DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 412 289 TM 027 787

AUTHOR Stevenson, Harold W.; Lee, Shin-yingTITLE International Comparisons of Entrance and Exit Examinations:

Japan, United Kingdom, France, and Germany.INSTITUTION Office of Educational Research and Improvement (ED),

Washington, DC. Media and Information Services.REPORT NO ORAD-97-1110PUB DATE 1997-09-00NOTE 58p.; "In collaboration with Solange Carton, Margaret Evans,

Samia Meziane, Naoko Moriyoshi, Ian Schmidt."PUB TYPE Reports Evaluative (142)EDRS PRICE MF01/PC03 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS Academic Achievement; Admission (School); College Bound

Students; *College Entrance Examinations; ComparativeAnalysis; Cross Cultural Studies; Developed Nations;Educational Attainment; Foreign Countries; *High SchoolStudents; High Schools; Higher Education; *InternationalEducation; *Student Educational Objectives; TestConstruction; *Test Use; Vocational Education

IDENTIFIERS *Exit Examinations; France; Germany; Japan; United Kingdom

ABSTRACTThe roles of exit examinations (high school exit) and

college entrance examinations in four industrialized countries are described.Information was obtained from reviews of educational systems and interviewswith small samples of students (at least seven or eight students), parents,and teachers during 1993. All four countries studied, Japan, Germany, France,and the United Kingdom, are experiencing a common problem in that theiruniversities, built to educate a moderate percentage of the population, arebeing asked to accommodate increasing numbers of students. They are left withthe alternatives of restricting enrollments to make the universities moreelitist or expanding enrollments and watering down the value of theuniversity degree. In all of these countries, entrance and exit examinationsare based on a curriculum established by ministries of education. Theseexaminations are closely tied to what students have studied in school.Parents and students expressed satisfaction with the examinations overall,although they noted problems with strong reliance on examinations. They wereunable, however, to suggest more desirable procedures. Regardless of theapproach taken by governments in these four countries, it seems likely thatthe number of students selecting a vocational track will continue to lag aslong as economic and social advantages of a university degree persist.(Contains 25 references.) (SLD)

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EST COPY AVAILABLE

InternationalComparisons ofentranceentrance and writ

examinationsJapan, United Kingdom,France, and Germany

Harold W. Stevenson and Shin-ying Leein collaboration with

Solange CartonMargaret EvansSamia Meziane

Naoko MoriyoshiIan Schmidt

University of Michigan

U.S. Department of EducationOffice of Educational Research and Improvement

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U.S. Department of EducationRichard W. RileySecretary

Office of Educational Research and ImprovementRamon C. CortinesActing Assistant Secretary

Office of Reform Assistance and DisseminationRon CartwrightActing Director

Media and Information ServicesCynthia Hearn DorfmanDirector

September 1997

4

Table of Contents

Introduction 1

Japan 3

Elementary and Secondary Education 3

Junior Colleges and Universities 4

Applying for University Entrance 4

Public and National Universities 5

Private Universities 5

Alternative Methods 6

Juku 6

University Expenses 6

Ronin 7

Reaction to the College Entrance SystemNeed for Entering College 7

General Satisfaction

Fairness 9

Factors Associated With Success 10

Stressfulness of the examinations 11

Role of Schools and Teachers 11

Role of Parents 12

Conclusion 12

The United Kingdom 13

The British Educational System 13

Primary and Secondary Education 13

Universities 15

Applying for Entrance 15

Reactions to the Entrance Examination System 16

Desire for Entering the University 16

General Satisfaction 16

Curriculum 17

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Fairness 18Difficulty 18Limited Choices 18

Factors Associated With Success 18Early Preparation 19Choice of University and Degree 19Personal Attributes and Work Experience 19Stress 20Role of Parents, Teachers, and Schools 20

Conclusion 20France 23

Elementary and Primary Systems 23The Academic Baccalaureat 24Higher Education 25Universities 25Grandes Ecoles 26Changes in the College Admission Process 26Reactions to the System 26

Lack of Information 26General Satisfaction 27Curriculum 27Fairness 28Factors Associated With Success 28Stress 29Role of Parents 29Role of Teachers and Students 30

Conclusion 30Germany 33

Elementary and Secondary Education 33Primary School 33Types of Schools 34Hauptschule 34Realschule 34

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Vocational School 35

Gymnasium 36

Gesamtschule 36

Forderstufe 37

University Education 37

Exit Examination 37

The Abitur 37

Preparation for the Examination 39

Reactions to the University Entrance System 39

Need for Entering College 39

General Satisfaction 39

Fairness 41

Factors Associated with Success 42

Stress 43

Role of Parents 44

Conclusion 44

Summary 47

Entrance and Exit Examinations 47

Reactions to Examinations 48

Criticisms of the Examinations 48

Conclusions 49

Endnote 51

References 53

Introduction

One of the most difficult questions facingmany contemporary societies is

deciding how to allocate their expendituresfor education. Should emphasis be placed onprimary and secondary schools, or shouldcolleges and universities receive higher levelsof support? In a rapidly developing world,where technology and science playincreasingly important roles, will a society bein a better competitive position byemphasizing the basic primary and secondaryschool years, or by expanding the number ofstudents who attain degrees from postsecondary institutions?

These decisions occupy a great deal ofattention, but even more formidablequestions are raised once a decision isreached: How should students be selected foradmission to successively more demandinglevels of education? If access to colleges isreadily available, how can the quality ofeducation be maintained or improved? Onthe other hand, entrance to colleges anduniversities becomes highly competitive if thesociety concentrates its expenditures oneducation at the elementary and earlysecondary levels. Because the level ofeducation attained by individuals is a criticalvariable in determining social and financialstatus in all industrialized societies, thesequestions take on important political, social,and economic implications.

The resources provided for education withina society are obviously an important factorinfluencing the ways in which education issupported. Some societies are rich enough todevelop a wide array of institutions for thepursuit of higher learning, thereby making itpossible for large percentages of their

students to pursue advanced levels ofeducation. Even in these societies, however,some institutions offer more demandingcurricula than others. As a result, admissionto different institutions requires differentqualifications. Other societies, allocating lessfunding to higher education, are able toadmit only a small percentage of the studentsseeking admission each year. As a result,entrance to colleges and universities in thesesocieties is extremely competitive.

The United States is among the societies thatare examining the ways in which highereducation can yield the greatest benefit, bothfor the individual and for society in general.One approach that may be helpful in thisself-scrutiny is to find out how other highlyindustrialized societies handle theseproblems. What is the structure of highereducation in these societies and on whatbasis are students admitted to colleges anduniversities? Specifically, what roles do highschool exit examinations or college entranceexaminations play in determining collegeadmissions? What do students, parents, andteachers think about the usefulness andfairness of these examinations? Are theresults of the tests considered to be areasonable index of the students' knowledgeand potential for future success? How couldthe examinations be improved? Do the testsstrongly influence the high schoolcurriculum? Information relevant to theseand other questions is provided in this paper,which describes the role of exit and entranceexaminations in four of the industrializedcountries with leading economies: Japan, theUnited Kingdom, France, and Germany.

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The information presented in this paper wasobtained from reviews of the educationalsystems in the four countries and frominterviews held with small samples ofstudents, parents, and teachers during thelast three months of 1993. Interviews wereheld in two locations in each country and thestudents selected for interviews were in theirlast year of secondary school and wereexpecting to apply for admission to some ofthe best known universities in their country.Attempts were made in each country tointerview at least seven or eight students andtheir parents, and some of their teachers.Because of the small number of respondentsand our selection of university-boundstudents, the results of our interviews may

not be indicative of the reaction of thegeneral population to the procedures used forcollege entrance.

The paper is organized according to eachcountry. A general description of theeducational system is followed by an outlineof the college entrance requirements.Following this, the results of the interviewsare discussed and some typical reactions arepresented. Finally, a comparison is made ofthe apparent strengths and weaknessesrevealed by the interviews held in the fourcountries.

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Japan

Elementary and SecondaryEducation

Education in Japan is compulsory forchildren between the ages of 6 and 15.

These years encompass the six grades ofelementary school (shogakko) and the threeyears of junior high school (chugakko). Thereare two major types of high schools(kotogakko): academic high schools/ andvocational high schools. Education begins formost Japanese children when they enterkindergarten (yochien) or day-care centers(hoikuen or takujisho), both of which may beprivate or supported by the government.Yochien enroll children from the ages of threeto six; hoikuen accept even younger children.In 1994, 64 percent of all Japanesefirst-graders had completed some form ofpreschool. Preschools affiliated withprestigious universities are often selective,admitting children only after conducting testsand interviews; however, only around 1percent of the preschools require some formof admissions test (Kyoiku Deetarando, 1995).

Every child in Japan is required to attendelementary school, either a public school inthe student's residential district, or a privateor national school that may be outside thedistrict. This latter type of school issometimes affiliated with a prestigious privateor national university, and children areadmitted only after they pass special entryexaminations.

It is mandatory for all students to attendthree years of junior high school. As is thecase with elementary school, individuals maychoose to go either to local public schoolsthat automatically accept them, or to

competitive schools if they pass theexaminations.

Because the three years of high school are notcompulsory, everyone who wishes to receivean education in a public high school musttake an entrance examination that isadministered by each prefecture or city.Entrance examinations to national or privatehigh schools are administered by each highschool. In 1994, 95.7 percent of thegraduates of junior high schools applied tohigh school programs, and 95 percent ofthose were admitted.

Students who fail the examination or who donot qualify for admission to the school theywish to enter may decide to wait another yearto retake the test, especially if they are highlymotivated to attend a particular high school.Students who do not pass any of theexaminations may choose to attend othertypes of schools.

Approximately three-fourths of the highschool students in Japan enrolled in regularcourses in 1994. In addition, there is a veryelaborate system of alternative schools.Some, which are similar to Westernvocational scho61s, include commercial,industrial, agricultural, home economics,nursing, and marine high schools.Approximately 26 percent of high schoolstudents are enrolled in one of these types ofhigh schools.

In addition, there are technical schools (kotosenrnon gakko), special training schools(senshu gakko), and miscellaneous schools(kakushu gakko), which provide vocational ortechnical education. Students in thetechnical schools receive the equivalent of a

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high school education plus two years ofspecialized classes in areas such asengineering and marine studies on ajunior-college level. The special trainingschools offer ippan katei (general courses),koto katei (upper secondary courses equivalentto high school), and senmon katei (specializedcourses in which the students receive theequivalent of a postsecondary level ofeducation or practical training). The broadarray of schools falling under the heading ofmiscellaneous schools offers short-termcourses that are equivalent to those of thespecial training schools, but on a smallerscale. Admission to the upper secondarycourses requires the completion of the lowersecondary courses, and admission to thepostsecondary level courses requires thecompletion of upper secondary courses.

Much emphasis is placed in Japan upon theprestige of the university from which theperson graduates. Because it is important toattend a good high school in order to gainaccess to a prestigious university, parentalconcern about the high schoolentrance-examination process has increaseddramatically over the past several decades asentrance to universities has become morecompetitive. Graduating from high schoolqualifies a student to take thecollege-entrance examinations, although it ispossible for non-graduates to apply to collegeif they pass a special qualifying examination.There are no exit examinations at thecompletion of high school.

Junior Colleges and UniversitiesAmong the 1994 high school graduates, 36percent were enrolled in some type of collegeprogram. Among these students, 40 percentwere enrolled in the two-year programsoffered by junior colleges. Junior colleges areespecially popular with young women, for theprograms prepare students for various jobs as

well as providing a general education. Theremaining 60 percent of the studentsattending some type of college program wereenrolled in four-year colleges.

Individuals who wish to attend junior collegesor universities have to take and pass theentrance examination administered by eachcollege. Certain universities may waive theexamination requirement for a select numberof students who have attended an affiliatedhigh school. Since entrance examinationsare held only once a year (usually fromJanuary to March), students who fail theexamination must wait until the followingyear to retake the examinations.

Applying for UniversityEntrance

Competition for admission to the mostprestigious Japanese universities is veryintense. Part of the reason for the severecompetition is that the number of studentsadmitted to college has remained essentiallythe same over the years, even though thenumber of applicants has increaseddramatically. Universities are not allowed toincrease their enrollment without permissionfrom the Ministry of Education (Monbusho).In 1993, about half of all males applied tofour- year universities. Of these, 36.6 percentwere enrolled. Among females, 23.5 percentapplied to four-year institutions and 19percent were actually enrolled.

Before students are allowed to apply to auniversity, they are expected to havecompleted the equivalent of a high schooleducation and be at least 18 years of age bythe time they enter the university. To meetthe first requirement, individuals need tograduate from a high school or an equivalenteducational institution, or to pass an annuallyheld University Entrance Center Exam. Thistest covers the material taught at high school.

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Some students who are applying foradmission to the nation's top universities maystay at home during part of their senior yearor earlier, in order to have the free time theybelieve is necessary for adequate preparationfor the entrance examinations.

Once the two requirements are met, there isan established set of steps that must befollowed in applying for university entrance.Students may apply for admission to anynumber of universities and are limited only bythe dates of the examinations and thesubjects that are included in theexaminations. Some universities may not, forexample, offer examinations in the subjectswhich the student wishes to study. The stepsfor application vary somewhat depending onwhether the student is applying to a public, anational, or a private university.

Public and National Universities

Individuals seeking admission to national orpublic universities take two sets ofexaminations. The first set, the CenterExamination (Center shiken), is administeredevery January by the National Center forUniversity Entrance Examinations. Thisexamination is given at the same timethroughout the country and includes avariety of subjects, such as mathematics,science, history, language arts, humanities,and foreign languages. National universitiesgenerally require applicants to be tested onsix subjects; private universities usuallyrequire three or four. The CenterExamination consists of multiple-choicequestions.

The correct answers to all the examinationquestions are listed in the newspaper the dayafter the test, and students can evaluate theirown performance. Based on the total scorethey receive, students must then decide theuniversities to which they will apply.

The second set of tests taken by students arethe specific entrance examinationsconstructed for and administered by eachuniversity. They are administered on oneday, or possibly two days, and eachexamination lasts from one to three hours.The format for the examinations usuallyincludes multiple-choice questions, questionsrequiring short answers, long essays, and insome cases, oral responses or interviews.Highly competitive universities will notaccept applications for the secondexamination from students who do not scoreabove a certain level on the firstexamination. The minimum scores requiredby various universities are made available toall students.

The total score of the first and second sets ofexaminations is calculated (the weighting ofthe scores varies among universities), andacceptance is based nearly exclusively on thescore that is obtained. In order to allowstudents to apply to more than a singleuniversity, some universities schedule thesecond set of examinations on separate days.These schedules allow students opportunitiesthat were impossible in earlier years, when allnational universities gave their examinationson the same day.

Private Universities

A number of prestigious private universitiesalso require applicants to take the CenterExaminations, but in only three or foursubjects. Second examinations areadministered by each university, and the totalscore of the two tests, as well as otherqualifications, determines who is accepted.Private universities construct their ownexamination questions, and students have toprepare themselves for each university'sunique orientation.

Alternative Methods

In addition to entrance-examination scores,other avenues are available for admission toboth public and private universities.Students may be accepted by a universitythrough the recommendation (suisen) system,which currently accounts for nearly 20percent of the admissions. Japan's universitiesconsider two main types of recommendation:the "Allocated to School" recommendation(Shiteiko suisen) and the "Open to Public"recommendation (Kobo suisen). In the firsttype, universities accept a small number ofstudents from certain highly regarded highschools. Because these high schools are wellknown for their academic excellence,students recommended by the principals ofthese schools usually get accepted afterprocedural tests and interviews. Ifmore thanthe allocated number of students apply foradmission through this means, their teachersselect the top students on the basis ofacademic standing, personality, conduct,attendance, extracurricular activities, andleadership. The second type ofrecommendation is open to all students, butstudents must find out which universitiesaccept students by public recommendation.They then ask their teachers to recommendthem by filling in relevant sections of thecollege's application form. As with the firstsystem, entrance to these universitiesdepends on more than grades, for otherpersonal attributes also play an important rolein the teachers' recommendations.

The recommendation system for admission isespecially beneficial for students who do notperform up to their capacity in highlycompetitive examination settings. They notonly are relieved of this competition, but thestress for those who are successful is alsoreduced by the fact that admissions are

announced in the late fall, rather than in thespring after the examinations are given.

Juku

In response to the severe competition forcollege admission, many children are sent tospecial tutoring sessions known as juku, inorder to improve their academic abilities andincrease their chances of being admitted to atop university. Many parents believe that thehigh school curriculum does not adequatelyprepare students for the rigorous universityentrance examinations. This is especiallytrue of parents of students at public highschools, where the curriculum is directlycontrolled by the Ministry of Education orregional boards of education. The Ministrysets required hours for each subject, making itdifficult for teachers to have time to preparestudents for the college-entranceexaminations. In such cases the teachersoften acknowledge the necessity for studentsto attend juku to obtain such preparation.

Attendance at juku is widespread but variesgreatly, depending on the grade level of thestudent, the size of the city in which thestudent lives, and the family's income. Insome locations, only a small percentage of thehigh school students may attend juku; inother locations, more than half of thestudents in the second and third years of highschool study academic subjects at juku. Jukuare privately owned and sessions areexpensive; entrance fees can cost thousandsof dollars and monthly tuition severalthousand more.

University Expenses

Attending a Japanese university, especially aprivate university, can be quite costly. Theenrollment fees and tuition at privateuniversities are over four times as high as atpublic or national universities, where the

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enrollment fee is approximately $2,000 andthe yearly tuition is approximately $3,600. Ifthe universities to which the students areapplying are not in their immediate area, itmay cost an additional $1,000 just to makethe trips necessary to take thecollege-entrance examinations.

These high costs have led to concern aboutthe association between successful collegeentrance and financial support. Withoutmoney, choices are limited, for it is impossiblefor the child to attend juku or expensiveprivate schools, or for the family to employ atutor. There is growing uneasiness therefore,that students of average academic abilitiesmay be admitted to prestigious universities,because they have had access toopportunities and experiences that areespecially relevant for doing well on collegeentrance examinations.

Ronin

Due to the highly competitive nature ofcollege entrance in Japan, many students arenot accepted into a university. This has ledto the "ronin era," a phenomenon ofincreasing frequency in which students waitto retake the yearly examinations and placeother options on hold. Some students giveup all aspirations for entering a college oruniversity and seek a job or enroll in specialtraining schools. Others may enroll in specialtraining schools and wait until the universityentrance examinations are given thefollowing year, when they can try once moreto achieve a passing grade. Ronin spend theirtime preparing for the next round of entranceexaminations. It is acceptable for sons tomaintain their status as ronin for two or moreyears, especially if they are seeking admissionto a leading university, but parents areunlikely to allow their daughters to adopt thisrole for more than a single year.

Reactions to the CollegeEntrance System

Need for Entering College

Most of the persons interviewed wereconvinced that it is important for students toachieve a college education. Both parentsand teachers indicated that it is not onlyimportant to attend a university, but thatparticular universities offered specialadvantages. One teacher pointed out that:

graduates from prestigious universitiesare guaranteed higher positions andstatus in our society. They get betterjobs, faster promotions, better marriages,and an all-around better life. That iswhy people aspire to being admitted tothose universities.

A few others thought that a collegeeducation was not alwaS a necessity. Thisview was expressed by one of the parents:

I don't think that a college education is100 percent necessary: Maybe 50/50. Inthe present system, even if peoplegraduate from college, they are notprepared for special occupations orskills. People can study by themselvesfor what is taught at college. I don'tthink that my son has to go to collegestraight out of high school. If he knowsWhat he wants to study in college, Iwould encourage him and welcome sucha goal-oriented attitude.

General Satisfaction

The teachers who were interviewed weresatisfied with some aspects of the overallcollege-admission process. They commentedfavorably about the confidentiality of theexamination questions and the way they weremarked. They also agreed that students whostudy hard and do well on the examinations

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have excellent chances ofgetting into auniversity. Some teachers, however,complained about the types of questions thatappear on the examinations. Theyquestioned the usefulness of paper-and-penciltests. These tests, they suggested, requiredstudents to rely too much on memory and toolittle upon the ability to apply thisinformation to the solution of meaningfulproblems. A similar attitude was expressedby one of the students:It only seems to assesstechniques for taking exams. As for sciencesubjects, weshould value the process ofself-discovery and self-learning. I feel that Iam being tested only on accumulatedknowledge.

Teachers also had serious concerns about therecommendation system. This system wasdesigned to benefit high school students whohave studied hard but who, for one reason oranother, are not good at taking entranceexaminations. Currently, however, many ofthe students seeking admission byrecommendation simply want to get intocollege earlier, with the result that studentswho would have benefited from therecommendation system are losing theirchances. One of the teachers complained:

Students adopt the strategy of aiming fora recommendation from the time theybegin high school. The high schoolexperience becomes simply a means ofgaining the recommendation.

Most of the teachers suggested that Japanadopt a system that makes it easier to beadmitted to college but harder to graduate.This, they proposed, would lessen the fiercecompetition for university entrance whilestrengthening the incentive within eachstudent to study hard to graduate fromcollege. Such a change would be in responseto the common charge in Japan that thecollege years are a time of relaxation between

the arduous high school years and thosefollowing college when students will enter thelabor force and once again will be faced withintense competition. One of the teachersexplained it this way:

I think it would be better if the studentscould get in their desired colleges, butthat it would be more difficult tograduate. Japanese teachers tend to belenient and merciful to slow-learningstudents and it is difficult for them togive a failing grade to those students.We should establish an organizationthat administers a university graduationqualification test. Students who don'tpass the test would not be allowed tograduate.

Most mothers who were interviewed acceptedthe present .college-entrance system with fewquestions. Their main concern was for theirchildren to pass the examinations and to beaccepted into a university, and few werecritical of the procedures that currently exist.They considered the entrance examinationsto be a necessary screening device, ratherthan as a means for assessing the fitness ofapplicants to each university. In their view,the present system might be subject tocriticism, but the necessity of using some typeof selection device due to the limited capacityof each university seemed to be well accepted.

This was not always the case, however. Someparents worried that the demands of theentrance examination were changing thecharacteristics of Japanese students. Becausestudents spend so much time preparing forentrance examinations, the parents wereconcerned that they were reducing theamount of time spent in group activities.Team play in the minds of these parents isessential, and "Learning oriented toward theindividual does not foster an ability tocooperate with others. " It is in this way, they

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said, that the present examination system ischanging the lives of Japanese students.

Parents were also highly critical of theuniversity system as it exists in Japan andwondered whether profound changes incollege curricula and admissions standardsmight not be needed. One of the fathersexpressed these criticisms:

I wish the college education would fosteran ability the student already possessesand that students could graduate with afeeling of accomplishment. They shouldteach practical skills and knowledge,things that are useful in the real world.It seems that the Japanese collegeeducation is a waste of money and input.Students' academic levels may well behigher at the time of entry than that ofthe graduates. Graduates of Japaneseuniversities cannot make use of theircollege education in their occupations.

Fairness

Students' responses to the fairness of thesystem varied. One said that "it is fairbecause if we study hard, we can get intocollege, although the once-a-year chancemight be a problem." Another felt that:

competition is a natural outcome of thefact that there is an excess in thedemand for college entrance. In the realworld, competition often involves morethan the individual's abilities andtalented persons may not always getpromoted or acknowledged. In thatsense, the exam system is fair sinceentrance is determined solely on thebasis of academic achievement.'

Some teachers criticized the multiple-choicenature of the Center Examinations becausethey could lead to scores that might beunduly high or low because of luck or

guessing. They appeared to be satisfied withthe scoring and the reasonableness of theCenter Examinations, but were not satisfiedwith the fact that the second set ofexaminations also stresses skill-orientedlearning that often relies heavily onmemorization. They were aware of the effortsbeing made to improve the system, andseemed to believe that the presentexamination system, despite its shortcomings,is acceptable.

More than half of the mothers interviewedsaid they had not given any consideration tothe fairness of the present examinationsystem. One of the questions they raiseddealt with the validity of requiring themastery of a large amount of information."The examinations," said one of the mothers,"should select those students who will benefitmost from college education rather thanthose who score well on memorization tests."In general, however, the mothers expressedvery few criticisms. This may be due in partto the relatively passive role played by parentsin the college-entrance process. In mostcases, students decide their own academiccourses and make their own choices aboutthe examinations they will take.

Some students thought the examinationsystem was fair and acceptable; otherspointed out its shortcomings, especially thoseconcerning the inability of the present formatof the examination to evaluate relevantpersonal characteristics.

There can be no perfect system. Iunderstand that some shortcomingswould always exist. But if possible, Iwould like to see an improvement in theselection process so that personalcharacteristics would be given moreconsideration, rather than simply relyingonly on academic achievement.

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Some students commented on the content ofthe exams: "If someone is not good at one ofthe subjects and fails that test, he cannot getin regardless of his hard work." Another ofthe students suggested:

I would not say that the presententrance exam system is a fair one.Students cannot express their passionabout a subject, their high motivation toenter a college, to exam administrators.Nor does the test assess the individual'sknowledge in his or her special field ofinterest.

The increasing role of juku was also criticized,primarily because attendance at juku givesspecial advantage to students whose familiescan afford to pay the high tuition. Juku areexpensive and many families do not have thefunds necessary for tuition; thus children inthese families do not have the sameopportunities for passing the entranceexaminations as the well-drilled studentsfrom more affluent families.

In general, all interviewees (teachers, parents,and students) felt that the present entranceexaminations are functioning as screeningdevices. The nature of the present selectionprocess raised some concerns, but thenecessity of having such screening due to thelimited capacity of each university seems tobe well accepted.

Factors Associated With Success

Teachers associated successful collegeadmission with several factors. Someemphasized students' skills and achievementsbased on daily efforts and the ability tocompete well. Others mentioned confidenceand mental factors, such as the ability to staycalm and relaxed during the examinations.In general, most agreed with the teacher whosaid that "those who have developed positiveattitudes toward studying and who do not

give up easily on difficult problems are likelyto foster confidence within themselves andsucceed on the exams." One teacheremphasized:

It is important not to be extremely badat one subject and to be good at onesubject, preferably math, as it isrelatively easier to score higher anddifferentiate themselves from others onthe math test. Ofcourse, hard work isnecessary. However, I think I can seeduring the last year of high school thatthose who are born with talent naturallyexcel others. As a teacher, I should notbe saying this, but I can't deny thatinborn ability also plays an importantrole in determining success.

Mothers believed that effort was animportant predictor of success: "Withouthard study, no luck works. Overnightcramming is not enough." The importance ofmental factors, especially the ability to keepone's composure, were also mentioned. Onemother described her feelings in the followingway:

To maintain composure, we should beprepared for every situation. If theweather turns out to be bad, resulting ina traffic problem, we should reserve ahotel room near the university. Ifstudents are late for an exam, it is goingto make the students even morenervous. As a parent, I want my child tobe in the exam room with enough timeand minimum worry.

Students suggested effort, luck, and physicaland mental conditions on the day of theexamination as factors associated withsuccess. Students also commented that theeconomic or family situation had an indirecteffect on successful college admission. Onestated:

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Individuals who have grown up in anenvironment of educational stimuli andopportunities would naturally considergoing to college. To enter a prestigiouscollege, I have to go to a good highschool and junior high school. Then togo to a good junior high, preparationmust begin during the days ofelementary school.

Stressfulness of the Examinations

Most of the teachers, parents, and studentswho were interviewed seemed to view stressas an inevitable part of the college-admissionprocess. Stress is a natural consequence, theyseemed to believe, of the competition facedby students, the pressure the students feel intrying to meet parental and self-expectations,and the fact that graduating from certainuniversities greatly determines the course oftheir future lives. Some felt that the stresslevel could be lowered by applying to lessprestigious universities or by accepting theronin life to study for another year. Studentsdid not dwell on the stress factor. As onestudent said, "We might be stressed. But wecan't feel it. If we feel we are stressed, that'sit. We have no room left to feel stress."

Role of Schools and Teachers

Some schools, usually private schools and topurban public schools, prepare students forcollege entrance examinations byoccasionally giving practice examinations andby providing extracurricular classes to helpstudents make up or review particularsubjects. In addition, high schools haveguidance rooms for advising students aboutfuture courses in which they might enroll.Teachers are available as a source ofinformation for students, although moststudents seem to know what they need to doand only occasionally talk to their teachersabout the college-admission process. In

addition, every class has a homeroom teacherwho is responsible for guiding and taking careof the whole class. The 12th-grade teachersalso help students prepare for theexaminations by providing them withinformation in their specific subject areas.To provide further assistance, teachersschedule a meeting each semester withstudents and their mothers. At this meetingthey give out the report card and advise thestudent about his or her selection of courses.Teachers also arrange for programs in whichall 12th-grade students and their parents aregiven a lecture about college entranceexaminations.

Another important source of information isthe juku teacher. Juku teachers collect thestudents' estimates of the scores they receivedon the tests and are able to provide studentswith a chart that indicates the distribution ofscores for all students enrolled in juku of aparticular company. Other students mayreceive the evaluation by payment of a fee.This information is especially helpful becausethe actual scores on the entranceexaminations are sent only to the universitiesand not to the students themselves. Knowingthis information, even though it may not beexact, places students in a better position tomake decisions about universities to whichthey are most likely to gain admission.

Because the examinations are based on thecontent of the national curriculum, it isimperative that teachers in all schools coverthe entire curriculum. This is madeespecially difficult because the examinationsare given before the 12th grade is completed.Schools respond to these problems in severalways. Some schools may actually attempt tocover the entire high school curriculum inless than three years so that there will be timeleft over for preparing students for the collegeentrance examinations. Other schools offerextra classes during vacation periods in an

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effort to compensate for the lack of time tocomplete the entire curriculum. In someschools, where most students aim for the verytop universities, classes are offered accordingto topic and university, so that there may be acourse, for example, labeled TokyoUniversity/Humanities Course.

Role of Parents

The mothers said that their primaryresponsibility was to provide their childrenwith a good environment for studying and tokeep them in the best possible physicalcondition by preparing nutritious meals andkeeping them healthy. Some parents helpedtheir children determine which courses totake in junior high or high school, but not atthe college-entrance level: "At this age, wehave to leave it to them." Despite their lackof direct involvement, parents' highmotivation for their children's success on theentrance examinations is obvious. A highscore is a source of jubilation for the wholefamily; a low score is a source of gloom.

ConclusionIn general, most of the interviewees expressedsome acceptance of the present educationalsystem and the manner in which studentsgain access to higher education. Even so,there were serious criticisms of the collegeentrance examination system, mainly thereliance on the tests of students' ability tomemorize and the unfairness that results fromthe inability of some students to obtain extrahelp in institutions such as juku. Despitesome of the system's shortcomings, teachers,

parents, and students acknowledged the factthat efforts are being made to improve theoverall college-admission process and theentrance examinations. They expect thatthere will be more changes in the future. Incontrast to an image of an over-zealousmother, the impression of parents' roleamong those who were interviewed was oneof passivity. They rarely take the initiativewith their children's academic lives, whetherit is in the selection of high school courses orin attempts to help their children with thecollege entrance examinations. Theyfrequently responded with statements such as"I don't know" or "I never thought about it"when asked about their understanding of theprocedures for entering the university. Theirnon-involvement sounded as if they did notbelieve this was their job or that they wouldbe expected to understand these procedures.

It seems likely that these positive responses tothe present system characterize the parentsand teachers, as well as the studentsthemselves, when information is obtainedfrom those who agreed to be interviewed,who have high aspirations, and who have ahigh probability of being admitted to one ofthe nation's top universities. Doubtless thereactions would be different if interviews wereheld with students who were not faring wellin this system; that is, with students whobelieved they did not have a chance of beingadmitted to a prestigeful university, or whohad no plans for entering a university aftergraduating from high school.

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The United Kingdom

The British Educational System

S tudents in England, Wales, Scotland andNorthern Ireland follow an orderly route

through their school years. Compulsoryeducation in Britain begins at 5 years of ageand ends at 16; post-16 education continuesonly for highly academically proficientstudents. The British educational system isorganized to serve the highly academicstudent well, but its rigorous path touniversity entrance leaves out a largepercentage of the student population. In anattempt to serve all students better, a numberof legislative changes were introduced in theEducation Reform Act of 1988. Thesechanges included the introduction of "schoolsof choice," the establishment of a nationalcurriculum to be fully implemented by 1997,and a more coherent educational path for thenonacademic student. The impact of theseand other changes will not be apparent forseveral years, and may not directly affectthose students aiming for the top universities.

Primary and SecondaryEducation

Infant and junior schools offer primaryeducation to children between the ages of 5and 11; various types of middle schools offersecondary education to students until theyreach age 14. In the past, students weregiven an examination at age 11 designed tosort them into two ability levels: about 20percent went to Grammar schools, whichserved university-bound students; the restwent to Secondary Modern schools.Beginning ift 1965, however, this system waslargely replaced by Comprehensive schools,

which serve all ability levels. Although a fewselective Grammar schools still remain,currently about 90 percent of all 14-year-oldsattend Comprehensive schools.

Beginning at 14 years of age, British studentsbegin the course work that will largely shapetheir academic futures. It is at this age thatthey begin the two-year courses of study thatculminate in the examinations given in Juneof the second year for the General Certificateof Secondary Education (GCSE). Among16-year-olds, nearly three-fourths wereenrolled in a full-time course of study in 1993- 94; this percentage dropped at age 17 toslightly over half of the students and at age18 only one in five remained in a full-timeeducational program.The GCSE is part of a single examinationsystem covering England, Wales, Scotlandand Northern Ireland, and includesapproximately 30 subjects. This two-yearperiod of study is very important because thefinal grades on the GCSE examinationslargely determine whether a student is able toproceed to the Advanced Level courses,which constitute the major gateway to auniversity education. Students planning toenter a university typically study 8 to 10subjects throughout the two years; lessacademically inclined students study fewersubjects.

Final grades are based on course work as wellas students' performance on the finalexamination. Generally, students mustachieve a grade of C or above on five or moreGCSEs (grades range from A to G) toadvance to the next educational level. Onlyabout a third of the 16-year-olds who takethe GCSEs achieve this level of performance,

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and of this select group about 80 percentactually begin Advanced Level course work.As a result, only about 25 percent of thestudents in this age group go on to post-16education. The remaining 75 percentgenerally follow one of three paths: (1) theyenter the employment sector; (2) they pursuetechnical or vocational courses; or (3) theyreturn to school to retake their GCSEs.

The next level of accomplishment, whichoccurs between the ages of 16 and 18, isassessed by the Advanced Level GeneralCertificate of Education (GCE). TheAdvanced Level GCE is a two-year course ofstudy designed to prepare the mostacademically able students for universityentrance. Students aiming for the topuniversities generally take A-level courses inthree of the 30 possible subjects over the twoyears; thus it is widely acknowledged thatbreadth is sacrificed for depth of knowledge.The traditional A-level course, which ishighly rigorous and specialized, is designed toqualify students for further specialization intheir anticipated undergraduate degree areas.Among young people between the ages of 16and 25 years in 1991, 29 percent hadA-levels, 33 percent had GCSEs, 30 percenthad attained neither of these qualifications,and 8 percent had enrolled in an institutionof higher education.

In order to broaden the curriculum,Advanced Supplementary (AS)Examinations were introduced in 1987. Theyinvolve about half the work of A-levelcourses and are designed to increase thenumber of subjects students can study duringthe two years. (A student may choose to taketwo A-level and two AS-level courses insteadof three A-level subjects.) However, the ASExaminations have not been widely acceptedby students, teachers, or universities.

A-level students not only accumulate a highdegree of knowledge in their chosen subject,but they also undergo a rigorous finalexamination of their ability to apply thisknowledge. Both the course of study and theexaminations are set by external ExaminationBoards, composed of professionals ineducation or with expertise in the relevantsubject area. Students are typically tested attheir own schools over a two- to three-weekperiod during June of their second year. Foreach A-level subject there may be three orfour examinations, each lasting two to threehours or even longer. Of the examinations,one is usually composed of multiple-choicequestions; the others are in the form of long,open-ended essay questions, oralpresentations, or laboratory demonstrations.Grading is done by non-partisan externalexaminers engaged by an Examination Board.

To qualify for university entrance, a studentmust achieve at least two or more passes atthe A-level. Grades of A to E are given foreach A/AS-level examination; points arethen awarded for each grade. It is the totalnumber of accumulated points thatdetermines whether a student will beaccepted into a particular university course orprogram.

Of the estimated 18-year-old population in1992, roughly 21 percent of the studentstaking the examinations attained passes ontwo or more A/AS-level exams; of this group,however, only 55 percent, or only 12 percentof the 18-year-old population, went on to a 3-or 4-year university. The remaining studentseither sought employment, retook the A-levelexams, or began vocational or technicalcourses. Although nontraditional routes tocollege entrance exist, especially foruniversities offering vocational courses, thehighly academic A-level exams are the mostimportant route to university entrance.

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In 1993, the General National VocationalQualifications were introduced in order todevelop the skills and knowledge of studentswho intend to pursue a vocational course inareas such as business, engineering, andhealth care. The long-term aim is for half ofthe 16- and 17-year olds to take this test.Supplementing this effort, a NationalVocational Qualifications Test for personswho are already employed but seek furthertraining was introduced in 1988.

Universities

Britain has 49 universities; of these, 31 wereestablished after 1945, while 6, called theancient universities (including Oxford andCambridge, jointly termed Oxbridge), wereestablished between the 13th and 16thcenturies. The universities offer bothgraduate and undergraduate education; thetypical undergraduate is a full-time studentwho obtains his or her degree in three years.Students may also obtain degrees throughone of Britain's 29 Polytechnics. ThePolytechnics, which were established in 1966,have a more vocational or technical emphasisand are often linked with industry andbusiness. As of 1993, the majority of thePolytechnics were awarded university status;they are now referred to as the newuniversities, with the original 49 universitiesbeing referred to as the old universities. Inaddition, Britain's Open University, whichhas no entrance requirements, enrolls 72,000part-time undergraduates in correspondenceand broadcasting courses.

Britain's universities are relatively small. TheUniversity of London, with nearly 40,000students enrolled in its various colleges, is thecountry's largest residential university. Otherthan universities such as Oxford, Leeds, andManchester, each of which enrollsapproximately 10,000 students, the

enrollment at the remaining universitiesseldom exceeds 2,000 or 3,000 students.

Because of the small size of the universities,most students are able to engage insmall-group instruction. The tutorial style ofteaching, in which a professor holds weeklyseminars with one to three undergraduates, isa feature not only of Oxbridge, but of manyof the old universities as well. Most of the olduniversities grant degrees based on astudent's performance on examinations givenat the end of the three-year period of study.A student's course work and performance onyearly or term examinations may alsocontribute to the final result, although this ismore likely to be true at the new universities.Another unique feature of the British systemis that students who are accepted to auniversity are entitled to both free tuitionand a grant covering living expenses.Although this was designed to ensure thathigh-ability students have access to auniversity education regardless of income, theamount of the grant has been frozen in recentyears, causing a financial hardship to somelower-income students.

Applying for Entrance

The application procedures for universityentrance changed in 1993 because of the newstatus given to the Polytechnics. Apart fromOxbridge, there is now a single applicationform (UCAS) for both the old and newuniversities. The application form includesthe following five parts: (1) the student'sacademic record, especially the gradesreceived on the GCSE exams; (2)recommendations from the students' tutors,including projected grades on the A-levelexams; (3) a one-page personal statementdescribing reasons for applying, hobbies, andother interests; (4) background informationabout the student and the student's family;and (5) a ranked list of eight universities to

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which the student wishes to apply. TheUCAS form must be completed bymid-December of the second A-levelacademic year. Teachers often help studentswith these forms and this project is a constantsource of interest and activity in the lastquarter of the calendar year.

The whole application process is somewhat ofa gamble since students do not know theirA-level grades at the time of application. Asa result, they must exert great care inchoosing the list of universities to which theyapply. The forms are sent to a centralclearing house and copies are issued to all ofthe universities chosen by the student.Promising candidates are interviewed by theuniversities and may be offered a conditionalor an unconditional offer. A conditionaloffer is given when a student's acceptance isdependent on receiving certain grades on theupcoming A-level examinations;unconditional offers, given to those studentsthe universities want most, are not dependenton eventual grades.

Grades are a crucial determinant of collegeadmission. If grades are not acceptable,conditional acceptance is never granted; ifgrades turn out not to be sufficiently high,the conditional offer is revoked. A thirdfactor that also influences the decision is thestudent's interests and skills, especially if theyare seen to be a potential asset to theuniversity. Entrance is granted to a particularacademic department, such as physics orpsychology, not to the university itself.(Entrance procedures differ for Oxford andCambridge. Students may apply individuallyto either of these universities, but not toboth, and they must decide the collegeswithin the university in which they wouldlike to be enrolled.)

If students fail to get into the universities oftheir choice, their applications are sent to a

clearing house, where their applications arematched against vacancies in universitydepartments. Other options includerepeating the A-level course in high school,taking the year off and trying again thefollowing year, enrolling in private"crammers," or taking a job that is combinedwith a program that enables the student to domore vocational courses.

Reactions to the EntranceExamination System

Desire for Entering the University

All the parents interviewed were supportiveof their children's decision to seek universityentrance. Many parents saw the degree as aroute to "more secure employment;" otherssaid it "doesn't necessarily mean you will geta job." The latter made comments such asthose of the following two parents:

a. I don't think going to college isimportant. I wouldn't pressure any ofthem if they didn't want to do it. Theyhave a lot of fun; it's a good qualificationwhich may or may not get them a job.It's a valuable experience - gets themaway from home.

b. I used to think it was very important, achance to think, to grow, to studysomething. Recently it's worse for thegraduates. It is not a passport; it doesn'tnecessarily mean you will get a job.

General Satisfaction

Students generally explained that theythought the entrance procedure was fair.One parent called it "a good system but hardon the kids," but another complained that"people are pitted against one another; thereis no room for the disadvantaged." Someteachers said that the narrow but focusedcurriculum served the universities better than

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the students, although it did increase thelikelihood that students who enter auniversity would leave with a degree.

The main concerns expressed by theinterviewees centered around the system'sover-reliance on examinations and the degreeto which social class and ethnicity predicteduniversity entrance. "If you are not good atexaminations, you can mess up your wholefuture." This sentiment was voiced by manyinterviewees, since the highly academicA-level examinations form the main criteriafor university entrance. Many also felt thattoo much weight was placed on the GCSEexams, since the only grades that appear onthe college application form are the projectedA-level grades. Criticisms of the GCSEexaminations also dealt with the number ofsubjects covered. One student criticizedthem in this way:

The GCSEs are a kind of fraud. Youhave to work so hard for the ninesubjects, then they seem like nothing.You don't use them again. You go on todo three A-levels and the rest are lost.

Students from families in the professionaland managerial sector are four times morelikely to apply to and be accepted at auniversity than are students from families oflower socioeconomic status. In addition,working-class students who do apply foruniversity entrance often have troublecoming up with the money needed for livingexpenses. Not surprisingly, then, of the smallsample of students and parents interviewed,those from working-class backgrounds wereless likely to view the system as fair. "Thereis no real support for poor families," said oneparent. "Children are very expensive at thatage. There is no grant to do A-levels. Youcan't afford to be poor."

The advantages held by middle-class studentswere not only related to finances; parents and

students both expressed the belief thatmiddle-class parents could help their childrenwith their personal statements and bycounseling them about their academiccareers. Teachers pointed out that this beliefis only partially correct, for teachers spendmany hours helping students with thesematters. Gender also affected the perceptionof fairness; many females saw their careerchoices as being restricted.

Curriculum

The A-level curriculum was generallyregarded by students and teachers as bothinteresting and challenging. Students areexpected to do three to four hours ofhomework a night for the A-level courses. Inaddition, the students meet with their formtutor once a week and also obtain help fromtheir teachers. When the students were askedabout their A-level subjects, they respondedthat they found them quite intellectuallychallenging and stimulating. They alsothought they were quite difficult.

Some students and teachers were notsatisfied with the GCSE curriculum. Studentsdescribed the move from GCSE to A-levelcourse work as a "great jump" and a"phenomenal gap." However, one reason forthis perception may be that the GCSEs havebecome somewhat less focused in recent yearsin order to serve the school-leaver as well asthe student progressing to the A-level. Thus,this may be a criticism of the adequacy of theGCSE examination as a foundation for theA-levels that follow, rather than of theiradequacy per se.

Some teachers believed that the A-levelsyllabi were too packed. "There are big timeconstraints; too much material. People whoget A grades must be slavishly adherent to anexcellent teacher." Another teacher saidthat "there is not enough scope for the

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students to develop their own knowledge"and "students who seek to understand thematerial can put themselves at adisadvantage." A third teacher said of thecurriculum: "It is always challenging andstimulating; there are new ways ofapproaching the subject and it is demandingintellectually." However, most regarded thetwo-year A-level courses as very goodpreparation for university course work.

Fairness

In general, teachers said that the A-levelexams are a "rigorous method of selectingstudents who have the ability to absorb largeamounts of information." They suggestedthat the exams are "demanding and fair,though occasionally you get an unfair paperor question," and that "the exams aregenerally a fair test of what the studentsshould know, and sometimes are quiteingenious." Teachers whose classescontained students of mixed social andethnic backgrounds were more likely to becritical. There was agreement that thedisadvantaged are not served by this system.The teachers suggested that theexaminations are:

not entirely fair to the number ofstudents of this age who have difficultysustaining themselves during thetwo-year A-level courses. Thedisadvantaged population is not servedby this system, as they are not gettingparental support. The amount of workis large and cannot be accomplishedwithout a good background of support.

Another said, "People are pitted against eachother, as if they all started at the same place"a condition that obviously is not met. Therewas a feeling, too, that Oxbridge and some ofthe older universities were elitist and studentssometimes chose not to apply to these

universities, not only because they did notbelieve they could get in, but also becausethey expected that they would not like theirfellow students.

Difficulty

The consensus was that the A-levelexaminations were hard and that getting ahigh score depended on the student'sknowledge. At the same time, both studentsand teachers complained that the GCSEexaminations taken at 16 years of age did notadequately prepare the students for the levelof difficulty or degree of commitmentrequired for pursuing A-level course work,especially in mathematics and physics.

Limited Choices

Nearly all of the parents and students, butnot all of the teachers, commentedunfavorably on the limited choice of A-levelsubjects. The A-level system appeared to begeared toward those students, who, at age 16,had developed a very focused interest in aparticular subject. Although the newlyintroduced AS-Level examinations weredesigned to alleviate this problem byincreasing the number of subjects studied,most students did not take advantage of thisopportunity. It was frequently suggested that16 was too young to be "picking out a futurecareer, when you feel like sitting on the fencenot dedicating yourself to any one subject."

Factors Associated with Success

When asked which factors are associatedwith successful college entrance, responsesincluded early preparation, the proper choiceof university and degree, personal attributes,and work experience.

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Early Preparation

Early identification of possible career choicesand areas of interest was seen as beinghelpful. Many parents, however, reported afeeling of "not knowing how to help," andconsidered the counseling services offered bythe schools not always to be effective. Infact, most parents and students did not thinkabout university entrance requirements untilGCSE subjects were actually chosen whenthe students were 14 years old. At this timestudents must identify possible career choices,for the courses chosen play an important partin preparing students for their later careers.Not only must a decision be made aboutwhether to focus on the humanities orsciences, but specific courses must be chosen.If, for example, science is not chosen at thistime, it is very difficult to take sciencecourses at a later time.

Choice of University and Degree

Many of those interviewed said it was criticalthat students target the right universities bymaking full use of the ranking system on theUCAS form . Students are limited to twofinal choices. This leads to difficult decisions.One teacher asked, "Do they choose a verygood university for the first choice, and anintermediate university as a back-up? Thenthey have to take the second choice if theyfail to get into the first one." The top choicesshould represent a stretch for the student; thebottom choices (generally the newuniversities) should be more attainable.Additionally, many interviewees shared thesentiment expressed by one teacher that"science and engineering students can get inanywhere but the humanities andprofessional schools are oversubscribed. Thecompetition is very fierce for those students."

Personal Attributes and WorkExperience

Students' personal skills and talents oftenplay a role, though not necessarily a decisiveone, in determining university entrance. "Ifyou can show you have wide interests in a lotof things, this is more appealing." Severalstudents and parents also mentioned theimportance of organized work experience ortraining, which most students undertook inthe summer after taking the GCSEs. Thisexperience was reported as being useful tostudents, for it provided work experience fortheir personal statements and also gave themrelevant experience in choosing or rejectingparticular careers.

Students, parents, and teachers alsoemphasized the importance of hard work asthe means of attaining high scores on theexaminations. Because parents and studentsthink the examinations are difficult,"students cannot get away with studying atthe last moment". In order to be successful,the students should, according to one parent,"have an extremely organized mind, but notbe a workaholic." Teachers also emphasizedstrong self-motivation and good thinkingskills. According to the teachers, thestudents must "show a genuine interest andenjoyment of their subject;" "they shouldthink clearly, have good analytical skills,stamina, with the ability to sustainthemselves through the course and work hardfrom the beginning." Other parents andstudents mentioned factors such as being ableto take tests well and having goodpreparation, good early parenting, and highintelligence. A few mentioned creativity andimagination, but were divided as to whetherthis would be a help or a hindrance.

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Stress

Parents and students regarded a singleassessment at the end of two years asparticularly stressful and unfair, even thoughthis assessment is often spread over multipleexaminations. Although many students didnot view the GCSE exams as excessivelystressful, most assumed the A-levels were"going to be horrendous."

If you are not good at examinations,there is a problem; two years of workcould go down the drain in a matter ofhours if you had a bad day during theexamination.

Role of Parents, Teachers, and Schools

Most parents reported playing a minimal rolein helping with their children's schoolwork;they perceived their role to be mostlysupportive. One mother said that she did nothave "the knowledge and expertise to help,and that worries me." Many of the parentshad not attended university and, as onemother said, "I don't have a clue about theentry requirements." The parents sawthemselves as helping their child by reducingchores, setting aside a quiet place to study,buying books, and providing financialsupport, rather than directly helping theirchild with the procedures involved in theuniversity applications. In only one familywas a tutor hired. This was considered to bemost unusual.

Although most parents helped their childrendecide which GCSEs and A-levels to take,the actual process of gaining entrance to auniversity was generally left to the studentsand the schools. At school, students haveboth academic and form tutors. Academictutors help students with A-level material;form tutors discuss general issues and act asguides to university entrance. Most teachersreported that parent-school interaction was

minimal, but nearly all saw the students'success to be dependent on an implicitpartnership between parents and teachers.

Teachers and schools seemed to play themajor role in preparing students for universityentrance. For example, mock A-levelexaminations are generally given in Januaryand February of the second year. In thesepractice sessions, teachers describe theexamination, show students how to "read"examination questions, and teach studentshow to pace themselves throughout theexamination.

Generally, there was little communicationbetween teachers and parents about collegeentrance. Parents went to their child'sschool, they said, to demonstrate interest intheir child's education, rather than to obtainspecific information. On the other hand,teachers were more likely to emphasize theimportance of a partnership between parentsand teachers in helping the student throughthis period of decision.

ConclusionThe British system of higher education ishighly selective and specialized, and manystudents, parents, and teachers expresseddiscontent with some of its characteristics.First, because the Advanced-Level coursesand examinations, the main determinants ofuniversity entrance, are taken by only aquarter of the population, the systemeffectively excludes the majority from post-16education. Second, the standards set by theseexaminations are so high as to be called "thegold standard," enabling youth with strongacademic interests to pursue a subject to adegree of rigor almost unequaled elsewhere.But there is a cost. Because students generallystudy only three subjects between the ages of16 and 18, students have great depth ofknowledge, but little breadth. Third,

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students have to make early choices as totheir future careers, often as early as 14 yearsof age. These three factors the elite natureof the system, its lack of breadth, and themajor choices required at an early age werecauses of concern among those interviewed.There was some discontent, too, with thetypes of persons selected by the examinations:"The universities don't really look at whatkind of a person the student is. You end upwith high fliers, such as doctors who are veryclever, academic types, but who lack socialskills."

Most agreed, however, that the students whodo complete their university education attaina high level of knowledge in the subjectwhich they concentrate their studies. Afterthree years of study most British studentscomplete their degrees and leave theuniversity with the equivalent in terms of

content mastered of a U.S. master's degree.Therefore, while the British system of highereducation serves its top students very well,the majority of the student population iseffectively excluded from university entrance.Thus, the goal as seen by many in Britain isto increase the number and diversity ofstudents who are able to attain a universitydegree, as well as to develop morecomprehensive programs for itsnon-academic students. Goals for trainingnon-academic students by means ofvocational courses and experiences are highand the success in meeting. These goals maylead to less discomfort with the system thanhas characterized British education in thepast.

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France

prior to entering elementary school, allfour- and five-year olds in 1994-95 and

99.5 percent of three-year olds in Franceattend nursery schools, which are free but notobligatory. Between the ages of 6 and 16,however, everyone must attend school.

Elementary and Primary Systems

The French educational system is dividedinto three levels: primary, secondary, andsuperior. Primary school (e'cole e'le'mentaire)is for children ages 6 toll; secondary schoolis typically for 11- to 17-year-olds. Secondaryschool consists of four years of middle school(colle'ge), and three years of high school. In1994-95, over 90 percent of the students atage 16 in France were in school, but only 70percent entered the last year of high school.

Although tracking does not begin formallyuntil after the ninth grade, some separationof students begins at the eighth grade, wherefour kinds of classes are offered: general,technical, preprofessional, and preparatoryclasses for the professional examination.

At the ninth grade, students enroll in one ofthree types of schools. Students interested inattending college enroll in academic highschools (lyce'e). These high schools areoriented toward the preparation of studentsfor the baccalaureat, an examination given atthe end of the last year of high school.Passing this "exit" examination has greatsignificance, especially for students interestedin pursuing further education. Responsibilityfor the baccalaureat, as well as for such thingsas determining and paying teachers' salaries,lies in the hands of the national government

in France's highly centralized educationalsystem.

Students who are interested in technical orprofessional training may enroll in technicalhigh schools or in schools offeringapprenticeship programs. In the technicalhigh schools, students may study varioustypes of engineering, industrial production,computer science, and management; socialand health services; and dance and music. Aprofessional baccalaureat (baccalaureattechnDlogique) is administered at the end ofthe technical high school education. In1994, 16 percent of the age cohort earned theprofessional baccalaureat and 36 percentearned the general baccalaureat.

Vocational high schools prepare students foremployment. This is accomplished by acourse of study in high school and anapprenticeship that begins in the ninth grade.Students can follow either one or both of twopaths within the vocational schools. The firstoffers training in a specific trade, such asmechanic or beautican, leading to a diplomacalled the Certificat d'Aptitude Professionel(CAP). The second leads to the Brevetd'Etudes Professionelle (BEP), a generalvocational certificate that provides a moreextensive vocational background than theCAP. Many more students receive the CAPthan the BEP. In 1995, for example,approximately 248,000 received the CAP,while 84,000 received the BEP. In contrast,over 281,000 received the generalbaccalaureat. Approximately 45 percent ofthe lyce'e professional students enter theworkforce. However, in 1994, 17 percentreentered the academic track and 38 percent

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began the two-year program of training thatwould lead to the baccalaureat professional.

The Academic BaccalaureatDuring the years of secondary school,students must take one foreign language andmust have instruction in philosophy, French,and mathematics. Most are also required totake history and geography. At the end ofwhat would correspond to a sophomore yearin American high schools, students mustdecide the subjects on which they wish to betested in the baccalaureat, commonly calledthe bac. Their choices determine theiracademic schedules for the rest of their highschool education.

Questions and topics for the examination areconstructed by a committee composed of agroup of university subject specialists, lyce'eteachers and school inspectors (local arms ofthe Ministry of National Education). Thecommittee is also responsible for establishingthe criteria for grading the examinations.Grading is done by teams of teachersthroughout the country and if any problemsin the grading are discovered, a small reviewcommittee evaluates the possibility that biasmay have entered the grading process.

All students must take a four-hour Frenchbac at the end of their junior year. This testtaps the students' proficiency in the Frenchlanguage. It not only covers knowledge ofliterature, but also the students' ability toexpress themselves in French. In this test,students choose one of three types of essays.They can summarize a text and then write anessay or they can explain a text through anessay with three major themes based on thetext. For the oral portion of the test, thestudent is given 20 minutes for preparationand then is expected to present a 15-minutediscussion of a passage that has been studiedduring the previous year.

The total baccalaureat score combines thescore from the French language bac with thestudent's score on the specialized bac, whichis taken at the end of the senior year. Each ofthree specialized baccalaureats has a certainlevel of prestige. "General" baccalaureatshave the greatest prestige and "technical"baccalaureats have the least. For example,the most prestigious is mathematics and theleast prestigious are those oriented towardpractical training for industrial jobs. Inaddition to the examinations offered in thesefields, there are optional examinations, suchas those dealing with ancient languages,computers, and dramatic expression. Thegoal in the examinations is to require thestudents to use their intellect in analyzingand synthesizing as much of their knowledgeas possible in their answers to the questions.

The bacs are given to students across thecountry during the first three weeks of June.Although the bacs vary from relatively shortoral examinations to four-hour writtenexaminations, nearly all consist of a writtentest which always includes essay questions.The first test is in philosophy, followed bytests in the other areas; the last test involvesan oral examination.

Results are usually available two weeks later.There are three types of outcome. Studentsmay pass the examination; they may fail andhave to wait to repeat the examination thefollowing year; or they may obtain a sufficientnumber of points to enable them to takeanother examination immediately after theyreceive their bac score that will yield asufficient number of points to complete thebac.

It is generally accepted that withoutsuccessfully passing the baccalaureat,examinations, jobs are difficult to find. Forthis reason, it is not uncommon for studentswho do not initially complete their bac to

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repeat a year of secondary school. It is notimperative that students take theexamination at the end of high school.Persons of any age can take the examinationand they may take it as many times asdesired. It is not necessary to be enrolled inschool in order to take the examination, butregistration for the test is not automatic foranyone who is not attending school.

In 1992, only 73 percent of the students whotook the examinations received passinggrades. The percentage ranged from 66percent in economics to 83 percent inmathematics. Despite the fact that themathematics test is perceived to be the mostdifficult, the percentage of those who succeedis higher, probably because only the beststudents attempt this examination.

Higher EducationAfter completing high school, Frenchstudents must decide whether they will try togo on to advanced levels of study. There arethree general types of higher education:universities, Grandes Ecoles, and technicalinstitutes within universities. Of those whocontinue with their education, 85 percententer a university, 10 percent attend France'sGrandes Ecoles, and 5 percent go to technicalinstitutes.

Universities

The first requirement for entering auniversity is to possess a baccalaureat. Thisforms the main basis for acceptance except atthe more prestigious schools, where gradesmay also be considered. Recommendationsare not used as a basis for this decision.Entrance to the top universities is gettingincreasingly competitive, both because thenumber of persons receiving the baccalaureathas increased and because universities arebeginning to limit enrollment to persons who

live in the region. Entrance to certain fields,such as law, political science, engineering,and medicine, is also highly competitive.Some types of schools, such as businessschools, tend to be private; thus the family'sfinancial status may be a primary determinantof a student's ability to enroll.

Approximately a quarter of the students inFrance enroll in a university: 54 percentcompleted the senior year in high school, andamong these, 58 percent (in 1994-95) of thestudents passing the baccalaureat went on toenroll in a university. Students usually payminimal tuition to the university and moststudy at one close to their home. In caseswhere students wish to concentrate on aspecific subject that may not be wellrepresented at a nearby university, they maytravel to other parts of the country andattempt to enroll in universities known toemphasize those fields of study; however, thisis not as easy as it once was, because somedepartments in universities are beginning tobe selective in their admissions due to thelarge numbers of applicants.

The courses in which one enrolls at theuniversity are primarily determined by one'sarea of concentration. While it is notnecessary to concentrate on the field studiedin high school, it is much more difficult tosucceed in a field without this earlierpreparation. The first year of university studyis a time of high attrition. Universities arelarge and impersonal, and the examinationsgiven at the end of the first year weed outmany students.

After two years at a university, students mayearn a degree called the DEUG (Diplomed'etudes universitaires ge'ne'rales). In addition,they have the option of earning a licenceafter three years and a maitrise after fouryears, degrees that are equivalent,

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respectively, to the American bachelor's andmaster's degrees.

Grandes Ecoles

The Grandes Ecoles, literally translated as the"great schools," are highly selective, andadmission to one carries a great deal of status.Not only do students receive free educationin state supported Grandes Ecoles, they arealso considered to be government workersand are paid accordingly.

There are several types of Grandes Ecoles,some offering concentrations in mathematicsand engineering, but others offeringconcentrations in science, business, politicalscience, administration, literature, andeducation. Admission is based on anadditional entrance examination. Two tothree years of study at a preparatory schoolafter the baccalaureat are generally requiredin order to prepare for the highly demandingentrance examination. Those who succeedin graduating become members of a tightlyknit network of individuals who Maintaincontact with each other during later years.Graduates of these schools typically formFrance's "elite," which includes many toppolitical figures and heads of largecorporations.

Changes in the CollegeAdmission Process

Changes in the French baccalaureat systemwere implemented in 1995. There are threegeneral bacs, nine technical bacs, and anumber of vocational bacs. The new systemis designed to give students in the generalImes more options in choosing courses and toprovide students in the technical bacs greateropportunities for practical training that wouldlead to better chances for employment afterhigh school.

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The three general bacs are in science,humanities, and economics and socialscience. All students choosing one of thesegeneral bacs will study French, philosophy,history, geography, and mathematics.Whereas in the past the students' courseswere currently determined by the baccalaureatbeing pursued, the new system will allowgreater flexibility in the choices of courses.

The nine technical bacs, many of them newto the system, were designed for studentswho wish to study industrial technology,laboratory technology, medical and socialscience, technology and science, hotelmanagement, music and dance, applied arts,environment and agronomy, and farmproduce. Students studying for the technicalbacs follow the same program through the10th grade as those preparing for the generalbacs.

Reactions to the System

Lack of Information

A major criticism that came up repeatedly ininterviews with the students was the lack ofinformation provided by teachers andschools regarding options after thebaccalaureat.

We are not well-informed at high schoolabout choices after the baccalaureat.Last week we had one hour oforientation and in the end we did notunderstand it all. If we were betterinformed, we could better choose auniversity or better fill out regulationforms and really choose what we want todo.

Instead, students often have to figure out forthemselves what options they have.

I am finding that there isn't enoughspecific information. That is to say thatpeople are not informed about what

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happens after the bac. It takes initiativeto inform yourself about school or whatinterests you as a profession. It's truethat there are a lot of people who followbad paths, at their university and gettheir DEUGs and then realize thatwasn't what they wanted.

Sometimes older siblings can serve as goodsources of information: "I am lucky because Iwas given advice by my older sister who hasalready gone down the path - bac C, prepschool, and then the Grandes Ecole. I know alittle about how it works."

General Satisfaction

The overall system for gaining universityentrance in France was perceived as fair bymost of the respondents. Passing thebaccalaureat is the main requirement, andstudents may enter almost any university theychoose. As one parent said, "The universityis good because everybody can go. It is moredemocratic."

The process for getting into the GrandesEcoles, however, was viewed as much morecompetitive, since these schools admit onlystudents with the highest levels of academicachievement. One parent commented:

The Grandes Ecoles can sometimes bevery selective. One has to be the best ofthe best at the intellectual level. Thereare Grandes Ecoles that are relativelyexpensive. That is the problem. Thechildren that go the Grandes Ecole arethose that come from the most well-offfamilies, which is not fair. There aresome that come from modest families,but this is more difficult.

The students did not seem to be especiallyconcerned about the possibility that theywould be unable to pass the entranceexamination for the Grandes Ecoles: "If I

didn't get into a Grandes Ecoles, too bad. Forme it's not an enormous catastrophe. I wouldperhaps be a bit disappointed at not havingmy first choice. My goal is to find somethingI like to do. I could go to the university."

It is the case, however, that students whoseek entrance to a Grandes Ecoles take arather large risk. They must spend time andmoney during the years of preparatory schooland even then they may not be successful ingaining admission to a Grandes Ecoles.However, students who are admitted seldomfail to graduate.

Curriculum

The curriculum, which is determined by thegovernment, seems to challenge moststudents, but this was not universally true.One of the students complained that,

I am trying to expand my horizons, but itis not so easy. I make an effort tocultivate myself scientifically, to readand review because we don't do that inhigh school at all. We do scholarlywork, but don't venture very far fromthe program. You do the program forthe bac.

There has been a close interplay between thebacs and the curriculum. The curriculum hasbeen specifically aimed at providing studentswith the broad fund of knowledge necessaryto pass the bacs, but the content of the bacs,in turn, has been directly tied to thecurriculum. This relationship should change,however, as the educational reforms in thebaccaluareat system become effective.Students will have a greater number ofoptions in the courses they will take and thecontent of the bacs should be less closely tiedto a specific array of courses.

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Fairness

The students interviewed were not overlyoccupied with passing the baccalaureat: "Thebac is fair in the sense that if you haveworked all year you will pass." Nevertheless,almost everyone noted that although thebaccaluareat seems to be a fair test, there isalways the possibility that a student will faildue to nerves. One mother described thesituation in this way:

If the student worked regularly, thennormally they'd get their bac. But it's aone-day exam and a precise momentand if the student doesn't feel well, thenthey could fail. That's a problem of allexams.

In general, most seemed to agree with thesentiment expressed by another mother:"Parents don't ask if the exam system is fairor not. They just worry about their childrenpassing."

Some discontent was expressed about theunfairness that arises from the fact thatcertain bacs allow students more flexibilitythan others. For example, it is easier for thosewho complete the bacs in mathematics tochange their concentration in the universityto literature than is the reverse. All studentsmust study a fair amount of literature inpreparation for the French bac, but allstudents do not spend an equivalent amountof time studying mathematics. Additionally,in terms of specific examination questions,several felt that the section on philosophywas unfair. Even though these tests weregraded by professors, as are all sections of thebaccalaureat, the students complained thatthis section was often graded moresubjectively than others.

There was also some concern that thebaccalaureat examinations are beingdevalued because the new technical bacs are

easier than they were a few years ago andshould not be considered as a realbaccalaureat. One of the teacherscommented that "No one knows what thebac represents anymore in terms of level. Inmy opinion, it doesn't have the same value itdid a few years ago. But in any case, if youdon't have one you are stuck."

There was concern, too, that the percentageof students passing the bacs differs accordingto the region of the country, the family'ssocio-economic status, gender, and theschool in which the student is enrolled.

Factors Associated With Success

Generally, the factors that were believed tocontribute to successful completion of thebaccalaureat are the same as those thatcontribute to successful college admission:hard work, motivation, and good preparation.Many respondents commented that theexamination favors those students who worksystematically and who can remain focusedand calm. As one student said, "Success isbased on a delicate balance of working hardwithout getting too stressed. The mostimportant factor is to be calm."

There was general agreement that studentswho complete their schoolwork should beable to pass the bac. The curriculum for theFrench academic lyce'e is designed to preparestudents for this examination. Therefore,work done during the course of the yearshould provide students with a goodfoundation.

Another important factor is the parents'ability to get their child enrolled in the rightlyce'e. Students must enroll in theneighborhood lyce'e, but if the lyce'e is not ofhigh quality families must try to enroll theirchildren in a lyce'e of another neighborhood.The only way that they accomplish this,however, is to demonstrate that their child

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has a special curricular need that can only befulfilled by attending the alternative lyce'e.

Another approach taken by ambitiousparents is to have the student take Germanas a first foreign language. Although Englishis considered to be more practical, German isconsidered to be more difficult. Because thestudents' schedules are determined by thelanguage they take, and because the betterstudents tend to take German, it is likely thatthis group of students will be made upprimarily of good students. Thus, althoughstudents are not supposed to be tracked,decisions such as this separate studentsaccording to their level of ability and , inturn, according to the educational level oftheir parents.

Stress

The junior year in high school seems to bethe time when most students noticeschoolwork becoming more difficult. "Thereare a lot of students who suffer at that pointbecause they aren't used to working. Theyhave to realize quickly how to function andmobilize themselves," said one student. Sincea student's primary goal is to pass thebaccalaureat at the end of high school, mostorient themselves toward this objective.Those students who wish to read and learnabout other areas must generally searchoutside of their academic curriculum.

Most of the students who were interviewedfor this study did not seem overly worriedabout the baccalaureat. This may beattributed to the fact that the interviews wereheld during the early months of the academicyear; their stress may increase as the time ofthe examination approaches.

The teachers concurred with this evaluationand explained why some students might feelslightly stressed. "The students I have," saidone of the teachers, "often are not stressed at

all. Those who are a little stressed are thosewho didn't do their little exams and thereforeare a little anxious."

More typically, French students are said tofind the baccalaureat examination to bestressful, especially the parts in which theymust respond orally. Even the students whowere interviewed mentioned the stressassociated with the oral examination,primarily because they were not familiar withthis type of test. "I am more afraid of the oralexam," confessed one student, "I am afraid ofspeaking to someone I don't know. I think Iwill be stressed. I am naturally a little likethat."

For parents, the years during which theirchildren prepare for the baccalaureat are verystressful. They are anxious for their childrento do well on the examination because that isthe key to a more secure future. "During allthis year everything is in preparation for thebac. One only thinks of that."

Role of Parents

Most of the parents interviewed did not seemto be directly involved in thecollege-admission process, but this could bedue to the fact that their children were doingwell in school. The parents did express astrong desire for their children to succeed andto find interesting jobs, a task that is difficultin France because of the high rate ofunemployment.

Since the students interviewed in this studywere all doing well, their parents trustedthem to be responsible for themselves. "Idon't do much because my daughter worksvery hard, very independently, and thereforeI don't need to help her," said one mother.For the most part, the role of parents isconsidered to be purely one of support andencouragement. The father of one of thegirls described his experiences during his

BEST COPY AVA1LABLk 3529

daughter's junior year: "I was worried lastyear during the French bac and unfortunatelyI made her stressed. I know I did badly. Iwanted to motivate her, but I did theopposite." He then went on to say that hehas confidence that she would do well thisyear, but he did not want to tell her for fear itwould cause her to lose motivation.

Parents who have a high level of educationmay be able to guide their students in waysthat less educated parents cannot. One ofthe parents suggested that "Parents who lackthe necessary education, don't know how totell their children what to take and what toavoid. It is not easy for these parents."

Role of Teachers and Students

Teachers help prepare students for thebaccalaureat through regular schoolwork. Inaddition, some teachers provide students withwhat is known as the "Bac Blanc." Thistwo-day test simulates the real examinations,allowing students to familiarize themselveswith the test format and to have experiencein taking this type of test.

Because the French school system is designedto prepare students for the baccalaureat, it isnot surprising that all the students felt thatthey were being prepared for theexaminations through their regular courses.This preparation begins during thesophomore year and continues through therest of high school. In addition to theirregular schoolwork, most students also doextra exercises or reading. The amount oftime that these students said they spent inactually preparing for the bac ranged from 30minutes to 3 hours per day. A typicaldescription is the following:

I have lots of friends who have boughtall sorts of things, books and all that toprepare, but I've never really used thosekinds of things. I prepare by working on

my school work. I don't prepare toomuch. I must prepare, at the most, onehour every evening.

ConclusionSuccessfully completing the baccalaureat isthe main requirement for entering Frenchuniversities. Although the admission processfor the Grandes Ecoles is much morecompetitive, most of the students, parents,and teachers judged the overall process forcollege admission to be fair. The academichigh schools are oriented toward thepreparation of students for the tests that willenable them to receive their baccalaureatdegree. Because of this, students mustdevelop activities outside of the high school ifthey are to extend the scope of theireducation. Furthermore, students mustchoose their areas of specialization at an earlyage and they complained that they oftenlacked the information necessary to make thewisest decisions when faced with this choice.

Those who suggested that there are problemswith the college entrance system had fewsuggestions about how the system could beimproved. Parents generally professeddisengagement from the process of preparingtheir children for the examinations;nevertheless, they suggested that this time ofpreparing and taking the examinations placedgreat stress in the families. The highlycapable students who were interviewed gaveno indication of being worried about thepossibility they might not pass theexaminations.

One common recommendation was to makethe value of the different baccalaureats moreequivalent. Although various bacs carrydifferent degrees of prestige, they all haveaccomplished the goal of indicating whetheror not the student has successfully completedthe high school requirements. Others

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suggested making the baccalaureat a moregeneral examination, allowing students tobecome more specialized after high school.In general, despite the suggestions forimprovement, most of these high achievingstudents and their parents expressedsatisfaction with the overall system foruniversity entrance and regarded the presentsystem as providing a solid education.

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Germany

The division of Germany into western andeastern sections after World War II

resulted in two different educational systems.West Germany continued the traditionalsystem of German education, but the systemin East Germany followed the Soviet model.The greatest difference between the twosystems has remained the tracking practices.West Germany, with few exceptions, trackedstudents according to ability after 4th- grade,whereas East Germany only tracked after10th-grade. With reunification in 1990, theschool system in former East Germany wasalmost totally converted to the West Germansystem, as was recommended by the JointEducation Commission formed in 1990. Thegoal of this conversion was to havecertificates and diplomas that would berecognized throughout the nation.

Differences do exist among all German statesin the organization and operation of schools.Although the Conference of the Ministers ofEducation of the States (KMK) formulatesgeneral educational policies, it grants a greatdeal of local autonomy to each state in thecontrol over educational practices andorganization. Rather than attempt to note allof the differences, it seems most efficient todescribe the general outline of the systemfound most commonly throughout thecountry.

Elementary and SecondaryEducation

Prior to entering school, a very highpercentage of three- to five-year old Germanchildren attend kindergarten. In 1989around 75 percent of three-year-olds andover 80 percent of five-year-olds attended

kindergartens. Enrollment is voluntary, anddepending upon their economic status,parents pay varying amounts of tuition.Kindergartens are oriented toward socialdevelopment of young children rather thanupon training for later academic work. Inaddition to the regular kindergartens, schoolkindergartens (Vorschule) are available forsix-year-old children who are old enough toattend primary school, but for one reason oranother are judged not to be ready for firstgrade.

Primary School

School is compulsory between the ages of sixthrough 18. All children enter school at theage of six and remain in primary school(Grundschule) for four years. The hours ofprimary school are shorter than those inmany other countries. First-graders attendschool only 20 periods a week; by third gradethe number of periods has increased to 25 or30.

The goal of the four years of primary school isto provide the basis for secondary education.This is accomplished through building basicskills in the core areas of reading, writing, andarithmetic, through fostering initiative,self-reliance, and social cooperation, andthrough increasing the joy of learning. Littleemphasis is placed on competition and effortsare made to promote equality of opportunitiesduring the primary school years.Nevertheless, the later opportunities foreducation that will be available to the childdo depend on the child's performance inprimary school.

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Types of Schools

After completing primary school, students areenrolled in one of three tracks of secondaryschool. Depending upon the students' gradesin primary school, their interests, therecommendations of their teachers, and thepreferences of their parents, they are enrolledin a Hauptschule, Realschule, Gymnasium, orGesamtschule. In some states an integratedHauptschule/Realschule is also an alternative.Most states also offer the Forderstufe, anon-tracked orientation level for the fifth andsixth-grades.

Hauptschule

The most basic schooling is offered in theHauptschule, which prepares students throughthe ninth year of schooling (10th year insome states). Admission is open to allstudents regardless of their previous academicperformance and there are no finalexaminations in the Hauptschule of mostGerman states. The curriculum of theHauptschule includes 26 to 33 periods ofclasses a week in a German, English,mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology,geography, history, social studies, religion, art,music, physical education, and occupationalstudies.

The percentage of students attendingHauptschule has been in steady decline sinceWorld War II, from 79 percent in 1952 to 33percent in 1991. These schools are nowconsidered by some persons to be the lastresort, schools for marginal and immigrantgroups. Non-German children made up 20percent of the student population inHauptschule in 1991, as opposed to 5 percentof the students in Gymnasium.

Students who enter the Hauptschule in fifthgrade may still change to another school formif their grades improve, although a transferbecomes harder over time as the curricular

gap widens. Most students finish with aHauptschulabchluss school-leaving certificateafter the 9th or 10th grade. In 1992, 26percent of the age cohorts received thiscertificate. These students must continue toattend some type of school on a part-timebasis until they reach the age of 18. Somechoose to attend a full-time vocationalschool. Most combine part-time attendanceat school with an apprenticeship or withemployment in public service. It is verydifficult, but not impossible, for graduates ofHauptschule to achieve the universityentrance qualification. Evening classes orfull-time adult classes present alternativeroutes to university education.

Realschule

Realschule offer education for grades 5through 10 (7-10 in some states) and aremore advanced than Hauptschule in terms ofthe rigorousness of the curriculum. Studentswho have done exceptionally well inRealschule are able to transfer to a Gymnasiumfor the last three years of their schooling after10th grade. A wide array of otheropportunities is also available for studentscompleting the Realschule. The greatmajority attend a part-time vocational schooland obtain on-the-job training or findemployment in a public service position.Others may choose to attend some type ofvocational or technical school. Graduates ofRealschule typically do not anticipate havingprofessional careers, but they may qualify foradditional education, which can lead toqualification for entering a technical college,or in some cases a general university. Sincethe Realschule offers students opportunitiesboth for later studies and for futureemployment, it serves a dual purpose. In1992-93, 24 percent of 14-year-olds attendedRealschule.

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Students in Realschule an choose toconcentrate in one of three different areas:(1) mathematics, the natural sciences, andtechnology; (2) business and economics; or(3) creative and artistic endeavors, domesticscience, or social studies. Realschulen, likeHauptschulen, offer between 30 and 34 classperiods a week. The basic, traditionalsubjects such as German, mathematics,physics, and chemistry are generally taughtfor four periods each week, while others areonly taught for two periods.

In some states, Hauptschule and Realschuletracks are offered in one school, calledRegelschule, Sekundarschule, or Mittelschule.This is especially common in the new statesof former East Germany, although somewestern states also offer this type of school.In 1992, 7 percent of 14-year-olds inGermany attended a combinedHauptschule/Realschule. Although students inthis school type are in the same building, theyare still officially tracked into either theHauptschule or the Realschule part of theschool.

Vocational School

Students who continue on from Realschule orHauptschule to enroll in part-time vocationalschools (Berufsschule) usually attend classonce or twice a week for around 12 periods,although they may choose instead to go toclasses full-time for a few weeks each year.Most of the classes are in vocational subjectsdevoted to specific trades; less attention ispaid to general education. This is known asthe "dual system," combining part-timeschooling with an apprenticeship on the jobsite. Full-time vocational schools(Berufsfachschule), in contrast, requirefull-time attendance for one to three years,depending on the type of speciality beingstudied. Because students at these schools donot hold apprenticeship positions, more time

is devoted to general academic training thanis the case in the part-time schools. Theseschools specialize in subjects such ascommerce, technical trades, homeeconomics, tourism, and social welfare.

Participation in vocational training has seena steady increase in the past 20 years, from 49percent in 1975 to 73 percent in 1991(Arbeitsgruppe Bildungsbericht, 1994). Thishas not corresponded to increasedattendance at the lower school forms,Hauptschule and Realschule. Rather, studentsplanning on attending the university areincreasingly changing course before enteringthe university, or completing anapprenticeship before attending theuniversity. In 1992, 25 percent of first-yearstudents at general universities hadcompleted vocational training. At technicaluniversities (Fachochschule), 68 percent ofentering students had completed vocationaltraining.

Upon graduation, students with theRealschule leaving certificate may also qualifyfor admission to a technical institute(Fachschule), where they receive moreadvanced training for middle-level staffpositions. Because of the importance ofvocational training in the Germaneducational system, efforts are being made togive greater emphasis to these schools and tomake their status more equivalent to thosedevoted to general education.

Vocational extension schools(Berufsaufbauschule) seek to provideadditional opportunities for training before orafter on-the-job training begins. Technicalhigh schools (Fachoberschule) provide twoyears of education, during which studentsspecialize in engineering, industry,agriculture, social studies, or design. Theylead to graduation with the Fachabitur, acertificate similar to the Abitur from the

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Gymnasium. The main disadvantage to theFachabitur is that it only allows students tostudy the subject they concentrated onduring secondary school. Many graduatesfrom technical high schools continue on totechnical universities.

Gymnasium

The highest academic track at the secondarylevel is the Gymnasium. Students whoperform well in the fourth grade receive arecommendation to attend Gymnasium in thefifth grade, where they encounter acurriculum that is much more demandingthan the curricula of the other two types ofsecondary schools. The Gyrnasium track, incontrast to the other two tracks, offersstudents nine years of education, including asix-year lower level (grades 5 through 10) anda three-year upper level (grades 11 through13). Successful completion of the lower levelat 10th grade allows students to enter theupper level of the Gymnasium, called theOberstufe. In contrast to the declininginterest in Hauptschule, attendance atGymnasium has increased greatly during therecent decades, from 11 percent in 1952 to30 percent on 1992 among 14-year-olds(Arbeitsgruppe Bildungsbericht, 1994). Thisincrease has been accompanied by an effortto change Gymnasium from elitist schools toschools that serve a broader segment of thestudent population. The classicalGymnasium, with its emphasis on Latin,Greek, and other classical subjects, still exists,but the "modern" Gymnasium is vastly morepopular. According to many critics, this hasresulted in a decline in the quality ofeducation offered at Gymnasium.

At the end of the second semester of the11th grade of Gymnasium, students choosethe subjects on which they will be examinedfor university entrance. During the last twoyears of Gymnasium, students must take a

total of 28 courses, 22 at the basic level and 6at the advanced level. They must also choosefour subjects, two of which they will study indepth, from three general fields: language,literature and the arts; social sciences; andmathematics, sciences and technology. Atleast one subject must be chosen in each ofthese fields. Two subjects must be at theadvanced (Leistungskurs) level and two at thebasic (Grundkurs) level. For example, astudent might study German and chemistryas the advanced courses and social studies,biology, religion, sports, and history as thebasic courses. Another might studymathematics and biology as the advancedcourses, and German, history, chemistry,sports, and art as basic courses. The contentof the courses in each state is determined bythe ministry of education of the state, butthere is agreement among the states that thecontent must fall within the guidelinesdeveloped by the KMK at a national level.

Gesamtschule

In addition to the hierarchical system ofsecondary education represented by the threemain types of secondary schools, analternative type of school, the comprehensiveschools (Gesamtschule), is also available inmost states. Comprehensive schoolsrepresent a new approach which involvesbringing together students with a broad rangeof talent and interests in a single school.Comprehensive schools seek to incorporatemany of the features of the Hauptschule,Realschule, and Gymnasium in acomprehensive curriculum, while attemptingto do away with the structural hierarchy ofthese three types of secondary school.Students enroll in the Gesamtschule betweengrades 5 and 10 and may then continue forthree more years.

This approach has attained limitedpopularity. In 1992-93, only 9 percent of

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14-year-olds in Germany attendedcomprehensive schools. Comprehensiveschool attendance varies greatly amongstates, however; states that have promotedthis type of school have attendance figuresranging from 13-22 percent of 14-year-olds,while in states which have rejected it less that1 percent are in attendance.

Forderstufe

Another type of school recently introduced inGermany is the Forderstufe. This type, alsoknown as the "orientation level," providesnon-tracked schooling for the 5th and 6thgrades. Attendance varies between states,but the Forderstufe has gained a fair amountof acceptance. In 1992, 21 percent of allfifth-graders in Germany attended aForderstufe. After the sixth grade, studentsare tracked into the other secondary schoolforms.

University Education

Higher education in Germany is free. At onetime, any student who completed the coursework in the Gymnasium and passed the highschool exit examination (Abitur) was assuredof admission to a university of the student'schoice. This is no longer the case. Thenumber of students attending Gymnasiumand successfully passing the Abitur hasincreased beyond the number that can beaccommodated at German universities. As aconsequence, students no longer have thefreedom of choice that was available earlier.Although some disciplines are still open toanyone with an Abitur, in many disciplinesthe student simply must wait for an openingat a university. For other disciplines,additional tests and interviews are necessaryeven before the student can be put on awaiting list.

In disciplines where federal or regionalrestrictions are placed on the number ofstudents who can be admitted, grades on theAbitur play a very important role. For thosedisciplines, students must apply to a federal orregional agency that admits a limited numberof students to each discipline. Depending ontheir scores on the Arbitur, the length of timethe student has waited, and in some fields thestudent's score on a specialized test, thestudent will be offered admission when avacancy arises, but not necessarily at theuniversity the student sought to attend. Fordisciplines in which there are no restrictions,students can apply directly to the universityitself.

It is possible to complete admissionrequirements for a university innon-traditional means. These alternativeroutes (zweiter Bildungsweg) require thatadults enroll in evening schools at theRealschule or Gymnasium levels until theyhave met the requirements for graduation.The evening schools are open to persons whodo not have the Abitur certificate, who areemployed, and who have completed theirvocational training or have worked for atleast three years. Even after completing theseyears of study, however, the student mustpass the Abitur examination in order toqualify for admission to a university.

Exit Examination

The Abitur

The Abitur examination is acurriculum-based examination, usually takenduring the student's last year of Gymnasium.The Abitur exam itself consist of threewritten oral examinations. Theseexaminations constitute 36 percent of thetotal grade represented by the Abiturcertificate. The remaining 64 percent arederived from student's grades during the last

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two years of Gymnasium. Although a totalscore of only 280 out of a total of 840 pointsis a passing grade, grading is relatively strictin these classes, and low scores are easy tocome by. A high percentage of the studentspass the Abitur examinations in recent years;approximately 95 percent of the candidateshave passed the test. Most students whowould not be able to pass the examinationsare encouraged or required to leaveGymnasium before candidacy, either to shiftto a lower school form, or after the 10thgrade, when they already qualify for theRealschule certificate. In 1993, 17 percent ofall Gymnasium students finished schoolwithout their Abitur, most leaving with theRealschule certificate after the 10th or 11thgrade. Researchers estimate that 31 percentof the Gymnasium cohort which graduated in1990 `failed' to reach the Abitur, because theywere tracked to a lower school form or leftGymnasium with a lower school-leavingcertificate.

Despite high failure rates in Gymnasium, thepercentage of Abitur holders has continued toincrease dramatically over the past 40 years.This has led to increased enrollments inGerman universities and restricted entrancein some fields. In 1991, 23.6 percent of theage cohort passed the general Abiturexamination and of those, 69 percentplanned to enroll in a university within thefollowing two years. In the same year, 8.8percent graduated with theFachhochschulreife, which is a limiteduniversity entry qualification.

The Abitur examination is constructed by theeducational ministry within each state.Questions are submitted by teachers andreviewed by a group at the ministry that ischarged with the task of organizing theexaminations. In addition to submitting thequestions, teachers are also asked to providea detailed analysis of what good answers

should contain. Ideally, the questions shouldevaluate the students' knowledge of the facts,ability to analyze, and then to think beyondthis to apply their ideas and to judge relevantand irrelevant information.

The Abitur consists of four parts, two writtentests from the advanced level courses inwhich the student has specialized, onewritten test on an optional subject, and anoral test in one other optional subject. Thestudents' teachers administer the test, whileteachers from other schools are given theresponsibility for grading it.

Questions at the advanced level are expectedto be more demanding and to require greaterknowledge and keener analyses than those atthe basic level. In addition, the tests at theadvanced level generally are longer (four tofive hours) than those at the basic level(three hours).

This procedure is not without its critics,primarily those who point to discrepancies inthe difficulty of the questions and in thesophistication of answers expected indifferent states. These critics suggest thatbecause of the less demanding questions onsome of the examinations, it is easy forstudents from some states to achieve highscores, thereby giving them an unfairadvantage for admission to restricted areas ofstudy. Another source of criticism is thereliance on the tests and school grades, withlittle attention being paid to the specialabilities or accomplishments of the studentsor to letters of recommendation from personswho know the student well. This is partiallydue to budgetary limits on universityspending for admissions offices, which areminimally staffed.

Although these criticisms have apparentlyfailed to stimulate reform, two othercritiques related to the Abitur are currentlybeing discussed. First, there is dissatisfaction

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with the length of the Gymnasium education.Some are concerned that German studentsare at an international disadvantage becausestudents in other countries finish at an earlierage. A proposal to reduce the number ofyears from 13 to 12 is under consideration.Second, many are concerned with the degreeof specialization possible in the Abitur, andsuggest expanding the number of subjects inthe examination from four to six. At present,students focus primarily upon the twoadvanced level subjects that will be tested intheir Abitur examination, a practice that isconsidered to lead to an unnecessary degreeof specialization during the high school years.

Preparation for the Examination

Two months before the time of theexamination teachers discuss how studentsshould prepare and provide them withexamples of the types of questions that willappear in the examination. Because thequestions are similar to those that arediscussed in their daily classes, students arenot required to think about the materials in atotally new way. Teachers often haveafternoon sessions in which they go overprevious examination questions and in manyschools, students and teachers go on weekendretreats where the students are given practiceexaminations. Teachers also encouragestudents to practice answering examinationquestions at home. This is easily done, forexaminations from previous years areavailable to the students.

Reactions to the UniversityEntrance System

Need for Entering College

Despite the fact that the students wereenrolled in programs designed to preparethem for admission to a university, neitherthey nor their parents regarded entrance into

the university as a necessity. Mothers wereconsistent in de-emphasizing the criticalimportance of a university education. Thecomments of four mothers were as follows:

It is not so that he must study at theuniversity.

It depends what her talents are and whatshe would like to do. For me it is notimportant that she necessarily study at auniversity.

If his exam and overall grades aremediocre to poor, I would suggest he notgo to a university. If he does well on theexam and has good grades, then I wouldencourage him.

If she did not enter college, I wouldsuggest that she do something where shecould take advantage of her other talents.She would take a job at a bank.

The reasoning behind these comments isprobably related to the opportunities foralternative careers provided byapprenticeships and vocational training. If astudent chose not to attend a university orwas not admitted, the possibility always existsof enrolling in some type of vocational ortechnical training program. In fact, effortshave been made recently to give greaterprestige to vocational education. "For me,"said one of the teachers, "a good craftsman isa thousand times better than a mediocreacademic."

General Satisfaction

Discussions about the requirements andprocedures involved in the Abiturexamination indicated satisfied, if somewhatperplexed parents and students. There wasgeneral acceptance of the current proceduresas being reasonable, but there was alsorecognition of the difficulties involved in

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attempting to correct some negative featuresof the current educational system.

The Abitur examination was viewed asflowing naturally from everyday schoolingand as being a sensible means of evaluating'students' aptitude for a university education.The comments of two of the teachers reflectthis satisfaction:

I would say that the system functionsquite well. The students know what isexpected of them, and so if they reallywant to study at a university they havethe chance to get serious during the lasttwo years at high school. I really don'tsee any other way that would be better.

Of course, there is no perfect system.Small injustices are unavoidable, but allin all, the German school system can becalled optimal. We prepare the studentsfor the final exam, we have trialquestions, some of them taken fromexams from previous years. We haveknown the students for years; we knowwhere their weaknesses are and willwork on these. However, thosemeasures are mostly not even necessary,since the students who are preparing forthe final exams are good, solid students.They are adults with mature goals,confident and motivated. Don't forget,the German system offers alternatives tothe Gymnasium which will qualifystudents to enter the university; forexample, the so-called Fachschulen, andothers. So there are many optionsavailable.

Students also gave positive evaluations ofthe Abitur requirements. They wereespecially positive about the fact that "fromthe beginning one knows what subjects onewill be tested on." This, plus several otherfactors, reduces the worry that mightotherwise be associated with taking these

important tests. First, the tests were viewedas being similar to the kinds of daily exerciseswith which they had long experience. Thus,taking the tests did not require a type of skilldifferent from that which had been involvedin their regular school work. Second, byincluding both the test results and the gradesfor the last two years of Gymnasium in thetotal Abitur score, the test did not loombefore them as the sole determinant of theirfuture opportunities.

Students did complain that the wholeeducational system resulted in a narroweducation: "For those subjects in which I willbe tested, I think that it shows myknowledge. For those subjects I no longerhave, as of last year, it shows nothing. It isnot representative of my wide range ofknowledge, but is very specialized." Therestriction of the Abitur to only two centraland two optional subjects results inspecialization at too early an age, accordingto some of the students. Moreover, somestudents were disgruntled that they had tochoose and study subjects for the Abitur thatwere irrelevant to their future course work ata university and to their career goals. Forexample, a student interested in medicinemay be good at German and may decide toselect that subject for the Abitur in an effortto get a high score, even though the subjecthas little relevance for medicine.

Another criticism, pointed out by parents,teachers, and students, was the failure of theentrance procedures to pay attention to thespecial aptitudes and talents of individualstudents. "There should be some way to takeinto account the talents of students fordrama, arts, graphics, theater, and alsostudents' interests. Not just grades."However, those who suggested that changesshould be made had difficulty in describingways in which these changes could beaccomplished.

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Mothers were less likely than the teachers orstudents to comment positively about theAbitur test requirements and their effect onuniversity entrance, but at the same timethey were resigned to the fact that no clearalternatives were apparent. A typicalcomment was "Because there are so manystudents who apply, the system has developedthat way. It just has to be that way."

Although there was general acceptance ofthe examination system, this did not meanthat all aspects of the students' educationwere considered to be satisfactory. A majorconcern, especially of the mothers, was theovercrowded universities. Because therewere more students seeking admission tocertain fields than could be handled, anadmissions cut-off known as numerus clausus(NC) has been placed on entrance to certainfields. Mothers made few suggestions abouthow changes could be instituted: "I have noidea how one should solve the problem." "Iwouldn't say that the system is so bad, withthe exception of subjects that have numerusclausus. I can't say how one would changeit." No one suggested that universityfacilities should be expanded. Rather, somemothers favored the alternative of makingthe requirements in these fields even morestringent. Three of the mothers commentedas follows:

As far as I am concerned, the scorescould be even stricter so that only thereally qualified students get to theuniversity. The numerus clausus couldalso be more generally applied or in astricter fashion; both of these measurescould then eliminate overcrowding at theuniversities.

I would like to see the Numerus Claususbe made even more difficult, becausethere are simply too many students whoapply to the universities.

Perhaps more entrance exams and astricter numerus clausus is needed. Thenumerus clausus is perhaps a bit harsh, butI don't think it 's so bad when one seeshow overfilled the classes are at theuniversities.

Students also complained about theprocedure of requiring students to attend auniversity in which there was an opening,rather than allowing the student to enroll ina nearby university: "It is idiocy when onemust move here to Munich from Hamburgand someone from Munich must go toHamburg to study."

Fairness

Because the percentage of students who passthe Abitur is so high, there are few chargesthat the examination is unfair. The onlyunfairness that was mentioned resulted fromthe higher scores received by students instates where examinations are less difficultand standards for grading are lower than inother states. This means that students fromthese states have an unfair advantage inuniversity admission, both in theexamination and in their grades, overstudents from states with higher standards.In fact, because of differing standards amongstates, the central university admissionsagency gives students from some states gradepoint handicaps, while others receive gradepoint bonuses. Teachers as well as parentspointed out this problem.

When asked whether or not the examinationwas fair, one mother said that students wereresponsible for their results.

It rests on the shoulders of the student.By the time of the exam they are nolonger children. It depends on theyoung people themselves whether or notthey want to do well. If they want to do

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well they can. They simply must havethe will to do it.

She then discussed the problem of gettinginto university subjects with a score belowthe cutoff point:

I don't know what he would do. If hereally wants to study, he can wait. Ihave never heard of a case where astudent who wanted to study wasn't ableto.

Parents and students often suggested that astandardized exam might be more fair.Rather than allowing students to choose thesubjects on which they would be examined, acommon set of examinations could beprescribed by state ministries. A studentmade the following comments:

One can choose the courses that onewill be tested on in the Abitur test andso if a student is good in languages, theystop taking math and physics in the 12thgrade. This means that one can achievea good Abitur average, because onecould concentrate on the subjects thatone is good at, but this is no test ofgeneral knowledge. It has advantagesand disadvantages. I think it would bebetter to have obligatory subjects likeGerman and history, then everyonewould have the same chance. Therewould be some subjects in which onewould be proficient and others in whichone would be not so proficient, and thenone could compare Abitur test grades.But now you can't really compare. Idon't think this is good.

Factors Associated With Success

Teachers and parents were very clear inexpressing their belief that intelligence is notas important for the Abitur or for doing wellin Gymnasium as is hard work, motivation,

and studying on a continuous basis. A typicalresponse made by one of the teachers is thefollowing:

Persons of average intelligence should be ableto do well in the examination, and studentswho do not pass the examination do so fortwo reasons: they didn't try hard enough orthere were personal problems at home. If thestudents cover the curriculum thoroughlythey will have little problem in dealing withthe material.

This theme was repeated by mothers.Success in the Abitur, they said, dependsupon:

Motivation, hard work, ability toconcentrate, ability to endure, to put ittogether, to learn systematically.

Interest in school; interest in learning andknowing; and stability in the household.But most importantly, interest in thematerial that is presented in school.

Hard work. Motivation. The child'sintellectual abilities. In that order.

The atmosphere of the school. Theability of the teachers. The stimulationthe child gets in the home.

It depends on the character of theindividual. One must learn tocontinuously study and work toward agoal. If this is done, then it should be noproblem.

Students agreed with the importance ofstudying, but they placed somewhat moreemphasis on intelligence than did the parentsor teachers. The responses made by two ofthe students are typical:

Mostly motivation. If one really wantsto do well on the Abitur then one will besure to study a great deal and get goodgrades. One must have a good outlookon school. One must see meaning in

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school. So one does not learn forgrades, but that one learns forunderstanding. One must like school toa certain degree. One must beintelligent. One must be able to work,to study. Also, one must be able to dealwith stress. During important phasesone may not simply say that they don'twant to do it anymore. One mustendure.

In subjects where a basis of knowledgeis required and is built up over years likemath or the languages, it is veryimportant that one have a firmfoundation and that one keep up withthe work from year to year. In subjectslike biology where a basis in this subjectis not very important, one must simplywork hard over the last two years. Onemust pay attention in class, but I thinkeveryone does that, because they knowthe material is important for the Abitur.I think that one must be motivated.One must be ambitious and be sure thatone sits down and does the work. Whenone does that, then one can do well.

Hard work did not extend to attending extrastudy sessions offered by the school.Teachers believed that the regular classesprovided sufficient information for thestudents to do well on the examination, andthey generally echoed the teacher who said,"The instruction within the school isabsolutely sufficient."

Stress

There was a remarkable uniformity in theopinion that the Abitur was not especiallystressful. Although some students said theyexperienced stress immediately before orduring the examination, and for somestudents the oral examination was somewhatstressful, the Abitur examination was not

especially stressful for most of the students.Two of the teachers summarized the attitudesin this way:

As far as I know, the oral exam is themost stressful for the students. Ingeneral, however, I would say that thereis a certain amount of stress whichcomes with any test situation. I don'tthink that the stress level for the exitexam is at all overwhelming.

It depends on the character of thestudent. If one has done a fair amountof work over the two years, then there isabsolutely no reason to be worried. Iffor one or two years one does very littlework, then there is reason to worry. Inmy experience, it is seldom the case thatthey do not pass, if the students aremature and do the work. There arecases, but it's very rare.

Students agreed with the teachers' appraisals:"The stress is tolerable, since one has beenaware of the increased workload and what isat stake during the entire final school year."Mothers also failed to find the examinationto be a source of great stress.

I have not felt or heard from mydaughter that it's stressful. She takeseverything in stride. For many parents,however, the stress can come when it istime for the child to go to theGymnasium, because it has become soimportant in German society to go toGymnasium. Then I would say thatgrades become a concern for mostparents in Gymnasium.

Mothers suggested, however, that theybelieved that the exit examination would bemuch less stressful than being required totake an entrance examination to a universitywhere there is "a new atmosphere, with newdemands, and many competitors." Others

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thought that deciding what to study would bemore stressful than taking the examination:"What is stressful is the choice of what tostudy. The question of whether or not onewill be accepted at a university is not sostressful." Still another mother said: "I canimagine that it is stressful when the studentisn't able to study the subject they really wantto study."

Role of Parents

Mothers expressed little knowledge about thewhole examination procedure. In theiropinion, the only way they could contributeto their child's success in the examinationwas to provide a good home environment,make few demands on the student during thetime of preparing for the examination, and totry to be as supportive and helpful in otherways as possible. In general, the mothersindicated a remarkable degree of confidencein the maturity of their children and theirability to make wise decisions. Apparently,parents of superior students such as thosewho were interviewed assume no role inhelping their children prepare for theexamination. The only parents who areworried about their child's progress are theparents of weak students.

Students agreed that parents showed littleinvolvement or interference with theirstudying for the Abitur.

They don't help me with my studies oranything like that. They try to make surethat demands on me around the housearen't too great, so I have time to study. Ihope they will give me peace and quietduring my preparation. There are somebooks around the house which will helpme in history, but I have to do thepreparation myself.,

I don't talk with my parents so muchabout university. I think it's good that

they don't interfere and allow me tochoose what I want to do and that theyare not against any career that I mightchoose. If I had questions, they wouldnaturally help, but they don't try toinfluence me or say I must studyarchitecture, you must. And theydon't know as much as I about theuniversity system. In Germany, when onefinishes high school one is old enough todecide for oneself.

Parents are able to assume the supportive,but non-intrusive role in part because of theirattitudes about their high school student:

She is an adult and responsible for herown life. We will of course help, if weare asked, but we are confident that sheis going to handle such a situationperfectly fine and find an intermediatesolution until she is admitted to theuniversity.

Another mother said,

We have never interfered. It is strictlyhis decision, since it is his future life atstake, after all. Nor are we involved inhis school performance, unless we areasked for advice or help.

Conclusion

The German educational system isundergoing a period of great change as itseeks to modify educational practices in theformer East Germany and to respond to theever-increasing demand for entrance touniversities and higher-level occupations.While the apprenticeship system for whichGerman schools are known throughout theworld is still thriving, questions arise abouthow to increase its prestige so that attendingvocational schools is perceived as asatisfactory alternative to attendinguniversity, and not just an addition, to

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attending university. There is also concernthat the lower secondary school forms,Hauptschule and Realschule, are sufferingcontinuing devaluation.

The exit examination given at the end of the13th year of schooling is generally regarded asa fair and defensible means of selectingstudents for university entrance. The majordifficulty is that passing the examination nolonger assures the student of a place at theuniversity of his or her choice and in thesubject in which the student is interested. Acommon criticism of the Gymnasium is that,because of the Abitur examination, studentsmust select two subjects to study in depthand two other subjects for less intensivestudy. This results in a narrower type ofeducation than students might desire.Another source of irritation is the fact thatstudents are sometimes sent to far-awayuniversities because an opening exists in theirsubject. In some fields, depending upon thestudent's score on the Abitur, it may benecessary to wait for several years for such anopening to occur. This situation arisesbecause students are accepted to study in adiscipline rather than at a particularuniversity.

German mothers display a surprising lack ofinformation about the procedures requiredfor college entrance. They place theresponsibility for obtaining such informationon their children and in general have greatconfidence in their children's maturity andability to make wise decisions.

The states are given major responsibility forcarrying out the curriculum and fordeveloping and scoring the Abiturexamination. A major concern about thispolicy arises in relation to the differentstandards adopted by various states, sincereduces comparability among students.Scores on the Abitur examination are not

necessarily comparable, nor are the grades incourses, the two contributors to the totalAbitur score. Since this score is the basis forselecting students for numerous clausussubjects, students from some states have amore difficult time of meeting the criterionfor admission than do students from otherstates.

No attention is paid to the special abilities ofstudents in selecting them for admission tothe university. As a result, there is always therisk that students who have achieved therequired score for admission to a particularprogram may not have other qualities thatare desirable for effective performance in thatprofession.

Another problem in the university admissionsprocess is the fact that it disregardsspecialization in Gymnasium. Each studentchooses two advanced courses for the Abitur,and thier choices are generally based on acombination of interest and strategicplanning - the latter with the goal ofobtaining the highest possible overall gradepoint average on the Abitur. Since admissionis determined overwhelmingly by grade pointaverage, theoretically someone who hadconcentrated in German and French inGymnasium could achieve the grade pointnecessary to study biology, while a studentwho may be better in biology could havefallen short of the requirements. This canalso result in some students spending vastamounts of time studying material that willbe of no value in their university studies.

The German educational system currentlyfaces several pressing questions. Some majorconcerns are increasing comparability ofAbitur results between states; whether toreduce the years of schooling from 13 to 12for the college track; correlating subjectchoice among students to the fields in whichpersonnel are needed, rather than to fields

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with higher prestige; and improving theuniversity admissions process to reflect factorsbeyond grade point average and test scores.

46a.

Summary

The purpose of this paper has been toreview educational practices and policies

related to high school exit examinations anduniversity entrance examinations in fourcountries: France, Germany, Japan, and theUnited Kingdom, and to describe thereactions of students, parents, and teachersregarding these policies. The four countriesare experiencing a common problem. Theiruniversities, built to educate a moderatepercentage of the population, are being askedto accommodate increasing numbers ofstudents. Unable to increase the size of theirenrollment without an expansion of theirbudgets, universities are left with twoalternatives: restricting enrollments with theconsequence that they become more eliteinstitutions, or expanding enrollments with aresulting decline in quality of education. Thefirst alternative is unacceptable to manycitizens because it exaggerates hierarchicalstructure of societies, and the second isunacceptable to others, because it may waterdown the value of a university degree.

Not only are universities experiencingincreases in the number of students seekingentrance, they have also been forced to copewith the fact that some fields are much moreattractive to students than are others. It hasnot been sufficient, therefore, to adoptstrategies for controlling admission touniversities; they have had to find ways forselecting the most promising candidates forvarious fields of study.

These countries have relied on twomechanisms for responding to theseproblems. They separate students, sometimesat an early age, into an academic track and avocational track. The age at which this

decision is made varies widely. For thecountries that route students into differentpaths during the early years, efforts are madeto provide students with a strong academiccomponent to their vocational training.When the decision is made later, the goalseems to be to provide a strong academicprogram before vocational training begins.Vocational students have opportunities toswitch to an academic track, but this is not acommon occurrence. Further differentiationof students enrolled in the academic track isbased on scores obtained on exit or entranceexaminations; admission to universities, aswell as to particular fields of study, is stronglyinfluenced by these scores.

Entrance and Exit ExaminationsEntrance and exit examinations in thesecountries are based on a curriculumestablished by ministries of education at thelocal, regional, or national level. Rather thanimposing some arbitrarily defined standard ofachievement, the examinations are closelytied to what the students have studied inhigh school. Because teachers are aware ofwhat students are expected to know inexaminations, it becomes their responsibilityto equip students with the information andskills needed to pass the examinations.These examinations typically includeopen-ended questions that requireorganization and application of knowledge,and oral examinations that require thestudents to express themselves verbally. Apersistent question asked about thecurriculum-based examinations is whetherthey take into account the characteristicsthat will be most relevant for the students

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success at the university level and in theirlater careers.

Reactions to ExaminationsParents and the students themselves oftenprofessed ignorance of the proceduresinvolved in admission to universities, with aresultant frustration on the part of studentsand passivity on the part of parents.Nevertheless, they generally gave the collegeentrance procedures a positive evaluation.Although they were satisfied that theexaminations were fair, parents and studentsacknowledged that there were problems withthe strong reliance on examinations. Theywere unable, however, to suggest moredesirable procedures.

There was consistent agreement that themajor determinant of success on the exit orentrance examinations is the motivation ofthe student to study in a consistent fashion.Parents indicated that they had little directinvolvement in students' preparation for theexaminations. This was the case even in thefamilies interviewed, where academic trainingis stressed and the parents had above-averageamounts of education. Parents explainedthat the major way in which they helped theirchildren was through providing apsychological support and physicalenvironment conducive to study rather thanby becoming directly involved in offeringacademic assistance.

Students reported that they did not find theexaminations especially stressful. Becausethey were aware of what they should know inthe examinations, they were able to reducethe possibility of stress by adequatepreparation. Stress was also reduced whentheir high school exit scores did not dependsolely on the examination, but also includedconsideration of their grades.

Criticisms of the Examinations

Although the examinations were consideredto be fair and of high quality, two majorproblems were pointed out. Because theexaminations often cover only a few subjects,students may graduate from high school withlittle breadth of knowledge, even though theyhave great depth of knowledge in a fewsubjects. This tendency is heightened whenearly specialization according to field of studyis required.

A second problem arises when regional ratherthan national examinations are used.Inequalities among students within orbetween regions of a country occur whenthere is neither a national curriculum nornational guidelines. Students perceive this asbeing unfair, especially if there are differencesamong the regions of the country in terms ofthe quality of high school education and inthe rigor with which the tests are scored. Asa result of these regional differences, studentswith high scores derived from lower standardsmay be less qualified for admission touniversities than students from other regionsthat have higher standards.

Members of all four societies also commentedon the inequalities resulting from differencesin the social and economic status of thestudents' parents. Middle-class parents witha good education are able to provideeconomic, personal, and intellectualadvantages that are not readily available tostudents from less privileged families.Students from poor families lack access totutors, books, and other academic resourcesat home, and their parents are not sufficientlyknowledgeable about academic matters tooffer their children guidance and counsel. Asa result, these students often sit for theexaminations with less information and fewerskills than do those from more privilegedhomes.

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Respondents also questioned the wisdom ofrelying on test scores or on a combination oftest scores and grades as the criteria foradmission to universities. In order tomaximize their likelihood of receiving a highscore on the examinations, students mayconcentrate their studies on subjects inwhich they have special strength rather thandirect their efforts to subjects which are morerelevant to their career goals. Respondentsalso pointed out that reliance on test scoresand grades also fails to give consideration tostudents' skills and talents which may beimportant in their professional lives, but maynot be directly related to academic coursework.

Finally, questions were raised about thedesirability of requiring such early decisionsabout career paths. This problem is morecharacteristic of the European countries thanof Japan, but in all four countries the systemis relatively inflexible. Once the decision ismade to follow the academic or vocationaltrack, it is difficult for students to modifytheir studies so that those in the vocationaltrack can become competitive for entranceto a university.

Conclusions

Procedures adopted for admission of studentsto universities have ramifications for acountry's total educational system. It isinevitable that parents should consider thetype of junior high school that will lead to anappropriate high school, or the type ofelementary school that will prepare thestudent most effectively for admission to ajunior high school. Although policy makersin all four countries have attempted toestablish an egalitarian system of elementaryschool education whereby all children receivea comparable level of education, high schoolsare highly hierarchical in that the curricula

differ according to the track in which thestudent is enrolled.

It seems likely that efforts will be made toattract larger numbers of students vocationaltraining programs in the coming decades.The need for physicians, lawyers, teachers,and other professionals cannot grow as fast asthe number of students who seek entrance tothese professions. Efforts have been made toraise the prestige and economic status ofvocational programs and thereby attempt toattract a higher percentage of students tovocational tracks. Even so, it seems likelythat the number of students selecting thevocational track will continue to lag as longas the economic and social advantages ofpossessing a university degree persist.

The reactions and evaluations made by therespondents in this study represent the viewsof special groups of students in each country,students who have done well in school andwho seek entrance to their country's leadinguniversities. It would also be of value toknow more about the response of lesssuccessful students and of students who donot aspire to a university degree. Indeveloping policies that govern entrance touniversities the reactions of these groupsmust be heard.

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Endnote

1. In Japan, interviews were conducted inTokyo and Hiroshima with eight 12th -

grade students, 10 mothers, 8 of whomwere mothers of the students interviewedand 1 father of the students; and 8teachers from the high schools attendedby the students. The teachers taughtmathematics, English, science, or socialscience courses. The students, four boysand four girls, were concentrating onliberal arts or professional-orientedsubjects (law, engineering, or medicine).Additional information was obtainedfrom a professor of educationalpsychology and the director of theCollege Management Research Inc.

2. In the United Kingdom, interviews wereconducted in London and in the Isle ofWight area with nine 12th-gradestudents, (four from humanities andscience and mathematics, four fromscience and mathematics, and one fromhumanities); six mothers and threefathers; and six teachers (two fromhumanities and four from science andmathematics).

3. In France, interviews were conducted inParis and in the region of Cannes withone boy and seven girls preparing for bac,all of whom were anticipating professionalcareers ranging from television journalistto judge. Three of the students' mothers,one father, and two teachers were alsointerviewed. The students consisted ofone boy and seven girls.

4. In Germany, interviews were held inMunich and Furstenfeldbruck with sevensenior students, seven of their mothersand one father, and with five of theirteachers. The teachers specialized inlanguages, history, mathematics, physics,physical education, and computerscience. The students wereconcentrating on mathematics, science,Latin, English, biology, chemistry, andeconomics.

55 51

References

Japan

Jichi Sogo Center (1991). The EducationSystem in Japan. Tokyo: Japan ShipbuildingIndustry Foundation.

Monbusho kotokyoiku-gakuseika. (1993).Daigaku To Gakusei. (University andstudent). Tokyo: Daiichi Hoki.

Monbusho (1993). Gakko Kihon ChosaHokokusho. (Annual report of schools).Tokyo: Okurasho.

Nihon kyoiku nenkan kanko iinkai (Ed.)(1992). Nihon Kyoiku Nenkan. Tokyo: Gyosei.

Shimizu, K. , Akao, K., Arai, A., Ito, M.,Sato, H., Iaosaka, 0. (1995). Kyoikudeetarandu, '95'96: A Databook ofEducation statistics (Educational dataland`93'94:

A Databook of Educational Statistics).Tokyo: Jiji Tsushinsha.

Tanaka, Y. (1992). 2011 Nen Made No KotoKyoiku Kikan Ni Okeru Shingakusha JuyoYosoku. (Anticipated demand of advancingstudents to higher educational institutions till2011). Tokyo: Sogo Kyoiku Kikaku.

Yoyogi-zeminaru (1993). Nyuushi NaniRanking. (Ranking of the difficulty ofentrance examinations). Tokyo: NihonNyuushi Center.

United Kingdom

Department of Education and Employment(November, 1995). The English EducationalSystem: An Overview of Structure and Policy.London.

Department of Education (May, 1993).Education Statistics for the United Kingdom,1992.

Government Statistical Service (June, 1993).GCSE and A/AS Examination Results1991/92.

Smithers, A., & Robinson, P. (1991). BeyondCompulsory Schooling: A Numerical Picture.London: The Council for Industry andHigher Education.

Stratham, J., Mackinnon, D., Cathcart, H., &Hales, M. (1991). The Education Fact File: AHandbook of Education Information in the UK(2nd ed.) London: The Open University.

France

Anderson-Levitt, K. M. , Sirota, R., &Mazurier, M. (1991) Elementary Educationin France. The Elementary School Journal, 92,79-95.

Knox, E., & Knox, H. L. (1987). Le systemeeducatif. Plus ca change, 19-32.

Ministere de l'Education Nationale et de laCulture. (1992). Direction de revaluation et dela prospective. Paris: Ministere de l'EducationNationale et de la Culture.

Tableaux statistiques, no 6085,6086,6087.(1990-92). Paris: Ministere de l'EducationNationale et de la Culture.

Germany

Arbeitsgruppe Bildungsbericht amMax-Planck-Institut (1994). DasBildungswesen in der BundesrepublikDeutschland: Strukturen and Entwicklungen im

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U`berblick. Reinbek bei Hamburg: RowohltTashenbuch Verlag.

Federal Ministry of Education and Science.(1993). Basic and Structural Data: EducationStatistics for the Federal Republic of Germany.Bonn: Federal Ministry of Education andScience.

Fuhr, C. (1989). Schools and Institutions ofHigher Education in the Federal Republic ofGermany Bonn: Inter Nationes.

KMK [Sekretariat der Sta`ncligen Konferenzder Kultusminister der La`nder] 1993.Schuler, Klassen, Lehrer und Absolventen derSchulen 1982 bis 1991. Bonn: Author.

Kultusministerium Nordrhein-Westfalen.(1990). Hauptschule, Realschule, Gymnasium,Gesamtschule. Bochum: Verlag FerdinandKamp, GmbH.

Secretariat of the Standing Conference ofMinisters of Education and Cultural Affairs.(1992). Report on the Development of Educationin the Federal Republic of Germany,1990-1992. Bonn: Documentation Serviceof the Secretariat of the Standing Conferenceof Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairsof the La`nder in the Federal Republic ofGermany.

Statistisches Bundesamt (1995). Bildung undKu ltur. Fachserie 11, Reihe 1, AllgemeinbildendeSchulen 1993. Wiesbaden: Author.

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