DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 408 988 IR 018 401

AUTHOR Cochenour, John; Rezabek, Landra L.TITLE Wyoming Tombstone Symbolism: A Reflection of Western

Culture.PUB DATE Jan 97NOTE lip.; In: VisionQuest: Journeys toward Visual Literacy.

Selected Readings from the Annual Conference of theInternational Visual Literacy Association (28th, Cheyenne,Wyoming, October, 1996); see IR 018 353.

PUB TYPE Reports Research (143) Speeches/Meeting Papers (150)EDRS PRICE MF01/PC01 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS *Cultural Images; *Cultural Traits; *Imagery; Pictorial

Stimuli; Social Influences; SymbolismIDENTIFIERS Cemeteries; *Grave Markers; United States (West); Visual

Communication; Visual Imagery; *Wyoming

ABSTRACTEleven cemeteries in Wyoming are examined for visuals

pertaining to life in the West. The purpose is to demonstrate the importanceof Western culture tradition evidenced through tombstonesymbolism--representations of the activities and environments of the livingthrough the memory provided by the deceased. The visual symbols found on thetombstones are presented in the following categories: environment, artifacts,and people. Environmental features that occurred most frequently were relatedto water, wind, wildlife, trees, wildflowers and mountains. The artifacts ofWestern culture represented on the tombstones centered on technologies thathave been developed to cope with the Western environment, including homes,apparel, transport systems, mechanisms for protecting and identifyingbelongings, and methods for obtaining needed resources. In the category,people, the occupations most often reflected in the tombstone motifs wereassociated with agriculture, railroading, mining, and timber, as well asthemes dealing with the lifework of the cowboy. As the tombstones representedin this study demonstrate, a society's culture is reflected in the memorialvisuals that can be found in cemeteries. Thirty-one figures show tombstonesfrom the three categories. (Contains 11 references.) (AEF)

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Wyoming Tombstone Symbolism: A Reflection Of Western Culture° .rrpororvceharzeosduhcagnbcieueaniimty.ade to

by John Cochenour & Landra L. Rezabek

AbstractEleven Wyoming cemeteries are examined for visuals that can be related to Western culture andtradition. A rich tradition of such symbols found in the study are presented within the followingcategories: environment, artifacts, and people. The study concludes that memorial visuals reflect toa great degree the culture and traditions of the surrounding society.

o Points of view or opinions stated in thisdocument do not necessarily representofficial OERI position or policy.

You was there when Ed got hisn,Boy that killed him's still in prison,And old Lucky George is rich and livin' high.Poor old Tom, he come off worse;Got his leg broke, died of thirst,Lord but that must be an awful way to die.

Bruce KiskaddonCowboy poetry speaks to people about many

themes, but the struggle of living life in the Westis one theme that recurs frequently. As the abovestanza from Kiskaddon states, being a cowboywas never as glamorous as it appears in themovies. Not withstanding this reality, mostpeople who live in the West, certainly those wholive in Wyoming, seem to be proud of the tradi-tions; individualism and toughness demon-strated by the earlier occupants of this land,native and emigrant alike. This attitude is evi-dent from the high number of Western motifsthat can be seen on the tombstones in Wyomingcemeteries. In eleven cemeteries in Wyoming,

Figure 1Waterwindmill and stock tank.

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the authors classified a large number of visualspertaining to life in the West that are summa-rized in this paper. The purpose is to demon-strate the importance of Westem culture and tra-ditions of the people who live and die in Wyo-ming by sharing tombstone symbolismrep-resentations of the activities and environmentof the living through the memory provided bythe dead. In this way the authors hope to con-tribute to answering the question, "What canthe images on tombstones tell us about thepeople and culture that produced them?"

The visuals are arranged in the following cat-egories: environment, artifacts, and people.Within each category, visuals and interpreta-tions will be presented from tombstones thatreflect some aspect of Western life or tradition.We have interpreted this tradition as that repre-sented by the American pioneer during the lat-ter half of the 19th century. Unfortunately, thislimitation ignores the significant traditions and

Figure 2WaterFishing in stream.

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Figure 6Plantsevergreen trees

growth on the windward side of exposed trees.Along the tree line (trees don't grow above thiselevation), these twisted and bent trees oftenwill not grow above the shelter of nearby rocksand are called "krummholz" trees. These treesmay look strange but may be several hundredyears old, and their use on the tombstone maysymbolize an indomitable spirit, persistence,and toughness.

Trees are rich and widespread symbols withmultiple meanings. One of the most commonis its symbolism of life as a connection betweenearth and sky. The simple pine tree in Figure 6could be symbolic of the relationships betweenheaven and earth, and the evergreen is repre-sentative of the immortality of the soul (Cheva-lier & Gheerbrant, 1994). Evergreens are foundabundantly throughout the Rocky Mountainsand certainly are numerous Wyoming. Figure

Figure 7Plantspine cones

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Figure 8PlantsIndian Paintbrush

7 continues the tree motif, but displays only thepine cones on a branch which conveys a mes-sage of immortality and fertility (Hall, 1994).

Flowers also have multiple meanings, butflowers generally symbolize a passive principle.Like the chalice or rain, flowers are represent areceptacle of God's instrumentality (Chevalier& Gheerbrant, 1994). Flowers are abundantlyrepresented on tombstones, but in Wyoming,as well as in other Western states, wildflowersseem to occur more frequently as a tombstonemotif. Figure 8 is a good example of the useof wildflowers, depicting Indian Paintbrush, theWyoming State Flower, used on a family stonein Wheatland.

Although a large variety of wildlife roam theWyoming mountains and high plains, perhapsthe most representative large mammal is thepronghorn antelope. There are nearly as manyantelope in Wyoming as there are people and

Figure 9Wildlifepronghorn antelope

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this number comprises nearly half of the world'spopulation of pronghorns. The pronghorn isthe second fastest mammal in the world, beingexceeded only by the cheetah, and is one of themost commonly seen large animals in Wyoming(Pitcher, 1993; Roberts, Roberts, & Roberts,1994). The symbolism of the pronghorn is dis-tinctly one of Wyoming and the West and isassociated with keen eyesight, swiftness, andlike the wind, one of God's messengers. Fig-ure 9 is a good example of the pronghorn ante-

lope imagery on tombstones.Dominating the environment of many West-

ern states, and certainly that of Wyoming arethe mountains. The mean elevation of Wyo-ming is 6700 feet and the University of Wyo-ming is the highest NCAA Division IA cam-pus in the United States at 7200 feet in eleva-tion. There are 12 major mountain ranges in

Figure 11Mountainslandscape

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Wyoming, and most people who live in Wyo-ming live in the shadow of at least one of theseranges (Pitcher, 1993). It is no wonder that one

of the most common motifs on Wyoming tomb-stones is that of the mountain landscape. Themountains represent the meeting of heaven andearththe home of the gods. Many mountainshave been given a quality of holiness by thepeople who live near by, and many diaries ofWesterners make note of the majesty of theRocky Mountains. In his journal dated 2 June1846, mountain man James Cayman noted, "themountains that surround this vally arepictureesque and many places beautifull beinghigh and near the base smoothe and well set ina short nutericious grass [sic]" (Cayman, 1984,

Figure 12Cabinstraditional log

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p. 258). The mountains make not only a beauti-

ful picture, but symbolize the higher properties

of the soul, the bounds of human development,and the abode of deities (Chevalier &

Gheerbrant, 1994). Figures 10 and 11 are typi-

cal uses of mountain symbolism on tombstones.

ArtifactsThe artifacts of Western culture are prima-

rily technologies that have been developed to

cope with the Western environment. Such tech-

nologies are represented by homes that use

available materials, apparel to match the envi-

ronment and livelihoods, transport systems to

deal with the rough country and vast distances,

mechanisms for protecting and identifying be-

longings, and methods for obtaining needed

resources. Each of these technologies have been

3385rsEST COPY AV

portrayed to some degree on Wyoming tomb-stones.

There are many images on tombstones thateither symbolize everlasting shelter or posses-sions that have been left behind in regional re-location or in death. Log cabins are a commonexample of this theme in Wyoming cemeteries.For many early pioneers, a permanent home wassimply a dream. Their imaginations coupledtogether with available resources often fash-ioned rather desperate shelters. The log cabinin the mountains was often small, real windowsa luxury, and dirt floors a reality (Butruille,1995). Nonetheless, the log cabin representeda safe place to live and shelter from the weather.Figure 12 is a log cabin refuge for eternity for a

Figure 13Cabinsmodern version

couple buried in Sundance, Wyoming. Amoreup-to-date cabin is pictured on the back of amarker in Figure 13.

Getting across Wyoming was a major effortin the early days of Caucasian settlement andthe various modes of transportation were thelifeblood of sustenance and growth for manyWyoming towns. Wagon trains on the OregonTrail, freight and mail wagons on the OverlandTrail, and the transcontinental railroad are eacheither directly or indirectly seen in the symbol-ism used in Wyoming cemeteries. The mostcommon symbol of the wagon motif is thewheel. In itself, the wheel is symbolic ofmove-ment and liberation (Chevalier & Gheerbrant,1994), but the wagon wheel common in thecemeteries represented here seems to be remi-

339

Figure 14Transportwagon wheel

niscent of the struggle and persistence of pio-neer families. The broken wheel shown in Fig-ure 14 could also indicate the impermanenceof mortal life or perhaps bonds broken. Astransportation technologies evolved, construc-tion of the transcontinental railroad began at theWyoming border in 1867 and became a majorinfluence in the life and development of south-ern Wyoming. Cheyenne and Laramie wereboth end-of-track towns and hosted the proces-sion of workers and hangers-on known as Hell-on-Wheels (Pitcher, 1993). The high point ofelevation along the transcontinental route is justeast of Laramie at 8,640 feet (Burt, 1991).Throughout the cemeteries in southern Wyo-ming, one will see references to the railroad ingeneral and the Union Pacific Railway in spe-cific. Figure 15 is typical of this imagery, whileFigure 16 includes carpentry tools and a min-

Figure 15Transportrailroads

Figure 16Transportrailroads

ers bucket with the railroad train, a melding of

important Western occupational symbols still

significant today.Gates have universal significance as passages

and particularly religious meaning relating to

passage from the profane to the sacred (Cheva-

lier & Gheerbrant, 1994). Gates to Western

ranches and farms are often highly decorated

(see Figure 17), and appear on tombstones with

a combination of secular and religious mean-

ings (see Figure 13). Associated with gates,

one will see a variety of fencing used to protect

property, hold livestock, ordirect drifting snow.

Figure 18 is an interesting use of barbed wire

fencing to symbolize permanence and protec-

tion in a Western motif.Branding, or burning a code or identifying

mark on the hide of an animal, was a Spanish

tradition that was used in the American West to

Figure 17Gatesranch gate entrance

Figure 18Fencin barbed wire hearts

compensate for the lack of fencing on vast open

ranges. Each brand is unique and has a regis-

tered owner; many families in Wyoming own-ing more than one brand as a result of marriage

and inheritance (Pearson, 1996). These visual

references to family, tradition, and ownership

appear throughout the West and are often used

on tombstones. Figure 19 combines the family

brand with the windmill, cattle, and the sun to

present a very positive symbol of Western life.

People of WyomingOne thing that is not unique to the West, but

that is reflective of individual pride and survival

is the identification with one's name and fam-

ily. A person's name is the most common mark-

ing found on a tombstone. In some cases, this

inscription is simply a handwritten scratch on a

rock. Figure 20 shows a rock slab with no vi-

Figure 19Brandswith cattle

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Figure 20Peoplenames

sual and only four scratched names: BERGEYWRAGER FRANCIS RIMMEK. Such rocksare common throughout the older cemeteriesin Wyoming leaving one to wonder about thepersons memorialized. Is this the grave of fourpeople? Of two? Or does this marker identifythe resting place of one early settler?

In life, people have an urge to scratch theirname out in a "Kilroy was here" tradition. Im-migrants traveling across Wyoming in searchof new homes or new adventures often engravedtheir names in the rock faces that were locatednear the major trails. Three major sites, NamesHill, Register Cliff, and Independence Rock,are all adjacent to either the Overland Trail orthe Oregon Trail. Independence Rock, a land-mark that travelers hoped to reach by Indepen-dence Day, is probably the most famous mile-stone along the Oregon Trail and is mentioned

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Figure 21PeopleJapanese

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Figure 22PeopleGreek

in the diaries of many travelers (Clyman, 1984).At one point, stone cutters charged from one tofive dollars to cut a person's name in the rock,and about 50,000 names have been etched overthe years, although erosion has claimed manyof them now (Burt, 1991; Moulton, 1995).Names, a mark of one's presence or passing,are a visual reminder of the people who settledthe West.

These settlers' names originate from manyethnic backgrounds. The American West wasa beacon of opportunity to people throughoutthe world, and many of those immigrants passedthrough Wyoming, stayed to work in the minesor on the railroad, or settled on the land in someagricultural or other pursuit. The most uniquelyrecognizable ethnic backgrounds found in Wyo-ming cemeteries were Asian, Greek, and Rus-sian. This was due in part to the use of their

Figure 23PeopleRussian

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native alphabets and languages on the head-stones as well as icons that differed from thecommon Christian symbols found in the UnitedStates and Europe. Figures 21, 22, and 23 areexamples of the diversity that can be foundthroughout Wyoming still today.

The occupations that provided work for thishardy group of Wyoming settlers were varied,but this paper focuses on livelihoods that com-manded some of the larger numbers of people,although the population of Wyoming has neverbeen great. One characteristic of Wyoming thatvisitors notice is the sense of emptiness that pre-vails in many areas. The population of the statein the 1990 census was still only 453,588. Whenthese numbers are distributed over 97,914square miles, people describe Wyoming as "amoderate sized city with very long streets". Itis easy to imagine that in some occupations, a

Figure 25Peoplecowboys

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person could live a very solitary existence. Theoccupations most often reflected in tombstonemotifs were associated with agriculture, rail-roading, mining, and timber.

In addition to these vocations, the lifeworkof the cowboy is very much associated with theWest. The American cowboy is an intriguinghistorical figure with origins in Virginia and theeastern colonies as cowkeepers, cowdrivers, andcowpen men during the 1600 and 1700s. Of-ten these herdsmen were slaves known as cowhunters or graziers and were highly skilled onhorseback. In Texas during the early 1800s,the Anglo-American cattle traditions wereblended with those of the Spanish-Mexican toshape the cowboy of popular legend. The name

Figure 26Peoplecowboys

cowboy seems to haVe been associated withraids during the Revolutionary War to obtaincattle to feed the armies, and also from raidsupon the Mexican cattle ranches by Texas set-tlers. It would seem the early use of the termcowboy had some negative connotations(Tinsley, 1981).

The life of the cowboy during the heyday ofthe West was not easy. It could be dreary andfull of hardship and hazard. The work was sea-sonal and low paying, tedious and lonely, andoccasionally unpleasant and dangerous. In spiteof all this, the cowboy hasheld a fascinating ap-peal and romance that has reached legendaryproportions. The allure of the West is still typi-fied by the cowboy, as evidenced by the buck-ing bronco and cowboy logo on the Wyoming

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Figure 27Peopleminers

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license plate. Many people of Wyoming seemto take great pride in the cowboy tradition anduse the many cowboy motifs to memorializefamilies and friends. Figure 24 reflects oneaspect of the cowboy traditionrodeo. Thisheadstone uses the a bull rider visual to markthe resting place of a professional rodeo rider.Figure 25 is a more typical use of the cowboyimage. This young man was most likely not aprofessional cowboy, but rather a person in-volved with horses and employed as a snow-plow driver. Saddles, boots, horses and otheritems associated with the cowboy lifestyle arecommon on Wyoming tombstones. Figure 26combines Western themes with symbolism ofthe fallen comrade, typified by the riderlesssaddled horse, and the life well-lived.

Mining has been an economic factor from thebeginning of Wyoming's history. Coal, cop-

Figure 28PeopleMiners

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per, platinum, gold, trona, and uranium areamong the resources that have been sought inWyoming (Burt, 1991). The symbolism of themines and miners represents persistence, dan-ger, hard work, and prosperity. The followingfigures are taken from the Hanna cemetery andare all associated with coal mining. Figure 27highlights the work ethic of mining with thepick and shovel; the notation, "killed in explo-sion," is indicative of the danger. Figure 28 isof a memorial dedicated to miners who havelost their lives in local mining accidents. Theback side of the memorial is full of names aswell.

Two very interesting stones are in a familyplot in the Hanna Cemetery. What is remark-

Figure 29Peoplewife's stone

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able about both stones is the life stories that aretold in visuals around the perimeter of the stone.The wife's stone ( see Figure 29) includes vi-suals that portray family, the mountain environ-ment and wildlife, needlepoint, a delicate rose,and cooking on a wood stove. These visualssymbolize a woman whose life was dedicatedto service (food and cooking), gentleness (chil-dren and deer), femininity (rose), and family.Figure 30 is a close up of the cooking scene.For many pioneer women, an indoor stove wasa wonderful luxury since it allowed one to workstanding up, rather than stooping over a camp-fire (Butruille, 1995). The visuals on thehusband's stone (see Figure 31) depict a life ofwork and a variety of occupations. Around thetop of the stone appear visuals of an ocean fish-

10

Figure 30Peoplecooking

erman, a lumberjack, a miner, and a barber. At

the bottom of the stone, visuals depict a man

with his family in front oftheir home and a duck

hunter. The combination of visuals on thistombstone lead one to the interpretation that this

individual immigrated to Wyoming from a sea-

faring/fishing country, worked as both a lum-

berjack and miner, and finally worked as a bar-

ber later in life. The deceased seemed to enjoy

the out-of-doors and provided for his family.

ConclusionAs the tombstones selected demonstrate, a

society's culture is reflected in the memorial

visuals that can be found in cemeteries. Wyo-

ming cemeteries are full of religious symbols

that are drawn from the beliefs of the people

that use them, but the traditions of the West are

prevalent themes as well. The folklore of cow-

boy and pioneer life, Western flora and fauna,

environmental and natural forces, and the en-

during mountains can be discovered through-

out the sepulcher art used in Wyoming cem-

eteries. If, as conference attendees, you find

yourself in Wyoming with time on your hands,

the culture and traditions of Western life can be

seen throughout any Wyoming cemetery. Visit

one and see what the visual cues reveal about

life and death in Wyoming.

ReferencesBurt, N. (1991). Wyoming. Oakland, CA: Com-

pass American Guides.

344

Figure 31Peoplehusband's stone

Butruille, S. G. (1995). Women's voices from

the Western frontier. Boise, ID: Tamarack

Books.Chevalier, J. & Gheerbrant, A. (1994). A dic-

tionary of symbols. (J. Buchanan-Brown,Trans.). Oxford, England: Basil Blackwell

Publishers. (Original workpublished 1969)

Clyman, J. (1984). Journal ofa mountain man.

(L. M. Hasselstrom, Ed.). Missoula, MT:

Mountain Press Publishing. (Original work

published 1928)Hall, J. (1994). Illustrated dictionary of sym-

bols in Eastern and Western art. New York:

Harper Collins Publishers.Kiskaddon, B. (1985). "When they've finished

shipping cattle in the fall." In H. Cannon(Ed.). Cowboy poetry: A gathering. Salt

Lake City, UT: Peregine Smith Books.

Moulton, C. (1995). Roadside history of Wyo-

ming. Missoula, MT: Mountain Press Pub-

lishing.Pitcher, D. (1993). Wyoming handbook (2nd

Ed.). Chico, CA: Moon Publications.

Pearson, J. (1996). [Brands of Crook County:

Symbols of our Western heritage]. Unpub-

lished study.Roberts, P., Roberts, D. L., & Roberts, S. L.

(1994). Wyoming almanac (3rd Ed.).Laramie, WY: Skyline Press.

Tinsley, J. B. (1981). He was singin' this song:

A collection offorty-eight traditional songs

of the American cowboy, with words, mu-

sic, pictures, and stories. Orlando, FL:

University Presses of Florida.

11EST COPY AVAilABLE

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