Full listRank Company Job growthU.S. employees1 Google 60% 8,1342 Quicken Loans 68% 4,9203 Wegmans Food Markets 4% 35,3024 Edward Jones 5% 31,4515 Genentech 9% 10,8426 Cisco Systems 17% 32,1607 Starbucks 15% 134,0138 Qualcomm 15% 10,0959 Goldman Sachs 10% 13,76410 Methodist Hospital System 11% 10,48111 Boston Consulting Group 8% 1,54312 Nugget Markets 20% 1,32213 Umpqua Bank 25% 1,78814 Network Appliance 25% 4,48115 W. L. Gore & Associates 6% 5,21116 Whole Foods Market 11% 41,38517 David Weekley Homes -11% 1,45018 OhioHealth 4% 11,25419 Arnold & Porter -3% 1,27220 Container Store 5% 3,01921 Principal Financial Group 3% 13,43822 American Century Investments -5% 1,69423 JM Family Enterprises 4% 4,60924 American Fidelity Assurance 1% 1,37625 Shared Technologies 28% 1,40126 Stew Leonard's 13% 2,28227 S.C. Johnson & Son 0% 3,41928 QuikTrip -5% 9,63029 SAS Institute -1% 5,15330 Aflac 5% 4,47531 Alston & Bird 0% 1,76232 Rackspace Managed Hosting 38% 1,44333 Station Casinos 6% 14,92034 Recreational Equipment (REI) 19% 9,13735 TDIndustries 19% 1,59536 Nordstrom 0% 49,76937 Johnson Financial Group 12% 1,25938 Kimley-Horn & Associates 9% 2,36839 Robert W. Baird 0% 2,09340 Adobe Systems 8% 3,90041 Bingham McCutchen 0% 1,65242 MITRE 5% 6,03743 Intuit 11% 7,635

44 Plante & Moran 0% 1,52245 Children's Healthcare of Atlanta 3% 5,42746 CarMax 13% 14,22347 J. M. Smucker 7% 3,04248 Devon Energy 15% 3,36849 Griffin Hospital 4% 1,13350 Camden Property Trust -5% 1,89451 Paychex 7% 11,62252 FactSet Research Systems 21% 1,10253 Vision Service Plan 6% 2,05254 CH2M HILL -2% 15,67455 Perkins Coie 6% 1,62956 Scripps Health 6% 11,22357 Ernst & Young 4% 25,94758 Scottrade 13% 1,58459 Mayo Clinic 4% 41,00460 Alcon Laboratories 6% 6,84861 Chesapeake Energy 15% 5,75262 American Express 4% 30,16263 King's Daughters Medical Center 13% 2,93464 EOG Resources 17% 1,38865 Russell Investments 5% 1,26766 Nixon Peabody 9% 1,72867 Valero Energy -8% 17,48868 eBay 13% 7,76969 General Mills -2% 17,09070 Mattel 2% 5,00071 KPMG 8% 22,85772 Marriott International -2% 123,20373 David Evans & Associates 9% 1,08574 Granite Construction 6% 4,65075 Southern Ohio Medical Center 7% 2,03276 Arkansas Children's Hospital 8% 3,28377 PCL Construction Enterprises 18% 3,55878 Navy Federal Credit Union 15% 6,06979 National Instruments 3% 2,35380 Healthways 42% 3,73081 Booz Allen Hamilton 7% 17,65082 Nike 4% 14,57083 AstraZeneca 5% 12,81084 Stanley 7% 2,75685 Lehigh Valley Hospital & Health Network9% 8,42086 Microsoft 8% 47,64587 Yahoo 16% 7,91588 Four Seasons Hotels 21% 12,85189 Bright Horizons Family Solutions 7% 14,660

90 PricewaterhouseCoopers 5% 29,81891 Publix Super Markets 5% 142,08492 Milliken -8% 8,80093 Erickson Retirement Communities 14% 10,24894 Baptist Health South Fla. 4% 9,83895 Deloitte & Touche USA 7% 36,51796 Herman Miller 14% 6,06397 FedEx 8% 228,21198 Sherwin-Williams 1% 29,55499 SRA International 6% 5,200100 Texas Instruments

FORTUNE 500

Rank Company Revenues($ millions)

Profits($ millions)

1 Wal-Mart Stores 351,139.0 11,284.02 Exxon Mobil 347,254.0 39,500.03 General Motors 207,349.0 -1,978.04 Chevron 200,567.0 17,138.05 ConocoPhillips 172,451.0 15,550.06 General Electric 168,307.0 20,829.07 Ford Motor 160,126.0 -12,613.08 Citigroup 146,777.0 21,538.09 Bank of America Corp. 117,017.0 21,133.010 American Intl. Group 113,194.0 14,048.011 J.P. Morgan Chase & Co. 99,973.0 14,444.012 Berkshire Hathaway 98,539.0 11,015.013 Verizon Communications 93,221.0 6,197.014 Hewlett-Packard 91,658.0 6,198.015 Intl. Business Machines 91,424.0 9,492.016 Valero Energy 91,051.0 5,463.017 Home Depot 90,837.0 5,761.018 McKesson 88,050.0 751.019 Cardinal Health 81,895.1 1,000.120 Morgan Stanley 76,688.0 7,472.021 UnitedHealth Group 71,542.0 4,159.022 Merrill Lynch 70,591.0 7,499.023 Altria Group 70,324.0 12,022.024 Goldman Sachs Group 69,353.0 9,537.025 Procter & Gamble 68,222.0 8,684.026 Kroger 66,111.2 1,114.927 AT&T 63,055.0 7,356.028 Boeing 61,530.0 2,215.0

29 AmerisourceBergen 61,203.1 467.730 Marathon Oil 60,643.0 5,234.031 State Farm Insurance Cos 60,528.0 5,315.532 Costco Wholesale 60,151.2 1,103.233 Target 59,490.0 2,787.034 Dell 57,095.0 2,614.035 Wellpoint 56,953.0 3,094.936 Johnson & Johnson 53,324.0 11,053.037 MetLife 53,275.0 6,293.038 Sears Holdings 53,012.0 1,490.039 Pfizer 52,415.0 19,337.040 Dow Chemical 49,124.0 3,724.041 Wells Fargo 47,979.0 8,482.042 United Technologies 47,829.0 3,732.043 United Parcel Service 47,547.0 4,202.044 Walgreen 47,409.0 1,750.645 Lowe's 46,927.0 3,105.046 Wachovia Corp. 46,810.0 7,791.047 Lehman Brothers Holdings 46,709.0 4,007.048 Time Warner 44,788.0 6,552.049 Microsoft 44,282.0 12,599.050 Freddie Mac 44,002.0 2,211.051 CVS/Caremark 43,813.8 1,368.952 Motorola 43,739.0 3,661.053 Sprint Nextel 43,531.0 1,329.054 Medco Health Solutions 42,543.7 630.255 Caterpillar 41,517.0 3,537.056 Safeway 40,185.0 870.657 Lockheed Martin 39,620.0 2,529.058 Caremark Rx 36,750.2 1,074.059 Archer Daniels Midland 36,596.1 1,312.160 Sunoco 36,081.0 979.061 Allstate 35,796.0 4,993.062 Intel 35,382.0 5,044.063 PepsiCo 35,137.0 5,642.064 Walt Disney 34,285.0 3,374.065 Sysco 32,628.4 855.366 Prudential Financial 32,488.0 3,428.067 Johnson Controls 32,413.0 1,028.068 FedEx 32,294.0 1,806.069 Honeywell Intl. 31,367.0 2,083.070 Ingram Micro 31,357.5 265.871 Alcoa 30,896.0 2,248.072 Best Buy 30,848.0 1,140.073 Northrop Grumman 30,304.0 1,542.074 DuPont 28,982.0 3,148.0

75 Hess 28,720.0 1,916.076 Federated Dept. Stores 28,711.0 995.077 Cisco Systems 28,484.0 5,580.078 New York Life Insurance 28,365.1 1,035.479 American Express 27,145.0 3,707.080 TIAA-CREF 26,756.8 2,333.881 Washington Mutual 26,561.0 3,558.082 Hartford Financial Services 26,500.0 2,745.083 Delphi 26,392.0 -5,464.084 Comcast 25,700.0 2,533.085 Aetna 25,568.6 1,701.786 Tyson Foods 25,559.0 -196.087 HCA 25,477.0 1,036.088 News Corp. 25,327.0 2,314.089 Travelers Cos. 25,090.0 4,208.090 Massachusetts Mutual Life Insurance 24,863.4 1,266.091 Countrywide Financial 24,444.6 2,674.892 General Dynamics 24,212.0 1,856.093 International Paper 24,186.0 1,050.094 Coca-Cola 24,088.0 5,080.095 Liberty Mutual Ins. Group 23,520.0 1,626.096 Raytheon 23,274.0 1,283.097 3M 22,923.0 3,851.098 Deere 22,768.9 1,693.899 Merck 22,636.0 4,433.8100 Halliburton 22,576.

The Nile valley has been the site of one of the most influential civilizations which developed a vast array of diverse structures encompassing ancient Egyptian architecture. The architectural monuments, which include the Great Pyramid of Giza and the Great Sphinx of Giza, are among the largest and most famous.

Contents[hide]

1 Characteristics of Egyptian Architecture 2 The Giza pyramid complex 3 Karnak 4 Luxor Temple 5 References 6 See also 7 Gallery

8 External links

[edit] Characteristics of Egyptian Architecture

Due to the scarcity of lumber,[1] the two predominant building materials used in ancient Egypt were sunbaked mud brick and stone, mainly limestone, but also sandstone and granite in considerable quantities.[2] From the Old Kingdom onward, stone was generally reserved for tombs and temples, while bricks were used even for royal palaces, fortresses, the walls of temple precincts and towns, and for subsidiary buildings in temple complexes.

Egypt houses were made out of mud collected from the Nile river. It was placed in molds and left to dry in the hot sun to harden for use in construction.

Many ancient Egyptian towns have disappeared because they were situated near the cultivated area of the Nile Valley and were flooded as the river bed slowly rose during the millennia, or the mud bricks of which they were built were used by peasants as fertilizer. Others are inaccessible, new buildings having been erected on ancient ones. Fortunately, the dry, hot climate of Egypt preserved some mud brick structures. Examples include the village Deir al-Madinah, the Middle Kingdom town at Kahun,[3] and the fortresses at Buhen [4] and Mirgissa. Also, many temples and tombs have survived because they were built on high ground unaffected by the Nile flood and were constructed of stone.

Thus, our understanding of ancient Egyptian architecture is based mainly on religious monuments,[5] massive structures characterized by thick, sloping walls with few openings, possibly echoing a method of construction used to obtain stability in mud walls. In a similar manner, the incised and flatly modeled surface adornment of the stone buildings may have derived from mud wall ornamentation. Although the use of the arch was developed during the fourth dynasty, all monumental buildings are post and lintel

constructions, with flat roofs constructed of huge stone blocks supported by the external walls and the closely spaced columns.

Exterior and interior walls, as well as the columns and piers, were covered with hieroglyphic and pictorial frescoes and carvings painted in brilliant colors.[6] Many motifs of Egyptian ornamentation are symbolic, such as the scarab, or sacred beetle, the solar disk, and the vulture. Other common motifs include palm leaves, the papyrus plant, and the buds and flowers of the lotus.[7] Hieroglyphs were inscribed for decorative purposes as well as to record historic events or spells.

The Giza pyramid complexMain article: Giza pyramid complex

The Giza Necropolis stands on the Giza Plateau, on the outskirts of Cairo, Egypt. This complex of ancient monuments is located some 8 kilometres (5 mi) inland into the desert from the old town of Giza on the Nile, some 20 kilometers (12 mi) southwest of Cairo city center. This Ancient Egyptian necropolis consists of the Pyramid of Khufu (also known as the Great Pyramid and the Pyramid of Cheops), the somewhat smaller Pyramid of Khafre (or Kephren), and the relatively modest-sized Pyramid of Menkaure (or Mykerinus), along with a number of smaller satellite edifices, known as "queens" pyramids, and the Great Sphinx.

The Pyramids of Giza

The pyramids, which were built in the Fourth Dynasty, testify to the power of the pharaonic religion and state. The Great Pyramid, which was probably completed c. 2580 BC, is the oldest and largest of the pyramids, and is the only surviving monument of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. The pyramid of Khafre is believed to have been completed around 2532 BC, at the end of Khafre's reign. The date of construction of Menkaure's pyramid is unknown, because Menkaure's reign has not been accurately defined, but it was probably completed sometime during the 26th century BC.

With few openings, the pyramids had complex mazes of tunnels and rooms all hidden by the massive hunks of stone. Nevertheless, grave robbers stubbornly stole from the pyramids, thus forcing the ancient Egyptians to halt construction on these massive structures and build their tombs in the Valley of the Kings instead. In a canyon far from any ancient Egyptian town, the Egyptians began to build inconspicuous tombs dug into the ground, thinking the tombs would go unnoticed by grave robbers.

KarnakMain article: Karnak

The temple complex of Karnak is located on the banks of the River Nile some 2.5 kilometers (1.5 mi) north of Luxor. It consists of four main parts, the Precinct of Amon-

Re, the Precinct of Montu, the Precinct of Mut and the Temple of Amenhotep IV (dismantled), as well as a few smaller temples and sanctuaries located outside the enclosing walls of the four main parts, and several avenues of ram-headed sphinxes connecting the Precinct of Mut, the Precinct of Amon-Re and Luxor Temple.

The hypostyle hall of Karnak Temple

The key difference between Karnak and most of the other temples and sites in Egypt is the length of time over which it was developed and used. Construction work began in the 16th century BC. Approximately 30 pharaohs contributed to the buildings, enabling it to reach a size, complexity and diversity not seen elsewhere. Few of the individual features of Karnak are unique, but the size and number of features is overwhelming.

Luxor TempleMain article: Luxor Temple

The Luxor Temple is a large ancient Egyptian temple complex located on the east bank of the River Nile in the city today known as Luxor (ancient Thebes). Construction work on the temple began during the reign of Amenhotep III in the 14th century BC. Horemheb and Tutankhamun added columns, statues, and friezes – and Akhenaten had earlier obliterated his father's cartouches and installed a shrine to the Aten – but the only major expansion effort took place under Ramesses II some 100 years after the first stones were put in place. Luxor is thus unique among the main Egyptian temple complexes in having only two pharaohs leave their mark on its architectural structure.

Luxor Temple, from the east bank of the Nile

The temple proper begins with the 24 metre (79 ft) high First Pylon, built by Ramesses II. The pylon was decorated with scenes of Ramesses's military triumphs (particularly the Battle of Qadesh); later pharaohs, particularly those of the Nubian and Ethiopian dynasties, also recorded their victories there. This main entrance to the temple complex was originally flanked by six colossal statues of Ramesses – four seated, and two standing – but only two (both seated) have survived. Modern visitors can also see a 25 metre (82 ft) tall pink granite obelisk: this one of a matching pair until 1835, when the other one was taken to Paris where it now stands in the centre of the Place de la Concorde.

Through the pylon gateway leads into a peristyle courtyard, also built by Ramesses II. This area, and the pylon, were built at an oblique angle to the rest of the temple, presumably to accommodate the three pre-existing barque shrines located in the northwest corner. After the peristyle courtyard comes the processional colonnade built by Amenhotep III – a 100 metre (328 ft) corridor lined by 14 papyrus-capital columns. Friezes on the wall describe the stages in the Opet Festival, from sacrifices at Karnak at

the top left, through Amun's arrival at Luxor at the end of that wall, and concluding with his return on the opposite side. The decorations were put in place by Tutankhamun: the boy pharaoh is depicted, but his names have been replaced with those of Horemheb.

Beyond the colonnade is a peristyle courtyard, which also dates back to Amenhotep's original construction. The best preserved columns are on the eastern side, where some traces of original colour can be seen. The southern side of this courtyard is made up of a 36-column hypostyle court that leads into the inner sanctums of the temple, which begin with a dark chamber not achechamber.

Mesopotamian art and architecture

Mesopotamian art and architecture were produced by the diverse peoples who occupied the land between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers from about 3500 to 539 BC. The earliest civilization of MESOPOTAMIA was created by Sumerian-speaking people, and although their Sumerian language was preserved, the original inhabitants eventually either died out or were absorbed into the population of SEMITES who moved into this area at various periods in history.

Mesopotamia is divided into two geographical regions--the north with its mountains and foothills and the southern plain. Humans are known to have occupied caves in the mountains of northeastern Mesopotamia during the Paleolithic period (the Old Stone Age). By the 6th millennium BC, Neolithic village cultures based on rainfall agriculture were in existence in the northern foothills (see SAMARRA). Southern Mesopotamia was not settled until somewhat later in the 6th millennium BC, when a simple form of irrigation farming may have been developed. Elaboration of irrigation technology and cultivation of the date palm and barley made possible the growth of cities in the south. With changing patterns of land use and cultivation, the center of Mesopotamian civilization moved slowly north from Sumer in southernmost Babylonia to Akkad in northern Babylonia and finally to Assyria in the far north.

The many different Mesopotamian peoples and their shifting foci of power did not permit the cultural uniformity and continuity that are reflected in the contemporaneous artistic and architectural traditions of ancient Egypt. Nevertheless, some characteristics of Mesopotamian art and architecture were clearly shaped by the historical setting. The first and most enduring architectural monument was the temple. This fact reflects a view of life in which human beings were meant to serve the gods, who were personified as powerful and capricious forces of nature. From the time of the earliest preserved cities, it is apparent that strong fortifications were necessary because the city-states of Mesopotamia were so often at war with each other. Further, cities seem to have been deliberately planned, or left unplanned, to be defensible, with mazelike streets to puzzle invaders and with walled inner areas into which the inhabitants could retreat. Even temples, which were built according to a number of different ground plans, were laid out so that access to the statue of the god was somehow interrupted or made distant and difficult.

As did the architecture, Mesopotamian art had two major preoccupations--man's relationship to the gods and conflict on either a real or mythological plane. Although art was primarily created for

temple or king, a number of small objects were also produced, such as cylinder seals and clay plaques with mythological scenes. These objects were probably owned to a great extent by the population at large.

Early Mesopotamian art was usually small in scale, because the south was poor in natural resources, and materials like stone and metals had to be imported. Later, Assyrian palaces were decorated with large stone-relief sculptures and immense gate guardian figures of animal or monstrous form. However, the oldest and most enduring form of art was the cylinder seal, a small stone cylinder covered with a design cut into its surface. Such seals when rolled over a wet clay tablet served a practical purpose: to identify their owners and to seal a variety of business transactions. These little objects were also frequently used as jewelry or as magical amulets. Like so many other forms of Mesopotamian art, they were intimately associated with writing. The seal impressions, even before the owner's name was incised on the cylinder, stood for a particular individual just as a signature does today.

The history of Mesopotamian art and architecture is conventionally divided into a number of periods. These divisions are based on historical evidence, scientific investigations, and stratigraphy of excavated sites--each of these coupled with a certain amount of guesswork. Particularly in the early periods, the dating is a matter of speculation, and different scholars give different names to the historical periods. The names and dates used here have been chosen for their clarity and simplicity. For further discussion of problems of chronology, the reader is directed to the appended bibliography, where almost every listed work deals to some extent with the difficult subject of chronology.

PROTOLITERATE PERIOD (c.3500-2900 BC) The first period of Mesopotamian civilization is the Protoliterate. This phase is most clearly seen at the southern city of URUK and indeed may have arisen there. However, Uruk's architecture is based on earlier forms at ERIDU, and during the Protoliterate period several southern cities--and even some cities in northern Mesopotamia and Syria--shared cultural traits with Uruk. Although there is little historical evidence, this cultural network was probably based on trade.

Southern Mesopotamian cities were built around temples, and the main temple in each city was dedicated to the chief god or goddess of that city. The White Temple on the Anu Ziggurat at Uruk is a characteristic example of Protoliterate temple architecture. The whitewashed outer walls of this small rectangular mudbrick structure are formed into the niches and buttresses that are a typical feature of all Mesopotamian temples. The temple stands on a ZIGGURAT, a tall artificial mountain formed from the remains of temples built and rebuilt on this site for centuries.

The Protoliterate art at Uruk, largely religious in theme, exists principally in the form of temple furnishings. Typical objects of the period include the so-called cult vase of Uruk, a 1-m-high (3-ft) alabaster vessel decorated with scenes of offerings brought to the temple (Iraq Museum, Baghdad) and a beautiful stone head, 22 cm high (8.6 in), of a woman perhaps representing the fertility goddess Inanna (Iraq Museum). This image had probably been set into a temple wall as part of a cult relief made of various materials. The face is softly and realistically modeled; the white stone must have looked like flesh when surrounded by its original colorful inlays for the eyes, eyebrows, and headdress.

EARLY DYNASTIC PERIOD (c.2900-2370 BC) During the Early Dynastic period, independent city-states flourished in southern Mesopotamia, in MARI on the middle Euphrates River, and as far north as the city of Assur, as well as the Syrian city known today as Tell Khuera. The southern cities were the Sumerian heartland, while Semitic-speaking peoples inhabited the northern city-states. Trade networks united these distant places, and toward the end of the period kings began to conquer and rule over several city-states.

Architecture

In the flourishing cities of this period, temples were numerous. The exact form might vary because of local traditions and the particular shape of the site, but most temples had a rectangular CELLA (the inner sacred chamber), with some sort of indirect access to the statue of the god that stood within it. For large and important temples of this period, an unusual form appeared which has so far been discovered at three cities--LAGASH, Khafaje, and Al 'Ubaid. This was the temple oval, an immense oval platform on which a temple was constructed, with a second outer oval wall surrounding the entire temple complex. Large palaces have been excavated at KISH and Mari, evidence of the rising power of local city rulers during the Early Dynastic period. Similarly, the city walls of Uruk testify to the growing need to fortify cities in this period of increasing warfare.

Art

Most surviving objects of Early Dynastic art are small figurines of worshipers, which were discovered in temples, where they were probably left as offerings by pious visitors and pilgrims. These sculptures are generally small, under 30 cm (11.8 in) in height, although a few rare examples are as tall as two-thirds life-size. Most of the figurines are male, although some are of females with elaborate gowns and headdresses. The typical male worshiper is shown standing, wearing a long, fringed skirt, which leaves the chest bare. The most prominent features of these statues are the inlaid eyes, which seemingly stare toward the god to whom they were dedicated, and the hands clasped in prayer. Many of the statues are crudely made, perhaps by amateurs; others exhibit more skillful carving, and a few reflect exceptionally fine craftsmanship.

In addition to these sculptures and numerous temple furnishings, there are certain monuments of the Early Dynastic period that demonstrate the rising power of the king. The most famous is the limestone Stele of the Vultures (1.9 m/6.2 ft, restored height; Louvre, Paris), made for King Eannatum of Lagash. Sculpted in relief on the front of this stele, the king is shown leading his army to victory while vultures peck the disembodied heads of his victims, inhabitants of a neighboring city-state. On the rear, the god who gave Eannatum his victory is depicted as an immense figure gathering the enemy into a huge net. In addition to the lengthy relief images, inscriptions cover both sides of the stele. The theme of conflict also occurs on cylinder seals of this period, although in a different way. The seals are decorated with so-called combat friezes, continuously repeated designs in which heroes and animals are portrayed in a seemingly endless struggle for survival.

A spectacular treasure trove of Early Dynastic culture was discovered at the Royal Cemetery at UR, dating from c.2500 BC. Here, 16 elaborately built tombs contain, in addition to the chief occupant (who may have been a ruler or a ritual figure), a number of human sacrifices. The main tombs of these graves were furnished with a wealth of luxuriously decorated objects, including gold cups and bowls, jewelry of precious stones and metals, inlaid harps, and other items that together provide some idea of the lively and colorful material culture of the time.

AKKADIAN PERIOD (c.2370-2230 BC) The Akkadian period, the first true Mesopotamian empire, was dominated by a dynasty of Semitic rulers whose capital city of AKKAD (yet to be discovered) was located somewhere north of Sumer, but still within Babylonia. Although this short-lived phase has as yet yielded few architectural remains, the Akkadian art that has been found is of very high quality and represents perhaps the most unique art created during the history of Mesopotamia. Truly imperial, the art focuses on the ruler rather than on religious events. A now headless diorite statue (94 cm/37 in high) of King Manishtusu (Louvre, Paris) from SUSA, depicts deftly and with regal elegance the long, softly rippling robes worn by the king. A bronze head (36.6 cm/14.4 in high) of a ruler, discovered at NINEVEH, is sometimes identified with the king Naram Sin (Iraq

Museum, Baghdad). The king, whose strong features are sensitively modeled, has an elaborately braided headdress or helmet and an elaborately curled beard.

The 2-m-high (6-ft) sandstone victory stele of King Naram Sin from Susa (Louvre, Paris) is the most unusual monument of this period. On the conically shaped stele, the king, portrayed larger than his soldiers and wearing the horned crown of a god, stands facing a conical mountain; above are two stars, divine symbols. In contrast to the Early Dynastic Stele of the Vultures, where divine and human powers are separated on opposite sides of the monument, the two forces are here united in the presence of the king, who proudly records his military victory.

Many of the Akkadian cylinder seals display designs that are as beautiful as those appearing on the royal sculpture. Those decorated with combat friezes now appear in the form of separate pairs of combatants, carved with great realism and monumentality of form. In addition a rich variety of mythological scenes depict epic and divine tales.

NEO-SUMERIAN PERIOD (c.2230-2000 BC) In about 2230 BC, a band of mountaineers, the Guti, overthrew the Akkadian empire. The following period was marked by a Sumerian revival under the kings of Ur, who drove off the Guti and then ruled over Sumer and Akkad from c.2120 to 2000 BC. Early in this period the rulers of the city-state of Lagash built temples and produced sculpture that differed greatly from Akkadian art. Gudea, ruler of Lagash, commissioned a series of hardstone sculptures in which he is depicted as a humble and pious worshiper of the gods, rather than as their equal. While the fine artisanship of these sculptures must have been inspired by Akkadian art, the religious tone seems more in keeping with the Early Dynastic period.

The kings of Ur continued to express a similar tone in their attitudes toward the gods. Much architecture of the city of Ur during the Neo-Sumerian period has been excavated, and it is apparent that although these rulers had great political power, their architectural efforts were largely devoted to religious expression.

At the center of Ur was the religious precinct, which contained a large and elaborate ziggurat to the moon god Nannar (the chief deity of Ur), a smaller temple to Nannar's wife, and a still smaller royal palace. The ziggurat of Nannar was built in stages and was faced with a niched surface of baked brick. A temple to the god, which could be reached by three ramps, was placed atop the ziggurat. A smaller temple was located at the ziggurat's base. Other such ziggurats were built in many cities throughout the empire.

A characteristic form of temple used during this period was the so-called broad cella--a broad and shallow room approached through a series of entrance halls and courts. In this temple the statue of the god, or in some cases the deified ruler, could be glimpsed from afar. The statue was kept separate from the worshiper not by the layout of the temple as in earlier times, but by the many axially arranged spaces that separated the worshiper from his god.

Compared to the architectural remains, Neo-Sumerian art is scarce. Those pieces which have been preserved are religious and conservative, yet exquisitely crafted, as is the art of Gudea. The designs of cylinder seals are rigidly composed, with a similar preponderance of religious themes.

ISIN-LARSA AND OLD BABYLONIAN PERIODS (c.2006-c.1600 BC) In 2000 BC the rulers of Ur fell before invading AMORITES, a new wave of Semitic-speaking people who eventually were absorbed into the city-states of Babylonia. From then on, Semitic languages were to dominate Mesopotamian life. Early in the 2d millennium BC a number of independent city-states flourished, but an empire of small proportions was formed by King HAMMURABI of Babylon in the 18th century BC and was maintained by his successors.

The architectural evidence of these two periods is not very extensive. Nothing is known of Babylon at this time, and the most impressive building yet excavated is the palace at Mari, a powerful trading center before it fell (c.1760 BC) to Hammurabi.

The vast palace, with its complex ground plan, was an administrative, political, and religious center for the ruler of the city-state. Large wall paintings here of human figures and mythological animals are rare examples of the monumental art of this period.

The best-known piece of art of the Old Babylonian period is the stone stele inscribed with the law code of Hammurabi (Louvre, Paris). At the top of this 2.3-m-high (90.5-in) stele Hammurabi is shown worshiping Shamash, the god of justice, who handed down the laws (inscribed beneath this relief sculpture) to the king who would enforce them.

The images of the pious king and the powerful god are based on Neo-Sumerian prototypes, and the use of a picture to explain and justify the written law illustrates the close interrelationship between art and writing in ancient Mesopotamia. Cylinder seals of these periods show much the same themes as in the Neo-Sumerian period.

NEO-ASSYRIAN PERIOD (c.1000-612 BC) Little outstanding art or architecture was produced during the Middle Babylonian and Middle Assyrian periods of the second half of the 2d millennium BC. However, the succeeding Assyrian Empire, formed in the first half of the 1st millennium BC, became the most extensive Mesopotamian kingdom, and its material culture represents the crowning glory of Mesopotamian art and architecture.

Warfare and trade were the two main concerns of Assyrian kings, and their art and architecture were cleverly designed to further these two concerns. Assyrian cities such as Calah (NIMRUD), Nineveh, and Dur Sharrukin (KHORSABAD) were military fortresses. The latter, built by King Sargon II (r. 721-705 BC), is a splendid example of Assyrian city architecture. The city was surrounded by heavy walls with powerful gates. Guarding the main gate was a small fortress built over the city wall, and the main citadel rose over the wall at the rear of the city. The inner area was perhaps filled with tents or other light structures, because no architectural remains have been found there. The main citadel was itself a small walled city with palaces and temples.

The most important building in the city was the huge royal palace, built at the very back of the inner citadel. Within the palace were public rooms and courtyards, private apartments for the king, and an entire temple complex with a freestanding ziggurat.

Unlike southern cities, which were built around central temple areas, Assyrian cities had a peripheral emphasis, with the most important structure being the royal palace. Also unlike that of the south, Assyrian architecture could make use of local stone for orthostats, monumental vertical slabs that lined walls and gates. Notwithstanding these differences in architectural style and material, both northern and southern cities were planned to make it difficult for invaders to penetrate the main civic center, because warfare was a constant threat in Mesopotamian life.

Assyrian art was largely architectural decoration in the form of relief sculptures on the walls of palaces and of huge guardian figures at gate entrances. This sculpture was meant to impress and intimidate people with the power and sanctity of the Assyrian king. The relief sculptures depict the endless battles of the Assyrian armies; inevitably, the king is shown triumphant over everyone who had dared to oppose the mighty empire. Sometimes the king is portrayed in a ritual stressing his religious powers, or else he is shown accepting the tribute brought him by the many peoples of the empire. The king might also be shown as a skillful hunter who could dispatch dangerous wild animals like lions and bulls as easily as he could conquer his enemies.

A remarkable series of sculptures (now preserved in the British Museum, London) was discovered in the palace of King Ashurbanipal (r. 668-627 BC) at Nineveh. This king was particularly fond of sports, and the magnificent reliefs show many aspects of lion hunts as well as hunts of less dangerous animals. All Assyrian relief sculptures reveal a fascination with detail, with history, and with combat, an enduring theme throughout the history of Mesopotamian art. Cylinder seals of this period also frequently depict combat, often between a superhuman hero and a monster.

NEO-BABYLONIAN PERIOD (609-539 BC) In 609 BC the Assyrian Empire was conquered by an army of Medes and Babylonians, and the last Mesopotamian culture was that of the short-lived Neo-Babylonian Empire. The city of Babylon during this period displayed a combination of northern and southern architectural traditions. The city was built around a huge temple complex sacred to MARDUK, the chief Babylonian god; here stood the traditional temples as well as the ziggurat known in the Bible as the Tower of BABEL. The royal palace was built out over the city wall, perhaps in imitation of Assyrian palace architecture, although its rambling layout and hanging gardens, or planted terraces, were stylistically far more southern than northern.

Also typically southern was the wall decoration used in the city. Instead of the grim and powerful themes of Assyrian relief sculptures, Babylon was adorned with colorful glazed bricks on the wall of the massive ISHTAR Gate on the main road or procession way, and on the facade of the throne room in the royal palace. These glazed brick panels, usually in the form of molded reliefs of lions, bulls, and strange monsters, gave an elegant and sophisticated air to the city. Proud of their millennia of historic tradition, the rulers of Babylon chose to emphasize beauty rather than power in their art.

The Babylonian Empire fell to the Persians in 539 BC, and thus the final Mesopotamian kingdom was supplanted as the center of Near Eastern civilization. However, the traditions of Mesopotamian art and architecture were so rich and enduring that they enhanced the cultures of surrounding peoples, left their imprint in the Bible, and inspired many aspects of Greek art and architecture

Architecture was extinct in Greece from the end of the Mycenaean period (about 1200 BC) to the 7th century BC, when urban life and prosperity recovered to a point where public building could be undertaken. But since many Greek buildings in the colonization period (8th - 6th century BC), were made of wood or mud-brick or clay, nothing remains of them except for a few ground-plans, and almost no written sources on early architecture or descriptions of these embryonic buildings exist.

Common materials of Greek architecture were wood, used for supports and roof beams; plaster used for sinks and bathtubs unbaked brick used for walls, especially for private homes; limestone and marble, used for columns, walls, and upper portions of temples and public buildings; terracotta, used for roof tiles and ornaments; and metals, especially

bronze, used for decorative details. Architects of the Archaic and Classical periods used these building materials to construct five simple types of buildings: religious, civic, domestic, funerary, or recreational.

History

Around 600 BC, the wooden columns of the old Temple of Hera at Olympia underwent a material transformation, known as "petrification", in which they were replaced by stone columns. By degrees, other parts of the temple were petrified.

Most of our knowledge of Greek architecture comes from the late archaic period (550 - 500 BC), the Periclean age (450 - 430 BC), and the early to pure classical period (430 - 400 BC). Greek examples are considered alongside Hellenistic and Roman periods (since Roman architecture heavily copied Greek), and late written sources such as Vitruvius (1st century). This results in a strong bias towards temples, the only buildings which survive in numbers.

Like Greek painting and sculpture, Greek Architecture in the first half of classical antiquity was not "art for art's sake" in the modern sense. The architect was a craftsman employed by the state or a wealthy private client. No distinction was made between the architect and the building contractor. The architect designed the building, hired the laborers and craftsmen who built it, and was responsible for both its budget and its timely completion. He did not enjoy any of the lofty status accorded to modern architects of public buildings. Even the names of architects are not known before the 5th century. An architect like Iktinos, who designed the Parthenon, who would today be seen as a genius, was treated in his lifetime as no more than a very valuable master tradesman.

] Structure and style of Greek temples

Temple of Hephaestus, Athens: western facade

The standard format of Greek public buildings is known from surviving examples such as the Parthenon and the Hephaesteum at Athens, the temple complex at Selinunte (Selinus) and the sanctuaries at Agrigentum. Most buildings were rectangular and made from limestone or tuff, of which Greece has an abundance, and which was cut into large blocks and dressed. Marble was an expensive building material in Greece: high quality marble came only from Mt. Pentelicus in Attica and from a few islands such as Paros, and its transportation in large blocks was difficult. It was used mainly for sculptural decoration, not structurally, except in the very grandest buildings of the Classical period such as the Parthenon.

The basic rectangular plan was surrounded by a colonnaded portico of columns on all four sides (peripteral or peristyle) such as the Parthenon, and occasionally at the front

and rear only (amphiprostyle) as seen in the small Temple of Athena Nike. Some buildings had a projecting head of columns forming the entrance (prostyle), while others featured a pronaos facade of columns leading on to the cella. The Greeks roofed their buildings with timber beams covered with overlapping terra cotta or occasionally marble tiles. They understood the principles of the masonry arch but made little use of it, and did not put domes on their buildings; these elaborations were left to the Romans.

The low pitch of the gable roofs produced a squat triangular shape at each end of the building, the pediment, which was typically filled with sculptural decoration. Between the roof and the tops of the columns a row of lintels formed the entablature, whose outward-facing surfaces also provided a space for sculptures, known as friezes. The frieze consisted of alternating metopes (holding the sculpture) and triglyphs. No surviving Greek building preserves these sculptures intact, but they can be seen on some modern imitations of Greek structures.

Greek public architecture

The temple was the most common and best-known form of Greek public architecture. The temple did not serve the same function as a modern church, since the altar stood under the open sky in the temenos or sacred fane, often directly before the temple. Temples served as storage places for the treasury associated with the cult of the god in question, as the location of a cult image, and as a place for devotees of the god to leave their votive offerings, such as statues, helmets and weapons. The inner room of the temple, the cella, served mainly as a strongroom and storeroom. It was usually lined by another row of columns.

Other architectural forms used by the Greeks were the tholos or circular temple, of which the best example is the Tholos of Theodorus at Delphi dedicated to the worship of Athena Pronaia; the propylon or porch, forming the entrance to temple sanctuaries (the best-surviving example is the Propylaea on the Acropolis of Athens); the fountain house, a building where women filled their vases with water from a public fountain; and the stoa, a long narrow hall with an open colonnade on one side, which was used to house rows of shops in the agoras (commercial centers) of Greek towns. A completely restored stoa, the Stoa of Attalus, can be seen in Athens. Greek towns of substantial size also had a palaestra or a gymnasium, the social centre for male citizens. These peripterally enclosed space open to the sky were used for athletic contests and exercise. Greek towns also needed at least one bouleuterion or council chamber, a large public building which served as a court house and as a meeting place for the town council (boule). Because the Greeks did not use arches or domes, they could not construct buildings with large interior spaces. The bouleuterion thus had rows of internal columns to hold the roof up (hypostyle). No examples of these buildings survive.

Finally, every Greek town had a theatre. These were used for both public meetings as well as dramatic performances. The theatre was usually set in a hillside outside the town, and had rows of tiered seating set in a semi-circle around the central performance area, the orchestra. Behind the orchestra was a low building called the skene, which served as a

store-room, a dressing-room, and also as a backdrop to the action taking place in the orchestra. A number of Greek theatres survive almost intact, the best known being at Epidaurus.] Domestic architecture

In the 5th and 4th centuries BC two standard plans became commonplace in the Greek world. Typical houses in Olynthus during this time period and the 2nd century houses on Delos had the small rooms of the home arranged in a rectangle plan around a colonnaded interior courtyard. A second house plan was found in Priene which also focused on an interior courtyard but it had much different floorplan. Instead of a collection of small rooms, the primary living area consisted of a large rectangular hall that led to a columned porch. Opening off the sides of the courtyard were small rooms for servants, storage, and cooking. Houses in the Hellenistic period became much more diverse. For example, houses of wealthy people might have featured marble thresholds, columns and doorways; mosaic floors depicting scenes of humans or animals; and plastered walls modeled to look much like fine stonework.

Orders of Greek architecture

There were two main styles (or "orders") of early Greek architecture, the Doric and the Ionic. These names were used by the Greeks themselves, and reflected their belief that the styles descended from the Dorian and Ionian Greeks of the Dark Ages, but this is unlikely to be true. The Doric style was used in mainland Greece and spread from there to the Greek colonies in Italy. The Ionic style was used in the cities of Ionia (now the west coast of Turkey) and some of the Aegean islands. The Doric style was more formal and austere, the Ionic was more relaxed and decorative. The more ornate Corinthian style was a later development of the Ionic. These styles are best known through the three orders of column capitals, but there are differences in most points of design and decoration between the orders.

Most surviving Greek buildings, such as the Parthenon and the Temple of Hephaestus in Athens, are Doric. The Erechtheum and the small temple of Athena Nike on the Acropolis are Ionic however. The Ionic order became dominant in the Hellenistic period, since its more decorative style suited the aesthetic of the period better than the more restrained Doric. Records show that the evolution of the Ionic order was resisted by many Greek States, as they claimed it represented the dominance of Athens. Some of the best surviving Hellenistic buildings, such as the Library of Celsus, can be seen in Turkey, at cities such as Ephesus and Pergamum. But in the greatest of Hellenistic cities, Alexandria in Egypt, almost nothing survives.

The Architecture of Ancient Rome adopted the external Greek architecture for their own purposes, which were so different from Greek buildings as to create a new architectural style. The two styles are often considered one body of classical architecture. This approach is considered reproductive,[citation needed] and sometimes it hinders scholars'

understanding and ability to judge Roman buildings by Greek standards, particularly when relying solely on external appearances.[citation needed]

The Romans absorbed Greek influence in many aspects closely related to architecture; for example, this can be seen in the introduction and use of the Triclinium in Roman villas as a place and manner of dining. The Romans, similarly, were indebted to their Etruscan neighbors and forefathers who supplied them with a wealth of knowledge essential for future architectural solutions,[citation needed] such as hydraulics and in the construction of arches.

Social elements such as wealth and high population densities in cities forced the ancient Romans to discover new (architectural) solutions of their own. The use of vaults and arches together with a sound knowledge of building materials, for example, helped enabled them to achieve unprecedented successes in the construction of imposing structures for public use. Examples include the aqueducts of Rome, the Baths of Diocletian and the Baths of Caracalla, the basilicas and perhaps most famously of all, the Colosseum. They were reproduced at smaller scale in most important towns and cities in the Empire. Some survivals are almost complete, such as the town walls of Lugo in Hispania Tarraconensis, or northern Spain.

Political propaganda demanded that these buildings should be made to impress as well as perform a public function.[citation needed] The Romans didn't feel restricted by Greek aesthetic axioms alone in order to achieve these objectives.[citation needed] The Pantheon is a supreme example of this, particularly in the version rebuilt by Hadrian and which still stands in its celestial glory as a prototype of several other great buildings of Western architecture. The same emperor left his mark on the landscape of northern Britain when he built a wall to mark the limits of the empire, and after further conquests in Scotland, the Antonine wall was built to replace Hadrian's Wall.

Contents[hide]

1 The Arch and the Dome o 1.1 Housing o 1.2 Public buildings o 1.3 Lighthouses

2 Materials 3 List of buildings, features and types of buildings 4 See also

5 External links

[edit] The Arch and the DomeFurther information: List of Roman domes

Aqueduct of Segovia

Roman bridge and Moorish alcazaba at Mérida, Spain

The Roman use of the arch and their improvements in the use of concrete facilitated the building of the many aqueducts throughout the empire, such as the magnificent Aqueduct of Segovia and the eleven aqueducts in Rome itself, such as Aqua Claudia and Anio Novus. The same idea produced numerous bridges, such as the still used bridge at Merida.

The dome permitted construction of vaulted ceilings and provided large covered public spaces such as the public baths and basilicas. The Romans based much of their architecture on the dome, such as Hadrian's Pantheon in the city of Rome, the Baths of Diocletian and the Baths of Caracalla.

Remains of the baths of Diocletian, Rome. Etching made by Etienne_Du_Pérac in the 16th century.

Art historians such as Gottfried Richter in the 20's identified the Roman architectural innovation as being the Triumphal Arch and it is poignant to see how this symbol of power on earth was transformed and utilised within the Christian basilicas when the Roman Empire of the West was on its last legs: The arch was set before the altar to symbolize the triumph of Christ and the after life. It is in their impressive aqueducts that we see the arch triumphant, especially in the many surviving examples, such as the Pont du Gard, the aqueduct at Segovia and the remains of the Aqueducts of Rome itself. Their survival is testimony to the durability of their materials and design.

[edit] Housing

Remains of the top floors of an insula near the Capitolium and the Aracoeli in Rome.

On a less visible level for the modern observer, ancient Roman developments in housing and public hygiene are impressive, especially given their day and age. Clear examples are baths and latrines which could be either public or private, not to mention developments in under-floor heating, in the form of the hypocaust, double glazing (examples in Ostia Antica) and piped water (examples in Pompeii).

Possibly most impressive from an urban planning point of view were the multi-story apartment blocks called insulae built to cater for a wide range of situations. These buildings solely intended as large scale accommodation could reach several floors in height. Although they were often dangerous, unhealthy and prone to fires there are

examples in cities such as the Roman port town of Ostia which date back to the reign of Trajan and point to solutions which catered for a variety of needs and markets.

As an example of this we have the housing on Via della Foce: large scale real estate development made to cater for up-and-coming middle class entrepreneurs. Rather like modern semi-detached housing these had repeated floor plans intended to be easily and economically built in a repetitive fashion. Internal spaces were designed to be relatively low-cost yet functional and with decorative elements reminiscent of the detached houses and villas to which the buyers might aspire in their later years. Each apartment had its own terrace and private entrance. External walls were in "Opus Reticulatum" whilst interiors in "Opus Incertum" which would then be plastered and possibly painted. Some existing examples show alternate red and yellow painted panels to have been a relatively popular choice of interior decor.

[edit] Public buildings

Roman arena at Arles, inside view.

Roman architecture was sometimes determined based upon the requirements of Roman religion. For example the Pantheon was an amazing engineering feat created for religious purposes, and its design (the large dome and open spaces) were made to fit the requirements of the religious services. Some of the most impressive public buildings are the amphitheatres, over 220 being known and many of which are well preserved, such as that at Arles, as well as the progenitor, the Coliseum in Rome. They were used for gladiatorial contests, public displays, public meetings and bullfights, the last of which survives in Spain. They are among the most impressive remains of the Roman empire at its height, and many of them still used for public displays and performance.

[edit] Lighthouses

Tower of Hercules

Many lighthouses were built around the Mediterranean and around the shores of their expanding empire, including the Tower of Hercules at A Coruña in northern Spain, a structure which still survives to this day. The most spectacular example was the Pharos or Lighthouse of Alexandria, one of the Seven wonders of the World, which collapsed during an earthquake many centuries after construction. It was originally built by the Greeks in the 3rd century BC, and served as a model for later Roman examples. A smaller lighthouse at Dover, England also still exists as a ruin about half the height of the original. The light would have been provided by a fire at the top of the structure.

[edit] Materials

Innovation started in the first century BC, with the invention of concrete, a strong and readily available substitute for stone. Tile-covered concrete quickly supplanted marble as the primary building material and more daring buildings soon followed, with great pillars supporting broad arches and domes rather than dense lines of columns suspending flat architraves. The freedom of concrete also inspired the colonnade screen, a row of purely decorative columns in front of a load-bearing wall. In smaller-scale architecture, concrete's strength freed the floor plan from rectangular cells to a more free-flowing environment. Most of these developments are ably described by Vitruvius writing in the first century AD in his work De Architectura.

The interior of the Pantheon in the 18th century, showing the concrete dome

Although concrete had been used on a minor scale in Mesopotamia, Roman architects perfected it and used it in buildings where it could stand on its own and support a great deal of weight. The first use of concrete by the Romans was in the town of Cosa sometime after 273 BC. Ancient Roman concrete (opus cementicium) was a mixture of lime mortar, sand, water, and stones. The ancient builders placed these ingredients in wooden frames where it hardened and bonded to a facing of stones or (more frequently) bricks. When the framework was removed, the new wall was very strong with a rough surface of bricks or stones. This surface could be smoothed and faced with an attractive stucco or thin panels of marble or other coloured stones called revetment. Concrete construction proved to be more flexible and less costly than building solid stone buildings. The materials were readily available and not difficult to transport. The wooden frames could be used more than once, allowing builders to work quickly and efficiently.

Cave canem mosaics ('Beware of the Dog') were a popular motif for the threshold of Roman villas.

On return from campaigns in Greece, the general Sulla returned with what is probably the most well-known element of the early imperial period: the mosaic, a decoration of colourful chips of stone inset into cement. This tiling method took the empire by storm in the late first century and the second century and in the Roman home joined the well known mural in decorating floors, walls, and grottoes in geometric and pictorial designs.

Though most would consider concrete the Roman contribution most relevant to the modern world, the Empire's style of architecture, though no longer used with any great frequency, can still be seen throughout Europe and North America in the arches and domes of many governmental and religious buildings.

[edit] List of buildings, features and types of buildings Alyscamps , a necropolis in Arles, France Amphitheatre - (List of Roman amphitheatres) Antonine Wall , in Scotland Aqueduct Basilica Baths of Trajan Baths of Diocletian Baths of Caracalla Catacombs of Rome Colosseum Circus Maximus , in Rome, Italy - (Circus (building)) Curia Hostilia (Senate House), in Rome Domus Domus Aurea (former building) Forum Hadrian's Wall Hypocaust Insulae Maison Carrée , in Nimes, France mosaics Pantheon Roman aqueducts Roman bridge Roman engineering Roman lighthouse Roman road Roman theatre Roman villa

Temple (Roman) Thermae Tower of Hercules Trajan's Column , in Rome Triumphal arch Tropaeum Traiani Hadrian's Villa

[edit] See also Architectural history Architectural style Frontinus Impluvium Naturalis Historia Opus Pliny the Elder

Roman brick Roman culture Roman engineering Romanesque architecture Vitruvius

HISTORY OF EARLY CHRISTIAN, BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE

SANT' APOLINARE IN CLASSE:Sant' Apolinare in Classe; Italy, Ravenna; 530-549

SAN VITALE:San Vitale; Italy, Ravenna; 526-547

HISTORY OF EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE

Tour Armenia

Armenia is often called an "open-air museum", since there is so much of history around you, it seems that nothing you see or touch is from the modern era (OK, we’ll make exceptions for the shiny new boutiques and electronic shops springing up all over Yerevan--but even they are descended from the old world of and the Spice and Silk Roads).

The number sacred monuments (churches, monasteries, chapels, shrines and Khachkars, or stone crosses) is truly mind-boggling.; There are more than 5,000 churches, monasteries and chapels in Armenia, and over 20,000 Khachkars in the small territory of the Republic alone!

After a while, seeing all those churches and stone crosses can make the visitor kind of bleary-eyed, especially those who don’t understand their special meaning, and the traditions from whence they came.; Basically all the same in central design, none are the same in their details, and it possible to detect earlier Urartian, Hellenistic, Roman, Persian and Arab influences on the design over successive centuries, which make them living museums of the past, and a lot more interesting to see. There are even holdovers’ from Armenia’s most ancient past, in stone carvings representing the zodiac, sun dials, and iconography from her animist and sun worship pagan traditions making their way into the church ornamentation. But a little architecture primer is required to better appreciate the distinct character of the churches.; And believe me, with this primer you will know more than the average local Armenian, and very likely more than even visiting Armenians from the outside world, about the sacred architecture in Armenia.; Nothing like being able to knock off a few facts to impress the rest of the group, eh?

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Early Churches The earliest churches were built on pagan temples. The designs and forms were borrowed from the Greco-Roman styles, which relied on volume (taking up space) with carefully orchestrated combinations of vertical and horizontal lines in the columns, on the carvings and the friezes to differentiate the building from those around it.; The temple of Garni is a good example of the type of sacred building that existed throughout Armenia before the advent of Christianity.; Another is the temple of Sushi at Erebuni, an Urartian fortress city unearthed in Yerevan.; Urartu borrowed deities and cuneiform from the Mesopotamian region (Assyria and Babylon) and used human-animal combination in its representations of gods, as well as a type of frieze design that looks a bit like that found in Mycenae and Assyria.; The friezes made their way to Christianity in the form of frescoes (translated through the Greco-Roman friezes and mosaics).; But the ideas of using animals to represent gods and their likeness, or combining animal and human forms (winged angels, Lion, eagle, the lamb) are very old symbols from the pagan era, which survive to the present day.

At the very first, simple crosses were erected on the sites where a pagan temple was located and that was enough.; As the crusade to convert the pagan population gained momentum, the fervor with which Gregory and his army destroyed the pagan temples increased, and new "temples" or churches were built on the same foundations of the pagan ones, which dictated their size and first designs.; One of the things you will notice about almost Armenian churches is that they are small.; The largest church might fit 500 worshippers if they stand shoulder to shoulder, perhaps more, but they are not the spacious and awe-inspiring gothic cathedrals from Europe.; This is both a limitation in early engineering (flying buttresses still have a few hundred years of development), but also a deliberate device to at the same time imitate the style of the prior pagan temple, and then renew it with a completely different iconography--meaning to keep the smaller size of pagan temples (which were only intended for the elect priests and royalty--not that many in the population), and at the same time to extend it both up and out to allow an unheard of idea to admit more worshippers into the sanctuary.

You can detect the basic outlines of pagan temples within the sanctuary itself, a rectangular or square space, the altar always oriented towards the East (a pagan tradition completely usurped by early Christians).; From there, the form changes radically, and; Medieval Armenians developed a unique type of construction, which found its way to the Byzantine empire and

Europe.

The development of sacred architecture in Armenia can be divided into three important periods; 1) Formative, from the 4th to the 7th cc. CE,; 2) Mature, from the 9th to the 14th cc, and 3) Late, from the 15th to the 19th cc.; These also coincide with the Early, Middle and Late Medieval periods of Armenian history.

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The vision of Saint Gregory and early Armenian Churches The new style of church is attributed to the vision of St. Gregory, where the saint received annunciation of the site where four churches were to be built; three Martyria (shrines in honor of martyrs of the faith; two of which where to be dedicated to the Virgins Hripsimeh and Guyaneh), and the future cathedral of Vagharshapat (present day Echmiadzin), for which the form was also dictated: a cupola (or 'tent') supported by four columns. An historian of the struggle for Christianity in Armenia, the 5th c.; Agathangelos describes the vision with a brief description of heaven, earth and the void.; Heaven is domed (khoranard), with a firm roof (khoran), suspended in the void.; Khoran occurs several hundred times in the Armenian bible, and is one of the key terms used in Armenian architectural symbolism.

Legend had it that from the moment of the vision forward, the church had received its instructions from God on how to create the new temples.; But the cathedral of Echmiadzin is not the first cathedral or church built by Grigor.; It was preceded by the church at Ashtishat, which Grigor had built in Western Armenia, on the site of the temple of Vahagan (the god of war in the Armenian pagan pantheon), where the relics of Saint John the Baptist and of the martyr Athenogenes were buried.

The official missionary work of St. Gregory led to the systematic demolition of many temples.; At first crosses were placed where they had stood, but later steles, altars and Christian churches were built to replace them.; As these churches were enhanced, designs based on Early Armenian, Roman and Hellenistic designs were used, but within 100 years the churches took a shape all their own, one which is distinctively Armenian.

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What To Look For As early as the beginning of the 7th century Armenian architecture had achieved such a high level of completeness that the same 'language', with very few modifications, can be seen in the centuries to follow.; Central plan layout, and the systematic use of stone cupolas for the middle spans of churches became integral features of design.

This earlier roots can be seen in the technique of erecting pure volumes of large longitudinal edifices atop stylobates with large steps, similar to that of the pagan temples: the rigorous design

of the large central dome churches, which take on the solemnity of the mausoleum of the classical era, also in the use of the compact masonry of large, well-cut and precisely-laid blocks, in the masterful orchestration and proportioning of spaces delimited by arcades and rounded vaults, and in the use of stylistic systems and elements closely related to those of; Hellenistic architecture.

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Church Forms The earliest form is the single nave barrel vaulted hall with an polygonal or semicircular apse.; Very close in form to pagan temple designs, the churches are huge volumes of mass which imitate their pagan predecessors. Additions to this basic form were the installation of open-air baptismal fonts and adding chapels on flanking sides of the main altar with repeated chapels in all the corners of the rectangular floor plan.; Examples are St. Hripsimeh in Echmiadzin (5th-6th cc); St. Astvatsatsin of Aragiugh (5th-7th cc); and St. Astvatsatsin of Avan (5th-6th cc).

Along with the single nave form, there developed a central form design, which was first implemented by Gregory the Illuminator between 301-313 CE in Echmiadzin:; a domed church with a single quadruple apse and four angular chapels.; In 484-488 CE the floor plan was modified to a central form with protruding apses and two chapels flanking the main altar.; This type of church became know as the "Echmiadzin-Bagarin" style.; Examples of this early form are at St. Hovhannes at Mastara (5th-6th cc), St. Sarkis in Talin (7th c),; at Voskepar (7th c.) and St. Grigor of Haridjavank (7th c.).;; Advanced forms of this style, which include cylindrical internal diagonal niches and external triangular niches, are Okhte Dernin Vank of Mokhrenis (5th-6th cc), St. Hovhannes in Avan (618 CE) and Hripsimeh of Echmiadzin (618 CE).

Attempts to harmonize these two forms began in the 5th-6th cc, with domed constructions of the single nave Poghos Petros church in Zuvuni; and the St. Sarkis triple nave basilica in Tekor.; This experiment signaled the birth of the domed hall and the triple nave basilica (the 5th c. Katoghikeh of Dvin, and the 630 CE Guyaneh of Echmiadzin and 7th c. Odzun).

Cruciform churches developed into single, triple or quadruple apses such as St. Stepanos of L'mbatavank (7th c.).

The most unique form of church in this period is that built with a central circular floor plan.; A first magnificent example of this construction is the Royal Cathedral of Zvartnots, as well as St. Yerordutiun (6th-7th c) and St. Tadeos Zoravar in Yeghvard (7th c.).

Martyria and Mausoleums The influence of the Romans is found Martyria, an extension of the mausoleum.; Among the Romans veneration of the dead demanded tolerance of the practice of burial, which extended to both Christian and Jewish burial rites.; Roman custom and law dictated that the relatives of executed criminals had the right to bury the victim: death was thought to somehow redeem the

offender (whose crime, in many cases, was simply that of being a Christian or a Jew).

Catacombs, borrowed by the first Christians from Roman Jews, was not only tolerated by the authorities; the areas where the catacombs were located were even considered inviolable (at least until the 3d century, when special laws removed this protection).; The construction of chapels in the cubical offered the Christians an opportunity to assemble and pray.

Mausoleums were built on two levels, the ground floor reserved for the interned, with a chapel or church built on the upper floor.; Monuments to the dead are very close to Roman monuments, also to the tradition Christians adopted from the ancient Semitic tradition in Mesopotamia regarding the individual construction of tombs, cut into rock, or partially or completely excavated below ground level.; These were usually chambers with a square base, of different sizes, with niches on three sides (for one or more corpses), and a staircase for access from ground level.; The entrance usually featured a facade preceding an antechamber.

In Armenia these structures can be found including the Martyria Guyaneh and Hripsimeh at Echmiadzin, over which the apses of the churches built in later periods are built.; The martyria of Hripsimeh was reconstructed in two phases, in the place of a two-story structure, represented on the eastern side of the southern stele.

Another is the 5th century memorial monument beside the cathedral of Odzun. The monument at Odzun is two storied, quite similar to that of the stele of Aghudi (Sissian region). This kind of memorial monument, after its re-introduction onto the Armenian scene in the 11th; century (the funeral chapel of St. Stepanos in Tzakhatz Kar, Yeghegnadzor region , and the steeple of St. Astvatsatsin, at the entrance of the convent of Tatev in Goris region) became particularly widespread, especially during the 14th century when the library at Goshavank (Dilijan region ), and the funeral chapels of Yeghvard (Ashtarak region) and Amaghiu Noravank (Yeghegnadzor region ) were constructed.

;

Monasteries Beginning at the end of the 9th c., monastery complexes began to evolve around churches throughout Armenia.; These quickly became important centers of learning and religious training.; As the demands for monastic communities increased (spiritual, educational, scientific, manuscript copying, etc.) there developed a specific architectural style.; These are the gavitner ("narthex", a portico or lobby to the main hall), zhamatuner (parsonages), shanatuner (refectories), divanatuner (archives), matenadaran (monastery library) and bell towers.;; Gavits have perhaps the most interesting architecture: a square floor plan with two to four pillars supporting a cross-vaulted roof.; Light was provided through an opening in the dome.; The domes were often elaborately carved in geometric patterns that actually enhanced the strength of the supporting structure.; Examples are found at Sanahin, Goshavank, Haghartsin, Makaravank and Saghmosavank.

HISTORY OF RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE

S. MARIA DEL FIORE:S. Maria del Fiore, Italy, Firenze; 1296- ,Dome=1418-1436; Dome=Filippo Brunelleschi

OSPDALE DEGLI INNOCENTI: Ospdale degli Innocenti, Italy, Firenze; 1421-24, by Filippo Brunelleschi at 1219

CAPPELLA DEI PAZZI: Cappella dei Pazzi, S. Croce, Firenze, Italy; 1430-61 byFilippo Brunelleschi

SANT SPIRITO:Sant Spirito; Italy, firenze; 1436-1482; Filippo BurunelleschiÝŒv

PALAZZO MEDICI-RICCARDI:Palazzo Medici-Riccardi; Italy, Florence; 1444-59; Michelozzo di Bartolommeo

PALAZZO PITTI: Palazzo Pitti, Italy, Firenze; 1458-1783; by Brunelleschi, Ammannati and others.

SAN FRANCESCO (Tempio Malatestiano): San Francesco (Tempio Malatestiano), Rimini, Italy; by Leon Battista Alberti, Matteo de'Pasti, Agostino di Dccio; 1446-68

SANT' ANDREA:Sant' Andrea, Italy, Mantova; 1472-1494; Leon Battista Alberti

S. MARIA NOVELLA:S.Maria Novella; Italy, Firenze; 1471-1512; Leon Battista Alberti

TEMPIETTO OF SAN PIETRO IN MONTORIO: Tempietto, S.Pietro in Montorio; Italy, Roma; 1502-10; by Donato Bramante

S. MARIA DELLA PACE (Cloister): S. Maria della Pace (Cloister), Roma, Italy; 1500-04; by Donato Bramante

PALAZZO VIDONI-CAFFARELLI: Palazzo Vidoni-Caffarelli, Roma, Italy; 1515??; by Raffaello Sanzio??

PALAZZO FARNESEE:Palazzo Farnese; Italy, Roma; 1530-1546; Antonio da Sangallo il giovane, Michelangelo Buonarroti

CHATEAU DE BLOIS:Chateau de Blois; France; 1515-25

S. PIETRO (MICHELANGELO, OTHERS):S.Pietro; Italy, Roma; -1564, dome 1587-89, Michelangelo Buonarroti 1606-24, Carlo Maderna

Baroque architecture, starting in the early 17th century in Italy, took the humanist Roman vocabulary of Renaissance architecture and used it in a new rhetorical, theatrical, sculptural fashion, expressing the triumph of absolutist church and state. New architectural concerns for color, light and shade, sculptural values and intensity characterize the Baroque. But whereas the Renaissance drew on the wealth and power of the Italian courts, and was a blend of secular and religious forces, the Baroque was, initially at least, directly linked to the Counter-Reformation, a movement within the

Catholic Church to reform itself in response to the Protestant Reformation. The Council of Trent (1545–1563) is usually given as the beginning of the Counter-Reformation.

The Baroque played into the demand for an architecture that was on the one hand more accessible to the emotions and, on the other hand, a visible statement of the wealth and power of the Church. The new style manifested itself in particular in the context of new religious orders, like the Theatines and the Jesuits, which aimed to improve popular piety. By the middle of the 17th century, the Baroque style had found its secular expression in the form of grand palaces, first in France—as in the Château de Maisons (1642) near Paris by François Mansart—and then throughout Europe.

Giacomo della Porta's façade of the Church of the Gesù, a precursor of Baroque architecture

Precursors and features of Baroque architecture

Notre-Dame de Québec Basilica-Cathedral

Elector's Palace in Trier (Germany)Santa Susanna: Carlo Maderno

Sicilian Baroque: San Benedetto in Catania

Michelangelo's late Roman buildings, particularly St. Peter's Basilica, may be considered precursors of Baroque architecture, as the design of the latter achieves a colossal unity that was previously unknown. His pupil Giacomo della Porta continued this work in Rome, particularly in the façade of the Jesuit church Il Gesu, which leads directly to the most important church façade of the early Baroque, Santa Susanna by Carlo Maderno. In the 17th century, the Baroque style spread through Europe and Latin America, where it was particularly promoted by the Jesuits.

Important features of Baroque architecture include:

long, narrow naves are replaced by broader, occasionally circular forms dramatic use of light, either strong light-and-shade contrasts, chiaroscuro effects

(e.g. church of Weltenburg Abbey), or uniform lighting by means of several windows (e.g. church of Weingarten Abbey)

opulent use of ornaments (puttos made of wood (often gilded), plaster or stucco, marble or faux finishing)

large-scale ceiling frescoes the external façade is often characterized by a dramatic central projection

the interior is often no more than a shell for painting and sculpture (especially in the late Baroque)

illusory effects like trompe l'oeil and the blending of painting and architecture in the Bavarian, Czech, Polish, and Ukrainian Baroque, pear domes are ubiquitous Marian and Holy Trinity columns are erected in Catholic countries, often in

thanksgiving for ending a plague

Modern architecture is a term given to a number of building styles with similar characteristics, primarily the simplification of form and the elimination of ornament. The style was conceived early in the 20th century. Modern architecture was adopted by many influential architects and architectural educators, however very few "Modern buildings" were built in the first half of the century. It gained popularity after the Second World War and became the dominant architectural style for institutional and corporate buildings for three decades.

The exact characteristics and origins of Modern architecture are still open to interpretation and debate.

History

Origins

Some historians see the evolution of Modern architecture as a social matter, closely tied to the project of Modernity and thus the Enlightenment. The Modern style developed, in their opinion, as a result of social and political revolutions.[1]

Melnikov House near Arbat Street in Moscow by Konstantin Melnikov.

Others see Modern architecture as primarily driven by technological and engineering developments, and it is true that the availability of new building materials such as iron, steel, concrete and glass drove the invention of new building techniques as part of the Industrial Revolution. In 1796, Shrewsbury mill owner Charles Bage first used his 'fireproof' design, which relied on cast iron and brick with flag stone floors. Such construction greatly strengthened the structure of mills, which enabled them to accommodate much bigger machines. Due to poor knowledge of iron's properties as a construction material, a number of early mills collapsed. It was not until the early 1830s that Eaton Hodgkinson introduced the section beam, leading to widespread use of iron construction, this kind of austere industrial architecture utterly transformed the landscape of northern Britain, leading to the description of places like Manchester and parts of West Yorkshire as "Dark satanic mills".

The Crystal Palace by Joseph Paxton at the Great Exhibition of 1851 was an early example of iron and glass construction; possibly the best example is the development of the tall steel skyscraper in Chicago around 1890 by William Le Baron Jenney and Louis Sullivan. Early structures to employ concrete as the chief means of architectural expression (rather than for purely utilitarian structure) include Frank Lloyd Wright's Unity Temple, built in 1906 near Chicago, and Rudolf Steiner's Second Goetheanum, built from 1926 near Basel, Switzerland.

Other historians regard Modernism as a matter of taste, a reaction against eclecticism and the lavish stylistic excesses of Victorian Era and Edwardian Art Nouveau. Note that the Russian word for Art Nouveau, "Модерн", and the Spanish word for Art Nouveau, "Modernismo" are cognates of English word "Modern" though they carry different meanings.

Whatever the cause, around 1900 a number of architects around the world began developing new architectural solutions to integrate traditional precedents (Gothic, for instance) with new technological possibilities. The work of Louis Sullivan and Frank Lloyd Wright in Chicago, Victor Horta in Brussels, Antoni Gaudi in Barcelona, Otto Wagner in Vienna and Charles Rennie Mackintosh in Glasgow, among many others, can be seen as a common struggle between old and new. An early use of the term in print around this time, approaching its later meaning, was in the title of a book by Otto Wagner.[2][3]

A key organization that spans the ideals of the Arts and Crafts and Modernism as it developed in the 1920s was the Deutscher Werkbund (German Work Federation) a German association of architects, designers and industrialists. It was founded in 1907 in Munich at the instigation of Hermann Muthesius. Muthesius was the author of a three-volume "The English House" of 1905, a survey of the practical lessons of the English Arts and Crafts movement and a leading political and cultural commentator.[4] The purpose of the Werkbund was to sponsor the attempt to integrate traditional crafts with the techniques of industrial mass production. The organization originally included twelve architects and twelve business firms, but quickly expanded. The architects include Peter Behrens, Theodor Fischer (who served as its first president), Josef Hoffmann and Richard Riemerschmid. Joseph August Lux, an Austrian-born critic, helped formulate its agenda.[5]

[edit] Modernism as dominant style

By the 1920s the most important figures in Modern architecture had established their reputations. The big three are commonly recognized as Le Corbusier in France, and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Walter Gropius in Germany. Mies van der Rohe and Gropius were both directors of the Bauhaus, one of a number of European schools and associations concerned with reconciling craft tradition and industrial technology.

Frank Lloyd Wright's career parallels and influences the work of the European modernists, particularly via the Wasmuth Portfolio, but he refused to be categorized with

them. Wright was a major influence on both Gropius and van der Rohe, however, as well as on the whole of organic architecture.

In 1932 came the important MOMA exhibition, the International Exhibition of Modern Architecture, curated by Philip Johnson. Johnson and collaborator Henry-Russell Hitchcock drew together many distinct threads and trends, identified them as stylistically similar and having a common purpose, and consolidated them into the International style.

This was an important turning point. With World War II the important figures of the Bauhaus fled to the United States, to Chicago, to the Harvard Graduate School of Design, and to Black Mountain College. While Modern architectural design never became a dominant style in single-dwelling residential buildings, in institutional and commercial architecture Modernism became the pre-eminent, and in the schools (for leaders of the profession) the only acceptable, design solution from about 1932 to about 1984.

Marina City (left) and IBM Plaza (right) in Chicago.

Architects who worked in the International style wanted to break with architectural tradition and design simple, unornamented buildings. The most commonly used materials are glass for the facade, steel for exterior support, and concrete for the floors and interior supports; floor plans were functional and logical. The style became most evident in the design of skyscrapers. Perhaps its most famous manifestations include the United Nations headquarters (Le Corbusier, Oscar Niemeyer, Sir Howard Robertson), the Seagram Building (Ludwig Mies van der Rohe), and Lever House (Skidmore, Owings, and Merrill), all in New York. A prominent residential example is the Lovell House (Richard Neutra) in Los Angeles.

Detractors of the International style claim that its stark, uncompromisingly rectangular geometry is dehumanising. Le Corbusier once described buildings as "machines for living", but people are not machines and it was suggested that they do not want to live in machines. Even Philip Johnson admitted he was "bored with the box." Since the early 1980s many architects have deliberately sought to move away from rectilinear designs, towards more eclectic styles. During the middle of the century, some architects began experimenting in organic forms that they felt were more human and accessible. Mid-century modernism, or organic modernism, was very popular, due to its democratic and playful nature. Alvar Aalto and Eero Saarinen were two of the most prolific architects and designers in this movement, which has influenced contemporary modernism.

Although there is debate as to when and why the decline of the modern movement occurred, criticism of Modern architecture began in the 1960s on the grounds that it was universal, sterile, elitist and lacked meaning. Its approach had become ossified in a "style" that threatened to degenerate into a set of mannerisms. Siegfried Giedion in the 1961 introduction to his evolving text, Space, Time and Architecture (first written in 1941), could begin "At the moment a certain confusion exists in contemporary

architecture, as in painting; a kind of pause, even a kind of exhaustion." At the Metropolitan Museum of Art, a 1961 symposium discussed the question "Modern Architecture: Death or Metamorphosis?" In New York, the coup d'état appeared to materialize in controversy around the Pan Am Building that loomed over Grand Central Station, taking advantage of the modernist real estate concept of "air rights",[6] In criticism by Ada Louise Huxtable and Douglass Haskell it was seen to "sever" the Park Avenue streetscape and "tarnish" the reputations of its consortium of architects: Walter Gropius, Pietro Belluschi and the builders Emery Roth & Sons. The rise of postmodernism was attributed to disenchantment with Modern architecture. By the 1980s, postmodern architecture appeared triumphant over modernism; however, postmodern aesthetics lacked traction and by the mid-1990s, a neo-modern (or hypermodern) architecture had once again established international pre-eminence. As part of this revival, much of the criticism of the modernists has been revisited, refuted, and re-evaluated; and a modernistic idiom once again dominates in institutional and commercial contemporary practice, but must now compete with the revival of traditional architectural design in commercial and institutional architecture; residential design continues to be dominated by a traditional aesthetic.

The Architecture of the Philippines is a reflection of the history and heritage of the Philippines. The various architecture found in the country is influenced by Malay, Hindu,Chinese, colonial Spanish, American and Filipino cultures.

The pre-colonial architecture of the Philippines consisted of the Nipa hut made from natural materials. A great variety of the Nipa hut exists over the Philippines.

During three hundred years of Spanish colonialization the philippine architecture was dominated by the Spanish culture. During this period Intramurous, the walled city, of Manila, was built with its walls, houses, churches and fortresses. The Augustinian friars built a large number of grand churches all over the Philippine Islands. During this period the traditional Filipino "Bahay na Bato" style for the large mansion emerged. These were large houses built of stone and wood combining Filipino, Spanish and Chinese style elements. The best preserved examples of these houses can be found in Vigan , Ilocos Sur and Taal, Batangas.

After the Spanish American war the architecture of the Philippines was dominated by the American style. In this period the plan for the modern city of Manila was designed, with a large number of art deco buildings, by famous American and Filipino architects. During the liberation of Manila by the Americans in 1945 large portions of Intramurous and Manila were destroyed. In the period after the second world war many of the destroyed buildings were rebuilt.

At the end of the twentiest century modern architecture with straight lines and functional aspects was introduced. During this period many of the older structures fell into decay. Early in the 21st Century a revival of the respect for the traditional Filipino elements in the architecture returned.

Contents[hide]

1 Pre-colonial 2 Colonial Spanish

o 2.1 Bahay na Bato o 2.2 Fort Santiago o 2.3 Intramuros o 2.4 Paco Park o 2.5 Augustinian Churches o 2.6 Lighthouses

3 The 20th Century o 3.1 American architecture o 3.2 The National Monument to Dr. Jose Rizal o 3.3 Standalone movie theaters of the Philippines o 3.4 Examples of Filipino Architecture

3.4.1 Parish of the Holy Sacrifice 3.4.2 Bahay Kubo mansion 3.4.3 Antipolo Church

4 Professional Organization and Architects o 4.1 United Architects of the Philippines o 4.2 Architects

5 External links

6 References

[edit] Pre-colonial

Prior to the arrival of the Spaniards, the main form of dwelling for a family in the Philippines was the nipa hut, a single room house composed of wood, bamboo or other native materials. Though the styles of the nipa hut varied throughout the country, most all of them shared similar characteristics including having it raised slightly above ground on stilts and a steep roof. Aside from nipa huts, other small houses were built on top of trees to prevent animal as well as enemy attacks.

[edit] Colonial Spanish

Spanish colonization introduced European architecture into the country. The influence of European architecture and its style actually came via the Antilles through the Manila Galleon. The most lasting legacy of Spain in terms of architecture was its colonial churches which were designed by anonymous friar.

In this era, the nipa hut or Bahay Kubo gave way to the Bahay na Bato (stone house) and became the typical house of noble Filipinos. The Bahay na Bato followed the nipa hut's arrangements such as open ventilation and elevated apartments. The most obvious

difference between the two houses would be the materials that was used to build them. The Bahay na Bato was constructed out of brick and stone rather than the traditional bamboo materials.

[edit] Bahay na Bato

The Bahay Na Bato, the Colonian Filipino House, is a mixture of native Filipino, Spanish and Chinese influences. In Vigan, Ilocos Sur, excellently preserved examples of the houses of the noble Filipinos can be admired. In Taal, Batangas, the main street is still ligned with examples of the tradional Filipino homes.

[edit] Fort Santiago

The front entrance of Fuerza de Santiago towering 40 metres high

Fort Santiago (Fuerza de Santiago) is a defense fortress built for Spanish conquistador, Miguel López de Legazpi. The fort is part of the structures of the walled city of Intramuros, in Manila, Philippines.

The location of Fort Santiago was also once the site of the palace and kingdom of Rajah Suliman, chieftain of Manila of pre-Spanish era. It was destroyed by the conquistadors upon arriving in 1570, encountering several bloody battles with the Muslims and native Tagalogs. The Spaniards destroyed the native settlements and erected Fuerza de Santiago in 1571.

[edit] Intramuros

Intramuros, located along the southern bank of the Pasig River, was built by the Spaniards in the 16th century and is the oldest district of the city of Manila. Its name, taken from the Latin, intra muros, literally "Within the walls", meaning within the wall enclosure of the city/fortress, also describes its structure as it is surrounded by thick, high walls and moats. During the Spanish colonial period, Intramuros was considered Manila itself.

[edit] Paco Park

Paco Park was planned as a municipal cemetery for the well-off and established aristocratic Spanish families who resided in the old Manila, or the city within the walls of Intramuros during the Spanish colonial era.

Most of the wealthy families interred the remains of their loved ones inside the municipal cemetery in what was once the district of Dilao (former name for Paco). The cemetery was built in the late 1700s but was completed several decades later and in 1822, the cemetery was used to inter victims of a cholera epidemic that swept across the city.

The cemetery is circular in shape, with an inner circular fort that was the original cemetery and with the niches that were placed or located within the hollow walls. As the population continued to grow, a second outer wall was built with the thick adobe walls were hollowed as niches and the top of the walls were made into pathways for promenades.

A Roman Catholic chapel was built inside the walls of the Paco Park and it was dedicated to St. Pancratius.

[edit] Augustinian Churches

San Augustine church Paoay, Ilocos Norte, July 2005

The order of the Augustinians,Augustinian Province of the Most Holy Name of Jesus of the Philippines, build many churches all over the Philippines. These magnificent structures can still be found all over the Phlippine Islands. The Augustinian historians Fathers Policarpo F. Hernández and Pedro G. Galende,coffetable book "Angels in Stone" documents all the churches built by the Augustinians throughout the Philippines over the centuries.

The San Augustine church in Paoay, Ilocos Norte, is the most famous of these churches. This unique specimen of Filipino architecture from the Spanish area has been included in the World Heritage Sites List of the Unesco.The church was built by the Augustinian friars from 1694 until 1710.It shows the earthquake proof baroque style architecture.

The interior of the San Agustín Church in Intramuros, with magnificent trompe l'oeil mural on its ceiling and walls

San Agustín Church and Monastery, built between 1587 and 1606, is one of the oldest churches in the Philippines, and the only building left intact after the destruction of Intramuros during the Battle of Manila (1945). The present structure is actually the third to stand on the site and has survived seven major earthquakes, as well as the wars in Manila. The church remains under the care of the Augustinians who founded it.

The San Agustín Church lies inside the walled city of Intramuros located in the capital city Manila, Philippines. It is the first European stone church to be built in the Philippines designed in Spanish architectural structure. The church also houses the legacies of the Spanish conquistadors, Miguel López de Legazpi, Juan de Salcedo and Martín de Goiti who are buried and laid to rest in a tomb, underneath the church.

The church has 14 side chapels and a trompe-l'oeil ceiling. Up in the choir loft are the hand-carved 17th-century seats of molave, a beautiful tropical hardwood. Adjacent to the

church is a small museum run by the Augustinian order, featuring antique vestments, colonial furniture, and religious paintings and icons.

Together with three other ancient churches in the country, it was designated as part of the World Heritage Site "Baroque Churches of the Philippines" in 1993.

[edit] Lighthouses

Cape Bojeador Lighthouse

During the Spanish and American Area many lighthouses were constructed around the Phlippine Islands. The most Northeastern Lighthouse can be found in Burgos, Ilocos Norte. An overview of Philippine lighthouses can be found through this link

[edit] The 20th Century

[edit] American architecture

After the Spanish American war in 1898 the Americans took over rule of the Philippines until after the second world war. During this period the Americans constructed many Art Nouveaux buildings in Manila. In 1902 Judge William Howard Taft was appointed to head the Philippine Commission to evaluate the needs of the new territory. Taft, who later became the Philippines' first civilian Governor-General,[1] decided that Manila, the capital, should be a planned town. He hired as his architect and city planner Daniel Hudson Burnham, who had built Union Station and the post office in Washington. In Manila, Mr. Burnham had in mind a long wide, tree-lined boulevard along the bay, beginning at a park area dominated by a magnificent hotel. To design, what is now known as, the Manila Hotel Taft hired William E. Parsons, a New York architect, who envisioned an impressive, but comfortable hotel, along the lines of a California mission, but grander.[2] The original design was an H-shaped plan that focused on well-ventilated rooms on two wings, providing grand vistas of the harbor, the Luneta, and Intramuros. The top floor was, in fact, a large viewing deck that was used for various functions, including watching the American navy steam into the harbor.[3]

Many of these buildings were heavily damaged during the Battle of Manila in 1945. After the second world war many were rebuilt. Many buildings in Manila were designed by the Filipino architect Juan M. de Guzman Arellano.

In 1911 the Army core of Engineers constructed the Manila Army and Navy Club at the shore of Manila Bay bordering the Luneta Park. The building consisits of a Grand entrance and has three stories that housed the various function rooms and the Hotel rooms. It has been in use far into the eighties however it has fallen into dacay and is in need of restoration.

At T.M. Kalaw Street stands on of the remaining structures that survivied the liberation of Manila in 1945 , the "Luneta Hotel." The Hotel was completed in 1918 . According to study by Dean Joseph Farnandez of the University of Santo Thomas the hotel was designed by the Spanish architect-engineer Salvador Farre. The structure is the only remaining example of the French Renaissance architecture with Filipino stylized beaux arts in the Phlippines to date. This famous landmark fell gradually into decay. In 2007 the renovation activities have started and it is hoped that this building will be restored to its old grandeur.

Metropolitan Theater Manila August 2006

The Manila Metropolitan Theatre is an art deco building designed by the Filipino architect Juan M. de Guzman Arellano, and built in 1935. During the liberation of Manila by the Americans in 1945, the theatre we totally destroyed. After reconstruction by the Americans it gradually fell into disuse in the 1960’s. In the following decade it was meticulously restored but again fell into decay. Recently a bus station has been constructed at the back of the theatre. The City of Manila is planning a renovation of this once magnificent building.

The sculptures in the façade of the Theatre are from the Italian sculptor Francesco Riccardo Monti, who lived in Manila from 1930 until his death in 1958, and worked closely together with J.M. de Guzman Arellano. Highly stylized relief carving of Philippine plants executed by the artist Isabelo Tampingco decorate the lobby walls and interior surfaces of the building.

In 1940 the Jai Alai building was constructed along Taft avenue, designed by architect Welton Becket. It has been built in the Philippine Art Deco style. In addition to the Jai Alai game it included the famous " Sky Lounge". Unfortunately, demolition began on July 15, 2000 on the orders of Mayor Lito Atienza. The building is now gone for ever.

The Far Eastern University (FEU) was awarded the UNESCO Heritage Award in 2005 for being the only preserved and enduring Art Deco structure in the Philippines. Although the FEU was totally damaged during World War II, the university was restored to its original Art Deco design in the American Period. [1]

[edit] The National Monument to Dr. Jose Rizal

the national monument to Dr. Jose Rizal

The bronze and granite Rizal monument located in Rizal Park, Manila, has long been considered among the most famous sculptural landmarks in the Philippines. The monument is located near the very spot where Dr. Jose Rizal was executed December 30, 1896.

On 28 September 1901, the Philippine Assembly approved Act No. 243, “granting the right to use public land upon the Luneta in the city of Manila” where a monument shall be erected to Jose Rizal.” As conceived by the Act, the monument would not merely consist of a statue, but also a mausoleum to house Rizal’s remains. A Committee on the Rizal Mausoleum consisting of Poblete, Paciano Rizal (the hero’s brother), Juan Tuason, Teodoro R. Yangco, Mariano Limjap, Dr. Maximo Paterno, Ramon Genato, Tomas G. del Rosario and Dr. Ariston Bautista was created. The members were tasked, among others, with raising funds through popular subscriptions. The estimated cost of the monument was P100,000. By January 1905, that goal had been oversubscribed. When the campaign closed in August 1912, the amount collected had reached P135,195.61 More than twelve years after the Philippine Assembly approved Act No. 243, the shrine was finally unveiled on December 30, 1913 during Rizal’s 17th death anniversary.

The Rizal Monument in Luneta was the work of a Swiss sculptor named Richard Kissling. Kissling was only the second placer in the international art competition held between 1905 – 1907 for the monument design. The first-prize winner was Professor Carlos Nicoli of Carrara, Italy. His scaled plaster model titled “Al Martir de Bagumbayan” (To the Martyr of Bagumbayan) bested 40 other accepted entries. Among his plans were the use of marble from Italy (in contrast to the unpolished granite now at Luneta) and the incorporation of more elaborate figurative elements.

[edit] Standalone movie theaters of the Philippines

During the advent and continuous growth of Philippine cinema in the early 90's, came with the establishment of Philippine theaters in the Metropolitan Manila along with those in the Philippine provinces during the said period. Regular live performances, film showings, and festivals used to be held on the theaters that lead to significant improvements on Philippine culture including film, and performing arts. A number of Philippine cinemas were built within the City of Manila in the 90's, and were designed by prominent architects and currently recognized as Philippine National Artists, but are closed due to post-World War damages and to give way to these days' city developments.

[edit] Examples of Filipino Architecture

[edit] Parish of the Holy Sacrifice

The Church of the Holy Sacrifice

The Parish of the Holy Sacrifice is the first circular church and the first thin-shell concrete dome in the Philippines

The Parish of the Holy Sacrifice is the landmark Catholic chapel in the University of the Philippines, Diliman. Known for its architectural design, the church is recognized as a National Historical Landmark and a Cultural Treasure by the National Historical Institute

and the National Museum respectively. It was designed by the late National Artist for Architecture, Leandro Locsin, which was only one of the five national artists who collaborated on the project. Alfredo Juinio served as the structural engineer for the project. Otyer Filipion artists contributed to the design of the interior of the church: Around the Chapel are fifteen large murals painted by Vicente Manansala depicting the Stations of the Cross; The marble altar and the large wooden cross above it were sculpted by Napoleon Abueva; The mosaic floor mural called the “River of Life” was designed by Arturo Luz.

The church is adjacent to the U.P. Health Service Building and the U.P. Shopping Center

[edit] Bahay Kubo mansion

National artist for architecture Francisco Manosa, on May, 2008 built his own Ayala alabang village Bahay Kubo mansion. With only 3 posts or "haligi", it has 5 one-inch coconut shell doors, 2nd floor, a "silong", Muslim room, sala, and master's bedroom with a fish pond therein.[4][5]

[edit] Antipolo Church

The image of "Our Lady of Peace and Good Voyage" has been venerated in the church of Antipolo for centuries. The old church that housed the virgin was destroyed in February 1945 when the Americans bombed Antipolo as part of the liberation campaign of Manila. In 1954 a new church was build designed by the renowned Filipino archtiect Jose de Ocampo. This church is of a coupular design centred around the image of the Virgin. It functions as the center point of the pilgremiges to Antipolo.

Architecture of the World - Nineteenth Century, from 1800 to 1899

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Allegheny County Courthouse, by Henry Hobson Richardson, at Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 1883 to 1888.

Altes Museum, by Karl Friedrich Schinkel, at Berlin, Germany, 1823 to 1830.

Ames Free Library, by Henry Hobson Richardson, at North Easton, Massachusetts, 1877 to 1879.

Ames Gate Lodge, by Henry Hobson Richardson, at North Easton, Massachusetts, 1881.

Anker Building, by Otto Wagner, at Vienna, Austria, 1895.

Auditorium Building, by Louis H. Sullivan, at Chicago, Illinois, 1886 to 1890.

Austin Hall, by Henry Hobson Richardson, at Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1881 to 1884.

Baltimore-Ohio Railroad Depots, by Frank Furness, at Chester & Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 1886.

Baltimore Cathedral, by Benjamin Henry Latrobe, at Baltimore, Maryland, 1806 or 1814 to 1818.

Bank of Pennsylvania, by Benjamin Henry Latrobe, at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 1780 to 1800.

Barcelona Pavilion, by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, at Barcelona, Spain, built 1928-1929, demolished 1930.

Bibliotheque Ste. Genevieve, by Henri Labrouste, at Paris, France, 1843 designed, built 1845 to 1851.

Bibliotheque Nationale, by Henri Labrouste, at Paris, France, 1862 to 1868.

Biltmore House, by Richard Morris Hunt, at Asheville, North Carolina, 1888 to 1895.

Bloemenwerf House, by Henry van de Velde, at Uccle, near Brussels, Belgium, 1895 to 1896.

Boston Public Library, by McKim, Mead, and White, at Boston, Massachusetts, 1887 to 1895.

Bradbury Building, by George H. Wyman, at Los Angeles, California, 1889 to 1893.

Brooklyn Bridge, by John Augustus Roebling, at Brooklyn, New York, New York, 1869 to 1883.

Castlegar House, by Richard Morrison, at Castlegar West, County Galway, Ireland, circa 1801.

Central Railroad Station, by John Dobson, at Newcastle-on-Tyne, England, 1846 to 1855.

Chandler House, by Bruce Price, at Tuxedo Park, New York, 1885 to 1886.

Charleston Single House, by Vernacular, at Charleston, South Carolina, 1800 to 1900.

City of Quito, by Collective, at Quito, Ecuador , 1550 to 1900.

Clifton Suspension Bridge, by Isambard Kingdom Brunel, at Bristol, England, 1836 to 1864.

Colonia Guell, by Antoni Gaudi, at near Barcelona, Spain, 1898 , 1908 to 1915.

Commodities Exchange, by Hendrik Petrus Berlage, at Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 1897 to 1909.

Crane Library, by Henry Hobson Richardson, at Quincy, Massachusetts, 1880 to 1883.

Crystal Palace, by Joseph Paxton, at London, England (then Sydenham), 1851, moved 1852, burnt 1936.

Dogon Village, by traditional, at Mali, Africa, 0 to 1998.

Dogtrot House, by Vernacular, at Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Tennessee, Florida, 1800 to 1900.

Dulwich Gallery, by Sir John Soane, at London, England, 1811 to 1814.

Dunleith, by unknown, at Natchez, Mississippi, 1856.

Eiffel Tower, by Gustave Eiffel, at Paris, France, 1887 to 1889.

English Hall House, by Vernacular, at England, 1200 to 1800.

F. L. Higginson House, by Henry Hobson Richardson, at Boston, Massachusetts, 1881 to 1883.

Faneuil Hall, by Charles Bulfinch, at Boston, Massachusetts, 1762, 1805.

Fort Shannon, by unknown, at Glin, County Limerick, Ireland, 1800 to 1835.

Fuji Broadcasting Center, by Kenzo Tange, at Tokyo, Japan, circa 1990.

Galleria Vittorio Emanuele, by Giuseppe Mengoni, at Milan, Italy, 1861 designed, built 1865 to 1877.

Glasgow School of Art, by Charles Rennie Mackintosh, at Glasgow, Scotland, 1897 to 1909.

Glessner House, by Henry Hobson Richardson, at Chicago, Illinois, 1885 to 1887.

Greek Island House, by Vernacular, at Aegean Islands, Greece, -3000 to 2000.

Greyfriars, by Charles F. A. Voysey, at Surrey, England, 1897.

Helsinki Library, by Carl Ludvig Engel, at Helsinki, Finland, 1840.

Horta House, by Victor Horta, at Brussels, Belgium, 1898.

Hotel Solvay, by Victor Horta, at Brussels, Belgium, 1895 to 1900.

Hotel van Eetvelde, by Victor Horta, at Brussels, Belgium, 1895 to 1898.

Hunting Lodge, by Karl Friedrich Schinkel, at Antonin, Poland, 1822.

I House, by Vernacular, at United States, 1800 to 1900.

Ibibio Village, by traditional, at Cameroon, Africa, 0 to 1990.

Imperial Palace, Kyoto, by unknown, at Kyoto, Japan, 750 to 1855.

Isaac Bell House, by McKim, Mead, and White, at Newport, Rhode Island, 1881 to 1883.

Ise Shrine, by traditional, at Ise, Japan, 690 to current, 1997.

Keble College, by William Butterfield, at Oxford, England, UK, 1867 to 1883.

Landerbank, by Otto Wagner, at Vienna, Austria, 1883 to 1884.

Leys Wood, by Richard Norman Shaw, at Groombridge, Sussex, England, 1868 to 1869.

London Terraced House, by Vernacular, at London, England, 1600 's to 1900.

M F Stoughton House, by Henry Hobson Richardson, at Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1882 to 1883.

Maasai Houses, by traditional, at Kenya, Africa, 0 to 1990.

Magasin au Bon Marche, by L. A. Boileau and Gustave Eiffel, at Paris, France, 1876.

Majolica House, by Otto Wagner, at Vienna, Austria, 1898 to 1899.

Marshall Field Store, by Henry Hobson Richardson, at Chicago, Illinois, 1885 to 1887.

Menier Factory, by Jules Saulnier, at Noisel-sur-Marne, France, 1871 to 1872.

Merchants' Exchange, by William Strickland, at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 1832 to 1834.

Merrist Wood, by Richard Norman Shaw, at England, 1876.

Monadnock Building, by Burnham and Root, at Chicago, Illinois, 1889 to 1891.

Museum of Natural History, by Alfred Waterhouse, at London, England, 1860 to 1880.

Nathaniel Russell House, by unknown, at Charleston, South Carolina, 1809.

National Building Museum, by Montgomery C. Meigs, at Washington, D.C., circa 1885.

National Pensions Building, by Alvar Aalto, at Helsinki, Finland, competition 1949, built 1952.

Neuschwanstein Castle, by unknown, at Neuschwanstein, Germany, 1869.

New York Herald Building, by McKim, Mead, and White, at New York, New York, 1894.

New York Public Library, by Carrere and Hastings, at New York, New York, 1897 to 1911.

Newport Casino, by McKim, Mead, and White, at Newport, Rhode Island, 1879 to 1880.

North Carolina State Capitol, by Town and Davis, at Raleigh, North Carolina, 1833 to 1840.

Norwegian Farmhouse, by Vernacular, at Norway, 1200 to 1900.

Norwegian Storehouse, by Vernacular, at Norway, 1200 to 1900.

Oak Alley, by unknown, at Vacherie, Louisiana, 1836 to 1839.

Oaks Ames Memorial Library, by Henry Hobson Richardson, at North Easton, Massachusetts, 1877 to 1879.

Observatory in Berlin, by Karl Friedrich Schinkel, at Berlin, Germany, 1835.

Paddington Station, by Isambard Kingdom Brunel, at London, England, UK, 1852 to 1854.

Palm House at Kew Gardens, by Decimus Burton and Richard Turner, at London, England, 1844 to 1848.

Paris Metro Entrances, by Hector Guimard, at Paris, France, 1899 to 1905.

Paris Opera, by Charles Garnier, at Paris, France, 1857 to 1874.

Pennsylvania Academy of Art, by Frank Furness, at Philadelphia , Pennsylvania, 1871 to 1876.

Plum Street Temple, by James K. Wilson, at Cincinnati, Ohio, 1866.

Pont Cysyllte Aqueduct, by Thomas Telford, at River Dee, Wales, 1795 to 1805.

Poplar Forest, by Thomas Jefferson, at Forest, near Lynchburg, Virginia, 1806.

Portois & Fix Store, by Max Fabiani, at Vienna, Austria, 1899 to 1900.

Positano, by traditional, at Amalfi Coast, Italy, -600 to 1990.

R. T. Paine House, by Henry Hobson Richardson, at Waltham, Massachusetts, 1884 to 1886.

Reliance Building, by Daniel Burnham, at Chicago, Illinois, 1890 , extended to 14 floors 1894.

Rhode Island State Capitol, by McKim, Mead, and White, at Providence, Rhode Island, 1895 to 1903.

S. Pancras Station, by William Henry Barlow, at London, England, U. K., 1864 - 1868.

Sagrada Familia, by Antoni Gaudi, at Barcelona, Spain, 1882 to 1926.

San Francisco de Asis, by unknown, at Ranchos de Taos, New Mexico, 1772 to 1816.

Schauspielhaus, by Karl Friedrich Schinkel, at Berlin, Germany, 1821.

Schlesinger and Meyer Department Store, by Louis H. Sullivan, at Chicago, Illinois, 1899 to 1904.

Second Bank of the U.S., by William Strickland, at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 1818 to 1824.

Sever Hall, by Henry Hobson Richardson, at Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1878 to 1880.

Sezession House, by J. M. Olbrich, at Vienna, Austria, 1896.

Shaker Barn, by unknown, at Eastern United States, 1865.

Soane Museum, by Sir John Soane, at London, England, 1812 to 1834.

Statue of Liberty, by Frederic Bartholdi, at Liberty Island, New York, New York, 1884 to 1886.

Tassel House, by Victor Horta, at Brussels, Belgium, 1892 to 1893.

The Albert Dock, by Jesse Hartley, at Liverpool, England, opened 1845.

The Louvre, by Pierre Lescot, at Paris, France, 1546 to 1878.

The Machine Hall, by Contamin and Dutert, at Paris, France, 1889.

The Orchard, by Charles F. A. Voysey, at Chorley Wood in Hertfordshire, England, 1899.

The Red House, by Philip Webb, at Bexleyheath, in Kent, England, 1859.

The White House, by James Hoban, at Washington, D.C., 1793 to 1801, burned 1814, porticos 1824 to 1829.

Thomas Larkin House, by unknown, at Monterey, California, 1834.

Tower Bridge, by Horace Jones, at London, England, 1886 to 1894.

Travis Van Buren House, by Bruce Price, at Tuxedo Park, New York, 1885.

Trinity Church, by Henry Hobson Richardson, at Boston, Massachusetts, 1872 to 1877.

Trumbull Public Library, by A. J. Palmieri, at Trumbull, Connecticut, circa 1970.

U.S. Custom House, by Town and Davis, at New York, New York, 1833 to 1842.

Unitarian Church, by A. C. Schweinfurth, at Berkeley, California, 1898.

United States Capitol, by Thornton-Latrobe-Bulfinch, at Washington, D.C., 1793 to 1830.

University of Virginia, by Thomas Jefferson, at Charlottesville, Virginia, 1826.

W. G. Low House, by McKim, Mead, and White, at Bristol, Rhode Island, 1887.

W. Watts Sherman House, by Henry Hobson Richardson, at Newport, Rhode Island, 1874 to 1875.

Wainwright Building, by Louis H. Sullivan, at St. Louis, Missouri, 1890 to 1891.

Washington Monument, by Robert Mills, at Washington, D.C., 1848 to 1885.

Wellesley Fire Station, by Schwartz/Silver, at Wellesley, Massachusetts, circa 1980.

Westminster Palace, or Houses of Parliament, by Sir Charles Barry, at London, England, United Kingdom, 1836 to 1868.

Whitechapel Art Gallery, by C. Harrison Townsend, at London, England, 1897 to 1901.

Winn Memorial Library, by Henry Hobson Richardson, at Woburn, Massachusetts, 1876 to 1879.

Zulu Kraal, by traditional, at South Africa, 0 to 2000.