DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 370 778 SE 054 383

TITLE Alternative Assessment in the Science Classroom.Glencoe Science Professional Series.

REPORT NO ISBN-0-02-826429-0PUB DATE 94NOTE 44p.PUB TYPE Guides - Classroom Use Teaching Guides (For

Teacher) (052)

EDRS PRICE MFOI/PCO2 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS Achievement Rating; Elementary Secondary Education;

Evaluation; *Grading; Informal Assessmomi; Portfolios(Background Materials); *Science Curriculum; *ScienceEducation; Science Projects; *Student Evaluation;Writing Evaluation

IDENTIFIERS *Alternative Assessment

ABSTRACTThe purpose of this booklet is to discuss how the

curriculum is changing and what assessment methods are needed tomonitor and measure the performance of students in the restructuredscience curriculum. Sections in this booklet include: (1) The needfor alternate assessment, (2) Performance assessment, (3) Observationand questioning, (4) Presentations and discussions, (5) Projects andinvestigations, (6) Portfolios and journals, and (7) Other types ofalternative assessment. (PR)

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ALTERNATE ASSESSMENTIN THE SCIENCE CLASSROOM

GLENCOE

AIMiMilMIMMINMW

Macmillan/McGrawHill

New York, New York Columbus, Ohio Mission Hills, California Peoria, Illinois

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Copyright C 1994 by the Glances Division of MacmillantMcGrew,fte School Publishing Company. All rightsreserved. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act, no part of this publication may bereproduced or distributed in any term or by arty means, or stored In a detabaae or retrieval system, withoutprior written permission of the publisher.

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Alternate Assessment in theScience Classroom

Table of COntents'

The Need for Alternate Assessment 1

Introduction 1

TheRecent Past .................... ....... 1

New Jobs Require New Skills 2Coping With Change 2New Curriculum Standards 2Evaluating a Student's Performance 3

Testing for Improving Instruction 3

Goals of Instruction 3

Evaluating Goals 4

Performance Assessment S

Description 5

Types of Assessment Techniques 5

What Does a Performance Task Attempt to Do? . 5

Using Performance Tasks ... .

Evaluating Results of a Performance TaskPerformance Standards .... . ......... 7Developing a Performance Task 7Advantages of Performance Assessment 8What Should a Performance Assessment Do's 8Samples of Performance Tasks .. 8Generalized Scoring Rubric 10

Observation and Questioning 11Description 11Problem Solving 11Thinking, Communicating, and

Making Connections 11Using Open-Ended Questions 11Examples of Open-Ended Questions 12Observing Students' Performances 12Implementing Questions 12Sample Questions 13Assessment Questions 13Questions to Guide Instruction 13Questions for Error Analysis 13

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Evaluation Methods 14Sample Forms 15

Presentations and Discussions 16Why Are Presentations and

Discussions Important? 16How Can Presentations and Discussions

Be Used in the Classroom? 16Suggestions for Presentations 17Suggestions for Small Group Discussions 17How to Evaluate ....18Identifying Areas of Growth 18Documenting and Reporting Growth

in Understanding 19Sample Report Form 20

Projects and Investigations 21Description 21Ideas for Projects and Investigations 21Real-World Projects and Investigations 21How to Implement 22Desirable Outcomes of Projects

and Investigations 23Evaluating Project Work 23Cooperative Group Projects 24Sample Forms 25

Portfolios and Journals 26Description 26Examples of Portfolio Topics 26Advantages of Using Portfolios 27Advantages of Using Journals 27Evaluating Portfolios 28Assessment Criteria .. 28Sample Form 30

Other Types of Alternate Assessment 31Description 31Interviews and Conferences 31Helpful Hints for Interviews and Conferences 31Student Self-Assessment 31Using Self-Assessment Forms 32Student-Constructed Tests 32

Summary 34Why Alternate Assessment? 34What Is Performance Assessment? 34Are Grades Assigned to Performance Tasks? 35How Do I Get Started? 35

Bibliography 36

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ALTERNATE ASSESSMENT IN THE,SCIENCE CLASSROOM'

NEED

ALTERNArEASSESSMENT

IntroductionAs a teacher of science, you know only too wellthe demands of your job. Preparing for class,motivating students, maintaining order in theclassroom, teaching, grading papers, and han-dling other school duties are only some of thetasks you face each day. Professional journalsand the news media, curriculum consultants,speakers at conferences, fellow faculty mem-bers, and even neighbors and friends discusschanges in the science curriculumand youleel the pressure to keep up with the new de-velopments. Improving instruction and learningbecomes a continuous and demanding processthat requires a great deal of hard work on thepart of every teacher of science.

Today, the school science curriculum is chang-ing again, and, as it changes, there is a growingneed for alternate assessment. Two major na-tional efforts, the National Science TeachersAssociation (NSTA) Project on Scope, Se-quence, and Coordination (SS&C) and the Amer-ican Association for the Advancement of Sci-ence IAAAS) Project 2051, are involved alongwith the National Research Council in the exten-sive restructuring of K-12 science education. Allof these restructuring programs incorporate as-sessment methods that go far beyond tradi-tional paper-and-pencil content testing. The pur-pose of this booklet is to discuss how the cur-riculum is changing and what assessmentmethods are needed to monitor and measure

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the performance of students in the restructuredscience curriculum.

The Recent PastDuring the past thirty years, starting with thescience curriculum reform movement that be-gan in the late 1950's, there have been numer-ous curriculum development projects funded bythe National Science Foundation and other inter-ested organizations. These projects covered allscience disciplines and all grade levels. Somewere focused within a single science disciplinewhile others were interdisciplinary. Whatemerged from this period of reform and experi-mentation was a large bank of well-written andfield-tested laboratory activities organizedaround various conceptual and process-skillframeworks.

In the 1980's, the science education communitytook a critical look at these curriculum projectsand their effects on textbooks, instruction, andstudent achievement. The quality of the activi-ties was high, but there were concerns aboutimplementation, overall goals, coordination, andintegration of the various curricula, Additionally,broad-based assessment data indicated prob-lems with the performance of students inUnited States' schools and the measures usedto assess this performance. These concerns ledto the current restructuring movement in sci-ence education.

The major science education restructuring ef-forts go beyond the curriculum developmentprojects of the past. While SS&C and Project2061 still emphasize hands-on learning experi-ences, they take a broader and deeper philo-sophical view on how students learn science.Between them, they investigate content se-quencing, student preconceptions, design is-sues, the role of materials, the role of history,the integration and coordination of the sciences,and the relevance of science to the everydaylives of students. A major element of both ofthese projects and the emerging National Sci-ence Education Standards being developed bythe National Research Council is a thoroughanalysis and investigation of alternate assess-ment methods.

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New Jobs Require New SkillsUltimately, all students leave school at somelevel and are confronted with the prospect offinding a job. The demands of a job and theskills of a person seeking it must be compatiblebefore an employer will match the two. Therequisite skills for living and working in today'sworld and the world of tomorrow are learned inschool. The curriculum is the primary instru-ment for teaching students the skills they willneed to live productive and successful lives ascitizens of the future.

A quick survey of our occupational landscapereveals that vast numbers of manufacturing jobsare leaving the United States for foreign coun-ties. Years ago, people could hold their jobswith an elementary school education. But suchan education today is inadequate because thejobs don't exist. Another view of the landscapereveals that many of today's jobs are com-pletely new; that is, they didn't exist five or tenyears ago. What we see are new industries,new jobs, and new job requirements. The mostfundamental aspect of this changing environ-ment is the fact of change itself, and changethat seems to be accelerating! This phenome-non of change raises a profound question forcurriculum builders: How can they build a cur-riculum to prepare students to live productiveand successful lives in the future if they don'tknow exactly what the future will be like? Whatskills will the jobs of the future require peopleto have?

Coping With ChangeOne way to approach this question is to thinkabout preparing students to cope with change.A curriculum that focuses on specific skills andrigid ways of thinking runs a high risk of teach-ing students soon-to-be obsolete skills. In orderto cope with change, people need to be flexiblein their thinking, be able to solve problems, andcontinue to learn new ideas and skills. Flexibilityin thinking requires the understanding of ideasand the ability to see relationships and makeconnections among them,

The science curriculum is changing today toprepare students to survive in a world that willbe very different in the next century. Although

the fundamental facts and concepts of life,physical, and Earth/space sciences are still es-sential to learning science and are a necessarypart of the curriculum, these facts and conceptsare no longer suffic;ent in a student's scienceeducation. The appropriate sequencing and con-necting of concepts both within a discipline andacross disciplines are necessary to developskills. The integration and use of basic andhigher-level science process skills with concep-tual knowledge is also required. These complexbehaviors are necessary for the development ofhigher-order thinking and problem-solving skills,skills that will prepare students to live in anever-changing society of the future. Using to-day's projections, by the year 2000, seven outof ten American jobs will be related to science,mathematics, or computer technology. Simplystated, if students haven't mastered scienceconcepts, process skills and their integration asintroduced in your class, they probably won't gofurther in science and may not have a future ina global job market.

New Curriculum StandardsIn 1991 the National Research Council (NRC)was commissioned to coordinate the develop-ment of national standards for science educa-tion in grades K-12. Work on these standards isnow in progress, and by 1994, National ScienceEducation Standards will be completed and pub-lished. According to the NRC's preliminary re-port:

"The standards will be narrative descrip-tions of what all students should be able todo to engage and understand the naturalworld. The standards will address sciencecurriculum, teaching and assessment andwill represent the consensus of teachersand other science educators, scientists, andthe general public.

The science assessment standards will de-fine: the methods for assessing and analyz-ing students' accomplishments and the op-portunities that programs afford students toachieve the valued outcomes of school sci-ence; the methods of obtaining appropriatecorrespondence between assessment dataand the purposes that the data will serve;

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as wellwell as the characteristics of valid and re-liable science assessment data and appro-priate methods for collecting them."

These standards, while still emerging, will havea large effect on what is taught, how it istaught, and how student learning outcomes willbe evaluated. Preliminary scenarios showgroups of students working cooperatively onlong-term projects of real importance. Thesegroups use methods modeled on those of sci-entists, engineers, and technicians. Because ofthe complexity of these investigations, the stu-dent groups maintain descriptive journals, logscontaining data bases and decisions based onthem, and diagrams, drawings, and models.They engage in brainstorming and decision-making conferences, develop and present re-ports to other groups, and demonstrate inte-grated conceptual process-skill activities for ob-servers. These activities will present numerousopportunities for alternate assessments.

Evaluating a Student's PerformanceEvery student of science has taken hundreds ofwritten tests that check his or her ability to per-lorm basic science process skills or identifyspecific facts. Traditional paper-and-pencil testsare the primary means used today to evaluate astudent's achievement in science. And this is anatural result of a curriculum that is based onfacts and basic skills. Of course, science teach-ers have also evaluated students' performancesusing other informal techniques, such as askingthem to solve problems at the chalkboard, ask-ing questions in class, or by checking their laboratory activity write-ups and homework papers.However, the pencil-and-paper test is of primaryimportance in evaluating students because itcan be used to assign a grade.

Traditional paper-and-pencil tests are limited inwhat they can test. For measuring the perfor-mance of a student to use basic science pro-cess skills or recall facts, these kinds of testscan do a good job. And that is why they havebeen used almost exclusively in the scienceclassroomin the past, the curriculum has fo-cused on teaching basic concepts and simpleprocess skills, and not on higher-level thinkingskills or problem solving. To measure a stu-

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aent's ability to think scientifically, understandideas, and solve non-routine problems in sci-ence and technology, paper ond-pencil tests areinadequate.

Testing for Improving instructionAnother serious shortcoming of traditional writ-ten tests is their use by teachers to complete aunit of instruction by giving a test, assigning agrade, and then moving on to the next topic.Rarely are tests used as a vehicle to influencethe instructional process itself. But testing andother alternate assessment techniques can andshould be used to modify instruction as stu-dents progress through a topic. Assessmentresults can be used to change the instructionalapproach to a topic, priorities, examples, time,or other variables to enhance learning.

Basic concept and fact testing only shows thatstudents can or cannot recall definitions andsimple relationships. Basic process skill-onentettests reveal only that a student demonstrates odoes not demonstrate a particular skill in apencil-and-paper testing environment. For stu-dents who cannot recall facts and basic con-cepts or demonstrate basic science processskills in artificial settings, there is seldom mea-surable value in reteaching, even if students anto be retested. This approach often producesfrustration and continued patterns of failure bythe student.

Goals of InstructionThe emerging standards emphasize teachingscience through problem solving, integrated prccuss skills and critical thinking skills, and lookinfor connections, both conceptually within sci-ence and to the real world, These standards wiproduce goals of instruction that cannot be full)measured using traditional sk,pai.and-penciltests. Students m'ie lowsid attainingthese new goals on a c.nunucus basis throughout the entire science curriculum. Basic processkill goals are discrete goals that can be mea-sured on a piece-by-piece basis. For example,discrete basic process skill goal is to be able tclist several observations about an object orevent. Students can demonstrate their ability tcmake observations on a paper-and-pencil test

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6-ea use there is a single answer or a conver-L- gent set of answers. Once this skill is learned,

further instruction on it is unnecessary.

Learning to solve problems and learning to thinkare continuous processes that grow each yearas students master new and more sophisticatedconcepts, integrated process skills, andproblem-solving strategies. There are no simpleright or wrong answers to questions that in-volve these new goals.

Evaluating GoalsProcess goals cannot be measured accuratelyby any one assessment technique. Different

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techniques must be used over time to see howstudents are performing on these goals. Thenew goals are now becoming a part of a sci-ence curriculum that is evolving to incorporatethem. New textbooks and other curriculum ma-terials that incorporate the approaches demon-strated in Scope. Sequence, and Coordination;Project 2061; and the NRC standards are cur-rently being introduced into schools. Therefore,it is very important that teachers expand theirmethods of assessing students' performances.This booklet discusses various types of alter-nate assessment techniques and provides manypractical and useful suggestions for using themin the classroom.

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ALTEBNIATE ASSESSMENT IN THESelENCE CLASSROOM: -1-

DescriptionIf written tests are no longer adequate for mea-suring a student's performance on the emerg-ing goals of science instruction, then how canthese goals be evaluated? What kinds of testsare needed? And who will make up the tests?

The emerging goals of science instruction canbe evaluated by using multiple assessmenttechniques. Tests are needed that show howstudents actually perform tasks. If we want stu-dents to be good problem solvers, then tests ofproblem-solving competency must logically as-sess performance on problem-solving tasks. Nopaper-and-pencil test that grades an answerright or wrong can evaluate performance. Forexample, think about a musician, artist, basket-ball player, or writer. Their work is judged by aperformance in a concert, a work of art, agame, or a book. These people do not takepaper-and-pencil tests to demonst ate whatthey knowthey perform!

The same standards need to apply to studentsstudying science. If they are to become prob-lem solvers, students must be taught how toanalyze, formulate, and solve difficult and non-routine problems, and teachers need to judgetheir performances as solvers of problems.

When students are assessed on the basis oftheir performance, then testing can become anintegral part of instruction. A coach works con-stantly with his players to set goals and im-prove performance. The same approach can ap-ply to teaching science. The sequence of in-

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struction, assessment, further instruction basedupon the results of the assessment, and so onis a methodology that works to improve perfor-mance.

Not only do students need feedback en theirperformance, but subsequent teachers and par-ents also need to know about a student'sprogress. Thus, it is essential that written re-cords be kept. These records will be muchmore than a set of written grades. They willprovide a comprehensive and accurate pictureof a student's performance.

Types of Assessment TechniquesThe types of assessment techniques that canbe used for performance evaluation are alreadybeing used by teachers in classrooms today.They are generally thought of as informal as-sessment methods and are rarely used for grad-ing puiposes. However, as every experiencedteacher has learned, written tests generally con-firm what the teacher already knows about astudent's performance.

Alternate assessment techniques consist of ob-serving students working in class and laboratorysettings, evaluating individual and group activi-ties in the laboratory, and asking questions andlistening to their answers. They involve studentpresentations and extended projects. Portfolios,written journals, and logs that list data, showand describe students' work, and documenttheir decision-making processes are very usefultechniques. Other less frequently used but via-ble techniques are the use of interviews, con-ferences, and student self assessments. All ofthese assessment techniques will be discussedin detail later in this booklet.

What Dram a Performance TaskAttempt To Do?The purpose of a performance task is to assesswhat students know and what they can do. Thetask should be meaningful, authentic, and worthmastering. The following criteria help to definea performance task. It shoulr.

be aligned with the goals, objectives, and con-tent of the curriculum.

allow students to display their thinking and

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understanding of a science experience andnot just provide a single answer.

provide an opportunity for an evaluation of theprocesses involved in the task.

be realistic interesting, and thought-provoking.

be representative of the goal being evaluatedso generalizations can be made about a stu-dent's performance.

stress depth more than breadth and masterymore than speed.

be more open-ended than tightly structured.

be divergent, that is, not have one clear pathof action specifies t the beginning of thetask.

raise other questions or lead to otherproblems.

Using Performance TasksAs a teacher of science, you are probably won-daring how to go about using performancetasks. You know that good tasks take time toconstruct and your day is already full. Yes, all ofthis sounds wonderful, you think, but you mayask if you have the time to do this kind of performonce evaluation.

The answer is yos, but you may have to modifyyour methods of instruction somewhat to makothem more task-oriented. You need to involvestudents in small-group work and givo them opportunities to plan their own work, as withprojects or portlolios. And you will probablyneed to reduce your reliance on paper-and-pencil tests.

So, how can one get started using performancetasks? First, it is wise to start slowly and gradu-ally. It is not necessary to assess each stu-dent's performance every day, nor is it feasibleto do so. Also, everything that is taught doesnot need to be evaluated, Selectivity of topicsand students will produce an effective assess-ment of performance on key goals over time.

The textbook is an excellent source of potentialperformance tasks. After students have com-

pleted an activity, you can very often assesstheir comprehension of the concept and/or pro-cess skills covered by having them repeat theactivity with ,hanged variables or hypotheses.In much the same way, the laboratory manualcan be used to assess performance. Text prob-lems or examples can be turned into simpleperformance tasks by asking a student to "Ex-plain why such and such is true." Asking ques-tions that probe understanding of why some-thing works in science and not always how itworks shifts the focus from convergent thinkingto logical thinking and in so doing aligns thequestions with process goals of instruction.

For example, a group of students is readingabout simple machines. They are learning aboutlevers, inclined planes, wheels and axles, andtheir components. The teacher listens to theirconversation and then asks how many simplemachines are in a bicycle. Within minutes, abicycle is in the room and students are manipu-lating its components. Soon they are able to listtwo levers and four wheels and axles on thebicycle. If the teacher had not asked the ques-tion, the students would never have integratedthe concepts and skills they were studying.

There are other good sources of informationthat can be used to construct simple and morecomplex performance tasks. The National Sci-ence Teachers Association publishes many ex-cellent books and journals such as Children andScience, Science Scope, and Science Teacherthat are full of good ideas and experiments. Acheck of your own school library may also turnup some good references. Science, engineer-ing, mathematics, and technology related busi-nesses and industries are the richest sourcesfor ideas.

Evaluating Results of s PerformanceTaskPerformance tasks, by defiilitian, cannot beevaluated using paper-and-pencil tests. Perfor-mance tasks involve understanding of scientificconcepts and procedures; they are thought-provoking, often open-ended, and seldom havea single answer, The evaluation of such tasksinvolves the professional judgement of a trainedteacher,

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Before challenging students to attempt a perfor-mance, the teacher should explain the task andgive the students the criteria that will be usedto judge the performance. These criteria shouldbe in writing and well understood by everyonebefore student performances begin.

The first step in evaluating a performance taskis to establish a system of documenting stu-dents' performances.

One versatile and effective system is the scor-ing rubric. A rubric is not an abstract numberingsystem but is a classification system that pro-vides specific assessment guidelines forteacher and student alike. Rubrics provide for-mative, not merely summative, assessment,providing explicit guidelines and specific exam-ples. If these examples and guidelines are notestablished, performance cannot be comparedto a clearly defined standard.

To be used effectively, a particular rubric mustbe used at various stages throughout the as-sessment period. This gives students thechance to show improvement in performance.Thus, rubrics allow students and teachers toestablish a partnership that uses observablecharacteristics to measure student performancepatterns over time. Students are given credit formaking progress toward a goal and are not pe-nalized for a lack of immediate success.

Rubrics can be designed to meet individual as-sessment needs. They can be general, or theycan be developed to measure student progresstoward mastery of specific skills. See page 10for an example of a generalized scoring rubric.Whatever rubric is used. criteria must be specificso that students know what performance isneeded to reach education& goals.

Performance StandardsIn any assessment of what students know orcan do, there is always the question of whatperformance standard is being used for compar-ison. On written tests, a numerical score com-pares students to one another or to an estab-lished criterion (standard). Assessing a student's

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performance on a performance task, however,involves an evaluation of the student's workagainst the task itself. The teacher's goal inmaking the assessment is to be able to see in-tellectual growth or lack of it. Two things mustexist for this to happen: first, standards of per-formance must be established, and second, per-formance tasks must be written that can beevaluated using the previously establishedstandards.

Teachers can develop their own performancestandards to judge the quality of their students'work. These standards do not have to be elabo-rate and, in fact, can be quite simple. For exam-ple, to evaluate students' performances in solv-ing problems, the following levels of perfor-mance can be established.

PROBLEM SOLVING POINTS

Creative 5

Substantial 4

Average 3

Partial 2

Inadequate 1

No Attempt 0

Developing a Performance TaskPerformance tasks can be short and simple,such as asking a cogent question in class that isaimed at eliciting a thinking response, or an ex-tended project or investigation that would dem-onstrate a student's performance in applyingscientific models to solve real-world problems.Any performance task, however, needs to meetthe criteria discussed earlier, fit within the con-text of what the students are studying, and becapable of providing information to the teacherabout what the student knows. The best de-signers of specific performance tasks are teach-ers themselves. Teachers know their students'strengths and weaknesses best and can there-fore design tasks that shed light on new knowl-edge or deeper understanding,

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Advantages of PerformanceAssessmentPerformance assessments permit students tocompete with themselves rather than others.Through such assessments, students can gain areal understanding of what they know and whatthey can do. Performance assessments, unlikewritten tests, are not threatening. Becausethere are many correct answers, performanceassessments can take the fear out ol learningscience. What student has not been fearful ofspeaking up in class and giving the wrong an-swer? Very few indeed I Taking the fear andanxiety out of the science classroom may motivate many more students to continue theirstudy of science. They will also enjoy, learn,and use more science.

Performance assessment is not an end in itself;rather, it becomes an integral part of the in-structional process and helps to guide furtherinstruction. It is through the assessment pro-cess that students learn what activities andlearning outcomes the teacher values.

Performance assessment makes school learningmore relevant to students' lives and to the realworld. It helps teachers TOMB on the really im-portant outcomes of education, instead ofteaching isolated bits of information. As stu-dents learn to become competent problem solv-ers, confident of their ability to think logicallyand communicate their ideas clearly, they willrecognize that they have received an educationthat has prepared them for lifefor life as pro-ductive citizens in the twenty-first century.

What Should PerformanceAssessment Do?Although the introduction and use of perfor-mance assessment tasks in science may seemdifferent and new to many teachers, and proba-bly even somewhat intimidating in terms of thetime and effort required to implement and eval-uate them, this is not necessarily the case.Many science teachers have used performanceassessment tasks for years in teaching theircourses but in an informal and casual way. Thetime has now come to shift the focus of as-sessment from the exclusive use of writtentests to a more balanced and realistic assess-

ment of performance. In thinking about perfor-mance assessment tasks, teachers should keepthe following ideas in mind. Performance as-sessments in science should:

be introduced gradually by using some simplebut useful tasks.

focus on goals of instruction.

be used at all grade levels.

involve natural extensions of sound methodol-ogy for teaching science.

not be complex and difficult to implement.

eventually become an integral part of the as-sessment process.

engage teachers in discussing the goals olinstruction,

lead to the development of sets ol variousassessment tasks that are aligned with thecurriculum,

lead to the development of criteria to evaluateperformance tasks.

give a realistic and in-depth understanding ofwhat a student knows and can do.

Samples of Performance TasksPerformance tasks in science are numerous andexist at several different levels. They are bestused to allow students to demonstrate their un-derstanding of several related concepts and pro-cess skills. Although a laboratory activity can bea performance task, it is usually a short-termtask that often only replicates some model ofperformance and yields a right or wrong solu-tion. Real-life performance tasks can be muchmore involved. They can last several weeks andresult in very divergent outcomes for differentstudents and groups of students. Consider thefollowing scenarios for group performance tasks.

1, Your group is given two identical "milk car-ton" cars. One has full-width wheels. Thesecond has had its wheel width reduced byone-half. Design an experiment to test thevariable of wheel width and its effect on dis-tance traveled. After you have designed theexperiment, test each car at least threetimes. Record the data and analyze it. VVrite

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a report describing your project and present-ing the results.

2. Your group wants to study the effect of dif-ferent amounts of exposure to sunlight eachday on the growth of identical plants. Designan experiment that varies the sunlight fromzero hours per day to twenty-four hours perday. Use at least four identical plants, ar.-1collect data for at least one month. Graphthe data, analyze it, and write a report de-scribing your project and presenting the re-sults.

3. Your group is given design paper, cardboard,clay, pencils, half-gallon milk cartons, andcardboard tubes from rolls of paper towels.You are also given some model aluminumcans made from aluminum foil. The modelcans are approximately one-third the size ofan actual beverage can. Using principles ofsimple machines, construct a prototype cancrusher that can effectively crush the modelcans. After testing the prototype, present ademonstration and oral report to the class.Make a scale drawing of the can crusher de-vice, and write out step-by-step instructionsfor its construction.

4. Your group is presented with a large numberof plastic containers from consumer prod-ucts, beverage cans, vegetable and fruitcans, newspaper, cardboard, magazines, andglass bottles and jars. You are also given

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plastic bags, twist ties, labels, a can opener,a magnet, an aluminum can-crushing device,and a plastics-recycling key. Design a systemthat can be used to separate, package, andstore the materials for delivery to a recyclingcenter. Based on your experience, apply yoursystem to the school and its recyclable ma-terials. Write a report describing the recy-cling system, detailing its strengths andweaknesses. Present the report to the classand the school administration.

These are only four examples, but they presentthe integrated process-concept approach that isfound in real-life science and engineering tasks.These four examples are complex and requireseveral days or weeks of concentrated thought,planning, and work. Each one includes a designstage followed by performance based on thedesign model. Finally, the results of each perfor-mance are documented and communicated inwriting, through an oral report, or both. Thesetypes of integrated concept-process skill tasksinvolve real-life problem solving and have imme-diate impact on the students participating inthem. The learning is involved in the process ofdesigning, performing, and communicating.There are no single correct answers, and, likereal life, the participants in these tasks oftenlearn as much from their failures as from theirsuccesses.

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GENERALIZED SCORING RUBRIC

Response Criteria Rating

Exemplary Response is concise, clear, complete, andunambiguous; includes some graphic repre-sentation of data or results; shows under-standing of all processes, procedures, andapparatus Involved; proposes a hypothesis;analyzes results in terms of the hypothesis;draws correct inferences and conclusionsfrom empirical results.

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Competent Response is fairly concise, clear, complete,and unambiguous; may include some graphicrepresentation of data or results; shows un-derstanding of major processes, procedures,and apparatus used; proposes a hypothesis;-analyzes results; draws acceptable infer-ences and conclusions from empirical results.

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MinorFlaws

Completes the assignment or experimentsatisfactorily, but the explanation may beslightly ambiguous or unclear; gaphic repre-sentation, hypothesis, analysis, inferences,and conclusions may be incomplete, inappro-priate, or unclear; shows incomplete under-standing of processes, procedures and appa-ratus used.

NearlySatisfactory

Begins the assignment or experiment satis-factorily, but omits significant parts or fails tocomplete; may misuse scientific terms;graphic representation of data or results maybe incorrect or omitted; incorrect or incom-plete analysis, inferences, and conclusions;inappror ate or omitted hypothesis.

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Fails toComplete

Assignment or experiment and its explana-tion are not clear, concise, or accurate; majorflaws in concept mastery; incorrect use ofscientific terms; inappropriate or omitted hy-pothesis.

Unable toBeginEffectively

Explanation, hypothesis, graphic represen-tations, and analyses do not reflect the as-signment or experiment; does not distinguishwhat information is needed for successfulcompletion; copies procedures without mak-ing an attempt at solution.

No AttemptMade

Does not begin assignment or experiment. 0

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ALTERNATE ASSESSMENT INTTIESCIENCE CLASSROOM

OBSERVATIONANDOUESTIONING

DescriptionThe assessment techniques of observation andquestioning are not new to teachers of science.In every science classroom, students' behaviorand performance on scientific tasks are ob-served and students are questioned about theirwork. During the introduction to a new topic ora review of previously taught material, teachersuse questions to check student understandingand then make appropriate adjustments in theirinstructional approach.

The emerging process goals of science instruc-tion, however, imply that the techniques of ob-servation and questioning be reexamined tomake sure they are being used effectively toassess the new goals. In other words, new cur-riculum standards will require new or revisedassessment methods.

How can a teacher evaluate a student's perfor-mance on laboratory skills or probe critical think-ing and problem-solving tasks? How does ateacher assess a student's knowledge of scien-tific connections?

Problem SolvingLet's look at problem solving first. Traditionally,teachers assign students science problems tosolve and then grade their written work on thebasis of a right or wrong answer. This proce-dure has serious shortcomings and often re-

veals little useful information. For example, astudent may understand how to solve a prob-lem, but a misconception resulting in a wronganswer would lead a teacher to think otherwise.A more powerful way to assess problem-solvingcompetence is to ask students questions abouthow they tried to solve a problem. Listening tothe students' descriptions of their thinking andobserving their written work provides a moreaccurate assessment of problem-solving skillsthan simply grading answers on a test.

Thinking, Communicating,and Making ConnectionsQuestioning students in a problem-solving con-text reveals how they think and their ability tocommunicate ideas clearly. The teacher ob-serves by listening, asking questions, and evalu-ating responses. Such a procedure allows theteacher to change the direction of the questionsto pursue other ideas or thoughts the studentsmay have expressed, thus getting a fuller anddeeper understanding of the process being eval-uated. Asking the right questions can also re-veal how students make connections of whatthey know.

Using Open-Ended QuestionsThe best type of questions to ask students toassess their knowledge of science processesare open-ended questions. Such questions donot have a single answer. They allow studentsan opportunity to think for themselves and todemonstrate their understanding of a problemor other situation. The use of such questionscan reveal a great deal of interesting informa-tion about what a student knows and under-stands. They also allow students to expresstheir originality and creativity. Open-ended ques-tions are incompatible with the erroneous no-tion that science consists of memorizing re-sponses to questions that always have oneright answer. Open-ended questions teach stu-dents to see and understand science as a beau-tiful, logical, and connected body of ideas thathas great practical significance in understandingthe world we live in.

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Examples of Open-Ended Questions1--_Open -ended questions often involve the use of

words such as the following:

Describe

Explain

Compare

Tell

Analyze

Examine

Show

Demonstrate

Sketch

Explore

Illustrate

Present

Contrast

Express

Investigate

Prove

Restate

Model

Predict

Operationally define

At various grade levels, a teacher can ask stu-dents:

How would you explain . ?

Analyze the variables . . .

Tell the class why . . .

Observing Students' PerformancesStudents can be observed working as individu-als, in small groups, or within a whole class set-ting. Observations are useful for individual diag-nostic purposes to determine what a studentunderstands so remedial action can be taken, toguide students working in a small group towardthe goals of the group, or for instructional feed-back as students participate in class instruction.

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A teacher can use the feedback to modify in-struction as it is taking place to better meet theneeds of the class.

Observation of students at work is a naturalpart of the classroom process. Very of ten theseinformal observations are unplanned, and noattempts are made to record what has beenobserved. However, in assessing the processstandards of instruction, systematic observa-tions are necessary to form an understanding ofhow well students are performing against thestandards. in other words, to understand how astudent solves problems, a teacher should ob-serve closely the student's attempt to solve aproblem.

The same is true for evaluating students'critical-thinking skills. This can be done by lis-tening to students explain their reasons for theirwork, that is. by observing their minds at workthrough the use of language. Of course, writtenwork also is read and observed and thus is sig-nificant in forming a complete picture of scien-tific competence.

Observations are useful in assessing perfor-mance in the following areas:

Laboratory skills

Problem-solving approaches

Thinking processes

Understanding of concepts

Communication skills

Working in small groups

Making connections

Implementing QuestionsQuestions, like observations, are an integral partof the instruction& process. In fact, worthwhileobservations are often the result of asking theright question. Questions can be directed to-ward individual students, small groups, or theclass itself. Students' responses can be usedfor assessment purposes, to guide instruction,or to identify orrors.

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Let's look at some sample questionF - theyrelate to problem solving, laboratory _ us, rea-soning, and connections.

Problem Solving

Would you explain the problem in your ownwords?

What is the problem about?

Describe how you would solve the problem.

Would making a drawing or a sketch be help-ful in solving the problem?

Explain the steps you would follow to solvethe problem.

Laborat lc Skills

How could we test that idea?

What variable will change our results?

Write a short paragraph about the activity thatyou did in class today.

Explain your solution to the problem at thechalkboard.

Reasoning

Can you formulate a hypothesis based on thefacts you know?

Explain why the solution to the problem isincorrect.

Why are definitions necessary in science?

Can you generalize that result?

What conclusions can you draw about the hy-pothesis from the given data?

Connections

Can you give a practical example of the useof that concept?

How does water speed affect organisms in astream?

Why is the freezing and melting of water im-portant in geology?

What is the connection between pollution andquality of Me?

uttliSSdi

periment?

Do you see any relationship of that idea towhat we discussed yesterday?

Assessment QuestionsWhen using questions to make an assessmentof what a student knows, here are some gen-eral guidelines to follow.

1. Make a list of questions in advance.2. Allow students sufficient time to answer

your questions.3. Encourage students to make notes and ask

you questions to clarify a point.4. Record responses in an organized format.5. Draw a conclusion about the students' re-

sponses.

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Questions to Guide InstructionDuring the course of an instructional period,that is, when the teacher is developing a newtopic, timely and astute questions can providesignificant feedback as to how well the instruc-tion is being received. Do the students under-stand the main points of the presentation? Aremore examples needed? Should a review beintroduced to reinforce ideas and skills fromprevious lessons? A teacher needs to know an-swers to these questions and others in order toshape the instruction to the class. Without ask-ing questions, there is no way to find out wherethe students are. Effective science instructionand the use of good questions go hand in hand.

Questions for Error AnalysisOne of the best ways to find out why studentsmake certain types of errors is to ask them toexplain their work. Usually, students' explana-tions reveal a faulty understanding of some keyconcept or a lack of knowledge of a specificfact or procedure. An analysis of written workmay not reveal the reason an error is beingmade. To correct persistent types of errors,they must first be diagnosed correctly and thenfurther remedial instruction must be given. Ask-ing questions and listening to students' an-swers is one of the most effective ways toidentify and analyze errors.

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uation Methods;One of the major purposes of assessing stu-dents' work is to provide feedback regardinghow well they are doing. Students need toknow what the teacher thinks about theirprogress or lack of it. Informal assessmentmethods such as observations and questioningare seldom documented, but they should be iffeedback is to be accurate and effective.

Given the dynamics of a science classroom andthe number of students a teacher works witheach day, methods of recording observationsand the results of systematic questioning mustof necessity be simple and easy to implement.Also, only significant events should be re-corded. Such an event is likely to be either anatypical student behavior or a clear indication ofsome understanding or lack of it.

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Here are three methods that can be used torecord significant events.

1. Make a class list of your students with a col-umn for writing comments. Or use an obser-vation sheet for each student.

2. Develop profiles for students. Each profilecan evaluate important attributes such as astudent's use of problem-solving strategies,scientific vocabulary, plausible arguments, ordifferent models.

3. Construct a checklist for each student ofskills, behaviors, or attributes that you wantto encourage.

An example of such a checklist for assessingspecific laboratory skills follows.

LABORATORY SKILLS ASSESSMENT

Name Date

Rating Scale: 1. student is careless2. student needs to improve3. student is proficient

Skill Proficiency

lights burner correctly 1

adjusts air and gas supply correctly 1

decants correctly using a stirring rod 1

folds filter paper correctly 1

caries a balance correctly 1

determines mass accurately 1

positions thermometer correctly 1

records accurate reading 1

identifies the parts of a microscope 1

carries microscope correctly 1

focuses microscope correctly 1

inserts glass tubing correctly 1

2 3

2 3

2 3

2 3

2 3

2 3

2 3

2 3

2 3

2 3

2 3

2 3

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LadA few suggestions for constructing and using achecklist are listed below. Remember, a check-list should be helpful and not be a burden touse.

Focus on only a few students each day, per-haps four or five.

Observe laboratory groups as a whole and asindividuals.

Document individual and group work.

Use the list periodically, not daily.

Have students review the initial list to reviewand make suggestions for revisions.

Ask students to evaluate themselves, usingthe checklist.

Leave space for notes.

Each evaluation method is a way of recordinginformation about a student in order to providefeedback. Such feedback can take the form ofwritten or oral comments by the teacher. Feed-back provides a link with previous instructionand points the way to future instruction. And ittells students what learning outcomes theteacher values. Feedback equips students tomonitor their own progress and work towardthe goals established by the teacher.

Sample FormsThe following types of forms areillustrative of those that can be usedto record information resulting fromobservation and questions.

OBSERVATION SHEET

Class Liston

TakenName Significant event Required

Name

C

Date Activity Observed behavior

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,ALTERNATE ASSESSMENT IN THESCIENCE CLASSROOM

Using PresentationsThe use of student presentations and discus-sions can be a valuable tool in assessing a stu-dent's performance. Student presentations caninvolve oral presentations to the class or tosmall groups. They can either be rather simple,such as explaining observations, or somewhatmore involved such as an oral report to theclass. Student presentations can also involvethe use of models to illustrate concepts andlaboratory procedures, or the construction ofbulletin board displays for the classroom. Stu-dent demonstrations of activities or safe use ofscientific apparatus are also of value.

Using DiscussionsDiscussions involve small groups of studentsworking together and can be teacher directed orstudent directed. Teachers often involve stu-dents in a discussion of new topics, although inscience classrooms some students are oftenreluctant to participate because of tear of givingthe wrong answer. As students learn sciencewithin a problem-solving context, the one-answersyndrome begins to dissipate, and they start toopen up and express their ideas more freely.Also, as students grow in their ability to solveproblems and think scientifically, their self-confi-dence grows, too, A self-confident student is notafraid to discuss ideas with classmates.

An ideal way to motivate student discussions isthrough the use of cooperative learning groups.

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Students who might reel shy speaking in frontof the whole class may be more at ease talkingto a small group. Students are also less fearfulof making errors when working with only twoor three other students.

Why Are Presentations andDiscussions Important?What better way would a teacher be able toassess a student's ability to communicate sci-entifically than to hear that student give a verbalexplanation to a problem or an oral report on atopic of interest in science. Certainly, no writtentest could perform this function by having a stu-dent make marks on a piece of paper.

Verbal presentations and discussions are ex-tremely important alternate assessment meth-ods because they permit the teacher to hearwhat students are thinking. They also serve asa vehicle for students to present and discusstheir ideas with classmates. A dynamic scienceclassroom involves the participation of all stu-dents working together in an active mode: iden-tifying variables, solving problems, discussingsolutions, challenging assertions, and, in gen-eral, talking to one another. Presentations anddiscussions increase and enhance the verbalinteractions within the classroom. And in so do-ing, they not only make the science classrooma more lively and interesting place to be, butthey also make it a more fruitful teaching andlearning environment.

How Can Presentations andDiscussions Be Used in theClassroom?The use of presentations and discussions mustbe a planned part of the instructional process.The teacher should explain to students that cer-tain times will be used to incorporate oral pre-sentations into the course work, Also, if stu-dents have never worked in cooperative learninggroups before, they will need to be prepared forthis experience. Another book in the GlencoeScience Professional Series, CooperativeLearning in the Science Classroom, may behelpful.

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When students are asked to give a formal re-port or a presentation on a special topic, a mu-tual agreement should be reached between theteacher and student regarding the topic. Topicsshould be chosen that support both contentgoals and process goals of science instruction.Some students may need guidance in selectinga topic, but the topic should never be imposedby the teacher. This approach may destroy thestudent's motivation to research the topic andpresent it.

Small group discussions should have a focus. Avery important focus is to have students en-gage in problem-salving activities. Differentstrategies can be discussed, solutions checkedand compared with those of other groups, andgroup presentations of solutions given to theentire class. Alternative methods of solving aproblem can be discussed, and models and dia-grams can be used to demonstrate solution:

Cooperative groups of students working onlong-term scientific projects can maintain a sim-plified log. The log combines written entriessuch as their plan for conducting an experiment,the experiment data, and its analysis. In a sixweeks' project, there may be three or four sep-arate or related experiments. The log can thenbe used as a basis for a reflective student re-port on their project.

Suggestions for PresentationsAlmost any topic that falls within the scientificmaturity level of a student and the content ofthe course is a possibility for a class presenta-tion. The following list is simply a source ofideas for general categories of topics.

solution to a scientific problem

historical topic, person, or event

extension of textbook topic

enrichment topic

experimental topic

practical application topic

calculator or computer topic

scientific connection topic

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scientific logic topic

famous living scientist

famous theory or hypothesis

major branches of science

scientific notation

multicultural topic

Suggestions for Small GroupDiscussionsStudents' work in small groups should be fo-cused upon specific tasks. The discussionsshould be task-oriented, such as how to designand conduct an experiment, rather than of amore general nature. The following activities areappropriate for small group work and discus-sion. This list is suggestive only and is notmeant to be all-inclusive.

solving problems within areas of science andengineering

formulating problems

solving applications related to other disciplinesor the real world

analyzing data to support or refute theories

using models to learn concepts or do experi-ments

discussing solutions to homework problems

classifying objects, interpreting results, gener-alizing solutions, making graphs

making and testing hypotheses

planning group presentations

using calculators or computers

helping less capable students through peertutoring

When to ImplementPresentations and discussions can be usedthroughout the school year. If the emergingstandards of instruction are to be evaluated atall, then there is really no choice but to usethese alternate methods of assessment.

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, however, to be successful. Thus, notonly are presentations and discussions alternateassessment methods, they are also tools forinstruction that can be integrated into the teach-ing process at any time.

How to EvaluateBefore looking in detail at how to evaluate thealternative assessment methods of presenta-tions and discussions, let's review the purposesor goals of making an assessment. The majorgoal of evaluating students' presentations anddiscussions is to document their growth in un-derstanding. What progress, if any, has Ann orBill made in his or her ability to solve problems,reason and communicate scientifically, and useconnections both within science and to the realworld?

In a classroom that makes use of presentationsand discussions, information about students'performances will be abundant. The key task forthe teacher is to isolate the significant informa-tion about each student so that it can be re-corded and documented. Trying to record every-thing students say or do is impossible andwould provide no useful data. A screening de-vice is needed to make the task of identifyingareas of growth practical, simple, and educe-tionaLy sound.

Identifying Areas of GrowthThe emerging goals of science instruction arecontinuous and need to be evaluated along acontinuum. A teacher needs to know at the be-ginning of the school year where each studentis on the continuum in order to identify and re-cord areas of growth. Once a baseline has beenestablished, then growth can be more readilyobserved and recorded. How then are areas ofgrowth observed? Growth in students' scientificunderstanding will be indicated by their actionsin each of four key areas.

Growth in Problem SolvingA teacher should look for growth in the follow-ing areas.

use of problem-solving strategies to under-stand and solve problems

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pects of a situation in order to formulate aproblem

use of answers and results to problems andother scientific situations to verify and inter-pret them with respect to the original problem

generalization of strategies and solutions tonew problem situations

use of problem-solving methods as a meansto learning and understanding new cor ,ent

application of scientific modeling to real-worldproblems

Growth of CommunicationGrowth in these areas is significant.

use of scientific vocabulary to explain ideas toothers

use of correct statements of definitions, laws,and theories

use of definitions, laws, and theories to dis-cuss, interpret, and evaluate scientific ideas

use of scientific terms to make convincingarguments

use o. language to formulate problems, defini-tions, and generalizations discovered throughinvestigations

asking clear and concise questions and givingclear answers

Growth in ReasoningSignificant growth areas are as follows.

use of deductive and inductive reasoning

use of data-based argu..lents

evaluation of their own thinking and others'arguments

making and testing hypotheses

formulating data-based generalizations

following logical arguments

construction of scientific models

appreciation of the use and power of logicalreasoning in science

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Growth in ConnectionsLook for growth the following areas.

use of concepts and process skills to exploreand solve problems

use of one or more scientific ideas to under-stand other scier tific ideas

use of science to solve problems in the realworld or in other disciplines

recognition of equivalent representations ofthe same concept or process skill

looking for and identifying connections withinscience

Documenting and Reporting Growthin UnderstandingOne way to document and report growth in un-derstanding the process goals of science is byusing a checklist. A checklist can be con-structed using the areas of growth identifiedabove. Remember, a checklist should not be aburden but should make it easy to collect andrecord data about students.

Another way for a teacher to evaluate students'presentations and discussions is to keep a

record of significant understandings in the formof an anecdotal report. The compilation of suchanecdotes can be used to track a student's per-formance and to review and write summarystatements about performance. Anecdotal re-ports consisting of brief comments are easy toimplement and can be used over time as a res-ervoir of data for more comprehensive reports.

A descriptive report also car. be helpful to docu-ment and report growth in scientific understand-ing. Such a report will take time to write, but itcan be a very effective tool in evaluating a stu-dent's progress in science. The goals of a re-port are to point out what the student has donewell and what areas need improvement. Hereare some items that can be discussed in a de-scriptive report.

the work a student has done

examples of significant scientific events

growth or improvement in a student's work

areas that need additional work

participation in class and small groups

attitude toward science

specific suggestions for additional work

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The following descriptive report form is a sample that can be adapted to meet the needs of teacherswho wish to write such reports.

Report of Performance

Name

Time period

Class

Description of work

Examples of significant work

Growth and improvement observed

Areas needing additional work

Group work

Attitude

Summary comments

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ALTERNATE ASSESSMENT IN THESCIENCE CLASSROOM

DescriptionIn a skill-oriented curriculum, the use of long-term projects for instruction and evaluation ofscientific growth has been very limited. In manyschools, all students have been required tocomplete a project for the annual science fair.They are often required to use "The ScientificMethod." This is usually a very formal, conver-gent procedure. All students are required to fol-low the same, lock-step process that yields re-markably similar outcomes. This type of individ-ual student project is being replaced by long-term, cooperative group projects that involve awide variety of concepts, basic and integratedprocess skills, problem identification, and solu-tions techniques. In a curriculum that valuesintegrated process skills and higher order con-cepts, meaningful projects play a significant andintegral role for all students.

Projects and investigations can involve individualstudents or small groups of two to four stu-dents working together. They should not bevery short assignments but should involve stu-dents in an ongoing task for at least two orthree weeks. Projects involving more substan-tial activities can last for a month or two. Sincestudents should be involved in more than a fewprojects during the course of a school year, theideal duration of a project is probably about fouror five weeks.

Ideas for Projects and InvestigationsProjects are a wonderful way to involve stu-dents in extended problem-solving situations.These situations may be purely scientific, but

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and other disciplines. Projects can involve stu-dents in open-ended situations that may have avariety of acceptable results. Or they may be ofsuch a nature that the problem situation leadsstudents to formulate questions or hypothesesthat require further investigation. Projects alsoprovide opportunities for students to explorescientific ideas using physical materials or newtechnology such as electronic sensors, graphingcalculators, and computers.

Projects that are embedded in a problem-solving content can be used by students to ex-plore, study, think about, and pursue ideas thatdevelop their understanding in all the importantcontent areas of the science curriculum.

Real-World Projectsand InvestigationsProjects and investigations can teach studentsmany connections of science to the real world.For example, at the middle school level,projects can be constructed that involve the useof science in the following areas. This is only abrief list that could easily be expanded by stu-dents working together in a brainstorminggroup.

Food and fitness

Population

Movie videos

Environmental problems

Farmland

Careers

Cars, boats, airplanes, rockets

Business

Sports

Recycling

Travel

Space

Cities

Foreign countries

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connections of science to other disci-plines such as mathematics, social studies, mu-sic, economics, computers, geography, and soon. All of these activities bring science to lifefor students by showing them the usefulness ofscientific ideas and techniques to a wide rangeof practical activities.

When to ImplementStudents can be involved in projects and investi-gations at any time during the school year. Youmay want to wait until the first three or fourweeks of school have passed before discussingthe use and role of projects in the course. Thiswill allow some time (or students to feel com-fortable with the course content before theypursue their first project.

The first few projects students work on shouldbe rather simple and straightforward. You caneither suggest some project ideas or ask thestudents to come up with their own. Many stu-dents will probably need your guidance to for-mulate their first plan for a project. As the yearprogresses, however, students should be ableto work more independently.

How to ImplementYou can begin by talking to students about theidea of a project and that you will be usingthem in the course for both instructional andevaluation purposes. Discuss the process goalsof instructionproblem solving, communica-tion, reasoning, and connectionsand point outtheir central place in the study of science. Tellstudents that their projects should be problem-solving oriented and relate to the content of thecourse. At the beginning of the school year, thefirst projects students work on will most likelyrelate to the content of the first or second chap-ter of their textbook. In fact, you will probablybe able to use the textbook as a source forsome project ideas.

Another suggestion for a first project would beto assign students a meaningful problem towork on. Make sure, however, that it is a pot)lem that is different from a traditional scienceproblem such as observing the properties at amagnet. It should be a challenging problem that

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about. As a second project, you could ask stu-dents to research and present their own non-routine problems in a student log. The log issimply a bound or loose-leaf notebook that con-tains the problem statement, problem solutionplan, activity and experiment designs, resultsand data, conclusions, and preliminary and finalproject reports.

More Specific Suggestionsfor StudentsIn order to help stutints get started on theirprojects, you will need to share with themsome specific guidelines for using the. studentlog for formulating, researching, and presentingprojects.

First, it is important that students be able towrite down a clear description of what theproject is about. The teacher should review andcritique this description to make sure the stu-dent has not taken on a project of unrealisticproportions or one that is simply too difficult.The protect needs to be doable and provide ex-periences that contribute to scientific growth ofthe stuclert.

Second, the student should indicate how he orshe intends to research the project. Does a hy-pothesis need to be stated and tested? Domeasurements have to be made or data col-lected? Will library research suffice? Do inter-views have to be conducted? Is a computernecessary? In other words, students shouldstate what procedures they intend to follow inthe course of working on the project.

Third, students should keep a written record oftheir work on the project. They should writedown the purpose of the project, the procedurefollowed, and any materials used. They shouldalso record any questions that arose in workingon the project, keep track of data, and makenotes of their thoughts and ideas about theproject. They should also decide how to bestcommunicate results; graphs, charts, tablet,and so on may be used,

Last, students should write out their conclu-sions, questions, proofs, or whatever form their

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=either as an oral or a written report.

The steps outlined above will help students tobecome successful investigators. They will alsoprovide important documents for teachers toreview in assessing the educational outcomesof the projects and shaping future projects.

Desirable Outcomes of Projects andInvestigationsThe use of projects in the science classroomcan have many positive learning outcomes forstudents. In addition to developing students'scientific skills, projects provide opportunitiesfor students to grow intellectually and socially.The following outcomes are a result of workingon projects.

learning to define problems and conduct inde-pendent research

learning to work with others when doing agroup project

learning that real-world problems are oftennot simple but require extensive effort over along period of time

learning to see science as a practical,problem-solving technique

learning to organize, plan, and pursue long-term objectives

learning to correctly use scientific materials

learning to write reports of investigations

Scientific outcomes of projects are many andvaried. No one list can encompass everythingthat students could learn from doing projects,but a general list of outcomes can certainly bewritten. Projects can be of the utmost impor-tance in developing scientific capabilities be-cause they provide opportunities for students todo the following:

solve and formulate problems in science andmake applications to the real world

use scientific language to communicate ideas

use analytical skills

use the ability to apply reasoning skills

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and scientific theories and laws

make connections within the sciences and toother disciplines

develop an understanding of the nature ofscience

integrate scientific knowledge into a moremeaningful set of concepts

Evaluating Project WorkA teacher needs to evaluate project work bylooking for evidence of the growth of scientificreasoning. If students have organized theirprojects according to the guidelines of thisbooklet, that is, if they have followed the stepsof (1) writing a description of the project, (2)identifying the procedures they intend to follow,(3) keeping a written record of their work, and(4) stating their results, then an evaluation ofthe project is not only possible but even rathersimple.

The description of the project will help theteacher identify the key scientific growth areasof the project. Of course, these relate to prob-lem solving, reasoning, communication, andconnections. The procedure to be followedshould be useful in identifying more specificaspects of each growth area for evaluation. Thewritten record and statement of results will en-able the teacher to see the student's thinkingas he or she has attempted to complete theproject. Thinking implies understanding or a lackof it, and the written record can give theteacher insight into a student's progress in de-veloping scientific reasoning.

Each project must be evaluated on its own merits. A written project can be used to assess astudent's writing skills. If the project is pre-sented to the class, oral communication skillscan be assessed. A proof or solution to a diffi-cult or non-routine problem provides evidenceof problem-solving abilities and reasoning skills.The collection, organization, and analysis of dataprovide evidence of problem-solving and think-ing skills also. The use of different techniquesto represent or model a situation, for example,

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derstanding of scientific connections. A teach-er's evaluation of growth in any of these areasis necessarily somewhat subjective and isbased upon an understanding of where eachstudent is on the learning continuum. Any eval-uation, of course, implies that students are in-formed of the teacher's assessment. Studentsneed to know how they are performing if fur-ther growth 's going to take place.

Projects can be evaluated on either a holistic oranalytical basis. Holistic scoring makes judge-ments based on a project as a whole. For ex-ample, a teacher can read and evaluate a scam-ple of projects to determine a range of perfor-mance. Three to five categories can be estab-lished, and as the teacher evaluates the rest ofthe projects, they can be placed in the estab-lished categories. After final adjustments,grades can be assigned.

Analytic scoring breaks the project down intospecific elements or components and estab-lishes point values for each one. For example,using the suggestions in this booklet, the fol-lowing components and point values could beused to evaluate projects.

Element Point Value

Problem description

Research method

Project steps/Work record

Data

Conclusions

Project report

Project grade

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10

10

20

20

20

20

100 points

individuals and groups undertaking long-termprojects. One advantage of analytical scoring isthat it allows for checkpoints, redoing, and re-write of the project elements. This approachallows students to receive maximum points oneach element when they demonstrate masteryof the concepts and skills involved.

Projects, in general, should be broadly struc-tured so that students can display their thinkingprocesses and respond creatively. Teachers'evaluation of creative thinking can be expressedeither holistically or analytically,

Cooperative Group ProjectsThe use of extended projects for the study ofscience and as an assessment tool to deter-mine what students understand about sciencecan be enhanced by having students work to-gether in cooperative groups. These groups canfunction both in the classroom and out of class,

Working within a group allows students to pooltheir contributions to the implementation andresults of the project. However, in so doing, thecontributions of each individual student may belost unless a record is kept as to who has donewhat. This is important when group projectwork is being evaluated. An evaluation shouldcertainly be made of the group's performance,but it is equally as important to assess whateach student has contributed to the group. Thismay be most easily done by having a writtenlog of group activities. Roles such as investiga-tor, materials manager, reporter, and mainte-nance director can be rotated among the groupmembers. After the final group report is written,each student can participate in an oral presenta-tion of the group's project.

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A log sheet such as the one shown can beused for cooperative group projects. The sheetis used to keep a record of the group's work.

GROUP LOG SHEET

Group members

Project

Date shork done Questions Results

A project record may require many pages in or-der to document the written record adequately.This form can help students organize theirwork. Project Report

Results / Conclusions

Description

Procedure

Data

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ALTERNATE ASSESSMENT IN THESCIENCE CLASSROOM

DescriptionA portfolio is a representative sample of studentwork that is collected over a period of time.Portfolios tell a story about student activities inscience. Their focus is on problem solving,thinking and understanding, written communica-tion, science connections, and students' viewsof thernselve' !earners of science.

A portfolio is not just a folder of a student's work.The pieces of work placed in a portfolio havemore significance than other work a student hasdone. They are chosen as illustrations of a stu-dent's best work at a particular point in time.Thus, each item in a portfolio should be dated.The range of items selected shows a student'sintellectual growth in science over time.

Portfolios can be used to assess student perfor-mance on a range of science tasks during theschool year. An assessment portfolio can becreated by the teacher and student working to-gether. At first, students collect all their workfor two or three weeks in a work portfolio. Areview of the work portfolio provides a basis forselecting items that will go into the assessmentportfolio. The teacher can assist students withthe review but should not direct the process. Theactual selection of the items by the students tellsthe teacher what pieces of work the studentsthink are significant. Student-selected items helpthe teacher to understand the students' views ofthemselves es developing "scientists." The stu-dent should submit a written reflection on theportfolio, documenting his or her growth in sci-ence during the assessment period.

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puma, is a written account Mat a sruaemkeeps to record what she or he has learned. Itcan be used to record and summarize key top-ics studied, the student's feelings toward sci-ence, difficulties or successes in solving a par-ticular problem or topic, or any other notes orcomments the student wishes to make. Theuse of a journal is an excellent way for studentsto practice and improve their writing skills. Jour-nal entries, of course, can be considered forinclusion in an assessment portfolio.

Examples of Portfolio TopicsThe following examples illustrate topics that areappropriate for inclusion in a portfolio.

a written report of an individual project or in-vestigation

examples of problems or investigations for-mulated by the student

responses to open-ended questions or chal-lenging homework problems

excerpts from a journal

scientific artwork

a student's contribution to a group report

a photo or sketch of physical models to illus-trate a scientific idea

teacher-completed checklists showing scien-tific growth

the use or science apparatus, calculators, orcomputers in an investigation or problem-solving activity

a scientific autobiography

an applied use of science in another discipline

an explanation by the student of each item inthe portfolio

a table of contents

Balancing a PortfolioThe selection of work samples for a portfolioshould be done with an eye toward presentinga balanced portrait of a student's achievements.As a portfolio is being assembled, the major

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pies selected that are representative of growthin each area. Thus, students and teacher wouldseek samples that illustrate growth in under-standing in each of the following:

problem-solving skills

reasoning and critical-thinking skills

communication skills

scientific connections

Other important curriculum considerations forportfolio samples are:

statements on scientific attitudes such as mo-tivation, curiosity, and self-confidence

group skills in working with others

use of technological tools

Advantages of Using PortfoliosThe use of assessment portfolios in science hasgrown out of the need to align assessmenttasks with emerging curricular standards andalso because of the frustration and dissatisfac-tion felt by teachers with the narrow fact-dominated, paper-and-pencil tests. Some of theadvantages of using portfolios as assessmenttools are the following.

They help to give a more complete picture ofstudents' scientific achievement and growth.

They emphasize complex and realistic tasksperformed over a few weeks rather thanspeed and accuracy.

They include students in the assessment pro-cess and encourage students' self-assessment.

They involve students in authentic tasks ofthe type they will encounter outside ofschool.

They motivate the study and learning of soi-1 ence.

They are effective tools for teacher and par-ent communication about students' work,

They encourage the development of writingskills.

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As students study science independently, theuse of a journal can be very helpful in the devel-opment of a reflective and introspective point ofview. Journal entries are conducive to thinkingabout why something has been done. They canbe used to note questions, insights, successes,and frustrations. The use of a journal can pro-vide a history of a student's independent workthat illuminates the growth of problem-solvingor thinking skills. Very often, students tend torush through their written assignments so theycan put schoolwork aside. Keeping a journalmitigates this tendencyit encourages a morethoughtful attitude toward written work and,over time, should be instrumental in helpingstudents learn more science.

When and How to ImplementPortfolios can be used throughout the schoolyear. If you have never used them before butwant to start, and classes have already begun,it is not too late to introduce students to estab-lishing portfolios.

You can begin by discussing the idea of a port-folio. The ideas presented in this booklet can bea starting point. You might also wish to reviewsome other sources on the use of portfoliosbefore your discussion with students. Go overthe purpose of using portfolios and the proce-dures outlined below.

Use file folders for students to collect al! theirwork in a work portfolio.

Ask students what they think should be in-cluded in a portfolio.

Discuss the format of a good portfolioneat,typed or written in ink, table of contents, per-sonal statement as to why each piece ofwork was included.

Provide variety in assignments so the portfo-lios can reflect this varietygroup work,projects and investigations, journals, and soon.

Have students create their first assessmentportfolio from their work portfolios,

Have students review others' first portfoliosso they can see tneir classmates' work.

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OS et.- now me assessment portroaosshould be evaluated.

Discuss each student's portfolio with the stu-dent in preparation for development of the nextor revised portfolio.

The initial implementation of using portfolioswill be a learning experience for you as well asfor your students. As you both gain experiencein using portfolios, their effectiveness in guidinginstruction and for assessment purposes will beincreased greatly. Although the use of assess-ment portfolios may seem like extra work atfirst, their continued use will enrich the teachingand learning process.

Evaluating PortfoliosThe evaluation of a student's portfolio providesan opportunity for the teacher and student toenter into a dialogue about what the studenthas learned. Portfolios can be assigned grades,but if the intent is to provido a judgment of thestudent's work, then teachai comments wouldbe better than grades. It is possible to give allstudents the same grade for submitting theportfolio and meeting with the teacher to dis-cuss its contents.

In portfolio assessment, the teacher must keepin mind that the pieces of work in the portfoliohave been chosen by the students as represen-tations of their best efforts. Thus, a portfolio isin essence a self-evaluation by the student whohas created it. The teacher's goal in assessingthe portfolio is to help the student gain addi-tional insights into his or her scientific perfor-mance on the tasks exhibited in the portfolio.These insights would involve growth in the un-derstanding of science, strengths and weak-nesses of approaches and procedures, and ananalysis of both the kinds of decisions madeand the final outcomes of the activities in theportfolios.

Ideally, the teacher establishes assessment cri-teria that can be shared with the students.Thus, the criteria of establishing and assessinga portfolio is known by both the teacher and thestudents. It is these criteria that form the basisfor the assessment comments the teachermakes on the work in the portfolio. In creating a

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portrono, me stuoent Men follows the criteriaestablished by the teacher. Work is selected torepresent the key goals of instruction.

Assessment criteria for portfolio evaluation arebeing established in school districts and scienceclassrooms across the country. However, youmay have to develop your own criteria. In sodoing, you can develop those that are importantto you and your students. The following sectionlists some ideas that can provide the basis forestablishing your own criteria.

Assessment CriteriaThe assessment criteria for a portfolio can beorganized into categories that align with the cur-riculum goals you are trying to implement. Theimplementation of any set of criteria will involvethe judgment of the teacher and can be holisticor analytic. The holistic judgment approach ofevaluating a student's work would look for theoverall quality of a piece of work in contrast tospecific information or "right" steps being fol-lowed. You can also give a fixed grade for com-pleting the portfolio process. in this masteryapproach, students have the option to redo cer-tain elements of the portfolio in order to gain allpossible points.

Assessment criteria would help to guide theteacher in making holistic judgments about stu-dents' work. They would also be very useful inkeeping the teacher's assessments of differentstudents consistent.

Problem-Solving CriteriaProblem-solving criteria can be used to evaluatea student's performance in the following areas.

understanding of problems

use of various strategies to make a plan forsolving problems

ability to carry out a plan using models ortechnology

analysis of results including statistical proce-dures

formulation of problems

creativity of approaches to complex problems

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uage kaucenaThese criteria apply to students' use of lan-guage to express themselves scientifically.

use of correct terminology

writing clearly to express ideas

good organization of written work and journals

explanation of results

summary of key topics

reflection on scientific ideas

asking questions

Reasoning CriteriaReasoning criteria aid the teacher in comment-ing on the following.

identifying variables

making hypotheses

conduct 1g an inquiry

documenting results

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critiquing ideas and procedures

constructing, extending, applying ideas

Other CriteriaThese criteria involve the following.

relating science to the real world

making connections within science

development of positive attitudes

valuing of science

use of self-assessment and self-correction ofwork

group work

use of different scientific representations ormodels

interpretation of ideas

technology

concepts and procedures

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The following sample form can be used to write assessment comments for a student's portfolio.

Assessment of Portfolio

Student

Teacher

Date

1. Concepts, procedures, process skills explored

2. Areas of growth in understanding

3. Unfinished work or work needing revision

4. Assessment of the following areas'

a. Problem-solving work

b. Reasoning and critical thinking

c. Use of language

d. Other

t

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SCIENCE CLASSROOM

nY

DescriptionIn addition to the major models of assessmentdiscussed in the previous sections of this book-let, the following assessment techniques alsocan be used to monitor students' perfor-mances:

Interviews and Conferences

Student Self-Assessment

Student-Constructed Tests

Homework

Each of these other types of alternate assess-ment methods is discussed in the followingsections.

Interviews and ConferencesInterviews and conferences provide an opportu-nity for the teacher and student to meet to-gether to discuss science. This personal meet-ing with a teacher can be a powerful motivatingexperience for many students. It can also pro-vide the teacher with a great deal of useful in-formation about how the student thinks andfeels about science.

An interview can be structured around ques-tions that relate to a specific scientific topic. Forexample, a problem-solving interview wouldpose a problem for a student to solve. Workingfrom a planned set of questions, the teacher isinterested in learning how the student goes

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solve the problem, the procedure followed, andthe meaning of the solution. Questions by theteacher and verbal responses by the studentare key ingredients of an interview.

A conference is not quite as focused as an in-terview. A conference is an informal discussioninvolving the teacher and one student. Althougha conference should always have a reason forbeing heldsay, for example, to review anddiscuss a student's portfolioit need not staywith that purpose exclusively. Let the studentstalk, ask questions, and discuss what is impor-tant to them. Appropriate comments and ques-tions by the teacher can elicit valuable assess-ment information from the student that may beimpossible to get in any other way.

Helpful Hints for Interviews andConferencesThe following helpful hints have been sug-gested by the National Council of Teachers ofMathematics, They are also useful in science.

Be ready ahead of time with questions.

Put students at ease.

Explain that you are looking for creativethinking.

Pose a problem.

Take notes.

Be a good listener.

Be nonjudgmental.

Do any instruction intervention in a separatesetting.

Student Self- AssessmentOne of the real benefits of using performanceassessment tasks is the opportunity to havestudents take part in the assessment process.When assessment is viewed as an integral partof the instructional process, its focus shiftsfrom giving tests to helping students under-stand the goals of the learning experience andthe criteria for success.

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icit in all alternate metnocts of assessmentis the idea that these methods can work mosteffectively when students know the goals ofinstruction and the criteria for measuring suc-cess against those goals. Knowing the goalsand the criteria for success equips students tomonitor their owe progress.

Encouraging Self-AssessmentIn order to help students learn how to monitortheir own progress, the teacher needs to ex-plain the goals of instruction and the criteria forevaluating performances against the goals. Themajor instructional goals for the year can be dis-played in the classroom and copies given toeach student. How students will be judged ontheir work also needs to be discussed. Studentsneed to understand that right and wrong an-swers are not a central concern. Evidence ofsigns of growth in understanding and of theability to think, communicate, and solve prob-lems are new criteria for success in science.

Encourage students to question their own work,strengths and weaknesses, accomplishments,work habits, goals, and attitudes. Ask studentsperiodically to toll you what they have done thatshows progress toward achieving their goals.Ask them also to evaluate their own reports,purnals, portfolios. and so on and to provideevidence lor their evaluations. All of thesemethods can help students learn how to assesstheir own work.

Using Self-Assessment FormsOne device that can be used for self-evaluationis called a self-assessment form. You and yourstudents can design such a form together.Then, every three or four weeks students cancomplete the forms and give them to you. Typical questions on the forms are as follows.

What new understanding of science have youlearned recently?

What topic is causing you difficulty at thistime?

Have you found any new topics that wallyinterest you? Describe them.

vvnat co you enjoy or not enjoy seem work-ing in groups?

How do you fool about science now?

What progress do you think you have made inscience during the past low weeks?

What can we do to improve our scienceclass?

Goals of Self-AssessmentAs students take a more active part in assess-ing their own work, they will become more ma-ture and responsible learners, Self-assessmentieads to self-direction, learning how to work andthink independently, learning to set goals andpriorities, and learning to work hard to achievesuccess on school tasks and real-life tasks.These are the ultimate goals to which self-assessment can lead.

The goals of self-assessment in learning sci-ence are more modest than those stated above,but no less important. Through self-assessment,students take part in the instruction process byevaluating their own performances. Their subsequent actions should result in learning more sci-ence, correcting errors or misconceptions, im-proving their performances on more challengingtasks, and gaining deeper insights into the na-ture of science itself.

Student-Constructed TestsAn interesting idea for assessment is to havestudents take some tests constructed ofstudent made test items. For evaluation of basicskills and of factual knowledge, written testsare still an effective means of assessing perfor-mance. Having students construct their owntest items gives them a sense of participation inthe assessment process. They enjoy making upthe items and are generally very interested inthe solutions.

A class can be divided into small groups ofthree or four students each to make up testitems. Obviously, the items need to representthe content being studied. The teacher choosesReins [rem each group to include on the test. Itis important that all students contribute to the

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IJUI. LI IG W..20G1 IlG VI la IG 1,al I l 0/retained. When discussing the correct re-sponses, contributing groups can offer studysuggestions for their test items.

Another technique to add variety and interest towritten tests is to have students work on take-home tests. This is done by some collegeteachers, but is not usually implemented byteachers of middle and high school students.Take-home tests can challenge students withmore open-ended questions or non-routineproblems. Time is not a factor as students canuse all the time they need to do the test. Take-home tests can be teacher- or student-constructed.

Practical tests that cover topics from biology,geology, physics, chemistry, and other sciencefields offer yet'another way to modify the test-taking regimen. These tools make use of physi-

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or student-constructed and can be administeredto individuals or small groups of Om or threestudents.

Homework often is assigned and gone over inclass the next day, but in most science classesit usually has no significant role in assessing astudent's performance. However, this does nothave to be the case. Some teachers have hadsuccess with assigning fewer homework papersbut requiring that the assigned homework becompleted and included in a work or assessment portfolio. Certain carefully selected home-work assignments could be reviewed and evalu-ated on a periodic basis. Skill types of problemsor exercises could occasionally be included forevaluation; however the emphasiS should be onthought-provoking questions. Thus, homeworkcan play a more important role as an alternateassessment technique.

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.11.-JOLT-E-FttstATE ASSESSMENT LIN I HE--SCIENCE CLASSROOM

Why Alternate Assessment?Tne science classroom has always been domi-nated by one method of testing, namely, paper-and-pencil tests that measured a student's re-call of factual information and basic processskills. Today, the science curriculum is evolvingto include broader, integrated process goals ofinstruction, such as teaching students that sci-ence is solving problems. The emerging goalsalso involve speaking, reading, writing, criticalthinking, and reasoning, and are intimately con-nected to the real world. Alternate assessmentmethods are necessary to measure students'performances against these emerging goals ofscience instruction.

What is Performance Assessment?Underlying the idea that paper-and-pencil testsare not sufficient for measuring a student's per-formance on goals that require understanding ofinformation, and not just its recall, is the morefundamental notion that you can find out what aperson knows by having the person do some-thing. The skills of a baseball player are notjudged by giving him a written test on the rulebook. Rather, he is given a ball, glove, and batand put on the field to play ball. Then an as-sessment can be made of his performance as aplayer.

The same idea applies to education. The skillsand knowledge of a student as a solver of problems cannot be judged by having the studentsolve contrived word problems on a written testthat have a single simplistic answer. Problemsolving is a complex task that is based upon anunderstanding of concepts, strategies, expertence, attitudes, and skills that develop and

34

dent knows about solving problems, tasks mustbe devised that allow the student an opportu-nity to demonstrate performance. Performanceassessment is a method of assessment thatattempts to find out what students know andcan do by using performance tasks.

How Can I Find Out What StudentsKnow Without Giving Tests?No one is suggesting that written tests not beused in the science classroom. Such tests arevary useful in assessing concept objectives, andclearly, concept understandirl is an essentialaspect of learning science. But concept knowl-edge alone, without the ability to solve prob-lems, communicate scientific ideas, and seerelationships, is totally useless knowledge. Itwill be forgotten in time and will never be putto use in the world outside of school.

Teachers can find out what students know bylistening to them answer questions, by review-ing their projects, by having them give presenta-tions and work in cooperative learning groups,and by keeping journals and portfolios. In otherwords, students can demonstrate what theyknow through a variety of performance tasksthat can be as simple as answering an open-ended question or as involved as creating aportfolio. Each of these alternate assessmenttechniques has been discussed in detail in thisbooklet.

Co I Have to Make Any Changes inMy Teaching?Perhaps. Alternate methods of assessment in-volving performance tasks are not intrusionsinto the classroom; they are an integral part ofthe instructional process. Instruction does notend when a performance task is given, which isusually the case with a written test. The use ofperformance assessment tasks implies thatsome changes may have to be made in the waya classroom is run and organized. Thesechanges can be introduced gradually, such asusing cooperative learning groups or getting stu-dents involved in creating portfolios. Over time,however, a performance-based approach toteaching will have the effect of increasing stu-

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r -urand decreasing the amount of time you spendgiving instructions.

Are Grades Assigned to PerformanceTasks?Grades in school are still a fact of life. Numeri-cal assessments ;an be made and grades as-signed to the results of performance tasks.However, since the goal of performance as-sessment is to judge growth in understanding,this is best indicated by a teacher's commentsrather than a grade. A grade gives students themessage that the work is done successfully,partially, or unsuccessfully. A teacher's com-ments can give a student some insight intowhat she or he knows and thus provide a basisfor luture work. Written tests and grades chopup leeching and learning into small discretepieces of information. Performance tasks andteachers' written evaluations of them recognizethat teaching and learning are continuousprocesses-- a iourney that involve teachersand students working together toward commongoals.

How Do I Get Started?This booklet provides ideas and suggestions forusing alternate assessment techniques in the

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need to use these suggestions in his or herown way to meet local goals and curriculumobjectives. The National Committee on ScienceEducation Standards and Assessment is cur-rently working on goals, standards, and assess-ment in science. They will be published in thenext few years. Mathematics educators haverecently completed this task for mathematicsand are now implementing a new set of goalsand standards. We borrow some useful adviceon how to get started from the 1991 NCTMBooklet entitled Mathematics Assessment:Myths, Models, Good Questions, and PracticalSuggestions.

Don't try to do it all at once. Start with oneidea, then try another.

Don't try to do it all alone. Involve otherteachers, parents, and administrators.

Get involved in science networking, especiallythrough science organizations.

Talk with others about the changes you aremaking. Let parents, students, and otherteachers know what is happening.

Communicate with business and industry forpractical ideas about real-life assessmentpractices.

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Sal IS 41.ALTERNATE ASSESSMENT IN THESCIENCE cLASSROOM

011311000APAirasian, P. W. (1991). Classroom. Assessment.New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.

American Association for the Advancement ofScience (1989). Project 2061: Science for allAmericans. Washington, DC: American Associa-tion for the Advancement of Science.

Arter, J., and Spandel, V. (1992). "Using Portfo-lios of Student Work in Instruction and Assess-ment." Educational Measurement: Issues andPractice, 11, 1: 36-44.

Barnes, Lehman W. and Marianne B Barnes(1991), "Assessment, Practically Speaking. HowCan We Measure Hands-on Science Skills?"Science and Children, 28, 6:14-15.

Cann, Arthur A. (1993). Teaching ScienceThrough Discovery. New York: Merrill.

Champagne, A. B., Lovitts, B. E. and Clinger,B.J. (1990). Assessment in the Service of Sci-ence. Washington, DC: American Associationfor the Advancement of Science.

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ment Tests and Assessments. Boston, MA:Allyn and Bacon.

Ham, Mary and Dennis Adams (1991). "Portfo-lio Assessment. It's Not Just for Artists Any-more," The Science Teacher, 58, 1:18.

Kulm, G. and Malcom, S. M. (1991). ScienceAssessment in the Service of Reform. Washing-ton, DC: American Association for the Advance-ment of Science.

National Research Council. (1992). National Sci-ence Education Standards: A Sampler. Wash-ington, DC: National Research Council.

Raizen, Senta A. et al. (1989). Assessment inElementary Science Education. ColoradoSprings, CO: The National Center for ImprovingScience Education.

Stiggins, R. J. (1987). "Design and Develop-ment of Performance Assessments." Educa-tional Measurement: Issues and Practice,6,3: 33-42.

Vermont Department of Education. (1992).Looking Beyond "The Answer": The Report ofVermont's Mathematics Portfolio AssessmentProgram, Pilot Year 1990-1991. Montpelier:Department of Education.

Wiggins, G. (1989). "A True Test: Toward MoreAuthentic and Equitable Assessment." Phi DeltaKappan, 70, 9: 703-713.

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