ROMANIAN ACADEMY

DOCTORAL SCHOOL OF “GEORGE BARIŢIU”

HISTORY INSTITUTE IN CLUJ-NAPOCA

DOCTORAL DISSERTATION

Illustration of German Incunabula in Romania.

Case Study: the Libraries of Cluj-Napoca

A B S T R A C T

Dissertation Advisor:

Dr. IOAN CHINDRIŞ

Doctoral candidate ZITA O.N. HAIDUC

  

Contents

1. Introduction. Motivation/methodology…………………………………….…….1

2. History, concepts and historiography on incunabula..............………………… 7

A. What are incunabula?

B. Brief history of printing.

C. Incunabula research in Europe, chiefly in the German-speaking area.

D. Incunabula research in Romania. Incunabula as bibliophilic values.

Incunabula in old Romanian libraries.

E. Incunabula research in Romania; catalogues and specialized studies.

3. Illustration and decoration of medieval books between manuscript and

printing……… 45

A. Age of manuscripts.

B. Age of incunabula.

a) Graphic form

b) Single-leaf woodcut

c) German woodcut school and its impact on book illustration

d) Block books

e) Incunabula illustration

f) Manuscript illustration during the middle ages in the German

area. Historical and artistic evolution of book painting:

Merovingian period

Carolingian period

Ottonian period

Romanic period

Gothic period

Humanist influences

g) Chiefly German incunabula illustration.

4. Incunabula collections in Cluj………………………………….…………….. 113

• Romanian Academy Library

• “Lucian Blaga” Central University Library

• “St. Michael” Roman-Catholic Parish

  

5. Typology of illustration and decorative elements in German incunabula from

Cluj collections…………….................……………………………….………..123

6. Special studies illustrative for German printings in the 15th century: Schadel

and Thuroczy………………………………...….......... 149

7. Conclusions………………………………………………………………...…..190

8. References………………………………………………………………….......192

9. List of illustrations…………………………………………………….………213

10. Catalogue of pictures in German incunabula.......………………….…….…216

4  

Keywords: illustration, incunabula, German incunabula, German illustrations,

illustrative printings, book painting, XVth century.

Abstract

The main scientific aim of the present research is to open an aesthetic-historical

debate upon the illustrations, ornamental and artistic elements accompanying and

reinforcing the message of books printed before 1500 by identifying the artistic language

of the respective approach. A complete analysis of the German incunabula illustration is

nonetheless impossible – it has neither been in the initial plan due to practical reasons – in

the absence of a comprehensive investigation in the great collections of Romania (Alba-

Iulia a n d Sibiu, c o m p r i s i n g a l m o s t 1000 incunabula) or abroad. We hope that by

providing a suggestive “sample” we will succeed in stirring the interest in the respective

topic and its research potential. Methodologically speaking, the foundation consists in the

tools employed by art history: morphological description and comparative approach, which

we resorted to within the specified limits when discussing the aims of the dissertation. The

present research – as stated above – was faced with two extreme situations: a quasi-total

absence of a Romanian tradition in the field and a hard to manage and contain affluence of

Western historical writing (chiefly German and English). This was also reflected in the way

the references were presented: quotations from foreign sources were rather concentrated in

a cumulative, synthetic manner (in order to be able to select and manage them carefully and

avoid getting lost in the maze of countless references to particular details that would have

made the reading difficult), them being the framework of the direct notes on the books.

The idea to attempt a doctoral dissertation on the topic stated in the title originated in

2001-2004, when the candidate was involved, side by side with other colleagues, in the

project of describing the incunabula in the Cluj branch of the Romanian Academy Library,

a joint endeavor meant to result in a modern catalogue of the incunabula collection of the

respective library. The decorative elements of the first printed books, irrespective of their

origin, draw on the spot the attention of any specialist researcher or amateurish beholder of

old rare book, especially when taking into consideration spectacular editions that are well-

known precisely for their illustrations or decorative elements. Discrete details, such as

handmade initials, ornamental initial letters mechanically printed after woodcut

typesets, subtle presences offered by the printer or editor to a 15th century public (and

even after 1500, when incunabula were still the object of common and not rare book

trade) also have a significant aesthetic impact.

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Nowadays, art historians, rare book specialists, historians of the cultural, social and

economic life of the late middle ages and the beginnings of European modernity debate, from

quite innovative perspectives, on the similarities and distinctions between the illustration-

decoration of manuscripts and the first printed books, on not only the technical but also the social

and educational impact of the changes suggested by the new solutions to aesthetically augment

the value of the book, which gradually (and faster after 1450) became, in the 15th century, a

common and available commodity, a fundamental argument in favor of “democratizing” literacy,

the basis of what we now call modern library. Book illustration was a means of expression for

great names of the 1500 generation of artists, such as Martin Schongauer († 1491), Antonio

Pollaiuolo († 1498), Andrea Mantegna († 1506), Hans Holbein t h e E l d e r (†

1524), Albrecht Dürer († 1528), Lucas Hugensz van Leyden († 1531), Lucas Cranach

the Elder († 1553) and many others. In this way, most valuable artistic works made

the transition from the exclusivist realm of private patronage to wider social areas, woodcut

illustrations becoming common inspiration for provincial artists who worked on small

private or community commissions. As a result, book illustration made a substantial

contribution to the rapid spreading of models and, consequently, to the shaping of an

interconnected and more uniform artistic language.

Naturally, such richly significant morphological, historical-artistic, namely social-

economic, evolutions may be also identified, however partially and to a lesser extent, when

studying Romanian sources, chiefly from Cluj-Napoca, which was revealed by the

conclusions of the present research.

Terminology Aspects

The term “illustration”, a key-element in the context of our research, has wider

connotations, including not only the primary meaning of descriptive, portrait- or picture-like

image, attached to the meaning of a more or less elaborate textual structure. In the present

context, it also hints at any decorative detail aimed at emphasizing the aesthetic aspect of a

book.

By “German” we understand the place, the location of the printing house that issued

a book before 1500. The political area under discussion comprises the territory of the

Roman-German Empire, including settlements without the area we now commonly perceive

as German (for instance, Strasbourg). Without the Empire, but in full connection with the

dynamics of Renaissance ideas in the German territories - consequently included in the

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present research – are the areas of the Swiss Confederation (for example, Basel). Although

closely connected to the German experience at the time of their establishment, Italian

printing houses (Subiaco-Roma, for instance) have been left aside, as well as those in the

northern part of the Netherlands, under Habsburg rule at that time. It is possible to identify

German illustration elements in these cases as well, but it goes far beyond the frames of the

undertaken aims of our research.

Incunabula Research in Romania: catalogues and specialized studies.

In Romania, two distinct but simultaneously entwined stages can be identified in the

scientific approach to the 15th century printed books. The first, most important and still

ongoing stage is cataloguing. The second is related to the particular study of the data provided

by certain printed books or thematic groups of printed materials, the respective trend aiming at

elaborating a detailed history of each collection apart.

Among the pioneers of the scientific research on incunabula found on the present

territory of Romania we should mention: Friedrich Müller a n d Lorenz Seivert

(Brukenthal Library), Elemer Varju (Batthyaneum), Constantin I. Karadja (1889-1950) for

the entire Romanian area in the interwar period and shortly after World War II.

In the last half of the century, research was focused either on elaborating and

improving old catalogues, for example Veturia Jugăreanu in Sibiu, or on approaching

special topics, such as analyzing a certain type of printed editions in the country or in a

certain part of the country.

We do not know for sure how many incunabula are in Romania; therefore the only

incunabula catalogue elaborated here included only those preserved in the collections of

public libraries and museums. As soon as the collections of incunabula in state archives,

religious institutions and private collections willing to communicate their possessions are

taken into evidence, a more or less comprehensive picture of the situation of incunabula in

the country will be drawn. Once published, Catalogul colectiv al incunabulelor din

România (Collective Catalogue of Incunabula in Romania), project started in the 60s of the

last century, will become the “business card” of Romanian research in the field. As

compared to collection catalogues, the collective catalogue that only pinpoints the data

distinguishing the edition, aims at emphasizing aspects such as the number of incunabula

in Romania taken into evidence up to the moment of accessing the catalogue;

authors/titles/editions that make up the national collection of incunabula; the number of

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items of each edition and the place where each is kept; the incunabula collections in

Romania recorded up to the moment when the catalogue was consulted.

Incunabula collections in Cluj

An overall presentation of the incunabula collections in the three libraries of Cluj we

have investigated, the Library of “St. Michael” Roman-Catholic Parish, “Lucian Blaga”

Central University Library and the Romanian Academy Library, Cluj-Napoca branch,

substantiates the previous assertion: “St. Michael” Parish Library has 3 incunabula of

German origin, 2 printed in Basel and one in Nürnberg; the CUL has 84 incunabula, 41

coming from the German area, as follows: 13 from Nürnberg, 13 from Strasbourg, 5 from

Basel, 4 from Augsburg, 2 from Cologne and Ingolstadt, 1 from Brno/ Brünn and

Reutlingen; the Cluj branch of the Academy Library has 177 incunabula of which 71

were printed in German towns: in Nürnberg 25, Strasbourg 17, Basel 11, Leipzig 6, in

Augsburg 4, in Cologne 2, în Brno/ Brünn, Memmingen, Speyer, Heidelberg, Passau and

Hagenau 1.

Among the 13 incunabula in the collection of “St. Michael” Roman-Catholic Parish

in Cluj-Napoca, most of which have a religious content, we should draw the attention on a

book printed in Venice in 1497, including two works belonging to the contemporary Italian

physician Bartolomeo Montagnana, namely: „Consilia medica”, 8 . 0 2..1497, and

“Antidotarium”. Significant for the history of medicine, this incunabulum is also

special because it is the only work by this author in a Romanian collection. Most

of the incunabula in the collection of “St. Michael” Roman-Catholic Parish came from

Venice or Basel: Johannes Gerson, Opera, Basel, Nikolaus Kessler, 1489 and Thomas

Aquinas, Catena aurea super quattuor evangelistas, [Basel], [Michael Wenssler], 1476.

The only Central-German incunabulum in the collection is a 1495 edi t ion o f

Hieronymus’s “Epistolas”, printed by Anton Koberger in Nürnberg.

A brief description of the incunabula in the Central University Library of Cluj-

Napoca emphasizes the value of the collection. „Legenda aurea” written by the Dominican

Jacob of Voragine, printed in Lyon in 1476, is one of the pieces of resistance in the

collection.

The “Latin Bible” printed in Nürnberg in 1478, in Anton Koberger’s workshop, with

Menardus’s additions and ornamental initials, two theological treatises “De civitas Dei” by

St. Augustine, printed in Basel and Venice, “Compilatio decretalium” by Pope Gregory IX,

8  

printed in 1482, as well as “Das Buch der Chroniken” by Hartmann Schebel, printed in

Nürnberg in 1493, are other important items in the incunabula collection of the CUL. They

are accompanied by “Catholicon” by Johannes of Balbus, edited by Anton Koberger i n

1486, Boethius’s “De consolatione philosophiae”, edition printed in Nürnberg by Anton

Koberger in 1486, “Epistolae Marsilii Ficinii Florentinii”, printed in 1497 by the same

printer, two compilations of decrees issued by Pope Gregory IX (Koberger printing house,

1482 and 1493), Bartolomeo Platina’s “Vitae pontificum”, Werner Rolewinck’s “Fasciculus

temporum” printed in Strasbourg in 1490. One of the most important incunabulum in the

collections of Cluj-Napoca is the one which, under the title “Modus legendi abbreviaturas

in utroque iure”, includes several legal works written by various authors of the 12th-14th

centuries. Thus, we have: “Processus judiciarius” and “Tractatus Praesumptionum” written

by Johannes Auerbach (14th-15th c.); “Summa qualiter notarii...Debent officium exercere”

and “Tractatus notariatus” by Dominic of Visentina (15th c.); “Defensorium iuris” by

Johannes Monachus; “Tractatus praescriptionum” by Dinus of Mugello; “Tractatus

exceptionum”, written by Innocent IV, pope in 1243-1254; the treatise “De arbitris et

arbitratoribus” by Jacobus Petrus of Montipessulana (14th c.); “Differentiae legum et

canonum” by Galnanus of Bononiae and “De tabellionibus” by Bartolus of Saxoferrato,

which complete the 15th century civil law collection. The incunabulum was printed in

Strasbourg by Georg Husner in 1494, in black ink, 52 rows by page, 125 leafs.

The incunabula collection of the Cluj-Napoca branch of the Romanian Academy

Library, including 135 volumes, was made up by gathering most of the volumes of

previously assembled collection, such as: 81 volumes from the Roman-Catholic

Seminary collection; 16 volumes from the Cluj Reformed Seminary collection; 14

volumes from the library of the Unitarian Seminary. The rest of 24 incunabula came from

various sources, for instance the Transylvanian Museum, the 7 incunabula from the Blaj

collection of the Romanian philologist Timotei Cipariu (1805-1887); among them 5

editions are unique in the country. Other authors present in the collections of the Romanian

Academy Library, Cluj-Napoca branch, are: Herodotus – with an edit ion of the

“Histories” printed by Christophor of Pensis in 1494 – Nicolaus of Ausmo, Nicolaus

of Lyra, Seneca, Paulus Orosius, Pliny the Elder, Thomas Aquinas, St. Jerome, Pope

Gregory I, Appianus. The library also preserves editions of the Bible printed by

Anton Koberger in 1477 and 1478.

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Typology of illustration and decorative elements in German incunabula from Cluj collections

The chapter includes the “technical” description of the illustrations of German

incunabula preserved in Cluj with an emphasis on printing methods, fabrication of woodcut

typesets, ornamentation techniques for frontispieces, borders, ornamental letters, and

vignettes. The sources were reproduced in order to perceive in detail the similarities and

distinctions in illustrating various editions of the same work, the originality of the woodcuts

and the illustrator’s “borrowings”.

Special studies: Schadel and Thuroczy

Chronica Hungarorum, written in 1486-1487 by János Thuróczi / Johannes Thuróczy

(c.1435-1488/89) was printed in Brünn / Brno in 1488 and in Augsburg in the same year. The

editor of the Augsburg copy dedicated the work to King Matthias and used gold ink to

decorate this luxury edition printed on parchment. Nowadays, this is the first book printed in

gold ink. The same ink was used to paint some scenes from St. Ladislau’s legend. The

volume also included several hand-painted woodcuts of Hungarian kings and battle scenes.

The Brünn/Brno edition of Chronica Hungarorum was printed by Konrad Stahel and

Matthias Preinlein in March 20, 1488. The volume preserved in the Romanian Academy

Library, Cluj-Napoca branch (Inc. 108) came from the Library of the Unitarian Seminary

in Cluj, as shown by the note on lf. 2r (18th c.): Ecclesiae Univ(ersitatis) Cla(udiopoli).

The volume also includes marginal notes in Latin (16th c.) and, on lf. 168r-v, notes in

Hungarian and Latin (16th c.). The binding is contemporary and deteriorated, only the back

wooden cover is preserved; it is covered in leather with stamped geometrical and floral

ornaments and the spine, with three raised bands, is also deteriorated. The graphic aspect

is as follows: black ink, text lf. 3r: 239x143, 36 rows; space for the initial letters; colored

woodcuts in red, yellow and green; lf. 168v is white. Of the 168 leafs, lf. 1 and 124 are

missing.

Inc. 99 in the Romanian Academy Library, Cluj-Napoca branch, coming from the

collection of the Unitarian Seminary Library in Cluj, is printed in black ink on one column,

text lf. 6r: 172x118, 38 rows, woodcut initials, with floral ornaments, many non-colored

woodcut portraits of Hungarian kings, coats of arms, battle scenes, etc.; lf. 173v: printer’s

mark; lf. 154v and 157r are white. One can also find in this edition preserved in Cluj-

10  

Napoca many marginalia (16th c.) in Latin and Hungarian and also historical notes (for

instance, lf. 161r: natus est filius Joannis regis Hungarie, Bude anno 1540. Mortuus est

Joannes rex in Zassebes, anno eodem anno 1540; etc.). Many pages are missing: lf. 1-5

(replaced with 8 modern manuscript leafs), 83, 90, 102, 103, 140, 141, 146-151, 155, 156,

164, 174. Highly important is the epistle Carmen miserabile written by Rogerius, the most

significant source on the Tartar invasion in 1241, appended to Thuróczy’s chronicle.

As concerns illustration, the differences between the two editions are easy to identify,

the most illuminating examples being the images of the character named Secundus Capitaneus

Sobolch, or of St. Stephen, the king of Hungary.

Conclusions

Decorative elements in early printed books did not only reveal an evolution related

to the transfer from the sphere of exclusivist, aristocratic artistic patronage, the migration of

certain works to more diversified social receptors. In the decades of coexistence (even

rivalry) of handwritten copying/decoration and printed reproduction/decoration (loosely

estimated to span between 1475 and 1525), the unique, handwritten book was destined for a

luxury market, for those who were still looking for hard to get commodities. For instance,

the period witnessed the highest achievements in Flemish book painting. A similar

phenomenon was recorded in the case of book printing, as follows: the printed book was

usually purchased unbound, with blank spaces for decoration left empty to be filled in

later. The new owner could thus stamp his individual mark on his volume, chiefly

according to what the book was meant for. A book that entered the collections of a

religious or educational institution (elementary school, studium generale, secular

university) would have likely had a simple binding (most often, Gothic, monastic), with

simple lombard initials in alternate colors (most often blue-red). A book for private

practical use could have been most often protected in the cheapest manner, bound in out of

use parchment manuscript leafs, and the “blanks” for initial letters would have remained

forever empty in the absence of money to hire a decorator, a rubricator. On the contrary, in

case the owner’s need to represent himself prevailed, the artistic distinctiveness of each

printed volume would have been augmented in every possible way, almost always

starting with the owner’s coat of arms. The phenomenon of illustration-decoration in the

age of incunabula witnessed a third way of expression, namely the finished product,

sold as such according to the capitalist-entrepreneurial model successfully promoted by

11  

Anton Koberger (Albrecht Dürer’s godfather), who sold about 250 printed editions with

uniform and standardized bindings and illustration-decorative solutions until 1500.

As far as technical execution is concerned, the illustration of German source

incunabula preserved in the collections of the libraries in Cluj-Napoca is not different, in

number and content of pictures, from the editions preserved in other collections. However,

there is a major distinction in what concerns artistic decoration, namely the gold

ornamentation of woodcuts, borders, vignettes and letters. It is obvious that the incunabula

were mostly purchased uncolored and then contemporary or even later, 16th century hands

started and (not always) finished the painstaking endeavor of coloring the printed woodcuts.

For example, in Liber chronicarum, preserved in the Romanian Academy Library, Cluj-

Napoca branch, only half of the woodcuts are painted, many only in part, in a yellowish

tint. The Nürnberg edition of St. Bridget’s “Revelationes”, edited by Florian Waldauf,

printer Anton Koberger, 9.21.1500, Romanian Academy Library, Cluj-Napoca branch, Inc.

138, includes 18 pages of woodcuts neither of which colored; the same holds true for

Albumasar’s edition of Flores astrologiae, Augsburg, printed by Erhard Ratdolt, [11.18.]

1488, Romanian Academy Library, Cluj-Napoca branch, Inc. 92f.

The illustration-decoration level of the whole Cluj collection of incunabula is rather

average, revealing a pragmatic use, devoid of the exclusivist imprint of the

aristocratic/princely artistic patronage. The techniques of woodcut painting in the 15th

century were quite diverse. A cheap and fast one consisted in applying one coat of lacquer

or transparent pigments either by hand or using a template. There also were more elaborate

techniques to spread the colored pigment, including the use of precious lacquers and metals,

the choice of materials and technical procedures being determined by price. Among the

incunabula preserved in Cluj collections only a few are richly decorated in colors:

Rodericus Zamorensis, Der Spiegel des Menschlichen Lebens, [Augsburg], [Günther

Zainer], [c. 1475-1478], “Lucian Blaga” Central University Library, Inc. 80 or [Corpus

iuris civilis]. Codex Iustinianus, edited by Andreas Rommel, Nürnberg, Andreas Frisner et

Johann Sensenschmidt, 24. June 1475, “Lucian Blaga” Central University Library, Inc. 1;

Hartmann Schedel, Liber chronicarum, Nürnberg, Anton Koberger, 1493, Romanian

Academy Library, Cluj-Napoca branch, Inc. 7 (partly painted).

We hope that the present doctoral dissertation reached its initially undertaken goal: to

delineate and as far as the available sources allowed to attempt a contextualized

comparison of the decorative-illustrative language through which the book printed before

12  

1500 communicated (and still communicates) with its receivers, providing cultural,

economic and social data in a historical-artistic keynote.

13  

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Gesamtkatalog der Wiegendrucke. Herausgegeben von der Kommission für den

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Hain, Ludovicus. Repertorium bibliographicum, in quo libri omnes ab arte typographica

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Cataloage ale colecțiilor din România

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Bodinger, M. Catalogul cărții rare și prețioase. Vol. I. Iași, Biblioteca Centrală

Universitară „M. Eminescu“, 1974.

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Ionuțaș, Cătălin. Colecția de incunabule a Bibliotecii Județene Arad. În: Ziridava VI,

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Brukenthal], 1969.

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der Wiegendrucke de la Berlin).

Kulcsár, Petrus. Catalogus incunabulorum Bibliothecae Batthyányanae. Szeged, 1965.

14  

Mosora, Elena și Hanga, Doina. Catalogul incunabulelor. Cluj-Napoca, Ed. Dacia, 1979

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Buluţă, Gheorghe, Scurtă istorie a bibliotecilor din Romania, Bucureşti, 2000.

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Bünz, Enno (ed.), Bücher, Drucker, Bibliotheken in Mitteldeutschland. Neue

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of the Library of Hardcover – November 18, 2004, New York, George Braziller, in

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Derolez, Albert, Les catalogues de bibliothèques (=Typologie des sources du moyen âge

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