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Griesemer, J. Lynn; Butler, CorneliusEducation Under Study: An Analysis of Recent MajorReports on Education. Second Edition.Northeast Regional Exchange, Inc., Chelmsford, MA.National Inst. of Education (ED), Washington, DC.Nov 83NIB -G -82 -001777p.Publications, Northeast Regional Exchange, Inc., 160Turnpike Road, Chelmsford, MA 01824 ($5.00; quantitydiscounts; orders of less than $25.00 must beprepaid).Guides - Non-Classroom Use (055) -- InformationAnalyses (070) -- Reference Materials -Bibliographies (131)

MF01/PC04 Plus Postage.*Book Reviews; *Education; *Educational Improvement;Elementary Secondary Education; High Schools;*Literature Reviews; "National Surveys

ABSTRACTThis study is designed to facilitate access for

policymakers to the wealth of recent reports on American education.Section 1 examines the findings and compares the recommendations ofnine of these reports in such areas as school organization andmanagement, curriculum, and teachers and teaching. The reportsynopses in section 2, which are largely verbatim and comprise thebulk of the study, focus on these findings and recommendations asthey pertain to education. The nine reports selected for examinationare: "Academic Preparation for College: What Students Need to Knowand Be Able to Do"; "Action for Excellence: A Comprehensive plan toImprove Our Nation's Schools"; "America's Competitive Challenge: TheNeed for a National Response"; "High School: A Report on SecondaryEducation in America"; "Making the Grade"; "A Nation at Risk: TheImperative for Educational Reform"; "The Paideia Proposal: AnEducational Manifesto"; "A Place Called School: Prospects for theFuture"; and " A Study of High Schools." The study's final sectionoffers an annotated bibliography of other education reports andprojects recently made available, relating them to a set of criticalareas similar to that presented in section 1. Each report or projectdescription is accompanied by information on how to obtain it.(JBM)

************************************************************************ Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made ** from the original document. ************************************************************************

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EDUCATIONUNDERSTUDY

AN ANALYSIS OFRECENT MAJOR REPORTSON EDUCATION

SO101141 ed it ion

devehped by.1. Lynn Grietwmer and Cornelius Butler

NORTHEAST REGIONAL EXCHANGE.. INC.3

The development of this publication was supportedby a grant from the National Institute of Education,US Department of Education (ME G82-00171 Theopinions expressed in this publication do notnecessarily reflect the position or policies of the USDepartment of Education or the Northeast RegionalExchange, Inc.

Second EditionCopyright 0 'qovember 1983The Northeas: Regional Exchange, Inc160 Turnpike Rd., Chelmsford, MA 01824.6171256-3987

All rights reserved

Lil-rary of Congress Catalog Card Number83-63156

4

Northeast Regional Exchange, Inc.

The Northeast Regional Exchange, Inc. (NEM). a private, not-for-profit corporation, is a service andresearch agency that promotes educational equity and improvement. NERtX coordinates resources andsharing of information among the seven state departments of education in the Northeast based on anestablished set of state and regional priorities. through NERO( states are able to expand their availableresource base and work through regional sharing efforts toward program improvement in local schooldistricts and other educational institutions. The Northeast Regional Exchange, Inc. is governed by aBoard of Directors that includes the seven Chief State School Officers from the Northeast and eightrepresentatives from a wide variety of education constituency groups in the region.

Board of Directors

CTGerald N. Tirozzi

Commissioner of EducationDavid G. Carter

Associate Vice President

University of Connecticut

MERobert E. !loose

Commissioner of EducationRobert Goettel

Director. Center for Research

University of Southern Maine

MARohn W. Lawson

Commissioner of EducationKevin T. Andrews

Pniscipal, Spaulding SchoolNewton

NHRobert L. Burnell*, Chair

Commissioner of EducationJeannette Vezeau

President Notre Dame College

NYGordon M. Ambach

Commissioner of EducationAnne L. Bondy, Vice-Chair

President BOC ES

Southern WestchesterSandra Feldman

assistant to the President

United federation of Teachers

RiKenneth Mellor

Acting Commissioner of EducationAnn Prosser

Principal. Hunt School

Central Falls

VTStephen S. Kaagan

Comrnissi.)ner of EducationSylvia Kelley

Assistant Supenntendent

Burlington

j. Lynn GriesemerExecutive Director

5

Foreword

Education has emerged at the forefront of our na-tion's agenda, asking policymakers at all levels torespond The opportunity to review our values andcommitments to the foundation of out coun-tryour youth should be a well-planned andregular process. We are fortunate in the 1980s tohave the thinking of many prestigious groups andscholars to help frame ,-.iur thoughts and to point ustoward areas of needed reform.

The Northeast Regional Exchange, Inc. is pleased topublish Education Under Study: An Analysis of Re-cent Major Reports or: Education. The second edi-tion of this publication includes a comparison andsynopses of nine major reports. I r, full recognition ofthe many exceVent resources available today, thefinal section is an annotated bibliography ofselected other reports. The Northeast Regional Ex-change has devAoped this document to aid you inyour examination of the many excellent resourcesnow available to policymakers.

The development ot this publication has been madePossible by the many persons who have served onnationwide commissions. task forces, and studygroups. We thank them for their vast commitment totile examinatoas they conducted, and for the per.mission they granted, when required, to reprint ex-cerpts of their work. Several persons have beenprimarily responsible for the development of tellsdocument. First, the primary editors and authors areJ. Lynn Griesemer and Cornelius Butler. They havebeen assisted by Eisa Martz, Production Coor-dinator, and Carol Donaruma, and loan-Marie King.Our appreciation for their rapid and thorough workis deep, for they have helped us respond to a grow-ing demand for assistance in a timely manner. We

also would like to express our most sincere ..:pprecia-tion to stveral people that have assisted as advisorsand reviewers during the development of theoriginal document and this second edition. At thefederal level, we thank Thomas J. Burns, Director ofinteragency Affairs, US Department of Education.Frorq,state education agencies, sue. are grateful toStephen S. Keegan, Commissiont of Education inVermont R. Douglas Dopp, Assistant to the Com-missioner for Federal State Relations for the Connec-ticut State Department of Education; P. AlistairMacKinnon, Federal Education Legislation Coor-dinator for the New York State Education Depart-ment; and Christopher O'Neil, Executive Assistant tothe Commissioner for the Rhode Island State De-partment of Education. From the school districtlevel, we thank Carolyn Hazard, Director of Instruc-tion. North Kingstown School Department in RhodeIsland. From higher educations, we thank RobertGoettel, Director of the Center for Research aod Ad-vanced Study at the University of Southern Maine;and Mark R. Shedd, Director of the Public Policy andManagement Program at the University of SouthernMaine. And finally, from our own organization, werecognize the assistance of Douglas S. Fleming,Manager for Information Services and Training atNEREX.

6

Robert L. Bninelle

Commissioner of EducationNew Hampshire

Chair, Board of DirectorsNortheast Regional Exchange, Inc.

Contents

PageForeword v

Section IIntroduction and Comparison of NineRecent Reports on Education 1

Section IISynopses of the Nine Reports

Academic Preparation for College: What Students Need to knowand Be Able to Do 17

Action for Excellence: A Comprehensive Plan to Improve OurNation's Schools 21

America's Competitive Challenge: The Need for a NationalResponse 25

High School: A Report on Secondary Education In America 29

kaking the Grade 39

A Nation At Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform 45

The Paideia Proposal: An educational Manifesto . 53

A Place Calk.41 School: Prospects for the Future 57

A Study of High Schools 61

Section IIIAnnotated Bibliography of Selected Other EducationReports and Projects .

,

7

65

Section I:Introduction and Comparison of Nine

Recent Reports on Education

The recent wealth of reports on American educa-tion heralds a time for reinvesting in our nation'sschools. We are awake to the importance of ouryouth and the relationship of education to thenation's economy.

The purpose of Education Under Study: AnAnalysis of Recent Major Reports on Education isto facilitate access for policymakers to the find-ings and recommendations of these reports. Theanalysis that appears in this section examines thefindings and compares the recommendationsacross nine of the recent reports on education.The synopses of the reports in Section II are inlarge part verbatim and place major emphasis onthose findings and recommendations as they per-tain to education. Section Ill is an annotateobibliography of selected other reports that ad-dress the current health of our nation's schools.Each report is accompanied by a full referenceand Information on how to obtain the report.

The decision to include the nine reports in this ex-amination was based on the following criteria:

national sponsorshipthe eminent credentials of the principal authorand/or study teamavailability of significant resources to performa thorough study and the consequent closeand careful analysis of the topicrecommendations supported by either largedata bases or extei.L've systematic observa-tions of a large national sample of schoolsystems.

The nine reports selected for examination are:

,UCATION UNDER STUDY

Academic Preparation for College: WhatStudents Need to Know and Be Able ToDo Educational EQuality ProjectTheCollege Board.Action for Excellence: A ComprehensivePlan to Improve Our Nation's SchoolsTask Force on Education for EconomicGrowthEducation Commission of theStates.America's Competitive Challenge: TheNeed for a National ResponseA Reportto the President of the United States fromthe Business-Higher Education Forum.High School: A Report on SecondaryEducation in AmericaErnest I.. Boyer,The Carnegie Foundation for the Ad-vancement of Teaching.Making the GradeReport of the Twen-tieth Century Fund Task Force on FederalElementary and Secondary EducationPolicy,A Nation At Rift: The Imperative forEducational ReformThe National Com-mission on Excellence in Education.The Paideia Proposal: An EducationalManifestoMortimer J. Adler on behalfof the members of the Paideia Group.A Place Called School: Prospects for theFuturelohn 1. Coodlad.A Study of High SchoolsCo-sponsoredby the National Association of SecondarySchool Principals and the NationalAssociation of independent Schools.

...

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/

This section includes a brief discussion about thereports, and the underlying precepts about education that form the foundation of the reportsThe main part of this section includes a com-parison of recommendations by critical areasThese areas are School Organization and man-agement; Curriculum; Students and Learning,Quality and Equality. Teachers and Teaching.Postsecondary Education, Leadership at theLocal State. and Federal Levels and throughBusiness and Industry. and Research A brief dis-cussion about next steps concludes this sectionTwo tables vith comparisons ..ccompany the text

General Comparison of Reports andData Bases

The nine report. address many similar issues,however, they place different emphases on theseissues, and they are written for a variety of audrences Each study was sponsored by a differentorganisation and varies by resources availablefor the study, the length of time spent on thestudy, and the data that form the basis for find-ings and recommendations Table I presents aprofile of the reports

The reports range from autonomous perception.to authored documents derived from staffresearch, to task force consultation and consensus following examination of other data sourcesThe overwhelming nature of the proposals is correction and improvement The findings and therecommendations dei wed from the data aresimilar in that there is no consistent fault findingThere are specific criticisms throughout thereport- often accompanied by explanations ofand data about the problem

Academic Preparation for College was devel-oped by The College Boak: as part of their10-year Education EQuality Project. " . Morethan 200 high school and college teachers serv-ing on the Board's many committees and on itsCouncil on Academic Affairs responded to questionnaires and participated in meetings devotedto rethinking the subject-matter preparation thatwould best equip students for the most selectivecolleges. At the same time, the Board's Advisor},Panel on Minority Concerns focused attention onthe broad academic competencies needed bystudents entering all colleges" In 1981 "abroadly representative symposium . workedout the Basic Academic Competencies.... TheBoard's Academic Advisory Committees and itsCouncil on Academic Affairs subsequently revised the subject-matter descriptions .." andthe Council on Academic Affairs approved the

Basic Academic Subjects in February of 1983(pp. 4-5)

Action for Excellence, coordinated by the Educa-tion Commission of the States, is the report of the41member National Task Force for EconomicGrowth :including governors, legislators, cor-porate chief executives, state and local schoolboard members, educators, leaders of labor andthe scientific community), who deliberated overseveral months Chaired by Governor JamesHunt, Jr of North Carolina, the report of the taskforce represents consensus on the problems ofour educational system and recommendationsfor action.

America's Competitive Challenge: The Need for aNational Response, a one-year research andstudy effort, was conducted by a 16-memberTask Force of Business-Higher Education Forummembers, meeting periodically "to review the in-formation gleaned from past surveys and con-temporary expertise." Co-chaired by R. Ander-son, Board Chair of Rockwell Industries andDavid S Saxon, President of the University ofCalifornia, the Task Force developed its reportand recommendations from these deliberations.

High School, by Ernest L. boyer, is a profile ofsuccesses, problems and recommendations forreform of our American public secondary educa-tional institutions The three-year study wasguided by a 28member panel Paul I Houts, theproject director, was assisteri t. v a 25-memberresearch team that spent over 2,000 hours visitingin 15 public high schools throughout the US. Thereport, issued by The Cainegio Foundation forthe Advancement of Teaching, consists of vig-nettes about high schools based on intensive sitevisits, a presentation of relevant data about highschools, student achievement and enrollment.and financial support, and recommendations forimprovement.

Making the Grade is a set of recn-emendationsfor a strong guiding federal role, extrapolatedfrom a background paper by Paul E Peterson,professor as. the University of Chicago Peterson'spaper, which includes substantial statistical in-formation, examines the successes and failuresof federal influence on public education over thelast century The one and a half year study, spon-sored by the Twentieth Century Fund,was guidedby an 11-member task force (including represen-tatives from higher education, state departmentsof education, and local school districts) andchaired by Robert Wood, former President of theUniversity of Massachusetts,

2 EDUCATION UNDER STUDY

9

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Table IProfile of Reports

ACADEMIC AMERICA'S A PLACEPREPARATION ACTION FOR COMPETITIVE HIGH MAKING A NATION THE PA10fIA CAMEO A SIUOV OF

TITLE FOR COLLEGE: EXCELLENCE: CHALLENGE: SCHOOL: THE GRADE AT RISK: PROPOSAL: SCHOOL: HIGH SCHOOLS

What Students A Cmhpre The Need los a A Report on the tin An I duca Prospects for theNeed to Know henswe Plan NaWonal Secondary Perative honal Futureand Be Able to Improve RtsPonse I ducation in for ( duca Manifestoto Do Ow Nation's America Nana,

Schools Reform

Sponsor! Education Task force on Business Ernest I Boyer Twentieth The National Mortimer IAuthor (Quality Pros- Education los Higher Educa The Carnegie Century Commission on Adler on be.

ea The Economic non Forum foundation los fund Task Est ellence on hall of theCollege Board Growth Edo- the Advance, force on Er wation US Paidela

cation Coma meat of Federal Department of Grow/mission of leaching Elementary Educatonthe States and Secon

day Iduca-hon Policy

John I Coodlad National MU/as ton of Sec-ondary SchoolPrincipals andthe Commissionof EducationalIssues of theNational Asso-ciation of IredependentSchools

Chaffs) Not Went med Governor R Anderson Ernest I EloYer Robert Wood David P Mortimer I Ralph W Tyler Theodore Rlames Hunt. ft David S Saxon Gardner Adler Sizes

Repre. 200 high 41 member lb members 28 members 11 members 18 members 22 members Cs members Seedy team ofsepta school and col- governors, business and state and local state oopart gave or. :ego. National. National. state educators andton of lege teachers legislators. higher edu- level mems, local latorc, State state and and local level educationalTask as members of CEO's, state cation educators, school level, and Boards. local local level educators researchersforce various Col- and local higher educe higher education school level, educatorsMem lete Board school boards, lion, aid higher educaben committees and labor business trOti. and Proles-

and council soal assoc:ahons

Questionnaires olData Data collected Task force con Past surveys I seld studies of Background Commissioned Primarily14 public c.4Bases from 1400 Pea senses on prob. and concern 15 public high paper by Paul E papers. public Philosophical and observe-

schools, dais Peterson Willi. oral and writtenUtilized ple through terns and notary ever- tons in 38questa:mom:es tecommenda- toe from Hugh mg twisting data comment, ex.

Ming analyses,schools across schools

and meetings. WAS School andalso Judgments

aanerdAStudy o!

the countryand descry.-

and recoil: lions of notablemendations Schooling Programs

(CoocIlaC)

'tine 3 years 1 yeas 1 year 3 years 1 S Yeats 1 5 years 1 year 8 years 3 years

Frameof Study

Date of May 1983 May 1983 April 1983 September "LIU May 1983 April 1983 September i982 September 1983 January 1981Release

BEST COPT AVAILABLE 11.

A Na Hon At The Imperative for EducationalReform, was guided by the 18-member NationalCommission on Excellence, chaired by David PGardner. President of the University of Utah TheCommission, appointed by Secretary of Educa-tion. T H Bell, released its report in April 1983after 18- months' work The report is based onpapers commissioned from experts. testimonyfrom meetings of educators. students, pro.fessionai and public groups. Parents, publicofficials and scholars, existing analyes of problems in education. letters from ctmcerned citi-zens, teachers, and administrators, and descripLions of notable programs and promising ap-proaches in education

The Paideia Proposal: An Educational Manifesto,written by Mortimer J Adler, presents a concep-tion of the desired processes and structure ofschooling, for the greatest benefit for studentsand society Proposed on behalf of the Paideiagroup, a 22-member panel of educators. thereport is primarily philosophical and nowstatistical in its presentation

A Place Called School is a discussion of the cur-rent state of schoolingmade real by the il-lustrative use of data carefully gathered thoughextensive inverviews and surveys of a diversesample of 38 schools The study extended overeight years, three of which were devoted to con-ceptualizing the plan The study. directed byJohn I Good lad and chaired by Ralph W Tyler,was accomplished with a staff of researchers andtrained data collectors

A Study of High Schools will be reported in threevolumes over the next year The first, to be released in January 1984, is entitled. Horace's Com-promise: The 9Heenena of the American HighSchool. It is written by Theodore R Sizer, direc-tor of the study This study has involved intensivefield studies in 14 public and private high schoolsin the 1981.82 academic year The method, com-parative school analyse., permits the explorationof diversity among schools and the processes ofhistorical change Information was collected bysemi-structured interviews and observations

Precepts

Five precepts about American education under-lie the specific recommendations in the reportsThese are.

Education is correlated with economic andsocial development. Improved education out-comes are essential for the economic andsocial well-being of the individual, and there-

4

tore. of the nation. While same reports focuson this bread goal. others focus on personalgrowth or self-improvement. or on tradi-tionally-measured student performance.

* Quality education as a lifelong process is auniversal right. The assumption is that qualityschooling through ti.e secondary years is theright of all youth and only the beginning ofeducation Colleges and other postsecondarytraining efforts must be linked to secondaryschools. Training and rntraining programsshould be available throughout the workingyears. Public schools should, therefore, teachnot only content but also the process of learn-ing.Public schools will continue as a mainstay ofour society. Despite the pessimistic evalua-tions of public schools in the reports, none ofthem gives any serious consideration toalternatives to public schooling. Neithervouchers, tax rebates for private schooling, noralternative schools with public sponsorship,are addressed in any significant depth.Quality teachers and teaching uncle& im-proved learning. The cornerstone of school im-provement is quality teachers and teaching.Education as a high intensity human resource"industry" requires that we invest heavily in"human capital." Without this, all other im-provement efforts will fail.Accountability and leadership by all must in-crease. Whereas critiques of public -..!ooi ofthe earlier decades were prone to identify vil-lains or week links, these reports indict all sec-tors of society. The task Therefore, requires in-creased accountability am. leadership by all atthe federal. state, and local level, and in thepublic ant! private sector. Common to the re-ports is the viewpoint that the federal govern-ment has 'national interest" responsibilitieswhich are exempl'fied through targeted leg-islation, regulations, and financial support;State governments shape educational policythrough establishing priorities. legislation.regulations, and financial support Neither ofthese roles is to be confused with the strongand traditional responsibilities of local schooldistricts to implement programs and delivereducational services which must be accom-panied by local financial cupport.

The Regomntendations; AnAcross-report Discussion

Eight critical areas are addressed in the reports.Table i i presents a checklist of the critical areasof recommendations across the nine reports.

12EDUCATION UNDER STUDY

Table IICritical Areas of Recommendations from the Nine Major Reports

ACADEMIC ACTION FOR AMERICAS MN AWING THE A NATION THE PAMELA *RACE GALLED

PREPARATION FOR INCIMENCE COMPEITTIVE SCHOOL GRADE At RISK morosoa s01001COUTO CAMINO

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School Organttanonand Management + + +

Cumculum + + + + + +

Students and Learning r r r r r r+ r+ r+Quality and EtInahtY + r r r rTeachers and Macho, r r r r+ r r+

rr r

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rr

rPostsecondary Education r r r+ rLeadership

Local Role r. ... + r. r + +

State Role + r +

Federal Role ,.. + + r +

Business & Industry + +

Research + + r

13

r indicates that the report discusses and/or advarces recommendations for action on this themer + Wrote, that the report parttCularly emphasizes ihrs theme

PEST COPT rilAtlir:BLE

11

Curriculum, Students and Learning, and Teachersand Teaching are emphasized in all nine reports.Quality and Equality in eight reports; SchoolOrganization and Management, and Leadership atthe Local and State Level in seven reports; Port-secondary Education in six reports; Leadership atthe Federal Level in five reports; and Leadership inBusiness and Industry and Research in fourreports A summary of the f indings and recommen-dations of the reports for each area is presentedhere, with comments on variations in the analysisof each

School Organization and Management(7 reports)

The role of the schools, the impact of goals andcurriculum on structure, time spent in school,and the quality of school -bas( d leadershipemerge as the primary factors affecting schoolorganization and management School managershave been subjected to a wide array of newresponsibilities over the past two decadesAmerican schools are now acting as "surrogateparent, nurse, nutritionist, sex counselor, andpoliceman They are charged with training in-creasing percentages of hard-to-educate young-sters so that they can effectively enter a moredemanding labor market "(Making the Grade, p4) Rapidly changing demographics and judicialintervention have decreased the opportunities ofadministrators to oversee the teaching quality oftheir schools

A Place Called School addresses the organiza-tional context as centering on a comprehensiveset of goals for schools By demanding thesegoals, the state would ensure alternative °O-muta( designs and pedagogical procedures,evaluation of teaching conditions in schools,new ways to organize and staff schools, im-proved teacher education programs, and im-proved oppoi tunities and salaries for teachers (APlace Called School, pp 325-326)

America's Competitive Challenge suggests thatthe structures of our schools and other Americaninstitutions have become 'barriers to the flexibleresponse which is the key to the future prosper-ity (I) 5) Sizer, director of A Study of HighSchools, believes that "the grip of structure" isthe central obstacle to school improvement (p680) His recommendations include. "a shorter,simpler, better-defined list of goals, this will in-volve shelving the long-standing claims of cer-tain subject areas He also recommends thatschools eradicate age-grading and stereotypingby class, race, gender,, and ethnicity Teacher

6

specializations such as English and socialstudies, must be eradicated, however difficultthis may be (pp. 682-683)

A Nation At Risk focuses on time devoted toschool and instruction. The report calls forsigrair.antly more time devoted to learning theNew Basics, the more effective use of the existingschool day, a longer school day or a lengthenedschool year (pp. 29-30) Goodlad also recom-mends that school begin at age four and end atage sixteen. (p. 315) (A Place Called School,p 325)

High School calls for better use of ti 'e, with"greater flexibility in school size and the use oftime - (p 314) Further, the report describes theprincipal as a "key educator" in creating the lear-ning environment, who must be well prepared,allowed to exercise rnore control over the schooloperations and selection and rewarding of staffThe recommendations include a network ofAcademies for Principals to provide for continu-ing administrator development (pp. 219-229)

Action for Excellence advances recommenda-tions that pertain to Principals and effectivemanagement. The task force, placing the prin-cipal "squarely in charge of educationalquality," recommends that the "pay for prin-cipals should relate to responsibilities and effec-tiveness '" Recognizing that "schools should usemore effective management techniques, thereport calls for state leadership in setting "higherstandards for recruitment, training and monitor-ing the performance of principals "(p 11)

Curriculum (9 reports)

The subjects, course content, and skills taught inour nation's schools are part of the substance ofthe recommendations on curriculum in all ninereports Also, prevalent in each report is theestablishment of standards both in terms ofnumber of coterses and achievement. Minimalfocus is placed on differentiating between thecollege and non-college bound student.

Six of the reports addressing curriculum includea list of subjects required for graduation fromhigh school and/or admission to college. Most ofthe reports address mathematics, sciences andtechnology, and one America's CompetitiveChallenge, focuses primarily on mathematicsand science (main report, pp 11.12)

A Place Called School calls for a better balancewithin both the school and individual studentcurriculum (p 283) Action for Excellence in-cludes a broad recommendation that states and


school systems should strengthen the publicschool curriculum to make the academic ex-perience more intense and more productive (pp.10-11) Some reports stress simplification of ex-isting curricula and a consequent set of basicskills Simplification however does not mean ashorter list. as some of the reports go well beyondthe basic or core curriculum.

Some of Cie basics are traditional. "We recom-mend that all students seeking a diploma be re-quired to lay the foundations in the Five NewBasics: (a) four years of English; (b) three years ofmathematics; (c) three years of science, (d) threeyears of social studies; (e) one-half year of com-puter science " (A Nation At Risk, pp. 2427)Academic Preparation for College, which fo-cuses primarily on curriculum, outlines in depth"the basic academic competencies" of reading,writing, speaking and listening, mathematics,reasoning, and studying. (pp. 7-30) Making theGrade recommends core components in the cur-riculum. "(They] are the basic skills of reading,writing, and calculating, technical capability incomputers, training in science and foreignlanguages, and knowledge of civics . ." (p. 3)

High School states that language is the first cur-riculum priority and recommends that "highschools help all students develop the capacity tothink critically and communicate effectivelythrough the written and spoken word " (p 85)"The second curriculum priority is a core of com-mon learninga program of required courses inliterature, the arts. foreign language, history,civics, science,, mathematics, technology.health . - (p 94) Boyer also proposes a newCarnegie unit for service in the community. (p.202-215)

The choice of traditional curriculum or coursedescriptions defined by competencies is morethan a matter of style, especial ly for adherents ofcompetency designations who espouse radicalcurncular change. A Study of High Schoolswould require different kinds of teaching formatsthat would induce higher order thinking skills.such as reasoning, imagining, analyzing, and syn-thesizing. (p 682) The Paideia Proposal stressesthree modes which apr,ly not only to teachingstyle but also to the "three ways in which learn-ing improves the mind. (1) by the acquisition ofinformation or organized knowledge, (2) by thedevelopment of intellectual skills, and (3) by theenlargement of understanding." (p. 51)

The acceptance of traditional course outlinesand the stress on curricula that center on in-tellectual skills are not necessarily polar Both

are part of existing teaching practices. improve-ment in both rests within re-examination of thecourses themselves and new teacher training pro-grams

Students and Learning (9 reports)

An unstated goal of the recommendations ineach of the repot is is to enhance student learningand achievement. The primary emphasis is onstudent attitudes and culture and the learningneeds of unserved and underserved populations.

The most forceful report on student perfor-mance and attitudes as a key component ofschool improvement is in the humanistic docu-ment, The Paideia Proposal, which stresses thatlaxity in deportment can be "completely destruc-tive of learning and completely frustrating to theefforts of the best teachers. Students must be re-quired to behave in class and in school in a man-ner that is conducive to learning." (p. 55)

A Place Called School points out that one condi-tion for the improvement of schools is "a youthculture powerfully preoccupied with itself ..Studies and statistics on absenteeism, truancy,and interpersonal tensionssometimes leadingto violence raise serious questions about theappropriateness of schools, as conducted formany of the older students in attendance."(p 321)

Action For Excellence recommends that theacademic experience be "more intense and moreproductive.- To achieve this, the task forcerecommends that states and school systemsestablish "firm, explicit, and demanding re-quirements concerning discipline,, attendance.homework, grades, and other essentials of effec-tive schooling." (p. 10)

A Study of High Schools suggests structuralchanges to enhance student learning Sizer statesthat "a central goal of schooling is for students tobe able to teach themselves and to wish to doso ''' Learning opportunities, according to Sizeralso should give incentives to students to usetheir out-of-school opportunities in ways thathelp them learn still more (p. 682) Goodlad, in APlace Called School, recommends that the em-phasis be placed on mastery learning for allstudents He further includes recommendationsfor improving instruction that are intended to"expand students' opportunities to learn '°(p 319)

High School recommends an expansion of thelearning environment through stronger links tothe community business and industry, and cci

EDUCATION UNDER STUDY 7

15

leges. Also included in this report is the recoimendation for a new Student Achievement andAdvisement Test (SAAT) that would evaluateacademic achievement and provide advisement,"helping students make decisions more in-telligently about their futures ..." (p. 134)

The reports emphasize that college applicants,for example, may not have had the chance toprepare adequately for higher education andthat colleges will still have an obligation to meetthe needs of such students " (Academic Prepara-tion for College, p. 33). This document, whichwas written in part as a report to students, addsthat "a decision to admit a student is, after all, anagreement to provide instruction at that stu-dent's current level of knowledge and skill?'(p. 33)

America's Competitive Challenge stresses thatAmerican institutions are inadequately preparedfor the challenge of the next decade in which 15million new workers will enter the workforce,and in which over 100 million currently em-ployed will need training to keep abreast ofchanging job needs (pp. 4-5)

A Nation At Risk, refers to the longstandingpromise that "all children by virtue of their ownefforts, competently guided, can hope to attainthe mature and informed judgment needed tosecure gainful employment and to manage theirown lives...." (p. 8) The five recommendationseach :iave implications for the student learningenvironment.

Action for Excellence stresses that the schoolsmust serve better those students who are nowunserved and underserved. They recommendthat this be done through "increased participa-tion of women and minorities where they areunderrepresented, equitable finance measures;challenging the academically gifted students;reducing absences and failures; and special in-clusion of handicapped students in programs foreducation and economic growth " (p 11) Makingthe Grade also focuses on special populations ofstudents and their learning needs. The task force"supports continuing federal efforts to providespecial educational programs for the poorandfor the handicapped." Categorical programsfunded by the federal dollar and 'impact aid forhigh concentrations of immigrant and/or impov-erished groups" also is strongly urged. (pp 15-16)

Quality and Equality (8 .eports)

The goal of maintaining both quality and equal-ity may be the most difficult of the recommenda-

tions to implement While the reduction in thequality (or excellence) of performance) of publiceducation is a main concern expressed in thereports, there has been an emphasis by thefederal government on equality in education,defined as equal access to education programsfor all students, in the last two decades. A fewreports simply state the goal of attaining bothquality and equality; others present mastery of acore curriculum and the elimination of trackingas the mechanism for achieving this goal

There is an implicit conclusion in six reportsthat new thrusts toward quality should notreduce the accomplishments of the recent im-provements in equality. With the exception ofMaking the Grade, the reports do not see anyobstacle in pursuing both. In fact the statementssee the two as necessary and easily interlockingpriorities. "Concern for educational qualityshould be expressed in ways that advance socialjustice. Educational quality must not lead to actions that limit the aspirations and opportunitiesof disadvantaged and minority youth, or thatwould reverse the progress that has already beenmade " (Academic Preparation for College, p. 33)

A Nation At Risk asserts that "the twin goals ofequity and high-quality schooling have profoundand practical meaning for oer economy andsociety, and we cannot permit one to vied to theother either in principle or in practice." (p. 13) Ac-lion for Excellence devotes two of the eightrecommendations to this theme the first is to"provide quality assurance in education," thesecond to "serve better those students who arenow unserved or underserved." (pp 10-11)

Recommending a one-track system, High Schoolstresses that ". . in the debate about publicschools, equity must be seen not as a chapter ofthe past but as the unfinished agenda of thefuture. To expand access without upgradingschools is simply to perpetuate discrimination ina more subtle form But to push for excellence inways that ignore the needs of less privilegedstudents is to undermine the future of the nation.Clearly, equity and excellence cannot be di-vided!' (p. 6)

The Paideia Proposal avers that ". to give thesame quality of schooling to all requites a pro-gram of study that is both liberal and general,and that is, in several, crucial, overarchingrespects, one and the same for every child " (p.21) Thus, elective choices are inappropriate. API a ce Called School recommends the eliminationof tracking and ability grouping as the primarychange that would, along with improved instruo

8 EDUCATION UNDERSTUDY

16

Lion, create greater equity in access to learningfor all students. (p. 319) These difficult and in-tegral changes are seconded by A Study of HighSchools. "Lessening segregation and stereotyp-ing by class, race, gender, and ethnicity requiresnot only unprejudiced attitudes but alsochanges in the structure of schooling." (p 682i

Teachers and Teaching (9 reports)

The teacher and teaching emerge as fundamen-tal issues underlying each of the reports. Rec-ommendations are forwarded regarding the irn-provement of the teaching environment, teacherincentives, accommodating for shortages ofmath and science teachers, and teacher trainingEchoed it. recent press releases and nationalmeetings, many see reform in this area as criticalto all other improvement efforts.

Several reports recognize that all teachers aresubjected to environmental circumstanceswhich inhibit good teaching "The teacher, alongwith all other authority figures, does not appearto command the respect commonly accorded ageneration ago. The complex organizationalstructure in which the classroom teacher nowoperates restricts independence and auton-omy "(Making the Grade, p. 9) Sizer, buildingon this theme, feels that if teachers are "deniedautonomy, they do mediocre work or leaveteaching .. Top professionals want a careerthat gradually develops, with more responsibilityand compensation following experience anddemonstrated excellence "' (A Study of HighSchools, p 683)

The recommendation for "a National MasterTeachers program, funded by the federal govern-ment" is proposed as a forerunner for "recon-sideration of merit pay for teachers:" (Making theGrade, pp 9-10) A Nation At Risk devotes an en-tire set of recommendations to teaching. Therecommendations are intended to improve thepreparation of teachers and to make teaching amore rewarding and respected profession. In-cluded is a recommendation for merit pay forteachers that would be -professionally com-petitive, market-sensitive. and performance-based Salary, promotion, tenure, and retentiondecisions should be tied to an effective evalua-tion system that includes peer review so thatsuperior teachers can be rewarded, average onesencouraged, and poor ones either improved orterminated. .." (A Nation At Risk, p. 30) Otherrecommendations advanced by the Commis-sion, include higher educational standards forteachers, 11-month contracts, career ladders, in-

centives such as grants and loans, and a masterteacher program. (pp 30-31)

High School provides a comprehensive set of rec-ommendations for the improvement of teachersand teaching. Starting with the conditions ofteaching, recommendations include lower classloads, increased class preparation time, and ex-emption from non instructional duties (p. 159)Several recommendations center on a variety ofways to recognize and reward teachers, in-

cluding a Teacher Excellence Fund for com-petitive grants for professional projects HighSchool specifically recommends an increase of25 percent above inflation in the average teachersalaries over the next three years and continuedresources for inservice teacher renewal Compre-hensive recommendations are included aboutteacher recruitment and training, which placeprimary responsibility on institutions of highereducation for standard-setting and incentive pro-grams. (pp. 154-185)

Action for Excellence recommends that thepublic "express a new and higher regard forteachers and for the profession of teaching." In-cluded as action steps are the improvement ofmethods for recruiting, training, and payingteachers; the creation of career ladders forteachers; and the development of new ways tohonor teachers (p. 37)

America's Competitive Challenge, primarily con-cerned with mathematics and engineering,recommends forgiveness loans, the upgradingof skills for those who teach mathematics andscience, and "support from federal, state andlocal governments and the private sector to pro-vide ongoing training of secondary schoolscience and math teachers." (pp. 11-12)

The reports have implications for the content ofteacher education curriculum The Vaideia Pro-posal suggests that teachers "should themselvesbe at least as well-schooled as the graduates ofthe schools in which they are expected to teach."irk 59) Coodlad stresses the need for "immersionin behavioral and humanistic studies" and"guided observation and practice only in key anddemonstration schools working in collaborationwith the teacher preparing institutions " (A PlaceCalled School, p 319)

Postsecondary Education (6 reports)

Since the focus of the reports is elementary andsecondary education, the discussion aboutpostsecondary education is primarily related toincreased academic standards for teachers and


17

changes in teacher education curriculum aspresented in the previous discussion. Hand-in-hand with the recommendations for increasedstandards for teachers is increased standards forall college students. (A Nation At Risk, p. 27, Ac-tion for Excellence, pp.10.11)

The reports also call for increased cooperationbetween public school systems and postsecon-dary institutions, and education that encourageslifelong learning In the reports that argue for in-creased cooperation between public school sys-tems and postsecondary institutions, there islittle disagreement about the need In particular,there is a general finding that the existing patternin which the postsecondary institutions' degreerequirements for high school programs should bereplaced by a dialogue among equals. An exam-ple of this type of cooperation evolved duringthe College Board's comprehensive examinationof requirements in both academic competenciesand subjects as proposed in Academic Prepara-tion for College.

In addition to the several recommendations forimproved teacher education, High School callsfor the establishment of state level school-college coordination panels "to define therecommended minimum academic requirementsto smooth the transfer from school to publichigher education "(p. 316) Stressing greater highschool-college collaboration, the report recom-mends "university in the school" programs formore accelerated students and comprehensiveone-to-one relationships between a single schooland a college. (pp 255-267)

Displaced workers who will need schooling wellbeyond their public school years, is an additionalrationale for strong linkages between publicschools and postsecondary institutions. America'sCompetitive Challenge goes further to describean individual Training Account (ITA) which couldbe created to give individuals an incentive tosave for their own education and training needsafter they have commenced their workingcareers. In addition to vocational necessitiesthere also a need for a "Learning Society".which is committed "to a set of values and to asystem of education that affords all members theopportunities to stretch their minds to fullcapacity, from early childhood through adult-hood, learning more as the world itself changes(A Nation At Risk, pp. 13-14)

Leadership (7 reports)

Leadership responsibilities necessary to effectsignifican. improvements are, at a minimum, ex-

emplified by the prestigious commissionitaskforce membership and sponsoring organizationsof the reports Strong leadership roles are,however, implicit in all reports and explicitly ad-dressed in seven of the reports Two reports (ThePaideia Proposal and A Study of High Schools) dorot specifically recommend who should take ac-tion but only the type of action to be taken.Other reports include recommendations thatcover a wide variety of persons who should ac-cept leadership responsibility specifically thoseat the local, state, and federal level, and inbusiness and industry.

Action for Excellence has 8 action recommenda-tions, each of which centers on an area of educa-tional leadership Accompanying the report,there are separate brochures for action to betaken by governors, state legislators; business, in-dustry and labor, school boards, and otherpoi icymakers.

High School addresses the public commitment toeducation through a comprehensive set ofrecommendations for local, state, federal, andbusiness and industry leadership Ranging fromservice to financial and regulatory responsibil-ities, Boyer states, "how we, as a nation regardour schools has a powerful impact on what oc-curs in them. It helps determine the morale of thepeople who work there; it helps studentscalibrate their expectations; it contributes, oneway or another, to the climate for reformWhether a school succeeds or fails in its missiondepends in no small measure on the degree ofsupport received from the nation and from thecommunity it serves." (c, 281)

America's Competitive Challenge makes oneoverall recommendation. "As a nation, we mustdevelop a consensus that industrial competitive-ness is crucial to our social and economic well-being. This can be implemented only by strongfederal leadership and action. (p. 7)

Making the Grade requests the executive andlegislative branches of the federal government toemphasize the need for better schoolsbut in-sists that "elementary and secondary educationmust remain a reponsibility of state and localgovernments:" A Nation At Risk distributes therequirement of leadership across the board, toprincipals and superintendents, to state and localofficials, and to the federal government in co-operation with states and localities The ialterhas the responsibility to "identify the national interest in education;" the citizenry must providethe financial resources necessary to improveeducation. (p 33)


18

The tendenc of the reports is to establish apyramid of leadership, from the federal govern-ment at the apex to the schools at the base. withinstructional leadership increasing toward thebase Allocations of specific leadership respon-sibilities are a bit ambiguous, not surprising con-sidering the multi-faceted nature of the concept

Local Role (7 reports) In addition to sharedleadership discussed above, a few reports havesome specific recommendations for local schoolsystems A Nation At Risk places strong emphasison the local role, particularly in the recommen-dations for financing and improving teaching, asmentioned earlier.

Academic Preparation for College recognizes theneed for commitment of local communities andleadership to effect the curricula, standards, andoverall policy changes they suggest for theschools. A Place Called School stresses "greaterdecentralization of authority and responsibilityto the local school site. . The unit of improve-ment is the individual school." (p. 318)

Action for Excellence includes specific actionsfor school systems in the recommendationsregarding resources, teachers, academic pro-grams. quality assurance, leadership and man-agement in schools, and serving the unserved orunderserved. In short, the roles as described bythe task force are many and varied, requiring thatstates and school systems work together to en-sure excellence. (pp. 10-11)

High School includes suggested actions forparents, school boards, and district level leader-ship. These range from volunteer service toschool board membership where the responsi-bilities include finances, personnel, and co-ordination. In High School, local leadership isviewed as central to school improvement. "Thehigh schools of the nation are only as strong asthe communities of which they are a part. The re-newal of the school must, quite literally, begin athome." (0.286)

State Role (7 reports) As presented above, thestate role is perceived as primary to school im-provemer particularly in establishing standardsfor curriculum, student excellence, and teachertraining. In addition, the state is a major financialresource

Goodlad, in A Place Called School, summarizesthis by stating that 'the recommendations forstates are intended to assure the clear articula-tion of a comprehensive set of goals for schools,the availability of alternative curricular designsand pedagogical procedures, continuing assess-

EDUCATION UNDER STUDY

ment of the condition of education in schools,and support for school improvement They are in-tended. also to impress upon state leaders theneed to stimulate creative wins to organize andstaff schools, develop teacher education pro-grams, ansi eliminate the present 'flatness' inteaching opportunities and salary schedules." (p.318)

A Nation At Risk includes in each of the fiverecommendations suggested state action includ-ing graduation requirements, curriculum, lengthof the school day and year, teacher certificationand teacher incentives, and fiscal support. (pp.24 -33) Action for Excellence emphasizes a strongstate role led by the governor who shoulddevelop a state plan for education and economicgrowth. High School emphasizes that "the state'srole is to provide a framework for assuring equityand quality while avoiding overregulation." (p.291)

Federal Role (5 reports) Four of the reports do notinclude any reference to the federal role. osten-sibly because their concerns are limited to thereconstruction of schools and schooling andtherefore avoid political conaiderations (Thesedre: A Study of High Schools, A Place CalledSchool, The Paideia Proposal and AcademicPreparation For College.) Action for Excellenceincludes a federal requirement but emphasizesthat new initiatives should originate at the stateand local levels. America's Competitive Chal-lenge includes many specific federal interven-tions, but these are directed primarily at theeconomic context rather than education

High School defines three broad purposes for thefederal role in education: information gatheringand reporting, ensuring education quality forspecial needs students: and support to schools inareas of emergency national needs. Recom-mended programs include federal grants tostates for graduate follow-up surveys, increase inTide I support, a National Teacher Survey, a net-work of Technology resource Centers, and aschool facilities act. (pp 291.296)

A Nation At Risk commands our attention rela-tive to the federal role because it was directed bythe Secretary of Education. It states that theprimary responsibility for financing and governing the schools rests with state and local of-ficials, and that the federal government, incooperation with States and localities shouldhelp "meet the needs of key groups of studentssuch as the gifted and talented, socioeconom-ic:11y disadvantaged, minority and languageminority students, and the handicapped The Na-

19

11

tional Commission on Excellence in Education (ANation at Risk) included federal responsibilitieswhich surround the educational process, such as'protecting constitutional and civil rights for

students and school personnel, collecting data,statistics. and informanon about educationgenerally, supporting curriculum improvementand research on teaching, !taming, and themanagement of sthools, supporting leachertraining in areas of critical shortage or key na-tional needs, and providing student financialassistance and research and graduate trainingWe befieve the assistance of the Federal Govern-ment shouid be provided with a minimum of ad-ministrative bu; den and intrusiveness " The Com-mission adds that the Federal Governmentshould fund and support efforts to protect andpromote the national interest. (p. 33)

Specific federal programs are proposed in Mak-ing the Grade. This report clearly argues that thefederal government "is charged with providingfor the security anci well-being of our democraticsociety, which rest largely on a strong and com-petent system of public education The methodfor achieving federal involvement is to be a "firmbut gentle goad to states and local communitieswithout impeding or restricting state and localcontrol of an accountability for the schools " (p4)The report examines the federal education rolein recent years and concludes that criticisms of ithave been exaggerated It does not ignore, how-ever, that the role has been counterproductiveespecially when it resorted to compulsory regula-tion and mandated programs This new rolewould correspond with a change in emphasisfrom current regulations and mandates to a newemphasis on incentives (pp. 5-7)

Making the Grade encourages a strong federalrole It proposes, also, a federally.fundedNational Master Teachers Program that mightlead to reconsideration of merit pay Calling forafederal statement that the most important objec-tive of education in the United States is thedevelopment of literacy in the English language,it further urges that the federal government em-p'.1asize programs in basic scientific literacy, aswell as in advanced training in science andmathematics. The task force suggests federalloans for teachers to pursue degree programs inthese shortage areas The report argues for refor-mulation of the existing impact-aid formula to in-clude immigrant children The heart of the issue,says the report, is that local school districts donot have the will to concentrate on these needsand that a new federal initiative is a necessity if educational excellence is to be realized. (pp. 8-22)

12

Rosiness and industry (4 reponj Four reportsfocus either on the improved economic Ilnk toeducation :Jr the general need for support frombusiness and industry for school improvementAmerica's Competitive Challenge recommendsprivate sector initiatives that support educationthroLgh the financing of sophisticated equip-ment. greater toe of academicians as consul-tants, and assistance with other university-basedinitiatives. High School links the "quality ofwork" to the "quality of education" and thus pro-poses several school - business partnerships.These include help for disedvantrged students,enrichment piograms for the gifted cash awardsto outstanding teachers, the use of business train-ing facilities and models for principals, andassistance with the upgrading of school facilitiesand equipment. (pp 268-280) Action for Ex-cellence presents a full set of recommended ac-tions for business, industry, and labor in abrochure that accompanies the report The roleas described includes being active in communityefforts; sharing staff, training, and expertise; pro-viding opportunities for students and teachers toexplore occupations; financial support; andlobbying for legislation that improves schools.Concurrent with the Reagan Administration's re-quest that business and industry be supportive ofeducation, A Nation At Risk suggests that leadersfrom the private sector are part of the Americanpublic that must respond.

Research (4 repo. ts)

the reports all include implications for futureeducational research across the topics presentedabove; however, only four reports specificallydiscuss research. America's Competitive Char-lenge recommends private sector investment inuniversity-based research facilities A PlaceCalled School recommends investment (in.cluding private sector support) in "research anddevelopment centers focused on curriculumdesign. on the content of the major domains ofthe curriculum, and on teachi4 and evaluation!'(p. 319)

Research is seen by the National Commission asa federal leadership responsibility supporting allareas of recommended improvement (A NationAt Risk, p. 33) Making the Grade recommendsfederal support for a number of specific researchactivities: the collection of factual informationabout various aspects of the education systemitself the collection of informativi bout theeducational performance of students, teachers,and schools across the nation; evaluation of


1

federally-sponsored education programs; andfundamental reseaich into the learning process(pp. 17-18)

Next Steps

The emergence of these reports and recommen-dations leads to the question: What next? Thecommon concerns of the task forces, authors,and sponsors help ensure the likelihood that therecommendations will be considered and dis-cussed. However, educational impr^vement ofthis magniture requires federal leadership thatcomplements state and local action. The firststep, therefore, is federally convened discussionsamong the stakeholders represented in thesereports, to determine implications, future steps,and leadership responsibility.

Each of the reports addressing the federal, state,and local responsibilities for school improvement agrees that the decisions about programselection reside primarily at the state and locallevel with federal guidance in areas of "nationalinterest." However, to obtain public support, theprice tag must be visible, whether it is high orvery high. The second step, therefore, is a deter-mination of resources that the federal, state, and


local governments world provide for improvededucational quality.

Decision-making will require hard choices. Thethird step, therefore, is a re-analysis of thereports, not to critique the recommendations,but to place them in a context that wouldfacilitate choices at the state and local level.

The fourth step is a study emphasizing thefeasibility of implement!ng selected programs inthe schools. This process should incorporate theresources of support organizations includinghigher education, intermediate service organiza-tions, professional associations, foundations,and the federal government.

There are other outstanding reports in process. itwill be difficult to provide the public with asimplified list of best options, but new insightsmust be publicized while the nation's schoolsseek solutions that will ensure the onset of a newmovement toward educational excellence. Tothe degree possible, the fifth step must involvethe findings and recommendations of newreports, yet to be released.

The education reports of the 1980s mandate aresponse by the American people. The debatethat we are engaged in is healthybut more im-portant is the resolution and ultimate improvement in the education of our youth

13

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Section II:Synopses of

the Nine Reports on Education

Synopses of the following reports are presented:

Academic Preparation for College: What Students Need to Knowand Be Able to Do

Action for Excellence: A Comprehensive Plan to Improve OurNation's Schools

America's Competitive Challenge: The Need for a National Response

High School: A Report on Secondary Education in America

Making tho Grade

A Nation At Risk: The Imperative for Educatin al Reform

The Paideia Proposal: An Education Manifesto

A Place Called School: Prospects for the Future

A Study of High Schools

EDUCATION UNDERSTUDY 22 15

(

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c

Academic Preparation For College:What Students Need to Know

and Be Able to Do*

The College Board

The College Board report, released in Spring 1983, is the report of the10 -year Educational EQuality Project. The project, whkh is under thedirection of the Board's Office of Academic Affairs, is advised bynumerous task forces and dialogues. A list of these appoar in the appen-dices to the full text. The report includes specific academic competen-cies, basic academic subjects, and suggestions for actit,n.

Identifying the Outcomes

"... Academic Preparation for College outlineswhat college entrants need to know and be ableto do It summarizes the combines judgments ofhundreds of educators in every part of the coontry. It is meant for students and their parents; forteachers, counselors. and education administra-tors; for school boards and other government of.ficials responsible for the overall policy andfinances of our schools. It is meant also forcollege and university faculties and administrators.... (pp. 1-2).

"... Academic Preparation College is an agendafor high sctiools to pursue, each in the context ofits own resources and mission, and in collaboration with the community it serves and the colleges its students seek to enter.... (p.4)

'Reprinted with permission from Academic Preparation forCollege: What Students Need to Know and Be Able to Do.Copyright © 1983 by College Entrance Examination Board.NY


The Basic Academic Competencies

"The Basic Academic Competencies are read-ing, writing, speaking and listening, mathematics,reasoning, and studying. These competencies areinterrelated to arid interdependent with the BaskAcademic Subjects. Without such competencies,knowledge of history, science, language, and allother subjects is unattainable.

-The Basic Academic Competencies are devel-oped abilities, the outcomes of learning And in-tellectual discourse. There are different levels ofcompetency; they can be defined in measurableterms." (p. 7)

Computer Competency:An Emerging Need

"A revolution in comma Orations and informa-tion technology is making the computer a basictool for acquiring knowledge, organizing sys-tems, and solving problems. As such, it is having

2317

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a profound influence on learning and on theworld of work.

"in the immediate future most workers eitherwill work directly with computers or have theirwork influenced by computers in some signifi-cant way. An influence as pervasive as this re-quires, among other things, an informed citizenrythat not only understands what computers canand cannot do, but also is aware of the problemsand issues involved in their use.

"In schools and colleges the computer is beingused increasingly by students and their teachersas an instrument to receive, organize, store,analyze, and interpret information, as well as amedium for the communication of that informa-tion. Competency in its use is emerging as a basicskill complementary to other competencies,such as reading, w-iting, mathematics, and rea-soning. The computer also provides access tobodies of knowledge in each of the academic dis-ciplines." (p. 11)

The Basic Academic Subjects

"Study in the Basic Academic Subjects providesthe detailed knowledge and skills necessary foreffective work in college. Students who intend togo to college will need tii;.; basic learning in orderto obtain the full benefits of higher education.This learning provides the foundation for collegestudy in all fields...

"The Basic Academic Subjects are English, thearts, mathematics, <cience, social studies, andforeign language Although these subjects arepresented separately (in the report), they dependon each other in many ways.

"The Basic Academic Subjects are presented intwo parts: the first explains why preparation in asubject is important for college entrants, thesecond outlines what college entrants need toknow and be able to do in that subject area(p. 13)

Achieving The Outcomes

"identifying the academic preparation neededfor college is a first step toward providing thatp:eparation for all students who might aspire tohigher education. But the real work of actuallyachieving these leaming outcomes lies ahead. Itwill require a vast extension of the commitmentand cooperative action that led to this descrition of academic preparation for college (p. 31)

Action Within the Schools: -. As high schoolsdevise curricular and instructional approaches toachieving these learning outcomes, they mayfind it useful to take into account several sugges-aons made by the high school and collegeteachers who fashioned the description of theseoutcomes Mathematics teachers pointed out.for example. that making place for newly impor-tant topics may involve shifting the traditionalemphasis in the mathematics curriculum Socialstudies teachers underlines that the learning out-comes in that subiect are achieved most readilythrough a carefully designed sequence ofcourses that builds progressively on studentskills, concepts, and factual knowledge. Whileforeign language teachers emphasized thatlanguage proficiency is achieved best by inten-sive and sustained study that begins as early aspossible, mathematics teachers emphasized thatthe most effective preparation would includestudy of mathematics in the final year of highschool. Such suggestions are, of course, only abeginning. Schools wiil need to devise their owncoherent curricular and instructional strate-gies.... (p. 32)

"Action by Others Concerned With The Schools:Achieving these outcomes will require work bymany others in addition to students, teachers,counselors, and school administrators Boards ofeducation and other officials responsible foreducational policy will have to be aware of thepreparation needed for college as they considercurricula standards, and overall policy for theschools. They may have to reassess priorities andreallocate resources. Many secondary schoolsneed additional financial support. Many need toadd teachers in certain subjects. Well-trainedteachers will be crucial to achieving the learningoutcomes in all subjects.

"Solving these problems will require the commit-ment of local communities and of the public atlarge It will be important to remember that outfuture well-being is bound up with the educationof all children. The quality of education shouldbe of concern to all, whether or not they havechildren in school.

"Concern for educational quality should be ex-pressed in ways that advance social justice Edu-cational quality must not lead to actions thatlimit the aspirations and opportunities of disad-vantaged and minority youth, or that wouldreverse the progress that has already been madeRather, concern for educational Quality must beexpressed in a commitment to quality for all

18 24 EDUCATION UNDE R STUDY

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P

students Arbitrary standards must not be im-posed without concern for enabling students tomeet them. Expectations such as these learningoutcomes should be used as criteria for designingeducational efforts that will enable morestudents to succeed.

"Colleges will have a special role to play. Theymust recognize that many incoming students willnot have had the chance to prepare adequatelyfor higher education and that colleges will stillhave an obligation to meet the needs of suchstudents. A decision to admit a student is, afterall, an agreement to provide instruction at thatstudent's current level of knowledge and skill.Colleges have specsal resources. particularly thelearning and expertise of their faculties. that canhelp high schools strengthen the preparation ofstudents for higher education. High schools mayalso find it useful to draw on the experience ofsuccessful college programs for serving inade-qtritely prepared students. Such resources willbe useful if they can be made available in a spiritof collegiality and cooperation....

"Improving preparation for college can help im-prove the quality of high school education


overall, whether or not students intend to entercollege. Consequently. the Educational EQualityProtect will be working to build alliances notonly within education but also between educa-tion and othersparticularly employerswhoare concerned with how well high schoolstudents are educated." (pp. 33-34)

The study was supported by The College Board.

Order single copies from:Office of Academic AffairsThe College Board888 Seventh AvenueNew York. NY 10106

Published in 1983: 46 pages single copy free

For multiple copies: packages of 20 for $20.00Order 5 or more packages 0 20% discount.Send payment or purchase order to:College Board PublicationsDeot. A35Box 886New York. NY 10101

25 19

a

Action for Excellence:A Comprehensive Plan to Improve

Our Nation's Schools*

The Task Force on Education forEconomic Growth

Education Commission of the States

The National Task Force on Education for Economic Growth is coor-dinated by the Education Commission of the States. Chaired Gover-nor fames B. Hunt, Jr. of North Carolina, the 41-member task forcereleased its report in May 1983.

The appendix accompanying the complete text provides a list of basicskills and competencies for productive employment. In developing thelist, the Task Force draws heavily upon work done by The Center forPublic Resources and Protect EQuality of the College Board. In additionto the full report ECS has prepared specialized brochures recommend-ing action plans for all levels of policymakers.

The Challenge: New Skillsfor a Nrm Age

"Technological change and global competitionmake it imperative to equip students in publicschools with skills that go beyond the 'basics.'For productive participation in a society thatdepends ever more heavily on technology, stu-dents will need more that, minimum competencein reading, writing, mathematics, science, reason-

the use of computers, and other areas. Mobil-izing the education system to teach new skills, sothat new generations reach the high level of edu-cation on which sustained economic growth de-

Note. the synopsis presented here is the Ewe** Summary:The Attie. Man. which appears as pp 811 of the Task forceReport

pends, will require new partnerships among allthose who have a stake in education and eco-nomic growth. The challenge is not simply to bet-ter educate our elite, but to raise both the floorand the ceiling of achievement in America.

The Problem: EducationalDeficits and Blurred Goals

"Education for economic growth demands prog-ress on many fronts. Students need to improvetheir performance, particularly their mastery ofhigher order skills. Relieving the shortage ofteachers at the point where quality and quantityintersect may require new strategies. So maystrengthening the curriculum and improving themanagement of schools so principals can con-centrate on academic matters. Inhibiting prog


26

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ress is the lack of clear consensus about how toimprove education, especially since some pre-vailing policies (like lowered standards for col-lege entrance and lessened emphasis on home-work) work against excellence in education.

The Response:Recommendations of the Task Force

Action Recommendation #1: Developand putinto effect as promptly as possiblestate plansfor improving education in the public schoolsfrom kindergarten through grade 12.

Led by the governor. each state should de-velop a state plan to,: education and economicgrowth.Each governor should appoint a broadly in-clusive state task force on education foreconomic growth.Each school district should develop its ownplan.

Action Recommendation #2: Create broader andmore effective partnerships for improving educa-tion in the states and communities of the nation.

Business leade-i, labor leaders. and membersof the professions should become more activein education.Business leaders should establish partnershipswith schools.Governors. legislators. chief state school of-ficers, state and local boards of education. andleaders in higher education should establishpartnerships of their own.

Action Recommendation #3: Marshal the re-sources which are essential for improving thepublic schools.

School systems should enrich academic pro-grams asid improve management to make thebest possible use of resources.States and communities should invest morefinancial. human and institutional resources ineducation.The federal government should continue tosupport education

Action Recommendation #4: Express a new andhigher regard for teachers.

States and school districtswith full par-ticipation by teachersshould dramaticallyimprove methods for recruiting, training. andpaying teachers.

22

States should create 'career ladders' forteachers.States. communities. the media and the busi-ness community should devise new ways tohonor teachers

Action Recommendation #5: Make the academicexperience mote intense and more productive.

States and school systems should establishfirm. explicit, and demanding requirementsconcerning discipline, attendance, homework,grades, and other essentials of effectiveschoolingStates and school systems should strengthenthe public school curriculumStates should increase the duration and the in-tensity of academic learning.

Action Recommendation #6: Provide qualityassurance in education.

Boards of education and higher educationshould cooperate v:ith teachers and adminis-trators on svtler is for measuring the effective-ness of teachers and rewarding outstandingperforinancreStates. with full cooperation by teachers,should improve the process for certifyingteachers and administrators and make it pos-sible for qualified outsiders to serve in theschoolsStates should examine and tighten proceduresfo. deciding which teachers to retain andwho -I, to dismiss.Stud .nt progress should be measured throughperiouic tests of general achievement andspecific skills; promotion from grade to gradeshould be based on mastery. not ageStates and communities should identifyclearly the skills they expect the schools to impartColleges and universities should raise their en-trance requirements.

Action Recommendation #7: Improve leadershipand management in the schools.

Principals should be squarely in charge ofeducational quality.Pay for principals should relate to respon-sibilities and effectivenessStates should set higher standards for recruit-ing. training, and monitoring the performanceof principals.Schools should use more effective manage-ment techniques.


27

Action Recommendation #8: Serve better thosestudents who are now unserved or underserved.

States and sci.00l di:.tricts should increase theparticipation of young women and minoritiesin courses where they are under-represented.States should continue to develop equitablefinance measures to insure that educationresources are distributed fairly.States and school systens should identify andchallenge academically gifted students.States, school systems, principals, teachers.and parents should work to reduce studentabsences and failures to finish school.States and school systems should specificallyinclude handicapped students in programs foreducation and economic growth.

The Outlook: Can We Succeed?

"We can improve public education across the na-tion. Our resources are abundant. Our commit-ment to a broadly inclusive educational systemhas been demons rated by the impressivereforms of the 1970s. And the substantial prog-ress states and communities have already madein improving the quality of. education is proofpositive that we can indeed change education Indeep and lasting ways But the stakes are high,and our ultimate success will depend in largemeasure on our willingness to act. No task facingour nation matters more than to launchnowthe action plan set forth here."

The Members of the Task Force on Education forEconomic Growth represent governors, statelegislators, business leaders, labor, educators,and organization leaders. They are.


(governors] lames B Hunt, Jr (chair), Pierre S du Pont, IV,Lamar Alexander, D Robert Graham. Thomas Kean, Richard

Lamm, Scott M Matheson, George Nigh, Robert D. Orr,Rudy Perpich, Charlec S. Robb, Richard I. Thornburgh,Wdham F Winter, istate legislators) Wilhelmina Delco. AnneLindeman. Oliver Ocasek. (business leaders) Frank T Cary,Thornton c Bradshaw. J. Fred Bucy. Philip Caldwell. lamesCampbell. John H. Johnson. David T Kearns, Robert W. tun.deep, I Richard Munn). William C. Norris. Bernard I O'Keefe.James E Olson, John R Purcell, Robert D Ray, (labor) GlennE Watts. (educators) Bruce Brombacher, Calvin M. Frazier,Witham C Friday, Marvin 0 Koenig, Floretta McKenzie.Judith Moyers, (organization leaders) Joanne T Goldsmith.Anna J Harrison, M Joan Parent. Frauk Press. and (chief staff-person) Roy H. Forbes The report was Prepared by Ervin SDuggan Associates

The work of the Task Force was coordinatedthrough the Education Commission of the States.The following organizations helped to supportthe Task Force on Education for EconomicGrowth:

Aetna Life & Casualty Insurance Foundation. AmericanTelephone and telegraph, Atlantic Richfield Foundation,American Association for the Advancement of Science. Com-munication Workers of America. Control Data Corporation,Dow Chemical Company. E G & G, Ford Motor CompanyFund. International Business Machines Corporation, KelloggFoundation, RCA Corporation, Texas Instruments. Time. Inc,and Xerox Corporation

Order fromThe Distribution CenterEducation Commission of the StatesSuite 300. 1860 Lincoln StreetDenver, CO 80295

53 pages; $5.00

(Also available at no costTask Force Informa-tion Kit: a collection of materials that supple-ment and expand the information in Action wrExcellence.)

23

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America's Competitive Challenge:The Need for a National Response

A Report to the President of the United Statesby The Business-Higher Education Forum

The Business-Higher Education Forum, a group representing corporateand university chief executives, established a 16-member Task Force inSpring of 1982. The Task Force was invited by the President of the UnitedStates "to explore ways in which our national competitive positioncould be further strengthened through increased innovation and produc-tivity." During the year-long research and study effort, the Forummembers reviewed past surveys and contemporary expertise which ledto the report and recommendations for improvement "through the in-struments of public policy."(p.v)* In selecting excerpts we have focusedprimarily on education, although information is presented about otherareas in order to provide a balanced presentation of the Forum's wc.k.

Introduction

"The central objective of the United States forthe remainder of the decade must be to improvethe ability of American industry and Americanworkers to compete in markets at home andabroad. The new economic realities of globalcompetition demand a broadly based nationaleffort to make this possible.... [However], untilcitizens recognize that industrial competitive-ness on an international scale is the key to eco-nomic growth, and until they appreciate that theoverall wellbeing of society itself depends onsuch economic growth, we fear that little prog-ress will be made

*Note Unless othenvose indicated, the synopsis presentedhere is dawn primarily from the 15page "The Report inBrief "

"Developing that understanding will requireleadership from all sectors of society business,education, labor, as well as government. But theessential leadership can come from only one per-son: the President of United States.... (p. 1)

The Competitive Challenge

"The United States has experienced a prolongedperiod of economic difficulty. In the past 12years, the nation has suffered three major reces-sions, each worse than the last. In 1982, moreAmericans were out of work than at any timesince the Great Depression Productivity growthhas declined from earlier years. Trade andbudget deficits have risen. Most importantly, agrowing number of U.S. industries are less com-petitive than they were in the recent pastadecline that is simultaneously a cause and a con-


29

410

sequence of our economic malaise.. . While theU.S. economy has remained relatively stagnantin recent years, other countries have made rapidgains. ..

"Just as the new economic realities muswbeviewed from a broad perspective, so must theconsequences of continuing decline. The reper-cussions of a stagnant economy go beyond thestatistics that document lost market shares,decreased GNP and increased unemployment Aweak economy and an inadequately trained workforce intrude upon our social and political well-being, adversely affecting the ability of theUnited States to deliver essential public servicesto its citizens, to maintain a strong nationaldefense, and to improve the living standard of allits citizens. A weak economy is also the breedingground for rigid and reactive public policy solu-tions to economic problems.. (pp. 2-3)

The Competitive Climate

"A nation's ability to compete depends on thevitality of three primary, interactive and interde-pendent elements. productive capital invest-ment; technological innovation, ranging frombasic research to the commercialization of newproducts and processes, and development ofhuman resources.

-Human resources are essential ingredients inthe process of technological innovation and eco-nomic competitiveness Yet the American workforce may not be prepared for the new com-petitive challenges Shortars are developing incritical skills, such as computer science andengineering; some industries are becoming lesspeople - intensive,, thus supplying fewer jobs. andone in every five American workers is function-ally illiterate, unable to participate in even entry-level training .

"Among the many factors contributing to theweakened vitality of America's capital invest-ment, technological innovation and human re-sources, three are critical. disordered publicpolicy-making; inflexible institutions; and afailure to organize knowledge for action. ..

"Public policy-making affecting U S. competitive-ness is disordered and fragmentedcreating a cli-mate of uncertainty, instability, and recurringboomilts and declines for the private sector.

"Inflexible institutions impair a nation's ability tocompete. The new economic realities posed bythe competitive challenge require nations not

26

only to keep pace with accelerating technologi-cal, economic, social and international changebut to set the pace. America's public and privateinstitutionsgovernment, business, labor andeducationhave become barriers to the flexibleresponse which is the key to the future pros-perity

" . . Education has given insufficient attention todeveloping the basic skillsmath and sciencethat will be needed by workers in an agegoverned by high technology , . (pp 3-6)

Recommendations

"... The Forum believes additional, specificrecommendations are not the primary require-ment at this point. Rather, changes are neededthat will elevate the competitive challenge to thetop of the national agenda.

"Thus, the Forum makes only one overall recom-mendation: as a nation, we must develop a con-sensus that industrial competitiveness is crucialto our social and economic well-being. Such aconsensus will require a shift in public attitudesabout national priorities, as well as changes inpublic perceptions about the nature of oureconomic malaise... " (p. 7)

The Forum also urges the Pres*Jent to appoint.

a Presidential Adviser on Economic Competi-tivenessa National Commission on Industrial Com-petitivenessan Information Center on international Com-petitiveness (pp. 6-8)

The Next Steps

"American workers are the single most valuableeconomic resource the United States possessesTo ensure that these workers are adequatelyeducated and trained, the United States needs anational strategy for education, training andretraining at all levels .

Training and Retraining. "Today, between 3.5and 4 million 1.0 S. workers are structurallyunemployed, that is. faced with the permanentloss of their lobs because of shifts in theeconomy. . If the United States is to maintainits ability to compete and avoid erecting politicaland economic barriers that will harm its longer-term economic well-being, it must help itsworkers adapt to rapid change Today, national


/

efforts are uncoordinateddispersed in a mazeof 23 federal grant-in-aid programs, each havinglimited coverage, insufficient funds and bureau-cratic restraints. . " (main report, p. 11)

Toward this need, the Forum makes severalrecommendations.

"A single, coherent, comprehensive nationaldisplaced worker program is needed. Its basiccharacteristics must be simplicity, self-financ-ing, maximum flexibility and broad coverage.The G.I. bill, with its educational 'vouchers,'provides a useful precedent. The programcould be financed by a third truss fund in theunemployment insurance systemfundedjointly by employers, workers and the federalgovernment....

. . Tax incentives ... could stimulate addi-tional investment in the education and trainingof workers. Such incentives should: (1) be builtinto the tax system to be used at the individualfirm's discretion; (2) apply only to new efforts;(3) permit companies to determine their spe-cific needs and the appropriate education ortraining sources (internal or external); and (4)have a minimum of bureaucratic red tape.To meet the needs of older displacedworkers, training for specific jobs through ap-prentice programs would be useful Increasedgovernment-university-industry cooperationand support would be necessary to mount alarge effort of this type.An Individual Training Account (IT A), anal-ogous to the Individual Retirement Account(IRA) and the President's proposed EducationSavings Account, could be created to give in-dividuals an incentive to save for their owntraining and retraining needs. .... New ways of attracting engineering stu-dents into teaching careers must be devel-oped One approach would be to providespecial loans to U.S graduate engineeringstudents in return for commitment toteaching.The loans could be forgiven by a specifiedamount for each teaching year (e.g, 20 per-cent). Such a program could complement theproposed Presidential Young InvestigatorAwards.. Because graduates with science and mathdegrees are not attracted by the relatively lowsalaries in the teaching profession, many ofthose teaching science and math are not fullyqualified Their skills must be upgraded. TheForum supports the new federal programs pro-posed in the FY84 budget. However, the

magnitude of the problem warrants the con-sideration of additional support from federal,state and local governments and the privatesector to provide ongoing training to secon-dary school science and math teachers. (mainreport, pp. 11-12)

Private Sector Initiatives

"While changes in public policy are essential,they only establish the climate for private .lectoractivities. The revitalization of the U.S. economythrough competition ultimately depends on thedegree to which private sector institutionscapitalize on available opportunities.

"The following list of private sector initiatives isintended primarily to provide examples of thekinds of efforts that can be undertaken bybusinesses and institutions of higher educationworking individually and togetherto stimulatea renewal of American economic vitality, innova-tion and competitiveness." (p. 11)

Industry Initiatives ... Supporting Education."Industry can be of assistance to the educationalsystem and, more importantly, to its own long-term interests by increasing its support of educa-tion. Key areas include:

Support for sophisticated equipmentGreater use of academicians as consultants.Greater support for university research, espe-cially in neglected non-proprietary areas.Assistance in improving precollege educa-tion, particularly in science and mathematics."(p. 12)

University Initiatives. The Report suggests in-creased emphasis on teaching and research inseveral areas. They include:

"Expanded study programs and curriculum re-quirements in the fields of foreign language,culture and sociopolitical institutions...Centers for international study . "(pp. 12-13)

Industry.University Initiatives. "Working to-gether. businesses and universities can pooltalents and resources to accomplish what theycould not achieve working independently. Poten-tial benefits include the more expeditioustransfer of research results to commercializationand the education of students on subjects rele-vant to industrial needs. Key areas include:


31

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-%,

.

Collaborative problem-oriented researchshould be encouraged.Industrial firms and universities should de-velop methods of accelerating commercializa-tion, including the creation of new institutionsand forms of cooperative relationships.Business and higher education should workwith government to develop better data ontrends in technologic Il change and com-petitiveness for use in b.isiness and government policy-making" (pp '11-13)

Human Resourcesthe Mismatchand Its Consequences

"If America's workers are to be better educated,better trained and more productive, a number ofdemographic and institutional trends must be ex-plicitly addressed.

"First, the growth of the American work forcewill slow dramatically in the next 20 years.Consequently,, today's adults will still con-stitute over 90 percent of the work force in theyear 1990 and over 75 percent of the workforce in the year 2000Second, the work force is aging For example,the highly productive core of the work forcethose aged 25-44will expand from 46 percentof the work force in 1980 to over 56 percent by1990 This trend offers substantial potential forincreasing natiooal productivity throughimproved labor qualitybut only if theseworkers can be helped to acquire the properskills in timely fashionThird, two-thirds of all new entrants into thework force until 1995 will be women In 1978,for the first time, more women enrolled in col-lege than men. Further, women are receivingan ever-growing portion of advanced and doc-toral degrees. The share of doctoral degreesawarded to women has more than doubled,from 13 percent in 1970 to 30 percent by 1980.Yet most institutions are ill-prepared to use thetalents that will become available. Discrimina-tion still exists with respect to recruitment intoprofessional, managerial and non-traditionalpositions, as well as in social security and in-surance benefitsFourth, the problem of youth unemploymentpersists. Today, almost 20 percent of all youthwho want to work are unemployed. This highunemployment rate reflects three main fac-

28

tors. increased competition for jobs; ineffec-tive youth training, counseling and placementprograms, and a high degree of functional il-literacy among the nation's youth, particularlyminorities, which prohibits them from par-ticipating in entry-level training.Fifth, a significant segment of the work forceis dysfunctional. As many as one in fiveAmerican adults functionally illiterateunable to read, write and count. Almost 10 per-cent of the civilian work force are problemdrinkers, and an unknown number of workershave drug-related problems. Together, prob-lem drinking and drug addiction cost theeconomy $62 billion a year in increasedemployee-related medical costs and extraabsenteeism.Sixth, although labor-quality improvementscould substantially increase productivitygrowth, the nation's education and training in-stitutions and employment and trainingpolicies are not prepared to capitalize on thispotejitial. One major barrier to effectivepolicy-making and program administration isthe absence of reliable information on presentand anticipated job vacancies; their location;the education and training required for thosejobs, and the likely size of the gap between theavailable jobs and available workers " (mainreport, pp. 22-23)

Task Force members from the Business-HigherEducation Forum represent business, highereducation, and professional associations. Theyare:R Anderson (Co-Chair), David S Saxon (Co-Chair), Derek CBok, John F Burlingame, Pholro Caldwell, Richard M Cyert,Edward Donley, Paul H Henson, Theodore M Hesburgh,Mauna S Horner, Gerald D Laubach, Robert Q Marston,James E Olson, J W Pelta son, Wesley W Posvar, Clifton RWharton. Jr

The Study was underwritten in part by The An-drew W Mellon Foundation and the NationalScience Foundation.

Order from:Business-Higher Education ForumSuite 800One Dupont Circle, NWWashington, DC 20036

Published in April 1983.51 pages, $17 50 (includes "The Report in Brief,"15 pages)


u

/

High School:A Report on SecondaryEducation in America*

Ernest L BoyerThe Carnegie Foundation for the

Advancement of Teaching

The study, authored by Ernest L. Boyer, was advised by a 28-memberpanel Assisted by a site visit team that spent over 2,000 hours in 15public high schools across the United States, the study also draws uponthe data bases of High School and Beyond (NOES) and A Place CalledSchool (Good lad). The report includes an historical perspective on theevolution of the American high school and report card on how ourschools are doing. Appendices include descriptions of the high schoolsvisited, a list of the site observers, and an extensive set of bibliographicreferences.

Prologue: The Globe, The Nation,and Our Schools

"Education is in the headlines once again. Afteryears of shameful neglect, educators and politi-cians have taken the pulse of the public schooland found it faint. Concern for the health ofpublic education, stirred by a spate of newstudies, offers fresh hope that in the years aheadwell be able to adopt a serious, coherent plan forschool reform. Getting the public's attentionalways has been the first step in the marchtoward progress in our nation.

"This Carnegie report on the American highschool begins with the conviction that the time

©1983 by The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement ofTeaching Reprinted by permission of Harper & Row.Publishers. Inc.

for renewing education has arrived We believethat today America has the best opportunity itwill have in this century to improve the schools.There is a growing national consensus that ourfuture depends on public education. There is aspreading awareness that every mind is a

precious resource we cannot afford to waste.There is an eagerness to move beyond the alarm-ing headlines; to begin to rebuild, with con-fidence, the public schools. As in the past, a newand more compelling vision of education is re-quired to meet this challenge. And if we do notseize this special moment, we will fail the com-ing generation and the nation.... (p.1)

"The success or failure of the American highschool will determine the quality of our


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democracy, the strength of our economy, thesecurity of our defense, and the promise of ourideals. The time has come for America to standbehind its belief in public education.

"This report has identified twelve key strategiesfor achieving high quality in education. cleargoals, the mastery of language, a core of com-mon learning, preparation for work and furthereducation, school and community service, betterteachers. improved instruction, effective use oftechnology, flexible school patterns. strongleadership, connections with colleges and withcorporations, and a renewed public commitmentto the nation's schools. Obvio.ssly, money alonecannot make these strategies succeed, butneither can they succeed without cost. Qualityhas its price..

"There should never be a childlet alone ageneration of childrenwho passes through ourschools unawakened and unprepared for whatwill come Educating a new generation ofAmericans to their full potential is still our mostcompelling obligation

"Every morning at 8 a m the doors of America'shigh schools are opened Walk inside and look in-to the future of the nation " (p. 297)

The following excerpts which appear as the finalchapter of the report. bring together the majorthemes and key recommendations of the study.

High School: An Agenda For Action

"The world has changed. irrevocably so, andquality education in the 1980s and beyondmeans preparing all students for the transformedworld the coming generation will inherit Toachieve this goal, a comprehensive school-improvement program must be pursued urgentlyWithot. -xcellence in education, the promise ofAmerica cannot be fulfilled. We have identifiedtwelve priorities that, taken together, provide anagenda for action

1. Clarifying Goals

"A high school, to be effective, must have a clearand vital mission Educators must have a sharedvision of what, together, they are trying to ac-complish. That vision should go beyond keepingstudents in school and out of trouble, and bemore significant than adding up the Carnegiecourse units the student has completedSpecifically, we recommend.

Every high school should establish clearlystated goalspurposes that are widely sharedby teachers, students, administrators andparentsSchool goals should focus on the mastery oflanguage, on a core of common learning, onpreparation for work and further education,and on community and civic service.

II. The Centrality of Language

"The next priority is language. Formal schoolinghas a special obligation to help all studentsbecome skilled in the written and oral use ofEnglish. Those who do not become proficient inthe primary language of the culture are enor-mously disadvantaged in school and out ofschool as well. The following recommendationsare proposed:

Elementary school should build on theremarkable language skills a child already hasacquired. In the early grades, students shouldlearn to read and comprehend the main ideasin a written work, write standard Englishsentences and present their ideas orall-!.The English proficiency of all students shouldbe formally assessed before they go to highschool. A pre-high school summer term and anintensive freshman year remediation programshould be provided for students who are defi-cient in the use of English.Clear writing leads to clear thinking; clearthinking is the basis of clear writing. Therefore,all high school students should complete abasic English course with emphasis on writing.Enrollment in such classes should be limited totwenty students, and no more than two suchclasses should be included in the teacher'sregular load.The high school curriculum should also in-clude a study of the spoken word Speakingand listening are something more than themere exchange of information. Communica-tion at its best should lead to genuine under-standing

III. The Curriculum Has a Core

"A core of common learning is essential Thebasic curriculum should be a study of those con-sequential ideas, experiences, and traditionscommon to all of us by virtue of our membershipin the human family at a particular moment :nhistory. The content of the core curriculum mustextend beyond the specialties, and focus on


more transcendent issues, moving from course tocoherence. The following are recommended:

The number of required courses in the corecurriculum should be expanded from one-halfto two-thirds of the total units required for highschool graduation.In addition to strengthening the traditionalcourses in literature, history, mathematics andscience, emphasis should also be given toforeign language, the arts, civics, non-Westernstudies, technology, the meaning of work, andthe importance of health.

Highlights of the core curriculum are as follows:

Literature: All students, through a study ofliterature, should discover our common literaryheritage and learn about the power and beautyof the written word.

United States History: United States history is re-quired for graduation from all the high schoolsincluded in our study, and it is the one socialstudies course uniformly required by most states.We favor a one-year United States history coursethat would build on the chronology of theemergence of kmerica, including a study of thelives of a few influential leadersartists,reformers, explorers who helped shape the na-tion.

Western Civilization: Beyond American historylies th. long sweep of Western Civilization. Werecommend that all students learn about theroots of our national heritage and traditionsthrough a study of other cultures that haveshaped our own

Non-Western Civilization: All students shoulddiscover the connectedness of the human ex-perience and the richness of other culturesthrough an in-depth study of the notrWesternworld. Specifically, we suggest a one-semester re-quired course in which students study, in con-siderable detail, a single non-Western nation.

Science and the Natural World: The study ofscience introduces students to the processes ofdiscoverywhat we call the scientificmethodand reveals how such procedures canbe applied to many disciplines and to their ownlives. We suggest a two-year science sequencethat would include basic courses in the biologicaland physical sciences.

Technology: All students should study tech-nology: the history of man's use of tools, howscience and technology have been joined, and


35

the ethical and social issues technology hasraised.

Mathematics: In high school, all students shouldexpand their capacity to think quantitatively andto make intelligent decisions regarding situationsinvolving measurable quantities. Specifically, webelieve that all high schools should require atwo-year mathematics sequence for graduationand that additional courses be provided forstudents who are qualified to take them.

foreign Language: All students should becomefamiliar with the language of another culture.Such studies should ideally begin in elementaryschool and at least two years of foreign languagestudy should be required of all high schoolstudents. By the year 2000, the United Statescould be home to the world's fifth largest popula-tion of persons of Hispanic origin. It does seemreasonable for all schools in the United State; tooffer Spanish.

The Arts: The arts are an essential part of thehuman experience. They are not a frill. Werecommend that all students study the arts todiscover how human beings use nonverbal sym-bols and communicate not only with words butthrough music, dance, and the visual arts.

Civics: A course in American governmenttraditionally called civicsshould be requiredof all students, with focus on the traditions ofdemocratic thought, the shaping of our owngovernmental structures, and political and socialissues we confront today.

Health: No knowledge is more crucial thanknowledge about health. Without it, no other lifegoal can be successfully achieved. Therefore, allstudents should learn about the human body,how it changes over the life cycle, what nourishesit and diminishes it, and how a healthy body con-tributes to emotional well-being.

Work: The one-semester study of work we pro-pose would ask how attitudes toward work havechanged through the years How do they differfrom one culture to another? What determinesthe status and rewards of different forms ofwork? Such a curriculum might also include anin-depth investigation of one specific occupa-tion.

All students, during their senior year, shouldcomplete a Senior Independent Project, a writ-ten report that focuses on a significant socialissue and draws upon the various fields ofstudy in the academic core.

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IV. Transition: To Work and Learning

"The high school should help all students movewith confidence from school to work and furthereducation Today, we track students into pro-gramr for those who 'think' and those who 'work,'when, in fact, life for all of us is a blend of bothLooking to the year 2000, we conclude that, formost students, twelve years of schooling will beinsufficient Today's graduates will change jobsseveral times New skills will be required, newcitizenship obligations will be confronted Ofnecessity, education will be lifelong. We recommend:

The school program should offer a single trackfor all students, one that includes a stronggrounding in the basic tools of education and astudy of the core curri ulum. While the firsttwo years would be devoted almost exclusive-ly to tne common core, a portion of this workwould continue into the third or fourth year.The last two years of high school should beconsidered a 'transition school,' a program inwhich about half the time is devoted to 'elec-tive clusters.'The 'elective cluster' should be carefullydesigned. Such a program would include ad-vanced study in selected academic subjects,the exploration of a career option, or a com-bination of both.In order to offer a full range of electiveclusters, the high school must become a connected institution. Upper-level specialtyschools (in the arts or science or health or com-puters, for example) may be appropriate insome districts. High schools should alsoestablish connections with learning placesbeyond the schoolssuch as libraries,museums, art galleries, colleges and industriallaboratories.

"There is also an urgent need to help studentsfigure out what they should do after graduation.Therefore, we recommend:

Guidance services should be significantly ex-panded. No counselor should have a case loadof more than one hundred students. Moreover,,school districts should provide a referral ser-vice to community agencies for those studentsneeding frequent and sustained professionalassistanceA new Student Achievement and AdvisementTest (SHAT) should be developed, one thatcould eventually replace the SAT Theacademic achievement portion of the test

would be linked to the core curriculum,evaluating what the student has learned. Theadvisement section would assess personalcharacteristics and interests to help studentsmake decisions more intelligently about theirfutisres. The purpose is not to screen studentsout of options but to help them move on withconfidence to colleges and to jobs.

"The needs of the students for guidance arematched by the need of the school to be betterinformed about its graduates. To achieve this,the following is proposed:

The United States Department of Educationworking through the statesshould expand itsnational survey of schools to include a sampl-ing of graduates from all high schools at tour-year intervals to learn about their post-highschool placement and experience. Such infor-mation should be made available to partici-pat ing schools.

V. Service: The New Carnegie Unit

"Beyond the formal academic program the highschool should help all students meet their socialand civic obligations During high school youngpeople should be given opportunities to reachbeyond themselves and feel more responsiblyengaged. They should be encouraged to par-ticipate in the communities of which they are apart We recommend:

All high school students should complete a ser-vice requirementa new Carnegie unitthatwould involve them in volunteer work in thecommunity or at school. Students could fulfillthis requirement evenings, weekends and dur-ing the summer.Students themselves should be given theresponsibility to help organize and monitor thenew service program and to work with schoolofficials to assure that credit is appropriatelyassigned.

VI. Teachers: Renewing the Profession

"The working conditions of teachers must im-prove. Many people think eachers have soft,undemanding jobs. The reality is differentTeachers are expected to wnrk miracles day afterday and then often get only silence from thestudents, pressure from the principal, andcriticism from the irate parent. To improve work-ing conditions of the teachers, we propose thefollowing-

32 36 EDUCATION UNDER STUDY

1

High school teachers should have a dailyteaching load of four regular class sessions. Inaddition, they should be responsible oneperiod each day for small seminars and forhelping students with independent projects.Teachers should have a minimum of sixtyminutes each school day for class preparationand record keeping. The current catch-as-catch-can 'arrangement' is simply not goodenough.Teachers should be exempt from routinemonitoring of halls, lunchrooms, and recrea-tion areas School clerical staff and parent andstudent volunteers should assume such non-instructional duties.A Teacher Excellence Fund should beestablished in every schoola competitivegrant program to enable teachers to designand carry out a special professional project.Good teachers should be given adequaterecognition and rewardsfrom a student's'thank you,' to cash awards, to active supportfrom parents. Outstanding teachers alsoshould be honored annually in every schooldistrict, and, statewide, by the governor andthe legislature, newspapers and other busi-nesses in each communityTeachers should be supported in the main-tenance of discipline based on a clearly statedcode of conduct.

"Teachers' salaries should be increased. Whenteachers' salaries are compared to those of otherprofessionals, the contrast is depressing Formany teachers, moonlighting has become essen-tial. Salaries for teachers must be commensuratewith those of other professions, and with thetasks teachers must perform.

As a national goal. the average salary forteachers should be increased by at least 25 per-cent beyond the rate of inflation over the nextthree years. with immediate entry-level in-

creases.

"Outstanding students should be recruited intoteaching. We cannot have gifted teachers ifgifted students do not enter the classrooms ofthe nation. When salaries and working conditionsimprove, prospects for recruiting talented youngpeople will improve as well. We propose:

Every high schooi should establish a cadetteacher program in which high school teachersidentify gifted students and encourage them tobecome teachers. Such students should begiven opportunities to present information to

classmates, tutor other students who needspecial help. and meet with outstanding schooland college teachers. Also some districts maywish to establish a magnet school for prospec-tive teachers.Colleges and universities should establish fulltuition scholarships for the top 5 percent oftheir gifted students who plan to teach inpublic education. These scholarships wouldbegin when students are admitted to theteacher preparation program at the junioryear.The federal government should establish a Na-tional Teacher Service, especially for thosewho plan to teach in science and mathematics.This tuition scholarship program would be forstudents in the top one-third of their highschool graduating classes. Students admittedto the National Teacher Service would be ex-pected to complete successfully an academicprogram and teach at least three years in thepublic schools.

"The schooling of teachers must improve. Thereare serious problems with the education of ourteachers. Many teacher training programs are in-adequate. The accreditation of schools of educa-tion is ineffective. The careful selection ofteat her candidates is almost nonexistent, andcollege arts and science departments fad torecognize the critical role they play in teacherpreparation. The following is proposed:

Prospective teachers should complete a coreof common learning, one that parallels inbroad outline the high school core curriculumproposed in this report.Every teacher candidate should be carefullyselected. Formal admission to teacher trainingshould occur at the junior year, the time whenstudents begin a three-year teacher prepara-tion sequence. Only students with a cum-ulative grade point average of 3.0 (B) or betterand who have strong supportive recommenda-tions from two professors who taught them in arequired academic course should be admitted.Once admitted to the program, the teachercandidate should devote the junior and senioryears to the completion of a major, plus ap-propriate electives Every secondary schoolteacher should complete a sharply focusedmajor in one academic discipline, not ineducation. During the junior and senior years,time also should be scheduled for prospectiveteachers systematically to visit schoolsAfter grounding in the core curriculum and asolid academic major. prospective teachers


37

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should have a fifth-year education core builtaround the following subjects. Schooling inAmerica. Learning Theory and Research. TheTeaching of Writing, and Technology and ItsUses.The fifth year also should include classroomobservation and teaching experience. This isthe best way, we believe, to learn aboutstudents and to develop effective methods ofinstruction.In addition, the fifth yea; of teacher prepara-tion should include a series of six one-day com-mon learning seminars in which students meetwith outstanding arts and science scholar-teachers who would relate the knowledge oftheir fields to a contemporary political orsocial theme. Such seminars would help pro-vide the interdisciplinary perspective everyhigh school teacher must acquire.

"The continuing education of the teacher mustbe strengthened. We cannot expect a teachertrained twenty years ago to prepare students tolive forty years into the future with no policy ofsystematic continued education for the teachesEven the most dedicated teacher +...ill fall behind,and students will learn how to live, not in thefuture, but in the past. School boards must ac-cept lifelong learning as an essential coalitionfor every teacher.

A two-week Teacher Professional Develop-ment Term should be added to the school year,with appropriate compensation This term forteachers would be a time for study, a period toimprove instruction and to expand knowledgeThe planning of such a term should be largelycontrolled by teachers at the school or districtlevelEvery school district should establish a

Teacher Travel Fund to make it possible forteachers, based on competitive application, totravel occasionally to professional meetings tokeep current in their fields.Every five years. teachers should be eligible toreceive a special contractwith extra pay tomatchto support a Summer Study Term. Toqualify and compete for this extended con-tract, each teacher would prepare a studyplan. Such a plan would he subject to reviewand approval both by peers and by the schooland district administrations.

"A career path for teachers should be developedTwo of the most troublesome aspects of theteaching profession today are the lack of a careerladder and the leveling off of salaries. The irony

is that to 'get ahead' in teaching, you must leaveit. Good teachers must be recognized and moveforward within the profession, not outside it. Ourproposals for restructuring the teaching careerare these:

The credentialing of teachers should beseparated from college preparation To qualifyfor a credential, each candidate should submitletters of recommendation from members ofthe faculty in his or her academic major. fromfaculty in his or her education sequence, andfrom a teacner who has supervised his or herschool internshipBefore being credentialed, the candidatewould also pass a written examination ad-ministered by a Board of Examiners to beestablished in every state. The majoritymembership on such a board should be com-posed of senior classroom teachers.After credentialing, a career path based on per-formance should be available to the teacher,moving from associate teacher to seniorteacher.With each professional advancement, salaryincreases should be provided Such increaseswould be in addition to cost-of-living and meritpay earned within the ranksThe evaluation of !:ocher performance shouldbe largely controlled by other teachers whothemselves have been judged to be outstand-ing in the classroom.

"Skilled professionals should be recruited toteach part-time in the nation's classrooms !Axeflexible arrangements will be needed to permithighly qualified nonacademic professionals toteach. Such 'teachers' could serve in those fieldswhere shortages exist such as math andscienceand provide enrichment in other fieldsas well We recommend that.

School districts should establish a lectureshipprogram to permit qualified nonacademic pro-fessionals t.' teach on a part-time basis Suchteachers would devote most of their time totheir regular jobs in business or governmentor law or medicinewhile also contributingsignificantly to education.School districts should look to recently retiredpersonnel college professors, businessleaders, and otherswho, after brief orienta-tion, could teach part-time in high-demandsubjectsSchool districts should enter into partnershipswith business and industry to create joint ap-pointments In this way, two-member teacher

34 EDUCATION UNDER STUDY ,

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teams could be created with one member ofthe team teaching in school for a year or twowhile the other works at a nonschool job. Thenthe cycle could be reversed.In-and-out teaching terms should beestablished permitting a professional toteach for one to three years, step out, and thenreturn for another one-to-three-year term.A Part-Time Practitioner Credential should becreated in every state to put in place therecommendations we propose.

VII. Instruction: A Time for Learning

"Much about good pedagogy is familiar. Thereremain, however, some old-fashioned yet endur-ing qualities in human relationships that stillwork: contagious enthusiasm, human sensitivity,optimism about the potential of the students. Im-proving instruction requires a variety of changes.We make the following recommendations:

Teachers should use a variety of teachingstyleslecturing to transmit information,coaching to teach a skill and Socratic ques-tioning to enlarge understanding. But thereshould be particular emphasis on the activeparticipation of the student.For classroom instruction to be effective, ex-pectations should be high, standards clear,evalution fair, and students should be held ac-countable for their work.Textbooks seldom communicate to studentsthe richness and excitement of original works.The classroom use of primary source materialsshould be expanded.States should ease their control over the selec-tion of textbooks and transfer more authorityto the district and local school. Teachersshould have a far greater voice in selectingmaterials appropriate to their own subjectareas.

VIII. Technology: Extending theTeacher's Reach

"Technology, particularly computers, can enrichinstruction But educators are confused aboutprecisely what the new machines will do. Thestrategy seems to be buy now, plan later. Theabsence of computer policy is itself a policy withmajor risks A ntmber of important steps shouldbe taken to link computers to school objectives

No school should buy computers, or any otherexpensive piece of hardware, until key ques-

tions have been askedand answered. Why isthis purchase being made? Is available soft-ware as good as the equipment? What educa-tional objectives will be served? Whichstudents will use the new equipment, when,and why?In purchasing computers, schools should basetheir decisions not only on the quality of theequipment, but also on the quality of the in-st.,.ictional material available. School districtsalso should take into account the commitmentof the computer company to work aloneorin collaboration with other companiestodt-alc.ip instructional materials for schools.Eve. v computer firm selling hardware to thesch:ols should establish a Special Instruc-tional Materials Fund. Such a fund would beused to develop, in consultation with class-room teachers, high-quality, school-relatedsoftware.Far technology to be used effectively, teachersmust learn about the new equipment. Computer companies should provide technologyseminars for teachers to keep them up-to-dateon the uses of computers as a teaching tool.A National Commission on Computer Instruc-tion should be named by the Secretary ofEducation to eval, ate the software now of-fered for school use and propose an ongoingevaluation procedure that would be availableto the schools. Outstanding teachers shouldcomprise an important segment of such apanel.Federal funds should be used to establish tenTechnology Resource Centers on universitycampusesone in each major region of the na-tion. These centers would assemble, fordemonstration, the latest technology. Also,federally funded regional networks should bedeveloped to make computerized library ser-vices available to all schools.Schools should relate computer resources totheir educational objectives. Specifically, allstudents should learn about computers; learnwith computers; and, as an ultimate goal, learnfrom computers. The first priority, however,should not be hands-on experience, but rathereducating students :about the social impor-tance of technology, of which the computer isa part.

"Prospects for a technology revolution in educa-tion go far beyond computers. Through the useoftelevision, films, video cassettes. the classroomcan be enormously enriched. In this connection,we re.:ommend:

FDUCATION UNDER STUDY 35

39

School districts with a..cess to a cable channelshould use the facility for school instructionand a districtwide plan for such use should bedeveloped.All commercial television netwouis should setaside primetime hours every week to air pro-grams for education and thereby indirectlyenrich the school curriculum.A National Film Library should be establishedwith federal support. This resource centerwould secure ou.standing film and televisionprograms, both commercial and public offer-ings, index and edit them, and make themavailable for school use

IX. Flexibility: Patterns to Fit Purpose

"Cur next priority is flexibility. There are manydifferent high schools in the United State. withmany different students Greater flexibility inschool size and the use of time will help schoolsachieve, more effectively, their educational ob-jectives. The urgent need is not more time butbetter use of time The following is proposed:

The class schedule should be more flexibly ar-ranged to permit larger blocks of instructionaltime, especially in courses such as a laboratoryscience, a foreign language, and creativewritingSmall high schools should expand their educa-tion offerings by using off-campus sites ormobile classrooms or part-time professionalsto provide a richer education for all students.Large high schools, particularly those withover 2.000 students, should organize them-selves into smaller units 'schools- within-schools' to establish a more cohesive, moresupportive social setting for all students.

"Gifted and talented students represent a uniquechallenge if they are to realize their potential.Therefore, we suggest:

r.t.e...y high school should develop special.angements for gifted studentscredit by

examination, independent study, and ac-celerated programs.A network of Residential Academies in Scienceand Mathematics should be established acrossthe nation. Some academies might be within adensely populated district. Others might servean entire state A residential school may serveseveral states. Academies might be located oncollege campuses. Such schools shouldreceive federal support since clearly the vitalinterests of the nation are at stake.

"Special arrangements are also needed forstudents at th,. other end of the education spec-trum. Year after year. about one out of every fourstudents who enroll in school drops out beforegraduetion. This nation cannot afford to pay theprice of ...lasted youth. We recommend:

Federally supported remedial programsmost o! which have been concentrated in theearly gradeshave demonstrated that im-provements can be made in the academicachievement of even the most disadvantagedchild. Therefore, the federally funded Elemen-tary and Secondary Education Act (Title I)should be fully funded to support all studentswho are eligible to participate in this effectiveprogram.Every high school district, working with a com-munity college, should have a reentry schoolarrangement to permit dropouts to return toschool part time or full time or to engage in in.dependent study to complete their education.

X. The Principal as Leader

"What we seek are high schools in which theschool communitystudents, teachers, and prin-cipalssees learning as the primary goal. In :ucha community, the principal becomes not just thetop authority but the key educator, too.Rebuilding excellence in education means reaf-firming the importance of the local school andfreeing leadership to lead. We make the follow-ing recommendations:

The principal should be well prepared. Thebasic preparation should follow that ofteachers.A principal should complete all requirementsfor licensing as a teacher and serve a year as an'administrative intern.' At least two years as anassistant principal should be served before onecould assume a full priccipalship.Principals and staff at the local school shouldhave more control over their own budgets,operating within guidelines set b% the districtoffice. Further, every principal should have aSchr Improvement Fund, discretionarymoney to provide time and materials for pro-gram development and for special seminarsand staff retreats.Principals should also have more control overthe selection and rewarding of teachers Act-ing in consultation with their staffs, theyshould be given responsibility for the finalchoice of teachers for their schools.In order to give principals time to reflect upon


4u

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their work and stay in touch with develop-ments in t ducation, a network of Academiesfor Principals should be established.

XI. Strengthening Connections

"High schools do not carry on their work in isola-tion. They are connected to elementary andjunior high schools and to higher education. Inthe end, the quality of the American high schoolwill be shaped in large measure by the quality ofthese connections. School-college relationshipscan be improved in a variety of ways.

All states should establish a School-CollegeCoordination Panel to define the recom-mended minimum academic requirements tosmooth the transfer from school to publichigher education.Every high school in the nation should offer a'university in the school' program and a varietyof other arrangementscredit by examina-tion, early admission and advanced place-mentto permit able students to acceleratetheir academic programs.Each college or university should form a com-prehensive partnership with one or moresecondary schools.

"Schools need the help of industry and business,and business needs the schools. The quality ofwork is linked to the quality of education. Thefollowing school-business partnerships are pro-posed:

Businesses should provide help for disadvan-taged students through vorunteer tutorial andfamily counseling service, and support specialschool and part-time apprentice5hip ex-perience for high-risk students.Businesses should provide enrichment pro-grams for gifted students, especially those inscience and mathematics, and for those in thenew technologies.Businesses should provide cash awards for out-standing teachers. In addition, they shouldconsider establishing Endowed Chair Programsin the schools, and summer institute arrange-ments.Corporate grants should provide sabbaticals tooutstanding principals and a discretionaryfund flr principals to work with teachers oncreative programs. Further, large corporationsshould donate the use of their trainingfacilities for a week or 4wo each year to housean Academy for Principals.To help schools improve their physical plant

and science laboratories, business shouldsponsor a facilities and equipment program. Inaddition, appropriate industries should con-duct inventories of science laboratories andhelp upgrade school equipment.

XII. Excellence: The Public Commitment

"Finally, school improvement is dependent onpublic commitment How we as a nation regardour schools has a powerful impact on what oc-curs in them. Support for schools can take manyforms, and it must come from many sources.Citizens, local school boards, state agencies andlegislatures, and the federal government mustwork together to help bring excellence to ourpublic schools. A number of steps are imperative:

Parent-Teacher-Student Advisory Councilsshould be established at all schools. Further, aParent Volunteer Program should be organ-ized to tutor students, provide teacher aides,and other administrative, counseling, andclerical support.Parents should become actively involved inschool board elections, attend meetings, andbe willing tc, 3rrve as members of the board.Boards of eaucation should hold specialmeetings with representatives of the schools intheir districtsprincipals and teachersatleast once a yearA network of community coalitionsCitizensfor Public Schoolsshould be formed acrossthe nation to give leadership in the advocacyof support for public education.The states should recognize that their over-riding responsibility to the schools is toestablish general standards and to providefiscal support, but not to meddle. The stateeducation law should be revised to eliminateconfusing and inappropriate laws and regula-tions

"To achieve excellence in education the federalgovernment also must be a partner in the pro-cess. In this report, we propose that funding ofTitle I of the Elementary and Secondary Educa-tion Act be increased to support all eligiblestudents. We call for a National Teacher Serviceand a federally-funded network of Re. identialAcademies in Science and Mathematics. Werecommend that the federal government helpcreate a National Film Library for schools andthat a network of Technology Resource Centersbe established with federal support to teachteachers about technology and its uses


41

"There is yet another urgent school need thatcalls for a national response Many of our publicschools have fallen into disrepair. Laboratoryequipment is in poor shape. The situation is asalarming as the decay of our highways, dams aPribridges Federal action is needed now to helpmeet an emergency in the schools We propose

A new School Building and Equipment Fundshould be established, a federal program thatwould provide short term, low interest loans toschools for plant rehabilitation and for the pur-chase of laboratory equipment.

"No one reform can transform the schools Thesingle solution. the simple answer,, may excite amomenta: interest but the impact will not last

"In this report we have tried to think inclusively,and to search out interconnected solutions to theschools' interconnected problems The r-sult issomething that is at once a yardstick to measurethe need for reform and an agenda for action tobring about that reform.

"Not every recommendation we present is ap-propriate for every school Each institution willhave its own agenda for renewal What is impor-

tant is that all high schools tas...e steps to achieveexcellence and that tHs effort be sustained.

"We conclude this report on the American highschool with the conviction that the promise ofpublic education can be fulfilled and that, as anation, we will meet the challenge "(pp 301-319)

This study was funded by;The Carnegie Corporation of New York and The AtlanticRichfield Foundation In addition, a film of the report hasbeen developed through a major grant of The AtlanticRichfield Foundation

Members of the National High School Panel are:Myron Atkin, Beverly Joyce Burnes, Derek Bok, Anne Camp-bell, loan Ganz Cooney, Lawrence A Cremin, Alonzo Crim,Walter Cronkite, Emeral A Crosby, Patrick I. Daly, NormanFrancis. Mary Hatwood Futrell, James R Gaddy, PeggyHanrahan. Leslie Ko hat, Marigold Linton, William M Mar-cussen, Ralph McGee, James L Olivero, Rayma C Page, AlanPifer, Lauren Resnick. Tomas Rivera. Adele Simmons, VirginiaV Spading. Robert R Wheeler. W Willard Wirtz, DanielYankelovich

Availablt t bookstores, or order from:Harper & Publishers, Inc.10 East 53rd StreetNew York, NY 10022

Published in 1983; (ISBN 0-06.015193-5)379 pages. $15 00


Making the Grade*

Report of the Twentieth Century FundTask Force on Federal Elementary and Secondary

Education Policy

The Twentieth Century Fund, an independent research foundation,sponsored a one and one half year study by an 11-member Task Force onFederal Elementary and Secondary Education Policy. The Task Force,which was chaired by Robert Wood, released their report in May 1983.The report is accompanied by a very thorough discussion paper by PaulE. Peterson.

"The nation's public schools are in trouble. Byalmost every measurethe commitment andcompetency of teachers, student test scores,truancy and dropout rates, crimes of violencethe performance of our schools falls far short ofexpectations To be sure, there are ind;vidualschools and school districts with devotedteachers doing a commendable job of educatingtheir students, but too many young people areleaving the schools without acquiring essentiallearning skills and without self-discipline or pur-pose.. .

"This Task Force believes that this threateneddisaster can be averted only if there is a nationalcommitment to excellence in our public schools.While we strongly favor maintaining the diversity

'Copyright CD 1983 by The Twentieth Century Fund, Inc Per-mission to excerpt granted (Note Excerpts are from the TaskForce report, however, dissenting comments from individualcommission members are not Included)


in educational practices that results from thedecentralization of the schools, we think thatschools across the nation must at a minimumprovide the same core components to allstudents. These components are the basic skillsof reading, writing, and calculating; technicalcapability in computers; training in science andforeign languages, and knowledge of civics, orwhat Aristotle called the education of thecitizenry in the spirit of the polity.

"As we see it, the public schools, which con-stitute the nation's most important institution forthe shaping of future citizens, must go further.We think that they should ensure the availabilityof large numbers of skilled and capable in-diviciuut.s without whom we cannot sustain acomplex and competitive economy. They shouldfoster .inderstanding, discipline, and discern-ment, those qualities of rr.;nd and temperamentthat are the hallmarks of a civilized polity andthat are essentia; for the maintenance of

43 39

domestic tranquility in a polyethnic consititu-Donal democracy. And they should impart to pre-sent and future generations a desire to acquireknowledge, ranging from the principles ofscience to the accumulated wisdom and sharedvalues that derive from the nation's rich andvaried cultural heritage

"These are admittedly formidable tasks that toofew schools today come close to accomplishing.The Task Force believes that the schools mustmake a concerted effort to improve their perfor-mance and that there is a clear national interestin helping scilools everywhere to do so. That in-terest car, be asserted and dramatized most ef-fectively by the federal government. The federalgovernment, after all, is charged with providingfor the security and well-being of our democraticsociety, which rest largely on a strong and com-petent system of public education, It is in thebest position to focus public attention on thevital importance of quality in our schools and tosupport its attainment. The federal governmentshould be able to foster excellence in education,serving as a firm but gentle goad to states andlocal communities without impeding or restrict-ing state and local control of and accountabilityfor the schools. (pp. 3-4)

Excessive Burdens

"Before putting forward our proposals for a newfederal polity on elementary and secondaryschooling, we think .i. useful to identify what hasgone wrong Why, despite spending more per stu-dent than every other advanced nation, is there agrowing gap between the goals and achieve-ments of our schools? Many developmentseconomic, demographic, social political havecontributed, directly and indirectly. We havealways demanded a great deal of our schools,but never before have we demanded of them asmuch as we have over the past thirty years. Onone hand we have charged them with being themelting pot, the crucible for dissolving racialdivisiveness, and on the other for sustaining, andeven exalting, ethnic distinctiveness.

"Th,; schools, moreover,, have had to provide awide array of social services, acting as surrogateparent, nurse, nutritionist, sex counselor, andpoliceman. At the same time, they are chargedwith training increasing percentages of thenation's youth, including large numbers of hardto-educate youngsters, to improved levels orcompetency so that they can effectively enter alabor market in which employers are currently

demanding both technical capability and thecapacity to learn new skills In essence, the skillsthat were once possessed by only a few must nowbe held by the many if the United States is to re-main competitive in an advancing technologicalworld

"Demographic changes as well as changes in at-titudes toward traditional mores and values havealso had a marked influence The schools havehad to cope with more children, and especiallymore problem children, than ever beforethosewho are without the rudiments of English andthose who are unmotivated or prone to violence,quite apart from those who are physically handi-capped. Problems have also come about as aresult of the ready availability of drugs, the grow-ing number of family breakups and the increasedpermissiveness in those remaining intact, thedistractions of television and of easily affordablevideo games, the growth of underworld culture

"The difficulties of coping with these burdenshave been compounded in some cities by inap-propriate judicial intervention and by the spreadof the trade-union mentality that has accom-panied the bu.eaucratization and politicizationof the schools As a consequence, already largeadministrative staffs have burgeoned, and newrules and procedures have been promulgated,forcing classroom teachers to spend more timeon paperwork and less on teaching The rise inteacher and administrative unions has thushelped transform what had been a noble thoughpoorly compensated profession into a craft ledby collective bargaining organizations with afocus on bread-and-butter issueswages, work-ing conditions, and job security (for which, readseniority). .. (pp. 3-4)

The Federal Presence

"In recent years the federal executive andlegislative branches have enlarged their roles Inthe view of some critics, federal interventionlooms so large that it has nit only oversteppedconstitutional limitations but bears responsibil-ity for most of the failings of the schools. We con-sider these criticisms exaggerated True, since1965,, with the passage of the Elementary andSecondary Education Act (ESEA), the executivebranch has intervened, by law and by regulation,in many schoi.. I activities, tilting the allocation ofresources to compensatory education and affir-mative action programs But the achievements ofsome federal activities must be acknowledgedIts Title I program as well as Head Start have

ao EDUCATION UNDER STUDY

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been particularly successful, especially amongchildren in elementary schools where these pro-grams were concentrated..

" . This Task Force believes that educating theyoung is a compelling national interest, and thataction by the federal government can be as ap-propriate as action by state and local govern-ments Certainly, federal intervention was notonly appropriate but necessary in bringing aboutdesegregation of the public schools, and in Pro-viding needed assistance to poor and handi-capped children.

"All too often, though, the nature of federal in-tervention has been counterproductive, entailingheavy costs and undesirable consequences.Direct federal outlays z ccounted, at their peak,for less than 10 percent of total annual spendingon the schools, but by resorting to compulsoryregulation and mandated programs, the federalgovernment has swelled school bureaucracies,imposed dubious and expensive procedures, andforced state and local governments to reallocatesubstantial portions of their scarce revenues.What is more, its emphasis on promoting equal-ity of opportunity in the public schools hasmeant a slighting of its commitment to educa-tional quality. Thus, the federal government hasnot only had a pervasive influence on the spend-ing of local school districts but has undoubtedlyplayed a part in many of the other troubles of theschools.

"Despite all of its shortcomings, however, thereis a need for a continued federal role, in partbecause equality and excellence are not mutu-ally exclusive objectives. We think that bothobjectives should be vigorously pursued througha fresh approach, one that reflects the nationalconcern for a better-educated America and thatstrikes a reasonable and effective balance be-tween quality and equality. The federal govern-ment must continue to help meet the specialneeds of poor and minority students while takingthe lead in meeting the general and over-whelming need for educational quality. Federaleducation policy must function, moreover, inways that complement rather than weaken localcontrol. This calls for a change in direction,replacing the current emphasis on regulationsand mandates with a new emphasis on incen-tives. (pp 5-7)

The Federal Commitment

"Although Congress has from time to timeacknowledged the essential need for public

education and even for specific kinds of educa-tion, it has refrained, apparently deliberately,from addressing the issue of educational quality.This matter, with good reason, was left to thediscretion of the states and localities. The con-trol of public education, even though subject toconstitutional restriction, is exercised by thou-sands of school boards and school superinten-dents within a legal framework set up by fiftydifferent state legislatures. T. ere has been noone placeand we do not think there should bein which a national policy defines the correctschool curriculum or the proper qualificationsfor teachers, or sets forth the precise duration ofthe school day or year. These are matters thattraditionally have been left to lay citizens, rein-forced by the advice and counsel of professionaleducators or schools of education. We believe itshould remain that way.

"The genius of our decentralized arrangements isthat we have managed to forge a national educa-tion system that allows room for variations andeven for disagreements. This is not to say that theTask Force is satisfied with the performance oflocal school districts. To the contrary, we believethat the vast majority must do much better. Butbecause learning depends upon intangiblestheleadership provided by a school principal, thechemistry between teachers and students, the ex-tent of parental involvement and support westrongly favor leaving control over schooling atthe local level ... (pp. 7-8)

Quality of Leadership

This Task Force calls on the executive andlegislative branches of the federal government toemphasize the need for better schools and a bet-ter education for all young Americans. We havesingled out a number of specific areas in whichthe federal government, mainly through a seriesof incentives, can act to improve the quality ofeducation in the public schools. Most of our pro-posals are directed toward improving the qualityof teaching, ensuring proficiency in English whiledeveloping fluency in foreign languages, andpromoting ways to increase proficiency inmathematics and science.... (pp 8-9)

Quality of Teachers

The traditional commitment of teachers toquality education has been challenged by manyforces, some that have affected all of society,others that are peculiar to the community ofeducators. The teacheralong with all other


45

authority figuresdoes not appear to commandthe respect commonly accorded a generationago. The complex organizational structure inwhich the classroom teacher now operatesrestricts independence and autonomy,, as neworganizational positions have proliferated, manyof the best teachers have been 'promoted' tobetter paying administrative positions, devaluingthe status of the teacher In addition, the organi-zationsthe unions and professional associationsto which teachers belong have protectedtheir weakest members rather than winningrewards for their strongest They have promotedthe principle of equal pay or, at best, a differen-tial pay scale that primarily takes into accounteducational background and seniority. therebylimiting the financial incentives available forrewarding superior professional work .

"Because the institutional arrangements andprocedures governing teachers are so well entrenched, incremental changes :.-1 federal policycannot by themselves dramatically improve thequality of instruction. The Task Force Is con-vinced that what is required is a major federalinitiative that unmistakably emphasizes thecritical importance of qt.ality teachers in ourschools We propose the establishment of a Na-tional Master Teachers Program, funded by thefederal government, that recognizes and rewardsteaching excellence (p 9)

"Rather than spell out the details of the proposedprogram, we have set down the guidelines wethink should be followed We recommend theadoption of an incentive approach, establishingclear criteria for teachers of exceptional meritand making the awards numerous enough to attract national attention and substantial enoughfor long enough to keep Master Teachers in theclassroom

"It is our view that the proposed program wouldhelp pave the way for reconsideration of merit-based personnel systems for teachers, which webelieve would foster improvements in qualityDespite many surveys of public servants and pro -tessionals the have disclosed a strong prefer-ence for meld pay increases and promotions,school boards and legislators have almost alwaysyielded to union demands for equal pay. Collec-tive bargaining has served teachers and thepublic by improving working conditions andcompensation, and we do not want to see it aban-doned. But both the public and teachers wouldbe even better served if the opposing sides in thebargaining processthe unions and local school

boardsrealized that merit-based systems andcollective bargaining are not incompatible(p 10)

The Primacy of English

"Our political democracy rests on the convictionthat each citizen should have the capacity to par-ticipate fully in our political life, to read news-papers, magazines, and books, to bring a criticalintelligence to television and radio; to becapable of resisting emotional manipulation andof setting events within their historical perspec-tive, to express ideas and opinions about publicaffairs. and to vote thoughtfully all activitiesthat call for literacy in English Accordingly, theTask Force recommends that the federal govern-ment clearly state that the most important objec-tive of elementary and secondary education inthe United States is the development of literacyin the English language.

"A significant number of young Americans comefrom homes where English is not the first lan-guage, and many now live in neighborhoods in anincreasing number of states in which languagesother than English are spoken Although this na-tion has become more aware of the value ofethnic identities than it was during previous in-fluxes of non-English-speaking immigrants, any

living in the United States who is unable tospeak English cannot fully participate in oursociety, its culture, its politics This is notbecause of prejudice but because most Ameri-cans speak, write, and think in English English is,after all, our national language.. .

" It is not the role of the Task Force nor is it theresponsibility of the federal government to in-struct our schools and teachers in whichpedagogy is most appropriate. The federal role,we believe, is to guarantee that al! children haveequal educational opportunity. Therefore, theTask Force recommends that federal funds nowgoing to bilingual programs be used to teach non-English-speaking children how to speak, read, andwrite English (p 11-12)

"This Task Force wants every American publicschool student to have the opportunity to ac-quire proficiency in a second language Wethink that a comprehensive approach to thestudy of languages, in which fluency in English is,rimary but adequate training in a secondlanguage is also made available, is absolutelyessential if the United States is to be a leaderamong nations in the next century (pp 12-13)


Science and Mathematics

"At the turn of the twentieth century, there wasno real need for v.idespread scientific literacy.Today, training in mathematics and science iscritical to our economy Our citizers must beeducated in science if they are to participate intelligently in political decisions about such con-troversial issues as radiation, pollution, andnuclear energy The Task Force recommends thatthe federal government emphasize programs todevelop basic scientific literacy among allcitizens and to provide advanced training inscience and mathematics for secondary schoolstudents.

" . Federal loans might be made available toprospective teachers who exhibit exceptionalskills and who are pursuing degree programs inareas of existing or anticipated shortages Thosewho complete their educational programs mightbe forgiven up to 10 percent of the funds lent tothem for every year of classroom teaching foramaximum of five years. (p. 14)

Better Education For All

-Perhaps the most persuasive reason for federalsupport of categorical programs is that, evenunder favorable political conditions, few localschool systems have the will to concentrate theirresources on the minority of students with spe-cial needs. Moreover, recent political andeconomic conditions have been anything butfavorable for local governments. The cost ofeducating children with special needs has forcedmany school districts to resort to imposing taxeson productive members of the community with-out providing immediate benefits its returnBusiness firms along with residents in higherincome brackets may choose to leave communi-ties where the tax burden for educating the chil-dren of poor, needy residents is relatively heavy.Accordingly the Task Force supports continuingfederal efforts to provide special educationalprograms for the poorand for the handi-capped.

"We applaud the steps taken by Congress tosimplify regulatory restrictions and to reduce theoverlap among many programs. In enactinglegislation acknowledging the responsibility ofthe federal government for groups with specialneeds, the Task Force believes that the guidingprinciple should be that categorical programs re-quired by the federal government should be paidfor from the federal treasury.... (p 15)

The Task Force also recommends that 'impact'aid, originally aimed at helping cushion theburden imposed on local school facilities by thechildren of military personnel, be reformulatedto focus on school districts that are over-burdened by substantial numbers of immigrantchildren. ...

"A related problem is the plight of localities ineconomic distressmainly in the nation's cen-tral cities but also in impoverished rural areas,where there is an undue concentration of low-income groups, where high unemployment per-sists, and where there is a clear and urgent needfor better education of the young. The Task Force... urges that federal attention and assistance goto depressed localities that have concentrationsof immigrant andtor impoverished groups as wellas those that are already making strong efforts toimprove their education performance.... (p. 16)

Educational Research

"Research on questions of educational qualitycan have symbolic as well as substantive value.For example, the study of the effects of schoolsegregation undertaken by James Coleman forthe Office of Education in 1965 focused publicattention on the perniciousness of racism Subse-quent studies stimulated and informed publicdebate over such critical questions as the effectsof school desegregation on 'white flight' theresults of compensatory education programs,and the relative merits of public and privateschools....

"The Task Force recommends federal support fora number of specific activities:

The collection of factual information aboutvarious aspects of the education systemitself....The collection of information about the edu-cational performance of students, teachers,and schools across the nation .. .Evaluation of federally sponsored educationprograms .Fundamental research into the learning pro-cess .. ." (pp. 17-18)

Provision of Choice

"Many proposals have been made in recent yearsto give parents more of a voice in choosing wheretheir children are educated Among them are taxcredit plans and tuition vouchers. The Task Forcedoes not endorse such proposals or recommend


47

.,

r

dr

a major redefinition of the relationship betweenpublic and nonpublic schools We believe thatthe provision of free public education must con-tinue to be a public responsibility of high prior-ity, while support of nonpublic education shouldremain a private obligation. Yet we recognizethat some children have not been able to learn inthe present setting of public education We cannot ignore. for example. students who repeatedlyfail city or state competency examinations or failin other ways to attain their academic capacityRather than having students either held backtime and time again or promoted year after yearto new levels of remediation, the Task forcerecommends the establishment of special federalfellowships for them, which would be awarded toschool districts to encourage the creation ofsmall, individualized programs, staffed by cer-tified teachers and run as small-scale academies.Eligibility for these fellowships, available to nomore than 5 percent of public school enrollment.should be jointly determined by local, state. andfederal school officials Such an experiment,designed to benefit those who have been unableto learn in public schools, might provide the in-tensive and encouraging environment that thesestudents need, and would free up the substantialresources now being spent on remediation withso little to show for it (p 20)

Leadership in Education

"While the federal role in promoting equality ofopportunity and educational quality in thenation's schools is significant, elementary andsecondary education in the United States mustprimarily remain a responsibility of state andlocal governments

"But even though state and local governmentsshould continue to bear the major responsibilityfor the provision of educational services, it isincreasingly important that the federal gov-ernment emphasize the pressing need for a high-quality sysr..m of education open to all Ameri-cans, regardless of race or economic position

44(

Toward this end, the Task Force has put forwarda coordinated policy of overall federal supportfor American schools that simultaneously assertsthe national interest in quality schools and inequal access to education, with assistance forthose with special needs ..."The Task Force is aware that some of its pro-posals are costly, but we should be able to affordthe price of a commitment to educational ex-cellence. This nation's young people are ourmost precious and potentially our most produc-tive asset, provided that we invest wisely ineducating them. In our view, support for our pro-gram by Congress and the White House willdemonstrate the value that they attach to betterschooling for all

"Our proposed new approach for federal educa-tion policy will, we believe, stimulate a nationalreawakening of interest in educational excel-lence But carrying out this policy requires ournation's political leaders to take an active part insupporting needed programs. It is no longer acause that requires political courage All acrossthe country parents are demanding more of theschools, and in many cases the schools arealready responding. We think the time is past dueto offer a better education to all AmericansWhat it takes now is the political will to bring itabout." (pp. 21 -2't)

The Task Force Members include representativesof higher education, state departments of educa-tion, local school districts. They are:Robert Wood. (Chairman) Brewster C Denny, Chester E F.nn.Jr , Patricia Albierg Graham, Charles v Hamilton, Calm Rortas, Diane Raviich, Wilson Riles, Donald M Stewart,Robert E Wentz, Rosalyn Yalow, and Paul E Peterson

The Task Force activities were funded by TheTwentieth Century Fund

Order from.The Twentieth Century Fund41 East 70th StreetNew York, NY 10021

174 pages; $600: ISBN 0-87.78-151-0


A Nation At Risk:The Imperative

for Educational Reform

A Report to the Nation andthe Secretary of Education

by The National Commission onExcellence in Education

The National Commission on Excellence in Education was created bySecretary of Education TM. Bell in August 1981. Tht ' 8-member com-mission chaired by David P. Gardner was directed "to examine the qual-ity of education in the United States." The Commission responded inApril 1983 with a report that "contains practical recommendations foreducational improvement."

The Commissioner was directed to study, assess, and compare varioustrends and facts about our Nation's schools. In particular the commis-sion was "directed to pay particular attention to teenage youth." and didso "largely by focusing on high schools. Selective attention was given tothe formative years spent in elementary schools, to higher education,and to vocational and technical programs." (p. 2)

Sources of information were commissioned papers, public oral and writ-ten comment, existing analyses of problems in education, and descrip-tions of notable programs and promising approaches in education. TheCommission report, A Nation At Risk, includes twelve major sections.Brief summaries and excerpts from those sections appear below. Severalappendices accompany the report they include: the complete Charterof the National Commission of Excellence in Education, a list of publicevents and persons associated with the Commission's work, and a list ofcommissioned papers.

The Risk:

The Commission stresses that the nation standsto lose its prominence as a world leader in in-dustry and commerce. In fact, they report, werisk the long-standing promise that "means thatail children by virtue of their own efforts, com

petently guided, can hope to attain the matureand informed Judgment needed to secure gain-ful employment and to manage their own lives,thereby serving not only their own interests butalso the progress of society itself." (p 8)


49

Indicators of the Risk:

The commission presents example statistical in-formation to document the risk. Several ex-amples are included below.

"International comparisons of studentachievement completed a decad? ago, revealthat on 19 academic tests American studentswere never first or second and, in comparisonwith other industrialized nations, were lastseven times.Some 23 million American adults are func-tionally illiterate by the simplest tests of every-day reading, writing, and comprehension.About 13 percent of all 17-year-olds in theUnited States can be considered functionallyilliterate. Functional illiteracy among minorityyouth may run as high as 40 percent.Average achievement of high school studentson most standardized tests is now lower than26 years ago when Sputnik was launched.Over halt the population of gifted studentsdo nt-q match their tested ability with com-parable achievement in school.The College Board's Scholastic AptitudeTests (SAT) demonstrate a virtually unbrokendecline from 1963 to 1980. Average verbalscores fell over 50 points and average mathe-matics scores dropped nearly 40 points " (p. 8)

Hope and Frustration:

The report presents the fr Jstrations of variouspopulation segments -noth education at all levels.The hope, as the Commismon states, is "thesignificant movement by political and educa-tional ;:-aders to search for ,olutions (p 12)

Excellence in Education:

The Commission defines excei'ence in our soci-ety and learning environments. They furtherrestate out nation's commitlient to excellenceand equity. "We do not Iwileve that a publiccommitment to exceIle.,:e and educationalreform must be made at the expense of a strongpublic commitmen' to the equitable treatmentof our diverse population The twin goals ofequity and highqualay schooling have profoundand practical meaning tor our economy andsociety, and we cannot permh one to yield to theother either in punciple or :ri practice.. ."(p. 13)

The Learning Society:

"In a IN:AA of everaccele:ating competition andchange in the conditions of the workplace. ofever-greater danger, and of ever-larger oppor-tunities for those prepared to meet them, educa-tional reform should focus on the goal ofcreating a Leaning Society. At the heart of sucha society is the commitment to a set of valuesand to a system of education that affords allmembers the opportunity to stretch their mindsto full capacity, from early childhood throughadulthood, learning more as the world itselfchanges...." (p 13)

The Tools at Hand:

The Commission rec, ognizes the "essential rawmaterials" available in our society They includededication, commitment, unc:erstanding, in-genuity, and public and private resources (p 15)

The Public's Commitment:

Reinforcing that the Commission report is to thepublic, they stress that "of all the tools at hand,the public's support for education is the mostpowerful." (p. 16)

Findings:

Several pages of the report are devoted to find-ings regarding content, expectations, time andteaching.

Findings Regarding Content: "By content wemean the yeti; 'stuff' of education, the cur -..culum. Because of our concern about the cur-riculum, the Commission examined patterns ofcourses high school students took in 1964-69compared wit :. course patterns in 1976-81. Onthe basis of these analyses we conclude.

Secondary school curricula have beenhomogenized, diluted, and diffused to thepoint that they no longer have a central pur-pose .. Students have migrated from voca-tional and college preparatory programs togeneral track' courses in large numbers The

proportion of students taking a general pro-gram of study has increased from 12 percent in1964 to 42 percent in 1979.This curricular smorgasbord, combined withextensive student choice, explains [why a lowpercentage of high school graduates completecollege preparatory courses.] ...Twenty-five percent of the credits earned by


c

general track high school students are inphysical and health education, work ex-perience outside the school, remedial Englishand mathematics, and personal service anddevelopment courses, such as training foradulthood and marriage. (pp 18-19)

Findings Regarding Expectations "We define ex-pectations in terms of the level of knowledge,abilities, and skills school and college graduatesshould possess. They also refer to the time, hardwork, behavior, self-discipline, and motivationthat are essential for high student achieve-ment ..." (p. 19)

The indicators of these expectations includegrades. ,raduation requirements, examinationand test scores, college admission requirements,and subject matter difficulty. Upon analysis, thecommission sites several deficiencies They in-clude:

"The amount of homework for high schoolseniors has decreased . , and grades have risenas average student achievement has beendecliningIn many other industrialized nations, coursesin mathematics (other than arithmatic or gen-eral mathematics), biology, chemistry, physics,and geography start in grade 6 and are requiredof all students The time spent on these sub-jects, based on class hours, is about three timesthat spent by even the most science-orientedU S students, i e., those who select 4 years ofscience and mathematics in secondary schoolA 1980 State-by-State survey of high schooldiploma requirements reveals that only eightStates require high schools to offer foreignlanguage instruction, but none requiresstudents to take the courses Thirty-five Statesrequire only 1 year of mathematics, and 36 re-quire only year of science for a diploma....'Minimum competency' examinations (nowrequired in 37 States) fall short of what isneeded, as the 'minimum' tends to become the'maximum',, thus lowering educational stan-dards for all.One-fifth of all 4-year public colleges in theUnited States must accept every high schoolgraduate within the State regardless of pro-gram followed or grades ..Expenditures for textbooks and other instruc-tional materials have declined by 50 percentover the past 17 years... . (pp. 19-21)

Findings Regarding Time: "Evidence presentedto the Commission demonstrates three disturbingfacts about the use that American schools andstudents make of time. (1) compared to other na-tions. American students spend much less timeon school work; (2) time spent in the classroomand on homework is often used ineffectively; and(3) schools are not doing enough to help studentsdevelop either the study skills required to usetime well or the willingness to spend more timeon school work....

Findings Regarding Teaching: "The Commissionfound that not enough of the academically ablestudents are being attracted to teaching; thatteacher preparation programs need substantialimprovement; that the professional working lifeof teachers is on the whole unacceptable; andthat a serious shortage of teachers exists in keyfields.

"Too many teachers are being drawn from thebottom quarter of graduating high school andcollege students.The teacher preparation curriculum isweighed headily with courses in 'educationalmethods' at the expense of courses in subjectsto be taught. A survey of 1,350 institutionstraining teachers indicated that 41 percent ofthe time of elementary school teacher carpdidates is spent in education courses, whichreduces the amount of time available for sub-ject matter courses.The average salary after 12 years of teachingis only $17,000 per year, and many teachers arerequired to supplement their income with part-time and summer employment. In addition, in-dividual teachers have little influence in stitchcritical professional decisions as for example,textbook selection....Half of the newly employed mathematics,science, and English teachers are not qualifiedto teach these subjects; fewer than one-third ofU.S. high schools offer physics taught by quali-fied teachers." (pp. 22-23)

Recommendations:

The Commission advances five recemmenda-tions regarding content, standardization and ex-pectations, time, teaching, and leadership andfiscal support. Implementing recommendationsaccompany four of the five major recommenda-tions.


51

Recommendation A: Content: "We recommendthat State and local high school graduation re-quirements be strengthened and that, at a

minimum, all students seeking a diploma be re-quired to lay the foundations in the five NewBasics by taking the following curriculum duringtheir 4 years of high school: (a) 4 years of English;(b) 3 years of mathematics; (c) 3 years of science;(d) 3 years of social studies; and (e) one-half yearof computer science. for the college-bound, 2years of foreign language in high school arestrongly recom mended in addition to those takenearlier....

1. The teaching of English in high school shouldequip graduates to. (a) comprehend, interpret.evaluate, and use what they read. (b) write well-organized, effective papers. (c) listen effectivelyand discuss ideas intelligently; and (d) know ourliterary heritage and how it enhances imagina-tion and ethical understanding. and how itrelates to the customs. ideas, and values of to-day's life and culture

2 The teaching of mathematics in high schoolshould equip graduates to: (a) understandgeometric and algebraic concepts, (b) under-stand elementary probability and statistics, (c)apply mathematics in everyday situations; and(d) estimate, approximate, measure, and test theaccuracy of their calculations In addition to thetreditional sequence of studies available forcollege-bound students, new, equally demandingmathematics curricula need to be developed forthose who do not plan to continue their formaleducation immediately

3 The teaching of science in high school shouldprovide graduates with an introduction to. (a) theconcepts, laws, and processes of the physical andbiological sciences; (b) the methods of scientificinquiry and reasoning, (c) the application ofscientific knowledge to everyday life, and (d) thesocial and environmental implications of scien-tific and technological development Sciencecourses must be revised and updated for both thecollege-bound and those not intending to go tocollege. An example of such work is theAmerican Chemical Society's 'Chemistry in theCommunity' program.

4 The teaching of social studies in high schoolshould be designed to. (a) enable students to fixtheir places and possibilities within the largersocial and cult-,,I Aructure; (b) understand thebroad sweep of both ancient and contemporaryideas that have shaped our world, and (c) under-stand the fundamentals of how our economic

system v.orks and how our political system func-tions, and (d) grasp the difference between freeand repressive societies An understanding ofeach of these areas is requisite to the informedand committed exercise of citizenship in our freesociety

S The teaching of computer science in highschool should equip graduates to (a) understandthe computer as an information, computation,and communication device; (b) use the com)..titerin the study of the other Basics and for personaland worxrelated purposes, and (c) underztandthe world of computers, electronics, and relatedtechnologies

In addition to the New Basics, other importantcurriculum matters must be addressed

6 Achieving proficency in a foreign languageordinarily requires from 4 to 6 years of study andshould, therefore, be started in the elementarygrades We believe it is desirable that studentsachieve such proficiency because study of aforeign language introduces students to non-English-speaking cultures. heightens awarenessand comprehension of one's native tongue, andserves the Nation's needs in commerce.diplomacy, defense, and education

7. The high school curriculum should also pro-vide students with programs requiring rigorouseffort in subjects that advance students' per-sonal, educational, and occupational goals, suchas the fine and performing arts and vocationaleducation. These areas complement the NewBasics, and they should demand the same levelof performance as the Basics.

8 The curriculum in the crucial eight gradesleading to the high school years should bespecifically designed to provide a sound base forstudy in those and later years in such areas asEnglish language development and writing, com-putational and problem solving skills, science,social studies, foreign language, and the artsThese years should foster an enthusiasm forlearning and the development of the individual'sgifts and talents.

9. We encourage the continuation of efforts bygroups such as the American Chemical Society,the American Association for tlx Advancementof Science, the Modern Language Association.and the National Councils of Teachers of Englishand Teachers of Mathematics, to revise, up-date, improve, and make available new and morediverse curricular materials. We applaud the


52

consortia of educators and scientific, industrial,and scholarly societies that cooperate to im-prove the school curriculum. (pp. 24-27)

Recommendation B: Standards and Expectations:"We recommend that schools, colleges, anduniversities adopt more rigorous and measurablestandards, and higher expectations, for academicperformance an student conduct, and that4-year colleges and universities raise their re-quirements for admission. This will help studentsdo their best educationally with challengingmaterials in an environment that supports learn.ing and authentic accomplishment.

1. Grades should be indicators of academicachievement so they can be relied on as evidenceof a student's readiness for further study.

2 Four-year colleges and universities shouldraise their admissions requirements and adviseall potential applicants of the standards foradmission in terms of specific courses required,performance in these areas, and levels ofachievement on standardized achievement testsin each of the five Basics and. where applicable,foreign languages

3. Standardized tests of achievement (not to beconfused with aptitude tests) should be ad-ministered at major transition points from onelevel of schooling to another and particularlyfrom high school to college or work The pur-poses of these tests would be to: (a) certify thestudent's credentials; (5) identify the need forremedial intervention; and (c) identify the oppor-tunity for advanced or accelerated work. The testshould be administered as part of a nationwide(but not Federal) system of State and local stan-dardized tests This system should include otherdiagnostic procedures that assist teachers andstudents to evaluate student progress.

4. Textbooks and other tools of learning andteaching should be upgraded and updated toassure more rigorous content. We call uponuniversity scientists, scholars, and members ofprofessional societies, in collaboration withmaster teachers, to help in this task, as they did inthe post-Sputnik era. They should assist willingpublishers in developing the products or publishthem own alternatives where there are persistentinadequacies.

5 In considering textbooks for adoption, Statesand school districts should N evaluate texts andother materials on their ability to presericrigorous and challenging material clearly; arid (b)


require publishers to furnish evaluation data onthe material's effectiveness.

6. Because no textbook in any subject can begeared to the needs of all students, funds shouldbe made available to support text developmentin 'thin-market' areas, such as those for disadvan-taged students, the learning disabled, and thegifted and talented.

7. To assure quality, all publishers should fur-nish evidence of the quality and appropriatenessof textbooks, based on results from field trialsand credible evaluations. In view of the enor-mous numbers and varieties of texts available,more widespread consumer information servicesfor purchasers are badly needed.

8 New instructional material should reflect themost current applications of technology in ap-propriate curriculum areas, the best scholarshipin each discipline, and research in learning andteaching. (pp. 27-29)

Recommendation C: Time: "We recommend thatsignificantly more time be devoted to learningthe New Basics. T:tis will require more effectiveuse of the existing school day, a longer schoolday, or a lengthened school year.

1. Students in high schools should be assignedfar more homework than is now the case

2. Instruction in effective study and work skills,which are essential if school and independenttime is to be used efficiently, should be intro-duced in the early grades and continued through-out the student's schooling.

3 School districts and State legislatures shouldstrongly consider 7-hour school days, as well as a200 to 220-day school year.

4. The time available for learning should be ex-panded through better classroom managementand organization of the school Jay If necessary.additional time should be found to meet thespecial needs of slow learners, the gifted, andothers, who need more instructional diversitythan can be accommodated during a conven-tional school day or school year.

5. The burden on teachers for maintaining dis-cipline should be reduced through the develop-ment of firm and fair codes of student conductthat are enforced consistently, and by consider-ing alternative classrooms, programs, andschools to meet the needs of continually disrup-tive students.

5349

sfr

6. Attendance policies with dear incentivesand sanctions should be used to reduce theamount of time lost through student absenteeismand tardiness.

7 Administrative burdens on the teacher andrelated intrusions into the school day should bereduced to add time for teaching and learning.

8 Placement and grouping of students. as wellas promotion and graduation policies, should beguided by the academic progress of students andtheir instructional needs, rather than by rigidadherence to age. (pp 29-30)

Recommendation D: Teaching: "This recommen-dation consists of seven parts. Each is intended toimprove the preparation of teachers and to maketeaching a more rewarding and respected profes-sion. Each recommendation stands on its own andshould not be considered solely asan implement-ing recommendation.

1 Persons preparing to teach should be required to meet high educational standards. todemonstrate an aptitude for teaching. and todemonstrate competence in an academic disci-pline Colleges and universities offering teacherpreparation programs should be cadged by howwell their graduates meet these criteria.

2 Salaries for the teaching profession shouldbe increased and should be professionally com-petitive. market-sensitive, and performancebased Salary, promotion, tenure, and retentiondecisions should be tied to an effective evalua-tion system that includes peer review so thatsuperior teachers can be :ewarded, average onesencouraged, and poor ones either improved orterminated

3. School boards should adopt an II-monthcontract for teachers This would ensure time forcurriculum and professional development, pro-grams for students with special needs. and amore adequate level of teacher compensation.

4 School boards, administrators. and teachersshould cooperate to develop career ladders forteachers that distinguish among tne beginning in-structor, the experienced teacher, and the masterteacher

S Substantial nonschool personnel resourcesshould be employed to help solve the immediateproblem of the shortage of mathematics andscience teachers Qualified individuals in-ludingrecent graduates with mathematics and sciencedegrees, graJuate students, and industrial and

SO

retired scientists could, with appropriate prepa-ration, immediately begin teaching in thesefields A number of our leading science centershave the capacity to begin educating and retraining teachers immediately. Other areas of criticalteacher need, such as English, must also be ad-dressed.

6. Incentives, such as grants and loans. shouldbe made available to attract outstandingstudents to the teaching profession. particularlyin those areas of critical shortage.

7. Master teachers should be involved indesigning teacher preparation programs and insupervising teachers during their probationaryyears. (pp. 30-31)

Recommendation E: Leadership and Fiscal Sup-port: "We recommend that citizens across theNation hold educators and elected officials re-sponsible for providing the leadership necessaryto achieve these reforms, and that citizens pro-vide the fiscal support and stability required tobring about the reforms we propose.

1 Principalt and superintendents must play acrucial leadership role in developing sciiool andcommunity support for the reforms we propose.and school boards must provide them with theprofessional deveiopment and other support re-quired to carry out Weir leadership role effec-tively

2 State and local officials. including schoolboard members. governors, and legislators. havethe primary responsibility for financing andgoverning the schools. and should incorporatethe reforms we propose in their educationalpolicies and fiscal planning.

3. The Federal Government. in cooperationwith States and localities, should help meet theneeds of key groups of students such as thegifted and talented, the socioeconomicallydisadvantaged. minority and language minoritystudents, and handicapped .

4. In addition. we believe the Federal Govern-ment's role includes several functions of nationalconsequeme that States and localities alone areunlikely to be able to meet: protecting consti-tutional and civil rights for students and schoolpersonnel, collecting data, statistics, and infor-mation about education ger^ally, supportingcurriculum improvement and research on teach-ing, learrung, and the mark:Fement of schools,supporting teacher training it 4:4tas cif critical


shortage or key national needs; and providingstudent financial assistance and research andgraduate training. We believe the assistance ofthe Federal Government should be provided witha minimum of administrative burden and in-trusiveness.

5 The Federal Government has the primaryresponsibility to identify the national interest ineducation. It should also help fund and supportefforts to protect and promote that interest. Itmust provide the national leadership to ensurethat the Nation's public and private resources aremarshaled to address the issues discussed in thisreport.

6. This Commission caas upon educators,parents, and public officials at all levels to assistin bringing about the educational reform pro-posed in this report. We also call upon citizens toprovide the financial support necessary to ac-complish these purposes. Excellence costs. But inthe long run mediocrity costs far more." (pp32-33)

America Can Do It

The Commission reaffirms the belief that the pastindicates we can rise to the challenge and im-prove our schools for the future

A Word to Parents and Students:

Parents have the right to demand quality educa-tion for their children; children should strive to


attain a quality education fulfilling their max-imum capabilities.

A Final Word:

The Commission asks all to secure Nation'sfuture by demonstrating "our willingness to takeup the challenge, and our resolve to see itthrough...." (p. 36)

Members of the National Commission on Ex-cellence in Education include representatives ofhigher education, state level administration,local school districts, business and professionalassociations. They are:David P Gardner (Chan). Yvonne W Larsen (ViceChaid.William 0 Baker. Anne Campbell, Emeral A Crosby, CharlesA Foster. Ir , Normal C Francis. A Bartlett Giamatti. ShirleyGordon. Robert V Haderlein. Gerald Holton. Annette Y Kirk.Margaret S Marston, Albert II Qum. Francisco 0 Sanchez,It , Glenn I Seaborg, lay Sommer. Richard Wallace

The Commission's work was supported by the USDepartment of Education.

Order from:Superintendent of DocumentsU.S. Government Printing OfficeWashington. D.C. 20402

Published in April 1983;,(#065-000-00177-2)65 pages. $4.50

55 51

The Paideia Proposal:An Educational Manifesto*

Mortimer J. AdlerOn behalf of the members of the Paideia Group

The Paideia Proposal, released in 1982, is addressed to parents, teachers,school boards, college educators, elected public officials, employers,minority groups, military leaders and all American citizens. "Such deepand legitimate concerns are addressed by our proposal for the reform ofpublic schooling in America. The reform we seek is designed to improvethe opportunities of our youth, the prospects of our economy, and theviability of our democratic institutions. It must be achieved at the com-munity level without resorting to a monolithic, national educationalsystem. It must be in Lincoln's words, of the people, by the people, andfor the people."(p. xii)

The Schooling of a People

"The twouniversal suffrage and universalschooling are inextricably bound together. Theone without the other is a perilous delusion. Suf-frage without schooling produces mobocracy,,not democracynot rule of law,, not constitu-tional government by the people as well as forthem.. . We are all sufferers from our con-tinued failure to fulfill the educational obliga-tions of a democracy. We are all the victims of aschool system that has only gone halfway alongthe road to realize the promise of democracy. . .

(pp 3-4)

'We should have a one-track system of schooling, not a system with two or more tracks, only

'Excerpts used by permission of Macmillan Publishing Com-pany from The Paideia Proposal by Mortimer I AdlerCopyright ©1982 by the institute for Philosophical Research


one of which goes straight ahead while the othersshunt the young off onto sidetracks not headedtoward the goals our society opens to all The in-rermost meaning of social equality is: substan-tially the same quality of We for all. That callsfor: the same quality of schooling for all....(pp. 5-6)

The Essentials of Basic Schooling

"At the very heart of a multitrack system ofpublic schooling lies an abominable discrimina-tion. The system aims at different goals for dif-ferent groups of children. One goal, higher thanthe others, is harder to accomplish. The othergoals are lowerand perhaps easier, but,ironically, they are all too frequently notattained. The one-track system of public school-ing nat The Paideia Proposal advocates has thesame objectives for all without exception ...(p. 15)

56 53

"To achieve the desired quality of democraticeducation, a one-track system of public school-ing for twelve years must aim directly at threemain objectives and make every effort toachieve them to a satisfactory degree "(p 16)These objectives are

"personal growth or self- improvement men-tal, moral, and spiritual. Every child should beable to look forward not only to growing upbut also to continued growth in all humandimensions throughout lifethe individual's role as an enfranchisedcitizen of this republic Citizens are the prin-cipal and permanent rulers of our societyThose elected to pub 'c office for a term ofyears are instrumental and transient rulersinthe st rvices of the citizenry and responsible tothe electorate...l he adult's need to earn a living in one oranother occupation. The twelve years of basicschooling must prepare them for this task, notby training them for one or another particularjob in our industrial economy, but by givingthem the basic skills that are common to allwork in a society such as ours (pp. 16-17)

"To achieve these three goals, basic schoolingmust have for all a quality that can be best de-fined, positively, by saying that it must be gen-eral and liberal, and negatively, by saying that itmust be nonspecialized and nonvocational.As compared with narrow, specialized trainingfor particular sobs, general schooling is of thegreatest practical value It is good not onlybecause it is calculated to achieve two of thethree main obje 'yes at which basic schoolingshould aim pn .ation for citizenship and forpersonal oevelopment and continued growth Itis also good practically because it will providepreparation for earning a living. . (pp. 18-19)

"To give the sar,.e quality of schooling to all re-quires a program of study that is both liberal andgeneral, and that is, in several, crucial, over-arching respects, one and the same for everychild All sidetracks, specialized courses,, or elec-tive choices must be eliminated Allowing themwill always lead a certain number of students tovoluntarily downgrade their own educationElective choices are appropriate only in a cur-riculum that is intended for different avenues ofspecialization or different forms of preparationfor the professions or technical careers Electivesand specialization are entirely proper at the levelof advanced schoolingin our colleges, univer-sities, and technical schools They are wholly in-

appropriate at the level of basic schooling(p. 21)

The required course of study also includes agroup of auxiliary subjects, of which one isphysical education and care of tht. body. Thisruns through all twelve years. Of the other twoauxiliary subjects, instruction in a variety ofmanual arts occupies a number of years, but notall twelve; and the third consists of an introduc-tion to the world of work and its range of occupa-tions and careers It is given in the last two of thetwelve years... (p 22)

"For a number of -,ears, fewer than all twelve,boys and girls alike should participate in a widevariety of manual activities, including typing,cooking, sewing, wood and metalworking, craftsusing other materials, automobile driving 'idrepair, maintenance of electrical and otherhousehold equipment, and so on In the lateryears, they should receive instruction to preparethem for choosing and finding a career (p. 33)

"Despite their manifold individual differences,the children are all the same in their humannature. They are human beings and their humanequality consists in the fact that no child is moreor less human than another . In our demo-cratic society, moreover, all children can lookforward to a future that is the same in a numberof essential respects All will grow up to becomefull-fledged citizens with suffrage and with thepolitical liberty it confers All can demand tohave their human and civil rights protected bythe Constitution and by the laws that conform toit (pp. 42-43)

Teaching and Learning

"The heart of the matter is the quality of thelearning that goes on during the hours spent inclass and during the time spent doing assignedhomework The course of study is nothing but aseries of channels or conduits. The child goes inat one end and comes out at the other The dif-ference between what goes in kind what comesout depends upon the quality of learning and ofteaching that takes place throughout thejourney.

"The quality of learning, in turn, depends verylargely on the L ality of the teachingteachingthat guides and inspires learning in the class-room and that directs and motivates learning tobe done in homework Largely but not entirely'Effective learning often occurs in spite of defec-tive teaching. Teaching at its best is only an aid to


learning, but that aid is most needed by thosewho are least adept at learning

"All genuine learning is active, not passive It in-volves the use of the mind, not just the memoryIt is a process of discovery, in which the studentis the main agent, not the teacher (pp 49 -50)

"How should teachersfunctioning properly asaids to learningwork to guide or assist the ac-tivity of the pupil's mind, the activity that is theprincipal cause of learning? The answer differsaccording to the three ways in which learning Im-proves the mind: (1) by the acquisition of infor-mation or organized knowledge; (2) by thedevaopment of intellectual skills; (3) by theenlargement of the understanding In each ofthese three modes of learning, there is a differentkind of help to be given by the teacher. ..(p. 51)

"'Finally, a word muse be said about deportment.Laxity in this respect can be completely destruc-tive of learning and completely frustrating to theefforts of the best teachers Students must be re-quired to behave in class and in school in a man-ner that is conducive to learning. .. (p 55)

The Preparation of Teachers

"There are and always will be a relativ 'y smallnumber of highly gifted, strongly motivatedteachers who manage, in spite of all adverseconditions, to perform creditably,, even magnifi-cently. But that number is far from enough toachieve the desired quality of teaching for all Atpresent, many factors work against havingenough good teachers to staff our schools ..Everything that has been said so tar citesnegative and external factorsbad working con-ditions, compensation that IS too low, inferiorsocial status, distracting demands But there ismore Were all these negative factors eliminatedor rectified, positive factors and conditions fortraining and holding a sufficientlY large numberof good teachers must be provided. (pp.57-58)

ITeachers) should themselves be at least as well-schooled as the graduates of the schools in whichthey are expecting to teach. They should havecompleted the required course of study we haverecommended Many teachers now employed inour public schools have not themselves hadbasic schooling of this quality, or even of thequality now provided in our better schools .

The presen teacher-training programs turn outpersons who are not sufficiently equipped withthe knowledge the intellectual skills, or the

developed understanding needed to guide andhelp the young in the course of study we haverecommended .. (pp. 59-60)

The Principal

". The head of the schoolits administratorshould not be solely or even primarily concernedwit!. running the school efficiently or economi-cally, or merely keeping the peace of the com-munity Keeping the peace, doing justice, balanc-ing budgets, enforcing laws is the main businessof the political community at any level; they arenot the main business of the school communityIts main business is teaching and learning. Thehead of the school its principal should; there-fore, administer all other affairs in ways thatfacilitate the main business. . (pp 63-64)

Beyor.fl Basic Schooling

"Our main concern IS basic schooling It is theonly schooling that i' compulsory for all and thatshould be the same for all. Our concern isdouble-edged We have two fundamental goalsin view One is equipping all the children of thiscountry to earn a good living for themselves Theother is enabling them to lead good human lives.

"The enjoyment of a high standard of living,however desirable, still leaves more to bedesired The external, physical,, material condi-tions of a good human life, necessary as they are,remain by themselves insufficient They must beput to such use by the individual that the qualityof his or her life is enriched internally as well asexternally... (p 73)

"The thrust of our argument so far has been thatbasic schooling ought to prepare ewry child toearn a living and live a good life. But there IS onemore reason for exealpg every effort to improvebasic schooling. We must also do it to preserveour free institutions. . . . Human resources are thenation's greatest potential riches To squanderthem is to impoverish our future." (pp. 77-79)

This initial work of the Paideia Croup was supported by the14..hn D and Catherine T MacArthur Foundation The PaidetaProposal will be followed by a book of essays entitled ThePaideia Proposal: Pointers and Prospects. This will provideguidelines for putting the program into effect

Available at bookstores, or order from.Macmillan Publishing Co , Inc866 Third AvenueNew York, NY 10022

published in 1982, (ISBN 0-02-064100-1)84 pages; $2.95


58

A Place Called School:Prospects for the Future*

John 1. Goodlad

The Study of Schooling extended eight years, three of which weredevoted to conceptualizing the Study, formulating and refining ques-tions, preparing questionnaire. and observation schedules, and gettingready to gather the Cata. The Study's assumption was that "significanteducational improvement of schooling, not mere tinkering, requires thatwe focus on entire schools, not lust teachers or principals or curricula ororganization or school-community relations but all of these and more."(Preface) The text includes two appendices: a list of source materialsincluding technical reports, and a personnel roster for the Study.Reference notes accompany the text.

" This is not a res..arch report as such It is adiscussion of what appears to be the currentstate of schooling in our country, made real bythe illustrative use of data carefully gatheredfrom a small, diverse sample of schools .

(Preface)

" . The selection of 13 communities in sevensections of the country produced a sample of 38schools differing in several significant character-istics. The fact that the elementary schoolsselected sent most of their students to the secon-dary schools studied provided us with a contin-uum of 12 years of schooling in each community

"We recognized from the beginning that gather-ing any significant amourt of data in a sample

'Permission to excerpt granted by the publisher, McCaw HillBook Company


representing all the different kinds of schools inthe United Statesa random sampleis im-possible. Instead, we sought maximum diversityand representativeress in a sample of smallsize.. .

"... We sent more than 20 trained data collec-tors into each community, where they remainedfor almost a month, compiling a large body ofdata about each school. lust 38 schools pro-duced data from many individuals-8.624parents. 1350 teachers, and 17,163 students.Detailed observations of classroom practicesand interactions were conducted in 1,016 class-roomsthe largest number ever systematicallycarried out in a single study.... The schools westudied differ in location, size, characteristics ofthe student population, family incomes, andother ways. Nonetheless, they shared manysimilarities, particularly in modes of teachingand learning.... (p. 18)

59 57

0

"One of the major messages of this report is thatimprovement is essentially a school-by-schoolprocess, enlightened by the degree to whichthose associated with each school and trying toimprove it have the data required for building auseful agenda. Many of the kinds of data wegathered are precisely what local school person-nel require if their efforts are to be the other thansporadic and aimless (p 19)

Some Recurring Themes

" We chose pieces of the whole appearing tocharacterize schools commonly, even thougheach may manifest itself differently from schoolto school We referred to these as commonplacesof schoolingteaching practices, content orsubject matter, instructional materials, physicalenvironment, activities, human resources, eval-uation, time, organization, communications,decision making, leadership, expectations, issuesand prchlems, and controls or restraints Theycombined to constitute something close to thewhole of a school"We chose also to describe most commonplacesfrom the several major perspectives involved inour studystudents", teachers', parents", ob-servers', and to a somewhat lesser degree, prin-cipals' (o 28)

. The themes thus help us see that schoolinghas a common set of characteristics and thatschool-to-school differences result from the sumtotal of how these characteristics manifest them-selves in each school.

The first theme is school functions . frombaby sitting to job preparation and intellectualdevelopment.A second theme is the school's relevance in thelives of its students They go to school aspart of growing up. .

A third theme is how teachers teach .A fourth is the circumstances surroundingteaching.

. A fifth theme is the array of activities,,materials, and tests constituting the cur-riculum.A sixth's the distribution of resources for learn-ing.A seventh theme, equity, expands on the issuesof equity involved in theme sixAn eighth theme is what often is called the hid-den curriculumwhat I have chosen to callthe implicit curriculum for example,emphasizing acquiring facts or solving prob-lems.

58

A ninth theme is satisfaction as a criterion ofschool quality.... The composite satisfactionof principal, teachers, students, and parentsconstitutes a significant indication of a

school's quality, including achievement.A tenth theme is the need for data. Theschools in our sample simply do not possessthe information they need to set, with someconfidence, an agenda for school improve-ment .. (pp 29-31)

Improving the Schools We hzve[Recommendations)

"The recommendations for states are .atendedto assure the clear articulation of a compre-hensive set of goals for schools, the avail-ability of alternative curricular designs andpedagogical procedures; continuing assess-ment of the condition of education in schools,and support for school improvement. They areintended, also, to impress upon state leadersthe need to stimulate creative ways toorganize and staff schools, develop teachereducation programs and eliminate the present'flatness' in teaching opportunities and salaryschedules States must be held accountablefor what they do and do not do in these as wellas other areas of responsibility just ..s statelegislatures are prone to hold teachers and ad-ministrators accountable for students' learn-ing. This implies continuing evaluation, atstate expense, of the impactgood and badof legislative initiatives in the educationalarenaThe recommendations for school districts areintended to effect greater decentralizatrm ofauthority and responsibility to the local schoolsite. They are designed, also to stimulate long-range planning in each school, under theleadership of the principal and with assistancein self-assessment from the district office Theinheren* principle is 'every tub on its own bot-tom,' each with a strong link to the superinten-dent and to the other tubs in the system Theunit of improvement is the individual schoolThe major decisions regarding it are madethere, where they are easily scrutinized by theschool's patrons. The district is effective to thedegree that its schools exhibit good healthThe recommendations for teacher educationare intended to separate the preparation pro-cess from the customary ways of keepingschool. This is a sharp departure from muchconventional practice One part of the future

Go EDUCATION UNDER STUDY

teachers' orientation is an immersion inbehavioai and humanistic studies relevant toschooling and teaching. Another is guidedobservation and practice only in key anddemonstration schools working in collabora-tion with the teacher preparing institutions.The education of beginning teachers, develop-ment of experienced teachers, and school im-provement go hand-in-hand.The recommendations for distributing timeand teachers are intended to produce curriculaof sufficient scope and balance to reflect theexpectations of stele goals. The curricularrecommendations emphasize balance in thestudent's, not just the school's, program ofstudies They provide for a common minimumin each domain of knowledge, some degrees offreedom for local option in each domain, someprovision for either more advanced work orremediation in the domains of the curriculumcommon to all students, and assurance that allstudents, not just the most academically able,will have some opportunity for the develop-ment of special interests and talents.Recommendations for the elimination ofability grouping and tracking and for greateremphasis on methods of mastery learning seekgreater equity in access to knowledge for allstudents Similarly, the recommendations forimproving instructicn are intended to expandstudents' opportunities to learn.The recommendations for research and de-velopment centers focused on curriculumdesign, on the content of the major domains ofthe curriculum, and on teaching and evalua-tion hold out the possibility of getting newmodels to guide planning and teaching. Theprospects here for long-term funding from theprivate sector enhance the possibilities for in-novation and for transcending the uniformityof schooling.Among the recommendations most likely tolead us beyond conventional ways of conduct-ing schooling are those for close articulationof our elementary, middle, and senior highschools, more rigorous selections and prepara-tion of principals, alternative ways of staffingelementary schools, and the division of largesecondary schools into smaller, semiautono-mous units. These procedures address theflatness in opportunities and r.centives forteachers and administrators. 1 hey invite in-novations in the organization of schools, cur-ricula, and collaborative teaching. Together,they challenge the conventions that character-ize most schools and resist change And they

encourage longer, closer relationships amongteachers and groups of students. Greater satis-faction on the part of both might well be theresult.... (pp. 318-320)Regarding the lower end, I recommend thatschool begin at age 4. What is attempted over12 years beginning at age 6 and ending at age18 is now to be accomplished between theages of 4 and 16. I have no hesitation in sayingthat the results will be as good or better thancurrently is the case. Expenditures will be lessbecause public kindergarten will be inc`udedin the span of years. The extraordinary costs indeveloping curricula, in teacher frustration, inpolicing schools, and in monitoring absen-teeism will be reduced. The costs to society ingenerai will be less and the gains considerable.Children will be off to an earlier start, a condi-tion which pays dividends in regard to theirultimate attainment and society's welfare. Thecostly prolongation of higher and professionaleducation in the lives of young men andwomen will be reduced by two years. And wewill have one of the greatest opportunities ofall time to rethink what school should befor.... (pp. 325-326)

Beyond the Schools We Have:[Four conditions which must be addressed.]

t."The first [condition] is a youth culture power-fully preoccupied with itself and made up of in-dividuals much less shaped by home, church, andschool than once was the case. How well suitedto the young people of today is a school thathardened into shape during a previous era? Someof our data suggests a poor fit. Other studies andstatistics on absenteeism, truancy, and interper-sonal tensionssometimes lee ding to violenceraise serious questions about the appropriate-ness of schools, as conducted for many of theolder students in attendance. But merely to re-move the most tioublesome may be to obfuscatethe basic problems.

"A second condition, to which our system ofschooling has responded sluggishly, is the stun-ningly swift advances of technology in virtuallyall aspects of life. The end is not in sight. Personswho just a few years ago were operating ele-vators, attending to parking lots, and sellingnewspapers on the street corners have beenreplaced by buttons to push and boxes which re-spond to the insert.on of plastic cards. Personsnot replaced use special languages to instructthe computers on which we have become depen-


61

)

dent Television may be the closest thing we haveto a common school The schools, comparedwith other institutions, have responded very littleto this technological revolution But it is difficultto believe that schools can have a future apartfrom technology

"Third, in regard to vocational education theschool may be, in the late twentieth century,where the home was in the late nineteenth. Itbecame impossible, about a hundred years ago.for families to provide their children with theskills required for gainful employment in theemerging workplace Similarly, it simply is notfeasible today for schools to prepare specificallyfor the vast array of jobs available and increas-ing To prepare youths for jobs whose requirements are obvious and relatively simple is toproduce workers who will quickly becowe ob-solescent The requirements of a large segmc..:of the workplace are obscure The best prepara-tion for work is general education The specificsrequired for jobs are best taught by employersClearly, the future calls for better understandingand engineering of the relationships betweeneducation and work and between schools andthe workplace

"Fourth, there will be no diminution in the needand our expectations for a highly educated soci-ety Periodic disjunctures between the supply ofand demand fot highly educated workers raisethe issue of creating an overeducated citizenryBut it becomes increasingly difficult to cope withthe complexities of our society, let alone be suc-cessful in it, without the high degree of aware-ness, insight, and problem-solving ability that

comes from education It is difficult to envision asociety of overeducated parents, voters, andworkers...." (pp. 321.322)

Goodlad concludes his book by stating: "..Whatever our individual experiences with aplace called school, to think seriously abouteducation conjures up intriguing possibilitie5both for schooling and a way of life as yetscarcely tried And, indeed, education is as yetsomething more envisioned than practiced361)

The Advisory Committee to the Study of School-ing includes.

Ralph W Tyler, Chair, Gregory Ann& Stephen K Bailey,Lawrence. A Cremon, Robed K Merton, and Arthur Jefferson

A Study of Schooling was supported by:The Danforth Foundation, The Ford Foundation, InternationalPaper Company Foundation. The 1DR 3rd Fund. MarthaHolden jennongs Foundation, Charles F Kettering Foundation,Liiiy Endowment. Inc , Charles Swart Mott Foundation. Na-tional Institute of Education, The Needmor Fund, Pedamor-ptiosis, Inc , The Rockefeller Foundation, The Spencer Foun-dation, and the US Office of Education The Study was con-ducted under the auspices of the Institute for Development ofEducational Activities, Inc and The Laboratory in School andCommunity Education, Graduate School of Education,University of California. Los Angeles

Available at bookstores, or order fromMcGraw Hill Book CompanyCustomer Service?rinceton RoadHightstown, NJ 08520

Published in September 1983 by McGraw HillBook Company416 pages, $18.95


A Study of High Schools*

Co-sponsored bythe National Association of Secondary School Principals

and the National Association of Independent Schools

The reports from the Study of High Schools, to be released in 1984, willfocus on (1) what is known about adolescent learning and good highschools; (2) the nature of change in high schools since World War ll; and(3) the complexities of life in high school today. The lines of inquiry willinclude historical essays and field studies and visits. The outcomes ofthe Study will include suggested ways and means of reform. From "HighSchool Reform: The Need for Engineering" an article written for PhiDelta Kappan by Theodore R. Sizer, chair of the study group, we are ableto obtain a glimpse of its scope, findings, and recommendations.

Most of the central problems crippling U S highschools are obvious and well understood, it is theremedies that seem problematic But there is noserious way to improve our high schools withoutrevamping their structure. Politica:ly painfulthough such a re-engineering may be it is in-escapable. ... ' (p. 679)

The Grip of Structure

Sizer emphasizes the grip that long standingstructure has on our nigh schools. The "organiz-

'This synapse was derived from an article and brochure writ-ten about the Study (Phi Delta Kappan, June 1983, vol 64. no10) 0 1983 Phi Delta Kappan, Inc Permission to excerptgranted

ing framework [of the high school) dates from thelate 19th century and persists today with remarkable consistency across all regions of the countryand across public and private sectors Mostadolescents attend high schools with a thousandor more age-mates. They find there a structurethat is highly fractionated.... The programrevolves around subjects taught by specialists .

and the students 'cover' a succession of topicseach day, seemingly at random...

"It is not that some schools do not seem more effective than others They do appear to be so, butwhatever special effectiveness is apparentemerges from the same framework And thatframework seriously limits our expectations.


6 3

V

"High schools are complicated organisms. Tobe orderly, the pieces must work togethersmoothly... Thus things remain the samebecause it is impossible to change very muchwithout changing most of everything The resultis paralysis. (p 680)

High Schools' Problems

A list of some of these problems of high sc: xils]males familiar i.ea "ng

6 The goals for high schools are numerous andseem to continue multiplying, with littleregard for the severe limits imposed by a lackof school staff, equipment and timeMany adolescents complete high school un-prepared fir what follows in their lives, theyare marginally !Iterate, uninspired, possessedof only rudimentary skills, and imbtiatid with anarrow view of the worldProductivity is low. Young people, who mayspend well over 12,000 hours in school andwho are maintained there at 5ubstantiaI ex-pense, are nonethesess unpreiared to taketheir places in society It a narrower economicsense, schooling has become progressively let.sproductive over the last decades. ..Many students find little incentive in hardacademic work Although they want their di-plomas, they earn them primarily by doggedlydutiful attendance rather than by an exhibitionof mastery of the substance of studyStudents are rarely expected to educate them-selves. .

The labels of subjects are ambiguous andoften misleading In the same freath with whichpolicy makers piously assert the need for 'fouryears of English for all students,' they admit that'English' in practice is currently a ragbag of endsand meansA premium is put on coverage at the expenseof thoroughness. . . The torrent of facts pouredover students is overwhelming, and the onlyway teachers can keep up the flow is to lec-tureto feed students knowledge rather thanexpect them to forage on their own.The daily activities, academic and otherwise,in which a typical high school student engagesare numerous. five or six classeo on widely dif-fering topics taken in a random sequence aremixed with some nonacademic activity and lotsof usually frenetic socializing.. .

The academic reward system revolves aroundtime, with quicker being better. 'Ahead of gradelevel' is absolutely preferred to solid, ultimatemastery .

In spite of strenuous efforts on many sides toeliminate it, segregation of the schools by socialclass is profound. .. The poor are tracked to bepoor, the rich to be rich. Related racial andethnic stereotyping is pervasive.Schools connect poorly with the outsideworld. Traditional vocational and technicaleducation has been devastatingly challenged,bit still it goes on largely unaffected by theevidence of its malfunctions The connectionbetween nonschool technologies, such astelevision and computers, and the schools is atbest rudimentary. The fact that most highschool students hold jobs during the schoolyear is ignored or cursed but rarely used con-structively.Inevitably, schools are places where valuesare learned. But, sadly, few schools have well-articulated and thoroughly ai sued approachesin this area....Teachers know that time on task (up to apoint) is important for all students and thatpersonal attention to each student pays greatdividends However, most high school teacherslea! with well over a hundred young peopledaily, in groups that gather for less than anhour In such circumstances, only an excep-tional instructor can come anywhere near individualizing instructionThe teaching profession has a very limitedcareer line A teacher has roughly the same responsibility at the end of a professional life-time as on the first day of work As much asanything else, this state of affairs drives manyable and ambitious people from the class-room.Teachers' salaries and benefits are not com-petitive with those in fields that require com-parable preparationparticularly at the toplevels..Even though policy makers universally agreeon the need to strengthen the teaching profes-sion, many of them support policies that bothpatronize teachers and undermine theirautonomythat essential element of self-esteem. The teacher's role is codified today, allthe way down to minutes- per - year -per-;abject.... Teachers are told that their owncompetence is to be measured by credit hoursof college courses taken, even though there islittle evidence that quality derives from creditsearned. Thus the system insults the intelligenceof teachers. Policies seem to be drafted tosqueeze the incompetents out of the professionrather than to attract the able into itTheir rhetoric notwithstanding, public leadersare uninterested in the schools. Regulation and


coercion, which don't cost much, get great playtoday " (pp 680-681)

Engineering

Fourteen recommendations are summarized bySizei in his article

1 "In most high schools, a shorter, simpler,better-defined list of goals is necessary, this willinvolve shelving the long-standing claims of cer-tain subject areas For example, driver educationmay have to give way to English. Athletic andchorus trips may no longer be allowed topreempt teaching time, which might mean cur-tailing interscholastic athletic and arts programsChemistry may have to be dropped as a separatesubject in order that biology and physics can betaught well

2 Students entering high school unable toread, write,, and cipher adequately will have toconcentrate exclusively on these sulNects Theseare the foundations of secondary scho., work,and, until they are mastered, studying much elseis wasteful Teachers will need substantial timeto work with these youngsters, as the studentsalmost certainly will be demoralized and readyto fail

3 Higher-order thinking skillsreasoning,imagining. analyzing, synthesizingare the coreof senior high school work, and they are learnedthrough confrontation, through dialog. One isn'ttold how to think, one reasons and has thatreasoning critiqued. Inescapably, this process re-quires different kinds of teaching formats andlower teaching loads than are now the rule

4 Until mastery of subject matter determineswhether or not a diploma is granted, students wii:see minimal incentives for achieving suchmastery There must be some kind of culminatingexamination or other exhibition of mastery toplace the emphasis of schooling squarely on learn-ing

5 A central goal of schooling is for students tobe able to teach themselves and to wish to do so(We forget most of the facts we learn in schools,what stays with us, if we're lucky, is the knowledgeof how to gain knowledge ) The way one learns toteach oneself is to practice doing it and to havethat practice critiqued

6 Sorting out what students require inescap-ably uncovers the inadequacy of traditionalinterpretations of the subjects of study Ab-solutely fundamental skills of thinking and ex-


pression cut across Cie domains of existingdepartments Thus they are of.en given shortshrift The fractionated curriculum that the highschools have inherited from the 1890s serves uspoorly

7 The frenetic quality of many high schoolsneeds to be eased, the pace slowed, and largerblocks of time made available for ;.e kind ofdialectical teaching that is a necessary part ofhelping adolescents learn to think clearly and con-structively. This will mean that some things willhave to go .

8 Age-grading must cease,, and students mustbe allowed to progress at their own rates. Adult at-titudes about 'where a student should be' will alsohave to change, the assumption must always bethat mastery is not only possible but expected. Wewill nee:c1 to adapt instruction to students' differ-ing ;earning styles.. .

9 Lessening segregation and stereotyping byclass, race, gender, and ethnicity requires not on-ly unprejudiced attitudes on the parts of those ofus who work in schools but also changes in thestructure of schooling. Mastery of the basic coreof high school work would be the goal for every-bodya common purpose even if addressedthrough widely differing means. Diversions tromthis through early tracking (e.g., decisions onvocational education made at the end of ninthgrade) or through magnet programs (sometimesthinly disguised devices to perpetuate segrega-tion) must be resisted.. .

10 If a high )chool diploma it. awarded bya validation of a student's mastery, then how thatlearning is mastered is not very important....Schools should seize upon the best of that learn-ing and give incentives to students to use theirout-of-school opportunities in ways that helpthem learn still more.

11. .. Students will learn more if they aretaught English and social studies by the sameteacher than if they are taught by separatespecialists . However, launching a challengeagainst specialization in high schools will be dif-ficult, especially in states where job descriptionsare frozen into certificates and legislation

12 Proper accommodation of individual stu-dent differences demands that teachers have con-trol over their own and their students' schedulesand programs. .

13. Good teachers value their autonomy. Theyknow they need it to do a first-class job If they are

6i 63

denied autonomy, tney do mediocre work orleave teaching If we want to attract and hold topprofessionals in teaching. we will have to givethem appropriate autonomy. Despite rhetoric tothe contrary, the trends today are working toweaken the teaching profession. Ever more regula-ttor: comes from the top There is a sort of viciouscii at work. teachers are weak. and thereforethey must be regulated; if teaching is heavilyregulated, good people will avoid the profession;therefore, teachers are weak . ..

14. Top professionals want a career thatgradually develops, with more responsibility andcompensation following experience and demon-strated excellence. This requires differentiatedstaffing within teaching and salaries that followthis differentiation. Such schemes require us toredefine the ways of deploying teachers inschools. .." (pp. 682.683)

This Study is sponsored by.

the National Association of Secondary School Principals andthe Commission on Educational Issues of the National Assocra

64

Lion of Independent Schools Planning for the Study was sup-ported by the Commonwealth F and and the Charles R CulpeperFoundation Funding for the implementation of the Study hasbeen provided by grants from the Carnegie Corporation of NewYork. the Charles E Culpeper Foundation, the Gates Foundtion. the Edward John Noble Foundation, and the Esther andJoseph Klingenstem Fund

Threevfinal reports for A Study of High Schoolswill be published by Houghton Mifflin Companyin the coming year.

Horace's Compromise: The Dilemma of theAmerican High School by Theodore R Sizer(January, 1984)American High Schools Since 1940 (tenatativetitle) by Robert L. Hampel (Spring. 1984)An as yet untitled comparative analysis of fif-teen high schools by Arthur G. Powell, EleanorFarrar and David K Cohen (Fall, 1984)

For the brochure describing the Study. contact:A Study of High Schools, 18 Tremont Street,Boston, MA 02108


Section III:Annotated Bibliography ofSelected Other Education

Reports and Projects

This section provides an annotated bibliographyof other current education reports and projectsthat are available to policymakers. Each reportor project is categorized as a general reference(i.e., The Status of Education and AmericanYouth, Our American Schools) or as a topic-specific reference that relates to the criticalareas as presented in Section I Information onhow to obtain the report accompanses thedescription of the report or project.

Reports or projects are included, based on thefollowing criteria:

it speaks to one or more major topics men-tioned in the previous reportsit contains significant data about the conditionof American education and youthit already has been recognized and referencedin several national publications.

The Status of Education and American Youth

The American Federation of Teachers' Report onthe Mathematics' Science Teacher Shortage, Cur-riablum Standards, Business Involvement, andComputer Activity'Project Director: Eugenie Kemble

AFT conducted a spot survey of key report areasin the Fall of 1982. The group is planning a follow-up investigation of business involvement withschools AFT also has produced an analysis, withrecommendations, of the math and scienceeducation problem in general.

Tor information, contact:American Federation of Teachers11 Dupont CircleWashington, OC 20036

Descophon from Education Week "Databank," March 16and July 27,1983


Business in the Schools ProjectThe Committee for Economic DevelopmentDirector. Owen B. Butler, Chairrisan of the Proctor& Gamble Company, and Denis P. Doyle, ProjectDirector.

The Committee for Economic Development ismade up of 200 of the nation's leading businessexecutives and university presidents. The purpose of the project is to assess what the Amer-ican business community can do to helpstrengthen elementary and secondary education.The two-year effort will result in a major policydocument with recommendations and proposalsfor all the actors in the education system.

For information, contact;Sol HurwitzCommittee for Economic Development477 Madison Avenue, off 51st StreetNY, NY 10022

6765

The Condition of Education, 1983 editionNational Center for Education Statistics

Published annually, this statistical report ex.?mines elementary/secondary education, highereducation, vocational and adult education, radteacher preparation

282 pages, $7 00, NCES #83.4001065-000-00183-71Oider rrom.Superintendent of DocumentsUS Gover 'nt Pi inting OfficeWashington, OC 20402

High School and Beyond: A National Longitu-dinal Study for the 1980'sA Capsule Description of High School Students!stational Center for Educational Statistics, 1981

This publication reports on a 10-year study oflarge samples of youths who were high schoolsophomores and seniors in 1980 In the baseyearsurvey, random samples of approximately 36sophomores and 36 seniors were selected fromeach of more than 1.000 secondary schi_ _IsMore than 30,000 sophomores and 28.000 seniorsparticipated The primary focus of the study is oneducational processes and outcomes Detaileddata also will be collected on college careers.work experience, =War service, and a varietyof personal and family characteristics Severalstudies have already emerged using data fromthis study, including James S Coleman's HighSchool Achievement: Public, Catholic, andPrivate Schools Compared. Follow-up studies arein progress

Order fromStatistical Information OfficeNational Center for Education Statistics1001 Presidential Budding4(X) Maryland Avenue, S WWashington. 0 C 20202

Highly Able Students Who Did NotGo To CollegeCenter for Educational Research and EvaluationGraham I Burkheimer and Jay Jaffe

Th study survey initiated by and conducted forthe National Center for Educ ational Statistics(NCES). began iti spring 1972 with over 1.000 in-school group administrations of survey forms toa sample of approximately 18,000 seniors. In theseveral follow-up surveys, the sample includedalmost 5,000 additional students film sampleschools that were unable to participate in thebase-year survey. Results are being presented in aseries of reports designed to highlight selected

66

findings in educational, career. and occupationaldevelopment. This report focuses on studentswho were in the top quarter of their graduatingclass in academic ability but who had notentered college four and one-half years afrer highschool graduation In particular, the reportpresents information about the potential reasonsfor nonattendance and the current u:tivity statesof these highly able students For comparisonpurposes, results are also presented for those ofother ability levels

August 1981:41 pages: $4.75; NCES 82.217(#065. 000-00128-4)Order from.Superintendent of Documents.U S Government Printing OfficeWashington. D.0 20402

Human Capital: A High YieldCorporate InvestmentAnthony P. CarnevaleAmerican Society for Training and Development.® 1982

The study, resulting in th's publication, was con-ducted in an attempt to create a greater nationalunderstanding of the need to invest in humancapital as .-1 means of improving the overall per-formance of the American economy. The study isfirmly grounded and presents easily articulateddata cf human resource growth and productivity.

13 pages. $1000 + $1 50 shipping, prepaidOrder from.ASTO Publishing ServicePO Box 4856, Hampden StationBaltimore, MD 21211

National Assessment Findings and EducationalPolicy QuestionsRexford BrownEducation Commission cf the StatesDecember 1982

This special analysis across learning areas pre-sents a "repackaging" of existing data to answersome common questions about educationalachievement, to regale the findings to past andfuture educational policy decision5, and to raisequestions for future research efforts. The find-ings are summarized with 63 statements abontreading, literature, mathematics, writing, andscience.

21 pages, $3.50 (#SYCA-50)Order from:ECS Distril- -in CentelSuite 300, J i.incoln StDenver, CO 80295


National Assessment of Educ tional Progress1982 Annual Report

The National Assessment of Educational Prog-ress publishes reports of project activities andfindings including charts and pictures relevant tohow young people perform in various learningareas. These areas include. art, career andoccupational development, citizenship/socialstudies, literature mathematics, music, read:ng/liZerature, science, social stv-lies, specialassessments, energy, 'lea Ith, liter y, speakingand listening, and consumer skills

25 pages; freePublications can be ordered from:ECS Distribution CenterSuite 300, 1860 Lincoln StDenver, CO 80295(1983 NAEP documents will available from.Education Testing Service,Princeton, N) 08540)

National Report on CollegeBound Seniors, 1982Admissions Testing Program of the CollegeBoard

This report summarizes the information about1981-82 high school seniors who participated inthe advanced placement testing program whilein high school. Items summarized include ethnicbackground, test scores, college plans, highschool rank and activities.

Copyright 1982 by College EntranceExamination Board20 pages, freeOrder fromCollege BoardP 0. Box 86New York, NY 10101

Profile of American Youth1980 Nationwide Administration of Armed Services Vocational Aptitude BatteryOffice of the Assistar' Secretary of Defense

The principal objectwes of the research projectwere to assess the vocational aptitudes of a na-tionally representative sample of youth and to

develop current national norms for the Depart-ment of Defense enlistment test, the Armed Ser-vices I,ocatior al Aptitude Battery (ASVAB). Theresults of this study will also be useful in address-ing the issue of the compatibility between com-plex and demanding military weapon systemsand personnel capabilities

March 1982; 90 pagesOrder from:Office of the Assistant Secretary of DefenseWashington, D C. 20301

State Programs of School improvement'Education Commission of the StatesProject Director: Van Dougherty

The project will update a 1982 ECS 50-statesurvey of school improvement activities spon-sored by the states, including state-developedcurricula or curricular guidelines, changes in ac-c-editation standards effective schools pro-grams, local building programs, and newstrategies of student testing.

For information, contact:Fducation Commission of the StatesSuite 300. 1860 Lincoln StreetDenver, CO 80295

The Study of Stanford and the Schools*Project Directors: Donald Kennedy president ofStanford University, and J. Myron Atkin, dean ofStanford's Graduate School of Education

The study scheduled for completion in 1985 ismeant ''to provide an illuminating, data-basedoverview of the state of American secondaryschools; to make recommendations about educa-tional policy and practice; and to identify howschools of education at research institutions canplay a major role in improving American educa-tion."' Six study groups have been formed to ex-amine particular topics. curriculum, educationaltechnology personal re,ponsibility and be-havior, organization of the high school, andtesting.

For information, contact.Stanford UniversityStanford, CA 94305

or,4 UNDER STUDY 67

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Our American SchoolsDiscipline, Order and Student Behavior inAmerican High Schools*National Center for Education Statistics

The Study addresses: (1) the distribution ofmisbehavior by student characteristics; (2) thedistribution of misbehavior by school character-istics, (3) the relationship betw.ien discipline,misbehavior and school characteristics, (4)students' perceptions of school discipline; (5) theaccuracy of students' and school administrators'perceptions of school problems; (6) rule enforce-ment, rule perception, and misbehavior

November 1981, NCES 82-202 (#065-000-00126-8)202 pages; 57 50Order from'Superintendent of DocumentsUS Government Printing OfficeWashington, DC 20402

Education, Character, and American SchoolsNI E, the Ford FoundationProject Director. Gerald Grant

The study was begun in 1979 and continuesthrough 1984, it seeks to answer questions sur-rounding why schools differ and why schoolscreate one kind of ethos or climate rather thananother. Fiv..i public and private schools werechosen for extensive observation during the1979.80 school year

A book on this project is planned; several articleshave been written Articles on the study areavailable for the cost of copying and mailingfrom:Good School Prcject259 Huntington HallSyracuse UniversitySyracuse, NY 13210

High School Achievement: Public, Catholic andPrivate Schools Comparedlames S Coleman, Thomas Hoffer, Sally Kilgore

Drawing on the first results of a national study of58,728 student, in 1,015 high schools, the find-ings suggest that students in private and Catholichigh schools academically outperform publicschool students when matched for race,souoeconomic status and parental educationThe report attempts to dispel the notion thatprivate and Catholic schools are good becausethey select better students and public schoolsare poor because they have to take everyone

68

:89 pages; $20.75Available at bookstores or order from:Basic Books, Inc.New York, NY

Goal Based Education ProgramProject Director: Robert E. BlumNorthwest Regional Educational Laboratory

The project, which runs from 1982 through 1984,is intended to determine the extent to which ef-fective schooling research and teaching prac-tices can be applied to high schools, and withwhat effect. Five schools are using such practicesand monitoring their results A preliminary reportwill be available soon.

For information contact:Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory300 Southwest Sixth StreetPortland, OR 97204

Project on Alternatives in EducationSponsored by the American Association of Col-leges for Teacher Education. ASCD, the Educa-tion Commission of the States, NASSP, and NE A.Project Directors: Mary Anne Raywid and He-bert 1. Walberg

The study, which began in 1981, focuses on alter-native schools and seeks to discover whicheducational alternatives best serve students Anational survey of public alternati.'e schools inthe US has been completed, resulting in a direc-tory of these schools and a report on the findingsof the survey

For information, contact:Mary Anne RaywidHofstra UniversityHempstead, Long Island, NY 11550

Redefining General Education: The AmericanHigh SchoolGordon CaweltiASCD1982This study of -the adequacy of present general-educ ation programs in 17 high schools" with theintent of a new curriculum design began in 1981.Final reports are being mache this year, andregional networks of high _ ools that want toparticipate thereafter will be established duringthe 1983-84 school year.

Video. 24 min Rent 5 days $50 + shipping; 2-daypreview $30 + shipping (unscheduled), % " videocassette; V," Beta; V:" VHS; I/1" reel to reelvideotape

70


Pureiase $195 if members. $235 non-membersOrder fromAssciciation of Supervision & CurriculumDevelopment225 North Washington StAlexandria, VA 22314

Successful Schools for Young Adolescents*Directed by loan LipstizCenter for Early AdolescenceUniversity of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

The study is designed to extend "effectiveschools" research to the middle school Casestudies of four middle schools were conducted in1980-81, concentrating on purposes goals,school climate, and curriculum. A book based onthe study will be published by Transaction Booksin the Fall of 1983

For information, contact.loan LipsitzCenter for Early ,.dolescenceUniversity of North CarolinaChapel Hill, NC 27514

The Urban Higi. hoof ReformFinal Report, 1979

homas Burns, ChairmanPrepared fJr the US Department of Health,


Education, and Welfare. Office of Education.Washington, DC 20202

The final report of the Urban High School Ini-tiative was based on testimony from nearly 1,000local urban practitioners and citizens fromAmerica's largest cities. The study and federallegislative analysis is intended to provide a basisfor the reexamination of what educationalleaders can do to help urban secondary schoolsface the challenges of the 1980s. The five recom-mendations are: (1) shared decision-makingthrough school site councils and school sitebudgeting; (2) diverse learning environments re-quiring site-specific blueprints for educationalprogram development and professional develop-ment, (3) school-community development in-cluding networking with the urban communityand coordinated youth sery ces; (4) schoolfinance and red tape reform to reduce manage-ment complexity of urban secondary schools,and (5) research and dissemination targeted forthe extraordinary needs of adolescents

148 pagesOrder from.US ')epartment of Education400 Maryland Ave , SWWashington. DC 20202

71 69

CurriculumComputerized Factory Automation: Employ-ment, Education, and the Workplace*Project Director. Marjory BlumenthalSponsored by The Joint Economic Committee ofthe US Congress

This project will assess the impact of computer-based technology in manufacturing, includingpossible changes in education and vocationaltraining that could result The study, which willalso examine computer and technology literacyin the current work force, should be published inearly 1984

For information, contact.Beth A Brown, Senior AnalystOffice of Technology AssessmentWashington. DC 20510

Computers in Education: A Report, Recommen-dations, Resources*Michael T Sherman in conjunction with the Na-tional Associat.on of Independent Schools.

Mr Sherman spent a year examining the com-puter-education activities in leading primary andsecondary independent schools in the US Thereport includes a discussion of the results of hisstudy

1983, 118 pages, $10 75Nathaniel B. Bates Publishing Company277 Nashoba RoadConcord, MA 01742

Educating Americans for the 21st Century: A planof action for improving mathematics, science andtechnology education ror all American elemen-tary and secondary students so that their achieve-ment is the best in the world by 1995Co-chairs: William T Coleman, Jr. and CecilyCannan Selby

The National Science Board Commission onPrecollege Education in Mathematics, Scienceand TechnologyThe study was developed as a plan of action forall sectors of society to improve the quality ofeducation in mathematics, science and tech-nology in elementary and secondary schools. The20-member Commission forwards recommenda-tions in the areas of leadership, teachers andteaching, curriculum and instruction, new infor-mation technologies, informal education, and(Ina, :e Appendices provide a listing of pro-grams and activities reviewed by the Commis-sion, suggestions for course topics and criteriafor selection, costs of recommended federal in-itiatives, imaginative ways to enhance va cher

70

compensation, and information on using com-puters in the schools.

September 1983142 pages, single copy freeOrder fromPublications, Room 232National Science Foundation1800 "G" Street, NWWashington, DC 20550

Fifty-State Survey of State Science, Mathematics,and Computer Education Initiatives*Sponsored by the Education Commission of theStates and the National Science FoundationProject Director: Jane Armstrong

The project will gather state-by-state informationon a number of math and science educationtopics, such as changes in high school graduationrequirements; special programs, institutes andschools for gifted math, science, or computerstudents, state department of education ini-tiatives in math and science, software develop-ment or evaluation; and statewide commissionsor task forces designed to deal with any of theseissues

For information, contact.Education Commission of the StatesSuite 300, 1860 Lincoln StDenver, CO 80295

Focus on ExcellenceA monograph seriesNational Science Teachers' Association,1982

A monograph series is in progress as the result ofan extensive effort to identify innovative andsuccessful practices associated with science edu-cation The series will include separate mono-graphs on biology, physical science, elementaryscience,, science as inquiry, and scienceltechnol.ogy/soc.ety The monograph currently availableis entitled, Science as Inquiry.

Vol, I, number 1;, $900 + $2.35 postageOrder from:NSTA Publications Department1742 Connecticut Avenue, NWWashington .)C 20009

Informational Technology and its Impact onAmerican EducationOffice of Technology Assessment

This is a state-of-the-art report on technology andeducation. The report includes case st.xlies of.chool districts that have implemented tech-


nology-assisted programs The report alsdescribes government education and private sec-tor cooperative efforts to promote the use oftechnology in the schools

November 1982, 267 pages; $8.00(052-003-00888-2)Order fromSuperintendent of DocumentsUS Government Printing OfficeWashington, DC 20402

The Images of Science: Report on the 1981-82 Na-tional Assessment*National Science Foundation, in collaborationwith National Assessment of Educational Prog-ressProject Direztr,r: Wayne W. Welch

Mr Welch last year surveyed a random sample of9, 13, and 17year-olds in 273 public schoolsacross the country about their knowledge of andattitudes about science He presented his find-ings in April Smaller repr:-Z2 including suchissues as science enrollment patterns and com-puter inequity are being p.epared and should becompleted this summer.

250 pages; $9.50Order from.Wayne WelchUniversity of MinnesotaRoom 210, Burton HallNtinneapol>s, MN -5455

The National Study of the Estimated Supply andDemand of Secondary Science and MathematicsTeachers*Project Directors. Trevor C Howe, d.cctor ofeducation placement at Iowa State, and Jack AGerlovich; science education consultant in theIowa Department of Public Instruction

Now in as fourth year, the survey estimates state-by-state supply of and demand for secondaryteachers in biology, chemistry, physics, generalscience, earth science. and mathematics. TheFall 1983 survey is expected to be completedsoon

For information, contact.Trevor C HoweIowa State UniversityAmes, Iowa 50010 ,

The Project on Infors.sation Technology andEducation*Sponsored by the Carnegie CorporationProject Director Marc S Tucker

For c a year, ivtr Tucker has been analyzingthe use of information technology particulerly

computers and telecommunications systemsinelementary secondary, and higher education Hehas written several articles on the subject, and hemay produce a substantial report on this worksometime in 1984.

For information, contactThe Carnegie CorporationSuite 3011001 Connecticut Avenue,, NWWashington, DC 20036

Report of the 1977 National Survey of science,Matt. a tics, and Social Studies EducationIris R. WeissCenter for Educational Research and EvaluationResearch Triangle Park, North Carolina

The study, funded by the National Science Foun-dation, examines mathematics, science, andsocial studies education. The topics examined in-dude. state and local district supervision, courseofferings, federally-funded curriculum materials,use of textbooks/programs in classes; instruc-bond techniques and classroom activities,facilities, equipment, and supplies, teacherqualifications; sources of information utilized byinstructional staff; and factors that affect instruction Appendices related to the conduct ofthe study accompany the text

March 1978320 pages; price $6.50 (#038-000-00364-0)Order from:Superintendent of DocumentsUS Government Printing OfficeWashington, DC 20402

Science and Engineering Personnel: A NationalOverview1982 Report (NSF 82.318)National science Foundation

The second of a biennial series, the report isdesigned to furnish a comprehensive overview ofthe status of US scientific and technological ef-forts as they relate to the err., loyment and othercharacteristics of science/engineering personnel.It provides a perspective or framework foranalyzing issues relating to these personnel. Thereport begins with an integrated overview of cur-rent utilization and supply patterns for all USscientists and engineers, and the roles of womenand minorities in science and engineering Issuesrelating to science/engineering personnel inuniversities and industry are discussed, as well asthe role of precollege mathematics and sciencetraining on student decisions to enter careers inengineering or science The report concludeswith an examination of the flow of scientists and


73

engineers into and out of science and engineer-ing

66 pages, $5 00 (#038-00000518-9)Order fromSuperintendent of DocumentsU S Government Printing Office,Washington. D C 20402

Science & Engineering: Education for the 1980's&BeyondPrepared by the National Science Foundation &the Department of Education October 1980

The report, developed jointly by the NationalScience Foundation and the Department ofEducation, divides the condition of science andengineering education into two components Thefirst of these examines the basic scientific andtechnological education of all our citizens; thesecond looks at professional science andengineering educatio.. The report notes thatboth the instructional and research capacities ofour universities in several fields have beenstrained by faculty shortages and equipment ob-solescence The report also documents a declinein the general understanding of science andtechnology among the students in our secondaryschools More detailed information aboutissues addressed appears in an attachedanalysis

82 pages, $5 50 (#038-000-00467.1)Order fromSuperintendent of DocumentsUS Government Printing OfficeWashington, D C 20402

State of Precollege Education in Mathematicsand SciencePaul De Hart HurdPrepared for the National Con location onPrecollege Education in Mathematics andScience, May 12.13. 1982. National Academy ofSciences and National Academy of r ngineering,Washington, D C

In recent months the scientific and engineeringcommunities have been exploring wali) to main-tain the vigor of research and tecmological innovation in the United States In the course ofthese discussions several distu-bing problemshave emerged relative to the teachini, of pre-college science and mathematics For . early adecade science enrollments in high schools havebeen decreasing and students are not motivatedto study science In mathematics students aretaking more semesters of courses. but show anoverall decline in achievement For both scienceand mathematics courses there is a growing

shortage of qualified teachers If a reasonabledegree of scientific and technological literacy isan expected outcome of a high school education,it is not being achieved This report identifies anagenda of issues as a background for consideringscience and mathematics education in pre-college schooling. Comments on trends andissues are based on the best available data.The issues identif led in this report are products ofa conceptual analysis and syntheses of a varietyof reports, surveys, and other documents issuedby scientific and professional societies within thepast decade By and large, only those issues thatare of national concern and have a modest con-sensus are being reported

15 pagesOrder from.Paul DeHart HurdStanford UniversityStanford, CA 94305

Strength through Wisdom: A Critique of U.S.Capabilitylames A Perkins, ChairmanA Report to the President from the President'sCommission on Foreign Language and Interna-tional Studiei

The final report of the Commission is relativelybrief and concentrates on future action. Thereport includes a review of the state of languageand international education Recommendationshave been instrumental in reviving interest inforeign language and international studies since1979,, though principal emphasis in the report ison advanced scholarship and research A set ofbackground papers and studies is availableunder separate cover (#017-080-02070-0)

November 1979, 156 pages, $7 00(#017 080-02065-3)Order from.Superintendent of DocumentsU S. Government Printing OfficeWashington, D C 20402

A Study of Exemplary Mathematics ProgramsProject Director. Mark J DriscollNortheast Regional Exchange, Inc

The study, sponsored by the National Institute ofEducation, examines 25 pre-college mathematicsprograms nationwide The results, to be releasedin 1984, MI focus on characteristics associatedwith exemplary mathematics pr--;--,Inis

For information, contact.Northeast Regional Exchange, Inc160 Turnpike RoadChelmsford, MA 01824

7274


Teachers and TeachingThe American TeacherC Emily Feistritzer

The report reviews the existing data that have todo with teaching, compiles, organizes, andanalyzes the data to present the true picture ofteaching in America today The first section, Cur-rent Condition of Teaching in America, reportson who comprises the teaching force in schoolstoday by age. sex, ethnic background, academicpreparation, and years of experience Supply anddemand issues are dealt with in the second sec-tion population and enrollment trends for eachsegment of schoolage population are examinedin relation to numbers of teachers. A discussionof factors that will influence the future demandfor teachers constitutes section three. popula-tion trends, changing roles of women. regionalmigration, minority populations. immigrationtrends, global population growth, and techno-logical developments The fourth sectiondescribes teacher education. Comparisons aremade between students majoring in educationand students majoring in other fieldsnumbersand academic ability by sex and ethnic background

1983; 63 pages, $1995 (ircluaes postage)Order fromFeistritzer Publications1261 National Press BldgWashington, D C 20045

The Condition of Teaching: A State by EtateAnalysisC Emily Feistritzer, 1983The Carnegie Commission for the Advancementof Teaching and Learning

This report includes an examination of the statusof teachers in each state Comparative data ispresented regarding salami:, education, supplyand demand, teacher attitudes and achievementErnest L Boyer, in the foreword, writes'"teachersare troubled not only about salaries but about

loss of status, the bureaucratic pressure, a

negative public image and the lack of recogni-tion and rewards.''

Cope,. of the report can be obtained from.Prim( ton University Press3175 Princeton PikeLawrenceviiici. NJ 08648

Current Issues in Teacher Education: From a StatePerspectivePrepared fo Board of DirectorsNort; .ast Regional Exchange, IncTheodore E Andrews

The report includes the broad spectrum of issuesrelated to teacher preparation and staff develop-ment. The issues addressed are (1) teachereducation in a global perspective, (2) the compe-tent teacher. (3) attracting quality teachers, (4)preparing (plaid ted teachers, (51 licensingqualifieJ teachers, and (6) retaining qualifiedteachers

October 1982: 72 Pages, $6.00Order fi OM.Northeast Regional Exchange, Inc160 Turnpike RoadChelmsford, MA 01824

The Education Workforce Survey*Education Commission of the StatesProject Director Patty FlakusMosqueda

The survey will contain state-by-state informa-tion on teacher training, certification, and staffdevelooment, on incentives to attract newteachers or to reward exemplary teaching. andon programs to retain teachers or to deal withstatewide teacher shortages

For information, contactEducation Commission of the StatesSuite 3000 860 Lincoln StDenver, CO 80295


7

F

Postsecondary EducationEducational Options for Mid-adolescents (a se-quence of studies from 1973.83)-Sponsored by Simon's Rock of Bard CollegeProject Director Nancy Goldberger

The three-phase study has looked at "Psycho-logical Characteristics of the Early College Stu-dent" (1973-77). "Meeting the DevelopmentalNeeds of the Early College Student" (1978-80),and "Education for Women's Development"(1980-83) The last phase of research focuses onhow women learn and how institutions canbecome more responsive to the developmentalneeds of wc,men A book will be published in19E4

Results from the earlier studies are available inwritten form fromMs GoldbergerAusten Riggs Center, IncStockbridge. MA 01262

Meeting the Need for Quality: Action in theSouthProgress Report to the Southern Regional Educa-tion Boardby its Task Force on Higher Education and theSchools

This report, the second of the Twit( Force, is aconcluding assessment of the southern region'sresponse to the recommendations advanced inThe Need for Quality (1981). The original 25recommendations and the subsequent assess-ment indicate progress in raising academic stan-dards, tightening teacher selection standards,and cooperation between higher education andthe schools. Priorities for further action includeimproving the quality of teachers, selecting prin-cipals who are leaders, strengthening mathe-matics and science, and preparing youth forwork Data and recommendations for further ac-tion are presented as part of the assessment

June 1981, 30 pages, $300Order from:Southern Regional Education Board1340 Spring Street, NWAtlanta, Georgia 30309

Report from the Department of Defense-University Forum Working Group on Engineeringand Science EducationCo-Chairs Lawrence I Korb and Robert CSeamans, Jr

This report responds to the Department ofDefense-University Forum's request of the working group to examine DOD's needs for trainedtechnical personnel in light of the presentdeteriorated capability of the nation's unmet,sities to produce well-qualified engineers andscientists It provides the range of DOD technicalpersonnel needs and examines the environmentin our universities Recommendations regardingDOD actions,, including those to promote univer-sity research, appear at the end of the report

Projected release date Far 1983To order. contactassociation of American Universities1 Dupont Circle, Suite 730Washington, DC 20036

School and College: Partnerships in EducationGene I Maeroffwith a Foreword by Ernest L. BoyerA Carnegie Foundation Special Report

The report describes selected case studies ofschool-college collaboration across the countryFive basic principles emerge from the examina-tion of these programs (1) agreement regardingcommon problems, (2) the discarding of the tradi-tional academic "pecking order;" (3) the sharpfocussing of intended partnership projects, (4)recognition of partnership participants, and (5) afocus on actionnot machinery.

77 pages, © 1983 The Carnegie Foundation foithe Advancement of TeachingOrder from.Princeton Univeisity Press3175 Princeton PikeLawrenceville, NI 08648

A Threa i To Excellence: The preliminary report ofthe Commission on Higher Education and theEconomy of New EnglandNew England Board of Higher Education

The Commission's principal concern is the futureof the region's higher education institutions Thebasis for concern is that the competitive strengthof the knowledgeintensive region is beinggradually undermined Factors related to thisare. the weakening of the public school system, aregional differential in the capacity to financehigher education, and the change to the nationalperception of economic opportur.ity in NewEngland Recommendations for regaining the

76 EDUCAT ION UNDER STUDY

,..

competitive strength of the New England regionare made in each of these areas

March, 1982; 30 pages; $3.00Order from:New England Board of Higher Education45 Temple PlaceBoston, Massachusetts 02111

To Strengthen the Quality of Higher EducationAmerican Council on Education. 1983

The National Commission on Higher Educationissues, composed of knowledgeable men andwomen inside and outside the postsecondary

community, was established to help the nation'scolleges and universities address some of theirpressing concerns. The report is a set of recommendations to strengthen our higher educationinstitutions, their relationship to secondaryschools and the private sector

February 1983; 12 pages; $1.65Order from.American Council on Education1 Dupont CircleWashington, DC 20036

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Single copy @ $5 00 each10 or more copies @ $4 50100 or more copies @ $4 00

II prices include shipping costsAll orde. less than $25.00 must be prepaid

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PublicationsNortheast Regional EAcbange, inc.

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