dna & protein synthesis chapters 9 &10. main idea how are proteins made in our bodies?
TRANSCRIPT
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DNA & PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
CHAPTERS 9 &10
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Main Idea
How are proteins made in our bodies?
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WHAT MAKES UP DNA?
•IT IS A MOLECULE COMPOSED OF CHEMICAL SUBUNITS CALLED NUCLEOTIDES
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NUCLEOTIDES •ARE COMPOSED OF THREE SUBUNITS
•A FIVE CARBON SUGAR•A PHOSPHATE GROUP•A NITROGEN-CONTAINING BASE
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NITROGENOUS BASES
•THERE ARE FOUR NITROGENOUS BASES IN DNA
•ADENINE
•CYTOSINE
•THYMINE
•GUANINE
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•ADENINE AND GUANINE ARE PURINES
•THEY ARE MADE OF TWO RINGS OF NITROGEN AND CARBON ATOMS
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•THYMINE AND CYTOSINE ARE PYRIMIDINES
•THEY CONTAIN A SINGLE RING OF CARBON AND NITROGEN ATOMS
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•THE DNA HAS TWO MAIN SIDES
•THE SIDES ARE LIKE THE UPRIGHT PARTS OF A LADDER
•THE SIDES ARE MADE OF THE SUGAR AND THE PHOSPHATE GROUP (ACID)
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•THEY ALTERNATE ALONG THE SIDES
•THE RUNGS OF THE LADDER ARE MADE OF NITROGEN BASES
•THERE ARE WEAK HYDROGEN BONDS BETWEEN THE BASE PAIRS
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CHARGAFF’S OBSERVATIONS
•THE AMOUNT OF ADENINE EQUALS THE AMOUNT OF THYMINE
•THE AMOUNT OF CYTOSINE EQUALS THE AMOUNT OF GUANINE
•THE AMOUNTS VARY AMONG ORGANISMS
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DNA MODEL
•WATSON & CRICK USED THE INFORMATION FROM CHARGAFF AND THE PHOTOGRAPHS FROM WILKINS AND FRANKLIN AND THEIR KNOWLEDGE OF CHEMICAL BONDING TO COME UP WITH A MODEL
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BASE-PAIRING RULES
•A PURINE ALWAYS PAIRS WITH A PYRIMIDINE
•THE STRICTNESS OF BASE PAIRING RULES PRODUCES COMPLIMENTARY BASE PAIRS
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•ADENINE BONDS WITH THYMINE
•CYTOSINE BONDS WITH GUANINE
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•THE ARRANGEMENT OF NUCLEOTIDES IS WHAT MAKES US DIFFERENT
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•THE ORDER OF BASES MAKE UP THE GENETIC CODE
•A SINGLE HUMAN CELL CONTAINS 6.6 BILLION BASE PAIRS OF DNA
•THIS WOULD BE 600,000 PRINTED PAGES WITH 500 WORDS EACH
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DNA REPLICATION
•DNA MUST MAKE AN IDENTICAL COPY OF ITSELF DURING REPLICATION
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•DNA HELICASES (ENZYME) BREAKS THE HYDROGEN BONDS BETWEEN THE NITROGEN BASES
•THE MOLECULE BEGINS TO UNWIND
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•ONCE STRANDS ARE SEPARATED, PROTEINS ATTACH TO EACH STRAND TO HOLD THEM APART
•AREAS WHERE THE DOUBLE HELIX SEPARATE ARE CALLED REPLICATION FORKS
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DNA POLYMERASE (ENZYME) SWEEPS ALONG BONDING NEW NUCLEOTIDES TO EACH SIDE OF THE PARENT CHAIN
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•THE PROCESS CONTINUES UNTIL ALL DNA HAS BEEN COPIED
•TWO NEW IDENTICAL DNA MOLECULES ARE FORMED
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•DNA POLYMERASE “PROOF-READS” THE STRAND
•NUCLEOTIDES ARE ADDED AND INCORRECT ONES ARE CORRECTED
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REPLICATION RATE
•EACH CHROMOSOME IS REPLICATED IN 100 SECTIONS WITH 100,000 NUCLEOTIDES
•WITH MULTIPLE REPLICATION FORKS, THIS TAKES ABOUT 8 HOURS IN A HUMAN
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RNA•A NUCLEIC ACID FOUND IN THE NUCLEUS AND CYTOPLASM
•COMPOSED OF A SINGLE CHAIN OF NUCLEOTIDES
•CONTAINS RIBOSE
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•CONTAINS URACIL INSTEAD OF THYMINE
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TRANSCRIPTION•THE INSTRUCTIONS FOR
MAKING A PROTEIN ARE TRANSFERRED FROM A GENE TO AN RNA MOLECULE
•WE CALL THIS PROCESS TRANSCRIPTION
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•IT INVOLVES THE FORMATION OF RNA
•RNA POLYMERASE BONDS TO THE START SIGNAL OF DNA
•THE DOUBLE HELIX UNWINDS
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•RNA POLYMERASE ADDS AND LINKS COMPLEMENTARY NUCLEOTIDES TO THE DNA TEMPLATE WITH COVALENT BONDS
•RNA MATCHES UP UNTIL A STOP SIGNAL IS REACHED
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•THE SINGLE-STRANDED MOLECULE BREAKS AWAY FROM THE DNA CHAIN
•THE DOUBLE HELIX REFORMS
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•THE RNA FORMED IS CALLED MESSENGER RNA (mRNA)
•mRNA CODES FOR PROTEIN PRODUCTION
•THE mRNA LEAVES THE NUCLEUS AND GOES TO THE RIBOSOME
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• http://www.fed.cuhk.edu.hk/~johnson/teaching/genetics/animations/transcription.htm
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CODING FOR PROTEINS
•3 BASES IN A ROW CODES FOR A PARTICULAR AMINO ACID (CODON)
•MORE THAN ONE SET OF CODES CAN REPRESENT AN AMINO ACID
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•THERE ARE STOP CODONS THAT DO NOT CODE FOR AN AMINO ACID
•THEY READ ONLY IN ONE DIRECTION
•THE CODE IS UNIVERSAL FROM ORGANISM TO ORGANISM
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•INTRONS ARE LONG SEGMENTS OF NUCLEOTIDES THAT HAVE NO CODING INFORMATION
•EXONS ARE THE PORTIONS OF THE GENES THAT ARE TRANSLATED INTO PROTEINS
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•AFTER TRANSCRIPTION, THE INTRONS ARE CUT OUT
•THE EXONS ARE STITCHED BACK TOGETHER AND TRANSLATED
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THE GENETIC CODE
•IN 1961 MARSHALL NIRENBERG DECIPHERED THE CODE FOR PHENYLALANINE
•VARIOUS SCIENTISTS DECIPHERED THE REST OF THE CODE
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TRANSLATION•THE PROCESS BY WHICH THE INSTRUCTIONS ON THE RNA MOLECULE ARE READ AND AN AMINO ACID CHAIN (PROTEIN) IS PRODUCED
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•TRANSFER RNA (tRNA) TEMPORARILY CARRIES A SPECIFIC AMINO ACID
•PROTEINS ARE MADE OF CHAINS OF AMINO ACIDS
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•AN ANTICODON IS A THREE-NUCLEOTIDE SEQUENCE ON A tRNA THAT IS COMPLEMENTARY TO AN mRNA CODON
•RIBOSOMAL RNA MOLECULES AND PROTEINS MAKE UP RIBOSOMES
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•THE CYTOPLASM CONTAINS THOUSANDS OF RIBOSOMES
•EACH RIBOSOME TEMPORARILY HOLDS ONE mRNA AND TWO tRNA MOLECULES
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STEP 1
mRNA WITH THE START CODON “AUG” BINDS TO THE ANTICODON OF TRNA CONTAINING METHIONINE
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STEP 2
THE tRNA WITH THE COMPLEMENTARY ANTICODON BONDS TO THE NEXT CODON.
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STEP 3 ENZYMES FORM A PEPTIDE BOND BETWEEN THE ADJACENT AMINO ACIDS
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STEP 4THE MOLECULES THEN MOVE
AS A UNIT AND THE NEW CODON RECEIVES THE NEXT TRNA AND ITS AMINO ACID
STEP 5THE AMINO ACID BONDS TO
THE GROWING PROTEIN CHAIN
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•STEPS 2 THOUGH 5 CONTINUES UNTIL A “STOP” CODON IS REACHED
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MUTATIONS•MUTATIONS ARE MISTAKES IN THE REPLICATION OF GENETIC MATERIAL
•DAUGHTER CELLS CONTAIN DIFFERENT MATERIAL FROM THAT OF ITS PARENT
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GENE REARRANGEMENTS
•CAUSED WHEN AN ENTIRE GENE IS MOVED TO A NEW LOCATION
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GENE ALTERATIONS
•USUALLY RESULT IN THE PLACEMENT OF THE WRONG AMINO ACID DURING PROTEIN ASSEMBLY
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•DELETION - A NUCLEOTIDE IS LEFT OUT ALTERING THE AMINO ACID SEQUENCE
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•INSERTION - AN EXTRA NUCLEOTIDE IS ADDED ALTERING THE AMINO ACID SEQUENCE
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•POINT MUTATION - ONE NUCLEOTIDE IS SUBSTITUTED FOR ANOTHER RESULTING IN ONE AMINO ACID CHANGE