FR3220914093 1

The Representation of Women in Three Plays by Olympe de Gouges   : La Nécessité du Divorce, Le Couvent ou Les Vœux forcés and La France sauvée ou Le Tyran Détrôné

Olympe de Gouges, arguably one of the most influential women of the French

Revolution, remains significant in terms of feminism even in the present day. Her

provocative and near-parodic response in 1791 to the male-oriented Déclaration des droits de

l’homme et du citoyen of 1789, the Déclaration des droits de la femme et de la citoyenne, is

emblematic of her consistent challenging of the patriarchal structure of French Revolutionary

society. However, it is not solely in her political works that this criticism of existing social

structures is evident, but also in her dramatic writings, which were in fact deemed significant

enough to contribute to her trial and subsequent execution in 1793. In this light, this essay

will examine three plays by Gouges - La Nécessité du Divorce , Le Couvent ou Les Vœux

forcés and La France sauvée ou Le Tyran Détrôné – in terms of the representation of women

therein and its relevance to societal issues. This examination will commence with the

concepts of marriage and divorce, continuing with an analysis of religion. The patriarchal

family model and ideas of solidarity between women will then be explored, followed by

Gouges’ depiction of herself in La France sauvée. Finally, an informed conclusion will

assess the cumulative evidence and discuss the significance of these representations.

‘Le marriage est le tombeau de la confiance et de l’amour’1 declares Olympe de

Gouges in the postambule of her Déclaration, a sentiment often evident in her dramatic

writings. Even going so far as to propose her own, more equal marriage contract, the status of

women appears always at the forefront of Gouges’ thinking. Marriage being arguably the

defining element of a woman’s life in revolutionary France, it is no surprise that it plays such

an influential role in Gouges’ campaign for equality. In terms of the representation of women

in these plays, the theme of marriage is almost omnipresent. Married and widowed young

1 Olympe de Gouges, ‘Textes Politiques’, in Œuvres (Paris : Mercure de France, 1986), pp. 69-129 (p.109).

FR3220914093 2

herself, Gouges’ refusal to take on the title expected of her – that of ‘Veuve Aubry’ –

signifies a nonconformity which is evident throughout her works. In turning away from this

label and renaming herself Olympe de Gouges, described by Léopold Lacour as her nom de

guerre2, she claims an autonomy denied to most women of her era. Thus, this idea of female

agency is transferred to several characters in her plays. In La Nécessité du Divorce, published

in 1790, Madame d’Azinval embodies the married woman. Strong and sensible despite her

worries, Madame d’Azinval is one of Gouges’ model women. Although her husband’s

behaviour repeatedly upsets and shames her, she deals with the problem in an innovative

way. As she considers herself ‘cruellement punie’3, the character perfectly expresses the pain

caused by a spouse’s deplorable actions, which would surely have been familiar to many

women in the audience. However, by meeting with Herminie and making an attempt to

rectify the situation, Madame d’Azinval takes an active role in improving her own position, a

contrast to the passivity commonly expected of women at the time. By depicting the

discussion on marriage between Madame d’Azinval and the Abbé Basilic, Gouges highlights

the injustices suffered by wives – ‘vous en supportez tous les dommages’4- and this

condemnation of the oppression of married women is evident throughout the play. Even when

surprised by her husband’s eavesdropping, Madame d’Azinval is able to keep her composure

and insist ‘votre conduite et non la mienne a contribué à m’exposer àl’humiliation’5. This

placing of blame firmly on the behaviour of Monsieur d’Azinval suggests that Gouges holds

the comportment of men to be the cause of marital problems; as they have more power and

autonomy in the relationship, so they have the freedom to behave badly. Ultimately, Madame

d’Azinval’s willingness to forgive her husband rather than divorce him conveys the message

2 Lacour, Léopold, Les origines du féminisme contemporain : trois femmes de la révolution : Olympe de Gouges, Théroigne de Méricourt, Rose Lacombe ( Paris : Plon, Nourrit et Cie, 1900), p.18.3 Olympe de Gouges, La Nécessité du Divorce, in Olympe de Gouges : Theatre politique II (Paris : Côté-femmes, 1993), I. 2.4 Ibid., III. 7.5 Ibid., III. 8.

FR3220914093 3

that marriages would be more likely to improve and succeed were power shared equally

between the spouses. In contrast, the character of Constance provides an example of a woman

in a different life stage. Her passivity, naivety and desire to marry, considered typical of

young women of the era, are indicative of the sort of young woman Gouges wishes to save

from the potential downfalls of traditional marriage. The marriage portrayed in the unfinished

La France sauvée ou Le Tyran Détrôné of 1792 is yet more controversial, in that it is the

marriage of the king and queen of France. This illustrates a determination on the part of

Olympe de Gouges to break down societal boundaries The queen is depicted as a dominant

spouse; her marriage not idyllic, yet not the caricature prevalent in the media at the time. As

John Cole asserts, Gouges is singular among her contemporaries for her commitment to

women’s rights not only in the public sphere but also within the realm of their private

relationships6. Her representation of female characters’ experiences of marriage reinforces the

views set forth in her own proposed marriage contract and exhibits a desire to end the power

monopoly of men in marital relationships. Marriage is not vilified, rather portrayed with

unapologetic realism. In this way, Gouges’ hope for future change in the institution of

marriage, as outlined in her proposed contract, is apparent.

Inextricably linked to the concept of marriage is that of divorce. Olympe de Gouges,

herself a supporter of the campaign to legalise divorce in France, views the proposed change

in the law from a woman’s point of view in her treatment of the issue. Without divorce,

women were effectively trapped in a marriage until widowed and were therefore in the

private sphere confined to a passive existence as wife, rather than an active pursuit of their

own interests. In the eyes of Gouges and many of her contemporaries, equality between the

sexes should mean a marriage on equal grounds, able to be terminated by either individual.

The most relevant of Gouges’ dramatic works to examine in relation to this issue is

6 John R. Cole, Between the Queen and the Cabby : Olympe de Gouges's Rights of Woman, (Montréal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2011), p.5.

FR3220914093 4

indisputably La Nécessité du Divorce, a play arguably written specifically to explore the

debate surrounding legalisation. The fact that Gouges originally published the play

anonymously testifies to the controversy surrounding the debates. In her depiction of the

d’Azinvals’ unhappy situation, Gouges introduces the audience to the inherent problems she

sees in marriage without the option of divorce. Madame d’Azinval is presented as suppressed

by her lack of power within her marriage and in this way the potential advantages of divorce

come to light.. Despite his being a man, the character of Rosambert remains extremely

pertinent to women’s issues throughout the play as he frequently serves as a platform for the

myriad arguments in favour of divorce. Indeed, his observation that marriage leads to ‘la

corruption de la société’7 supports the view that marriage can only truly be equal and

successful when the option of divorce is provided. In portraying his taking action to improve

the situation of Madame d’Azinval, Gouges creates a blueprint for cooperation between the

genders. His well-intentioned lie regarding legalisation reveals the potential opportunity

therein for women to hold power in a relationship on a par with that of their male

counterparts. Acting again as Gouges’ mouthpiece, Rosambert’s reference to ‘toutes les

femmes esclaves’8 makes clear her view of women’s position in the private sphere. Perhaps

the most fascinating aspect of the finale is Gouges’ decision to portray Madame d’Azinval as

forgiving towards her spouse rather than vindictive. By demonstrating how access to divorce

could in fact improve a marriage, Gouges cleverly avoids overly radical arguments which

could potentially alienate some audiences. However, commitment to the practicality of

legalisation in terms of a move towards gender equality still remains at the forefront of the

plot. The same sentiment is evident in the suggestion, made in Gouges’ own alternative

marriage contract, that the marriage last simply ‘pour la durée de nos penchants mutuels’9, an

approach clearly aimed at ending the suffering of those fettered by unhappy unions. Through 7 La Nécessité du Divorce, I. 4. 8 Ibid., III. 9. 9 De Gouges, ‘Textes Politiques’, p.109.

FR3220914093 5

her representation of Madame d’Azinval’s experience, Gouges demonstrates how the option

to divorce would be an equalising influence on the institution of marriage, as as the imminent

threat of losing his wife forces Monsieur d’Azinval to instantly change his behaviour towards

her. In short, Gouges evidently perceives dicvorce as an opportunity to end the subordination

of women in their private relationships in a society in which a married woman was still very

much under the control of her husband. Through her representation of the injustices suffered

by married women Gouges brings focus to the idea that divorce, eventually legalised in 1792,

represents a vital step towards agency and autonomy for the French woman as she is no

longer entirely bound by the constraints of a patriarchal and religion-based institution.

Religion, as it relates to women’s issues, is another controversial subject explored by

Olympe de Gouges throughout her writings, with religious characters a mainstay of many of

her dramatic works. As a result of the dechristianisation campaigns of the revolution, the

furore surrounding the future of the church pervaded all levels of society and was considered

controversial to the extent that Gouges struggled to have her play Le Couvent ou Les Vœux

forcés performed upon its completion in 1790. The dissolution of religious orders of 1790,

coupled with the practice of families sending unmarried or widowed women - often

unwillingly - into a life of religious service as a nun, evidently inspired Gouges to create this

account of corruption in both the church and the patriarchal family structure. It is through the

character of Julie that Gouges criticises most harshly the archaic custom of sending

husbandless women to convents. Drawing parallels with the plight of Suzanne in Diderot’s

La Religieuse (which, although extremely comparable, was in fact published 30 years later),

Julie’s fate represents a very real possibility for many French women of the pre-revolutionary

era. Julie and her mother Angelique, having been locked up by the Marquis, have been

robbed of their freedom and autonomy by a man exerting his patriarchal control. Julie is also

another example of a woman willing to rebel against subordination; she is described as

FR3220914093 6

posessing an ‘âme de tigre’10 and willing to fight against her oppressors, in this case both the

Marquis and the church. By portraying Julie as not only resilient but also selfless, as she

assents to take the vows only to prevent harm coming to others, Gouges creates a character

who represents a more ideal woman. It is significant that Julie does not ask to be removed

from the convent, merely for the choice to delay her vows. In this way, Gouges draws

attention to the importance of choice in the convent system. Indeed, choice is a vital concept

in Gouges’ hope for women, as many of the changes she proposes in her political writings

centre on giving women options – such as that to divorce one’s husband. In her exclamation

‘oublier mes devoirs! non, jamais’11, Julie demonstrates her commitment to the duties

expected of her. In this, and in Julie’s refusal to allow her feelings for the Chevalier to sway

her into rash behaviour, Gouges represents a woman with a strong moral backbone. Instead of

portraying Julie as truly rebelling against the church, Gouges’ decision to show her suffering

even in acceptance of her fate provides a far more powerful criticism of women’s oppression

by a religious institutions. Furthermore, Julie’s willingness to sacrifice her own happiness by

taking her vows in order to protect others serves the dual purpose of both highlighting the

character’s bravery and drawing the attention of the audience to the futility of forcing women

into convents. This representation is echoed in the confession by the Abbess that Julie’s

dissention has made others restless, suggesting that the flaws in the system are apparent even

to those who exist within it. Perhaps the most powerful choice of words is to be found in the

Abbess’ declaration that ‘le plus pressant c’est de réduire Julie’12 . The idea that, in taking her

vows, Julie will literally be reduced to less than the young woman she was is indicative of the

absolute control exerted by the church over these women. Similarly, Gouges employs the

situation faced by Julie’s mother Angelique in order to denounce convent customs. Presented

10 Olympe de Gouges, Le Couvent ou les Vœux forcés, in Olympe de Gouges : Œuvres (Paris : Mercure de France, 1986), II. 1. 11 Ibid., II. 4. 12 Ibid., III. 7

FR3220914093 7

as yet more tragic than the fate of Julie, her obligation to become a nun at the hands of a

tyrannical brother is an opportunity for Gouges to confront the audience with the brutal

reality of this practice. Hers are the true vœux forcés of the title, as despite the final

reconciliation she must remain bound to the convent. The silencing and confinement of

Angelique serves as a metaphor for the silencing of women as a gender. Just as Angelique’s

situation is only resolved once she breaks free to speak, so women’s situation cannot be

improved until they break free of societal boundaries and speak out.

In contrast, the character of the Abbess is employed by Gouges to symbolise the

detrimental effects of confining women to the environment of the convent against their will.

Risen to despotic power within the community, Gouges depicts her as both manipulative of

Julie, entreating her to ‘vous enchaînerez pour toujours’13, and deferent to men. Despite her

supposed power in the convent, the Abbess remains subordinate to male figures in the play,

representing the fact that women are forever doomed to be second-class citizens in the

traditional patriarchy of the Catholic Church. In her silencing of Angelique, the Abbess

exemplifies the harm done when women fail to support each other. This corruption within a

religion whose tenets are supposedly kindness, benevolence and selflessness makes evident

Gouges’ despair for the direction taken by the church community with regards to women.

The characters of the Curé and the Grande-Vicaire support this analysis, as they represent the

two different sides of contemporary religious views on women – the Curé embodying a new,

progressive and sympathetic attitude whereas the Grande-Vicaire personifies the oppression

of the traditional, Ancien Régime church. By the same token, Gouges alludes to the debate

over the dissolution of religious orders several times during the play. The scene in which

Soeur Agathe and Soeur Félicité discuss their potential fortunes if their life in the convent

should end raises the real question of what dissolution would mean for many nuns in a

13 Ibid., II. 2.

FR3220914093 8

practical sense. Although popular culture of the time imagines the nun as young and

beautiful, the worries of the two women that they will be liberated ‘après nous avoir passé les

plus belles années de notre jeunesse’14highlights the reality: that many nuns were older

women who would have trouble readjusting to life outside the convent. A dissatisfaction with

society’s dismissal of older women as useless is evident in her treatment of the nuns’ anxiety.

However, the fact that they do not appear to be without hope, as each reassures the other of

her beauty, suggests an inherent optimism and a differing attitude to that seen in the Abbess,

who foretells ‘nous toucherons à la fin du monde’15. On balance, through her representation

of female characters in Le Couvent, Olympe de Gouges comments on the impact exerted by

the church on women. Relevant to contemporary politics of the time in its treatment of the

dispute over dissolution, the play not only portrays the victim and oppressor but also a

potential way forward for the church in the character of the fair and progressive Curé. Despite

her condemnation of the Church’s treatment of women, Gouges at no point strays into heresy;

she does not denounce religion itself but merely its outdated and misogynistic practices. The

ultra-patriarchal organisation of the church represented in Le Couvent can indeed be

interpreted as a microcosm of society as a whole as the repression of women in the play

epitomises all which Gouges strives to overthrow. The church represents merely one facet of

the patriarchal aim to keep all women either married or in a convent, and a primary aim of

Gouges’ dramatic and political writing is the provision of a third route for women, in which

they are free to act as subjects in their own right.

A frequent manifestation of patriarchal structures in Olympe de Gouges’ dramatic

works is to be found in her portrayal of family dynamics. Women in Gouges’ plays are often

seen in thrall to husbands, brothers, fathers, as it is perennially the male family members who

are dominant. Having freed herself from these constraints by refusing to take a widow’s title

14 Ibid., III. 1. 15 Ibid., III. 3.

FR3220914093 9

or remarry, Gouges evidently wishes to claim this same agency for other women under male

control. In Le Couvent, the audience is presented with a classic example of women under the

command of male family members. By portraying the tragic situation of Julie and Angelique

at the hands of the tyrannical and all-controlling Marquis, Gouges highlights the injustice of

their lack of power. In addition, Angelique’s ability to resolve the situation by speaking out

against her domineering brother sends the message that these familial tyrants need to be

overthrown in order for women’s standing to improve. However, the play still serves as a

warning to women due to Angelique’s lack of an escape route from the convent. In this way,

Gouges emphasises the damage already done to women and the eventual repentance of the

Marquis further encourages the audience to view his crimes as reprehensible. Thus the play

as a whole functions as something of a cautionary tale, as Gouges illustrates both the harm

done to women by this family hierarchy and the possibility of a more harmonious future with

its removal. Similarly, in La Nécessité du Divorce, the audience is again confronted with two

women paralysed by the influence of men in their private lives, both of which are resolved

following a change in male behaviour. Madame d’Azinval, enduring a despairing existence

due to an indifferent husband who provides ‘bien du chagrin à sa femme’16 lives in a state of

limbo. Neither independent nor desired by her husband, the unenviable situation of this

character illustrates the damaging effects of such a power imbalance. Through Rosambert’s

ruse, Gouges provides an example of the advantages of this potential redistribution of male

power. In her advocation of legalisation of divorce, therefore, Gouges supports not only the

right of the couple to separate, but the right of women to claim power in the family dynamic

on an equal basis to men. The character of Constance, however, presents a different aspect of

this patriarchal dominance. Denied the right to marry Germeuil as a result of Rosambert’s

control over him, Constance is without agency or control over her own future. The fact that

16 La Nécessité du Divorce, I. 1.

FR3220914093 10

Rosambert’s influence is over another man further emphasises Gouges’ denunciation of these

family hierarchies, as even an autonomous male character cannot escape the control of a

patriarch. As Constance is only free to be happy once Rosambert relinquishes his hold on

Germeuil and assents to the marriage, Gouges underlines the possibility of a harmonious

future without this domination. Indeed, this issue is all the more pertinent given the reliance

of many young women of the era on their fathers to assent to, or even choose, their future

spouse. In any case, almost every aspect of a woman’s life in revolutionary France is defined

in relation to the men around her. By representing the struggles of the female characters in

her dramatic writings, Olympe de Gouges draws attention to the injustice of female suffering

in the family sphere. A lifelong advocate of rights for women in all aspects of life, only by

presenting examples of such oppression could Gouges hope to rouse public opinion and

effect any kind of change. Possessing a unique vantage point due to her own uncommon

position as an unfettered woman, Gouges is more able to critique the subordination of her

own gender.

In contrast to oppression by men, solidarity between women is a key element of

character relationships in Gouges’ plays. Gisela Thiele-Knobloch says of the playwright; ‘elle

est profondement convaincue que, si les femmes se montaient plus solidaires, elles

arriveraient à changer leur sort dans la histoire humaine.’17and this belief is indeed

consistently evident in Gouges’ representation of women in her dramatic writings. Female

characters, though frequently let down by the men around them, are often shown to benefit

from closeness and support shared with other women. For example, the interactions between

Madame d’Azinval and other women in La Nécessité du Divorce repeatedly demonstrate the

value of female friendship. In the case of Constance, Madame d’Azinval cares about the

younger woman’s problems despite the severity of her own. The absence of any element of

17 Gisela Thiele-Knobloch, ‘Preface’, in Olympe de Gouges : Théâtre Politique II, by Olympe de Gouges (Paris : Côté-femmes, 1993), pp. 7-37 (p.24).

FR3220914093 11

rivalry, often present in dramatic depictions of female companionship, provide an example of

a loving and loyal female friendship of the kind Gouges evidently wishes to encourage. In

contrast, the married woman’s statement to her friend: ‘les hommes sont si trompeurs si

volages’18 highlights the harmful nature of male behaviour towards women – the friendship

between the two women is arguably the healthiest relationship in the play. This is further

stressed by Constance’s loyalty and sympathy towards Madame d’Azinval rather than

towards her own brother. Perhaps the most fascinating female interaction in the play,

however, is that between Madame d’Azinval and Herminie, her husband’s love interest. The

compassion of the married woman towards Herminie is even more striking given the fact that

dramatic and literary tradition would usually dictate that these two women be rivals. As the

audience most likely anticipates animosity between them, Gouges’ decision to depict

Madame d’Azinval as forgiving rather than berating is a potent example of the alliance

between women which she aims to promote. The poignant scene in which Madame d’Azinval

embraces Herminie and declares her ‘malheureuse victim de l’amour’19 creates a powerful

image of women working together rather than against each other. Turning away from the

somewhat common portrayal of women as putting men above all other things, Gouges instead

suggests a movement towards women helping each other in a bid to move towards equality.

In her representation of women, Gouges implies that their communal oppression invites a

communal uprising against the traditions of a patriarchal society. In order to reclaim and re-

make female identity for the French women, all women would be required to stand together,

a sentiment which pervades much of Gouges’ political writings. Her Déclaration itself, in its

universality, invites women to begin considering themselves as a united force rather than

divided by barriers of age, class or status.

18 La Nécessité du Divorce, III. 2. 19 Ibid., III. 5.

FR3220914093 12

Another, more blatantly political element pertaining to Gouges’ female characters can

be found in the unfinished La France sauvée, ou le Tyran Détrôné. Described as a ‘royaliste-

patriote’20 who famously offered to defend Louis XVI at trial, Gouges’ particular interest in

Marie-Antoinette proves again her aforementioned hope for the power of female solidarity.

This opinion evidently extended to the monarchy, as the dedication of her Déclaration to the

queen attests. La France sauvée, however, a fictionalised account of Gouges’ real-life

attempt to meet Marie-Antoinette, dares to portray the queen herself as a character. The

queen is presented throughout as a strong presence and a somewhat domineering wife to her

husband, even denouncing him as ‘roi craintif’21. This corresponds to an extent with her

representation in much political satire, as the king often appears cuckolded and somewhat in

thrall to his spouse. Gouges’ depiction of Marie-Antoinette also echoes her own previously

discussed sentiments regarding male control as the queen blames ‘les erreurs des hommes’22

for her current situation. The queen is also revealed to be intelligent, with clear knowledge of

military news and current politics. In this way, Gouges creates a multifaceted character

through her imaginings of the monarch. However, Marie-Antoinette is also characterised as

being unapologetically anti-revolution. Stating the belief that ‘les peuples sont faits pour les

fers. Les rois pour le bonheur du monde’23 the queen appears unconcerned with the plight of

the masses. This unsympathetic element to her character’s depiction suggests a certain

animosity on the part of the previously monarchist Gouges, perhaps at having her audience

with the queen denied. Questioned on the play at her trial, Gouges’ statement ‘J’ai fait tenir à

la femme Capet le langage qui lui convenait’24 supports this view as the playwright evidently

believes her representation of the queen’s opinions to be correct. Gouges’ depiction of the

20 Lacour, p.51.21 Olympe de Gouges, La France sauvée ou le Tyran Détrôné, in Olympe de Gouges : Theatre politique II (Paris : Côté-femmes, 1993), I. 2.22 Ibid., I. 3.23 Ibid.24 Thiele-Knobloch, p.20.

FR3220914093 13

queen’s desire to exploit the former’s dedication to her cause creates an image of a monarch

at once clever and manipulative, focused intently on self-preservation. In contrast, in the

pivotal scene in which the Marie-Antoinette, having eavesdropped on the exchange between

her courtiers and Olympe de Gouges, observes ‘si j’etais à sa place j’y penserais peut-être’25,

Gouges suggests that hope still remains for altering the course of the monarch’s opinion. This

nuanced characterisation of Marie-Antoinette conveys a certain indecision on the part of

Gouges herself – at once displeased with the monarch’s behaviour and still hopeful of gaining

the support of this influential woman. As Lynn Hunt asserts, the queen herself is ‘the most

important example of a woman acting in the public sphere’26. This significance of Marie-

Antoinette as a woman in a position of power is evidently not lost on Gouges, as the

representation of the queen in La France sauvée explores myriad issues surrounding the

increasingly desperate position of the French monarchy.

Among the various female characters represented in these plays, one in particular is

remarkable: Olympe de Gouges herself. By writing herself into one of her own plays, Gouges

breaks through the usual barrier between playwright and audience. This portrayal, had the

play ever been completed and performed, would have served to express her views to the

public in a far more direct sense than ever before. As Thiele-Knobloch states, during the

revolutionary era ‘être à la fois femme, célibataire et auteure était alors absoluement

inconcevable’27 and Gouges, in her decision to put herself on stage, is clearly aware of the

potential in her own rarity. During the appearance of Olympe de Gouges as a character in La

France sauvée, her disinclination to conform to class barriers is apparent, often through stage

directions. Refusing to show the deference expected by the Princesse de Lamballe, Olympe’s

direction riant avec éclat adds a gleeful edge to her defiance. Thus, Gouges’ disregard for

25 La France sauvée, I. 9.26 Lynn Hunt, The Family Romance of the French Revolution (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1993), p.90.27 Thiele-Knobloch, p.8.

FR3220914093 14

traditional social hierarchy is made apparent. Her derisory remark ‘vaine chimière, le rang, la

naissance’28, further emphasises her support of the revolutionary principles advocating the

dissolution of class boundaries.Also evident in Gouges’ depiction of herself is a strong sense

of foreboding. Pronouncing several warnings amounting to ‘vous périrez tous’29 it is clearly

her belief that the monarchy faces impending disaster. One can surmise that, as she has been

denied a personal audience with the queen, inserting herself into the play as a character is a

way for Gouges to speak more directly to the queen and public simultaneously and deliver

her warning. Her desire is clearly to prevent such an outcome; by exclaiming ‘je ne veux

point que ma nation se souille de sang’30 , Gouges voices both her abhorrence of political

violence and her dedication to her country. As she compares herself to Lamballe and

surmises that their situations are not so different, attention is again drawn to elements which

unite women rather than those which separate. In this, and in her denunciation of the queen’s

valet as ‘d’une esclave’31 Gouges raises the point that all women are essentially enslaved by

the patriarchal power structure, even Marie-Antoinette herself cannot escape its grasp.

Essentially, Gouges is blatantly aware of her own unique position of potential influence. As a

woman, she would usually have little opportunity to have her opinions heard but as a writer,

such agency is available to her. There is an air of desperation in this, her final and unfinished

play, as her attempts to influence the political sphere continue to prove futile. In her

representation of herself in the piece, Gouges makes clear the fact that she is prepared to risk

her own standing in order to criticise the behaviour of those in positions of power.

As one of few prominent female playwrights of the revolutionary era, Olympe de

Gouges is most notable for her unwavering dedication to furthering the cause of the French

woman. It is vital to consider her dramatic works in addition to her political writings, as

28 La France sauvée, I. 7.29 Ibid.30 Ibid.31 Ibid, I. 8.

FR3220914093 15

evidence of the latter can so often be identified in the former. Through her representation of

women in the three plays examined here, Gouges explores issues affecting the society of the

time, transcending barriers of class. The impact of the institution of marriage, the possibility

of divorce, patriarchal power structures and the Catholic Church are all shown to have

profound effect on women in Gouges’ plays, just as they would doubtless affect French

women from the peasantry to the aristocracy. The situations experienced by the female

characters allow the playwright to draw audience attention to issues she believes of greatest

importance; those where she believes change is most necessary. Furthermore, the dynamics

between female characters often provide a favourable example of solidarity between women,

such as that between Madame d’Azinval and Herminie in La Nécessité du Divorce. In this

way, Gouges advocates a unification of French women, that they might work collectively

towards their goal of equality in society. Gouges’ decision to include herself as a character in

one of her final, unfinished manuscripts illustrates her commitment to ameliorating the

position of women in France and French society as a whole, as she attempts to transgress

traditional playwright-audience boundaries in order to reach those whom she hopes to

influence. The representation of women in these three plays, therefore, is testament to the

unwavering dedication on the part of Gouges to ameliorating the injustices suffered by

women in France. At a time when men were ostensibly being liberated; her attempts to carve

out a place for their female counterparts in this new society remain clear in the legacy of her

writings.

Word count : 4,977

Bibliography

Primary Texts

De Gouges, Olympe, Le Couvent ou les Vœux forcés, in Olympe de Gouges : Œuvres (Paris : Mercure de France, 1986)

FR3220914093 16

—La France sauvée ou le Tyran Détrôné, in Olympe de Gouges : Theatre politique II (Paris : Côté-femmes, 1993)

—La Nécessité du Divorce, in Olympe de Gouges : Theatre politique II (Paris : Côté-femmes, 1993)

Secondary Texts

De Gouges, Olympe, ‘Textes Politiques’, in Œuvres (Paris : Mercure de France, 1986), pp. 69-129

Lacour, Léopold, Les origines du féminisme contemporain : trois femmes de la révolution : Olympe de Gouges, Théroigne de Méricourt, Rose Lacombe (Paris : Plon, Nourrit et Cie, 1900)

Groult, Benoîte, ‘Introduction’, in Olympe de Gouges: Œuvres by Olympe de Gouges (Paris : Mercure de France, 1986), pp. 11-64

Thiele-Knobloch, Gisela, ‘Preface’, in Olympe de Gouges : Théâtre Politique II, by Olympe de Gouges (Paris : Côté-femmes, 1993), pp. 7-37

Hunt, Lynn, The Family Romance of the French Revolution (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1993)

Cole, John R., Between the Queen and the Cabby: Olympe de Gouges's Rights of Woman (Montréal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2011)