.01

90.

039

0.02

40.

020

0.02

50.

025

0.02

70.

069

2.4

0.13

0.00

130.

0011

0.00

90.

0078

0.04

50.

091

0.00

330.

900.

017

0.01

50.

006

0.00

60.

003

0.00

350.

0022

0.00

210.

0012

0.00

190.

0016

0.00

200.

0017

0.00

110.

0023

0.00

26

0.06

60.

130.

015

0.06

80.

038

0.09

60.

110.

490.

510.

510.

930.

190.

054

0.04

60.

040

0.03

60.

038

0.00

710.

0038

0.00

260.

0028

0.00

360.

0020

0.00

070.

0007

0.00

060.

0009

0.00

06

620

01

200

124

074

01

200

140

01

200

910

100

01

200

128

01

966

175

01

831

158

61

062

215

01

375

172

42

144

169

91

803

119

92

309

168

02

700

300

02

600

1.0

1.0

1.0

1.0

1.0

1.0

1.0

1.0

1.0

1.0

1.0

1.0

1.0

1.0

1.0

1.3

2.6

2.1 3 2 2.0

2.4

0.8

2.0

8.2

12 11 4.4

230

460

562

280

390

466

381

427

597

250

352

277

319

204

72 52 18.3

15 10.1

9.2

4.2

4.1

4.2

17.1

28.9

28 16 37

100

01

400

113

01

400

110

076

276

681

681

039

034

053

042

055

334

881 28 22

.123

.625 16

.518

.712

.617

.16.

77.

39.

09.

8

0.10

0.10

0.10

0.10

0.10

0.10

0.13

0.09

60.

074

0.12

0.14

0.19

0.10

0.20

0.10

0.10

0.12

0.10

0.13

0.17

0.11

0.16

0.07

0.16

0.16

0.25

0.41

0.52

120

01

300

128

977

04

100

523

04

289

448

04

090

260

02

970

236

02

000

120

043

432

517

.911

.813

.328

.623

.515

.615

.321

.913

.812 10 7.

9

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 281

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aC

olle

ctiv

edo

ses

prio

rto

1970

and

in19

70-1

974

and

1975

-197

9ar

ees

timat

edus

ing

the

norm

aliz

edre

leas

ees

timat

esof

1970

-197

9.b

Est

imat

edto

be8%

ofel

ectr

ical

ener

gyge

nera

ted.

Tab

le41

No

rmal

ized

rele

ases

and

colle

ctiv

ed

ose

sin

fuel

rep

roce

ssin

g

Year

Fue

lre

proc

esse

d

(GW

a)

Nor

mal

ized

rele

ase

[TB

q(G

Wa)

-1]

Air

born

eef

fluen

tsLi

quid

efflu

ents

3 H14

C85

Kr

129 I

131 I

137 C

s3 H

14C

90Sr

106 R

u12

9 I13

7 Cs

1970

-197

919

80-1

984

1985

-198

919

90-1

994

1995

-199

7

29.2

36.3

62.5

131

160

93 48 24 24 9.6

7.3

3.5

2.1

0.4

0.3

1392

011

690

726

36

300

690

0

0.00

60.

007

0.00

30.

001

0.00

1

0.12

0.03

0.00

030.

0000

90.

0000

5

0.09

0.04

0.00

20.

0000

80.

0000

1

399

376

378

270

255

0.4

0.3

0.8

0.8

0.4

131

45 7.5

2.0

0.8

264

112

33 2.1

0.5

0.04

0.04

0.03

0.03

0.04

102

025

27.

41.

00.

2

Col

lect

ive

effe

ctiv

edo

sepe

run

itre

leas

e(m

anSv

TBq-1

)

Year

Fue

lre

proc

esse

d

(GW

a)

Air

born

eef

fluen

tsLi

quid

efflu

ents

3 H14

C85

Kr

129 I

131 I

137 C

s3 H

14C

90Sr

106 R

u12

9 I13

7 Cs

0.00

210.

270.

0000

074

440.

37.

40.

0000

014

1.0

0.00

470.

0033

0.09

90.

098

Col

lect

ive

effe

ctiv

edo

se(m

anSv

)a

Year

Fue

lre

proc

esse

d(G

Wa)

Air

born

eef

fluen

tsLi

quid

efflu

ents

3 H14

C85

Kr

129 I

131 I

137 C

s3 H

14C

90Sr

106 R

u12

9 I13

7 Cs

Pre-

1970

1970

-197

419

75-1

979

1980

-198

419

85-1

989

1990

-199

419

95-1

997

2.3

b

7.0

22.2

36.3

62.5

131

160

0.5

1.4

4.3

3.7

3.1

6.6

3.2

4.5

14 44 35 36 13 13

0.2

0.7

2.3

3.1

3.4

6.1

8.2

0.6

1.9

5.9

11 9.5

8.4

6.9

0.08

0.25

0.79

0.28

0.00

60.

003

0.00

2

1.6

4.9

15 11 0.80

0.08

0.02

0.00

10.

004

0.01

0.02

0.03

0.05

0.06

0.9

2.7

8.7

12 48 98 66

1.4

4.3

14 7.6

2.2

1.2

0.6

2.0

6.1

19 13 6.9

0.9

0.3

0.00

90.

030.

09 0.1

0.2

0.4

0.6

230

704

222

089

546 12 3.

9

Tot

al42

023

158

2444

1.4

340.

1823

631

491.

44

110

280

443

0

471

0

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION282

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ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 283

a Estimated value.

a Collective dose per unit release (man Sv TBq-1): 3H, 0.002; 3H (to sea), 0.0002; 14C: 70; 85Kr, 0.002; 129I, 20.b Assumes world population at time of release: 5 109 (for 3H and 85Kr); 1010 (for 14C and 129I).

Table 42Normalized activity releases of globally dispersed radionuclides from reactors and reprocessing plants

Years

Normalized release [TBq (GW a)-1]

From reactors From reprocessing plants

3H 14C 3H 3H (to sea) 14C 85Kr 129I

Pre-19701970-19741975-19791980-19841985-19891990-19941995-1997

67678083828454

0.710.710.700.740.530.44

0.44 a

9393934824249.6

399399399376378272255

7.77.77.73.92.91.10.7

13 92013 92013 92011 6907 2606 3306 900

0.0460.0460.0460.0420.0290.0300.038

Table 43Activity releases of globally dispersed radionuclides from reactors and reprocessing plants

YearsElectrical energy

generated(GW a)

Fuelreprocessed

(GW a)

Release (TBq)

3H 3H (to sea) 14C 85Kr 129I

Pre-19701970-19741975-19791980-19841985-19891990-19941995-1997

28.887.7277514937

1 147767

2.307.0422.236.362.5130160

2 1466 54324 20044 33077 96098 90042 830

9192 8098 85813 64023 66035 39040 770

38116364523672650442

32 06097 970

308 900424 400454 000823 700

1 102 000

0.110.321.011.531.793.876.14

Total 3 757 420 296 900 126 000 2 805 3 243 000 14.8

Table 44Collective dose commitment (10,000 years) from globally dispersed radionuclides released from reactors andreprocessing plants

YearsCollective effective dose (man Sv) a b Normalized

collective effective dose[man Sv (GW a)-1]3H 3H (to sea) 14C 85Kr 129I Total

Pre-19701970-19741975-19791980-19841985-19891990-19941995-1997

4.313488915619886

0.20.61.82.74.77.18.1

2 6708 14025 51036 58047 07045 47030 930

64196618849908

1 6502 200

2.16.420313677123

2 7408 350

26 20037 55048 18047 40033 350

95959573514143

Total 594 25 196 400 6 490 295 203 800 54

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ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION284

a Analysis is based on reported releases per unit electrical energy generated and presently adopted dose coefficients. These results may, therefore, differsomewhat from earlier evaluations by the Committee.

Table 45Normalized collective effective dose to members of the public from radionuclides released in effluents from thenuclear fuel cycle a

SourceNormalized collective effective dose [man Sv (GW a)-1]

1970-1979 1980-1984 1985-1989 1990-1994 1995-1997

Local and regional component

Mining 0.19 0.19 0.19 0.19 0.19

Milling 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008

Mine and mill tailings (releases over five years) 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04

Fuel fabrication 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003

Reactor operationAtmosphericAquatic

2.80.4

0.70.2

0.40.06

0.40.05

0.40.04

ReprocessingAtmosphericAquatic

0.38.2

0.11.8

0.060.11

0.030.10

0.040.09

Transportation <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1

Total (rounded) 12 3.1 0.97 0.92 0.91

Solid waste disposal and global component

Mine and mill tailings (releases of radon over 10,000 years) 7.5 7.5 7.5 7.5 7.5

Reactor operationLow-level waste disposalIntermediate-level waste disposal

0.000050.5

0.000050.5

0.000050.5

0.000050.5

0.000050.5

Reprocessing solid waste disposal 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05

Globally dispersed radionuclides (truncated to 10,000 years) 95 70 50 40 40

Total (rounded) 100 80 60 50 50

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ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 285

a Assumes total world population of 6 109 and average amounts administered per treatment of 5 GBq (thyroid cancer) and 0.5 GBq (hyperthyroidism).

Table 46Local and regional component of the collective effective dose to members of the public from radionuclidesreleased in effluents from the nuclear fuel cycle

YearsElectrical

energygenerated

(GW a)

Normalized collective effective dose[man Sv (GW a)-1]

Collective effective dose(man Sv)

Mining, milling,fuel fabrication,transportation

Reactoroperation

Fuelreprocessing

Mining, milling,fuel fabrication,transportation

Reactoroperation

Fuelreprocessing

Pre-19701970-19741975-19791980-19841985-19891990-19941995-1997

28.887.7

276.6513.7936.01146.7767.2

0.240.240.240.240.240.240.24

3.96.72.00.90.40.40.4

8.48.48.41.90.20.10.1

72166120220280180

110590550460390490320

240740

2 330990150150100

Total 900 2 900 4 700

Table 47Estimated amount of 131I used in medical radiation therapy

Healthcarelevel

Fractionof world

population

Treatments per 1,000 population Total activityadministered a

(TBq)Thyroid cancer Hyperthyroidism

IIIIIIIV

0.260.530.110.10

0.0380.01

0.00270

0.150.02

0.0170.0004

41019015-

Total (rounded) 600

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