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ED 393 406 IR 017 742

AUTHOR Metallinos, Nikos, Ed.TITLE Verbo-Visual Literacy: Understanding and Applying New

Educational Communication Media Technologies.Selected Readings from the Symposium of theInternational Visual Literacy Association (Delphi,Greece, June 25-29, 1993).

INSTITUTION International Visual Literacy Association. .

REPORT NO ISBN-1-895130-05-0PUB DATE 93

NOTE 282p.; For selected individual papers separatelyanalyzed, see IR 017 743-775. Actual titles ofindividual papers frequently differ from the way theyappear in the Table of Contents.

AVAILABLE FROM James L. Bradford, 6370 Instructional TechnologyServices, Illinois State University, Normal, IL61790-6370 ($25).

PUB TYPE Collected Works Conference Proceedings (021)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC12 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS Aesthetic Education; *Art Education; *Computer

Assisted Instruction; Design Preferences;*Educational Technology; Elementary SecondaryEducation; Foreign Countries; Higher Education;Hypermedia; Instructional Effectiveness;Instructional Innovation; *Multimedia Instruction;Multimedia Materials; *Visual Literacy

IDENTIFIERS Visual Displays; *Visual Imagery

ABSTRACTThis document contains the welcoming and keynote

addresses and selected papers from a 1993 symposium of theInternational Visual Literacy Association. Topics addressed in thepapers include: visual literacy; research methodology and design forcontent analysis of visual images; multimedia as courseware; designissues in authoring multimedia materials, multimedia utilization, theimpact of new technologies on artistic thought and aesthetics;hypermedia and teaching methods; visual imagery in distanceeducation; projects in audiovisual and image composition; andtechnological literacy and the school of the future. (BEW)

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VERBO-VISUAL LITERACY:UNDERSTANDING AND APPLYING NEW

EDUCATIONAL COMMUNICATION MEDIATECHNOLOGIES

Selected Readings from the 1993 Symposiumof the International Visual Literacy Association

Delphi, Greece, June 25-29, 1993

Edited byNikos Metal linos

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

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INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)

International Visual Literacy Association

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VERBO-VISUAL LITERACY: UNDERSTANDING AND APPLYINGNEW EDUCATIONAL COMMUNICATION MEDIA TECHNOLOGIES



Edited byNikos Metal linos

Published by the 3Dmt Research and Information Centerof Concordia University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada

4

VERBO-VISUAL LITERACY: UNDERSTANDING AND APPLYINGNEW EDUCATIONAL COMMUNICATION MEDIA TECHNOLOGIES



Edited byNikos Metal linosConcordia University

Copyright@ (1994) by the 3Dmt Research and Information Center

Canadian Cataloging in Publication Data

International Visual Literacy Association.Symposium (1993 : Delphi, Greece)

Verbo-Visual literacy : understanding and applying new educationalcommunication media technologies : selected readings from the 1993 Symposium ofthe International Visual Literacy Association, Delphi, Greece, June 25-29, 1993

Includes bibliographical references.ISBN 1-895130-05-0

1. Visual literacy--Congresses. 2. Visual learning--Congresses. I. Metallinos,Nikos, 1934- II. 3Dmt Research and Information Center. III. Title.

LB1068.168 1993 371.3'35 C94-900763-3

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form, orby any means, electronic or mechanical, including photography, recording, or anyinformation storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher,editor, and authors.

ISBN 1-895130-05-0

Printed in Canada.

Publisher: 3Dmt Research and Information Center

7141 Sherbrooke Street West

Montreal, Quebec, H4B 1R6, Canada

Tel: (514) 848-2359 Fax: (514) 848-3492

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface vi

Acknowledgements vii

List of Authors viii

I . WELCOMING AND KEYNOTE ADDRESSES

Welcoming AddressNikos Metallinos, Concordia University

The Age of Pixels: A Call for Visual LiteracyHerbcrt Zettl, San Francisco State University

Analyzing the Content of Visual Messages:Methodological Considerations

Robert K. Tiemens, University of Utah

Assessment of the Visual Image in Film, Television,and the New Visual Media: Research Design

James E. Fletcher, University of Georgia

II. NEW VISUAL COMMUNICATION MEDIA TECHNOLOGIES

3

5

10

21

Instructional Systems Design in Complex Intelligent Multimedia SystemsGeorge Cambourakis, Eleftherios Kayafas, Vassili Loumos, andloannis Tsatsakis, National Technical University of Athens 31

Instructional Systems Design in Complex Intelligent Multimedia SystemsPeter Capell, Carnegie Mellon University 38

Multimedia for Multiethnic Education: Visionaries and IllusionariesAnn Cunningham, United States International University 44

The Rewards of Visual LiteracyDeborah Curtiss, The Kling-Lindquist Partnership 51

Aesthetics for the 21st Century: Another Challenge for EducationBarbara W. Fredette, University of Pittsburgh 57

Using Hypermedia to Turn University Teaching Inside OutW. Lambert Gardiner, Concordia University 68

Enhancing Local and Distance Education WithComputer-Produced Visuals

Nancy Nelson Knupfer, Kansas State University 73

I nternational Audio V isual Composing ProcessesCarol Lorac, Royal Holloway University of London 90

III

Technological Literacy or Illiteracy? The Reality About Greek TeachersMichael Meimaris, University of Athens 93

Education and Technology in a Global Society:Looking for Equity and Social Justice

Robert Muffoletto, University of Northern Iowa 97

Before the Challenge of TechnologyDemetres Pnevmatikos, Aristotle University 102

Teaching With Distance Delivery Systems: From A to S2Landra L. Rezabek, Florida State University 109

An Interdisciplinary Approach to Concept Development ForInteractive Video Communication Systems

Susan King Roth, The Ohio State University 114

Designing Visual Approaches to Communicate Visual ContentEllen Schiferl, University of Southern Maine 119

Laserdisc Technology: Teaching Poetry, K-12Raymond Schneider, University of South Florida 127

III. RESEARCH FINDINGS/THESIS PAPERS

Television: Stuff of DreamsJon Baggaley

Intelligent Advisor Systems and Transfer of KnowledgeMarie-Michele Boulet, Universite Laval

137

144

From Text to Television: Hermeneutic Textualism and the Challengeof Visual Technology in the Teaching of History

Peter Knupfer, Kansas State University 148

The Video in the Classroom: Agatha Ctkristitz's "Evil Under the Sun"and the Teaching of Narratology Through Film

Michael Kokonis, Aristotle University 159

A Rhetorical Approach to Non-Discursive Messagesin Information Campaigns

Kathaleen Reid, Lee College 170

Image Manipulation: Then and NowRonald E. Sutton, The American University 183

In-School Communication System as a Medium for Media EducationYasuo Takakuwa, Sophia University 191

A Hypermedia Computer-Aided Parasitology Tutoring SystemGeorgios Theodoropoulos and Vassili Loumos,National Technical University of Athens 195

iv

Three-Dimensional Media Technologies:Implications for the Study of Visual Literacy

Hal Thwaites, Concordia University

IV. FUTURE STRATEGIES AND INFRASTRUCTURES

201

The Role of Interpretation in Visual Communication TheoryJames A. Anderson, University of Utah 211

The Role of Educational Technologies in Cultural StudiesPenelope Calliabetsou, University of Athens 223

Application of Visual Media Technologies to Investigation of theCognitive Representation of Technical Diagrams

Richard Lowe, Curtin University 227

Instructional Systems Design in Complex Intelligent Multimedia SystemsBarbara S. Monfils, University of Wisconsin-Whitewater 236

Understanding a Verbo- V i sual MessageRune Pettersson, Ellemtel 243

CAI as a Medium for the Reduction of Inequalities in EducationNicos Raptis, PEK of Pastern Athens 261

The Implications of Television Broadcasts Presenting ScienceConcepts on the Learning of These Concepts by Adolescents

Ora Silverstein and Pinchas Tamir, The Hebrew University 267

PREFACE

The International Visual Literacy Association (I.V.L.A.) in addition to the annualconferences, held during the fall season in various cities in North America, has establishedtriennial international symposia that take place during the summer in different countriesaround the world. The purposes of these symposia are as follows: (1) Many educationalinstitutions and visual communication media scholars in many parts of the world do nothave the opportunity to take part in the I.V.L.A.'s annual conferences; (2) issues of globalsignificance regarding Visual Literacy can not be thoroughly presented during the annualconferences due to lack of time and the need to accommodate the paper presentations of agreat number of the Association's membership; (3) to expand beyond the boundaries ofNorth America, and therefore to become a truly international association known to manyparts of the world with representative members from all continents; (4) to spread the wordabout the objectives of this discourse and its great significance in the visual information agewe live in.

Since 1987 the I.V.L.A. has held three international symposia on verbo-visualliteracy. The first symposium, "Verbo-Visual Literacy: Research and Theory," was heldin Stockholm, Sweden in June, 1987 under the auspices of the University of Stockholm.

The second symposium, "Verbo-Visual Literacy: Mapping the Field," was held inLondon, England in July, 1990 under the auspices of the British Film Board and theUniversity of London.

The third symposium, "Verbo-Visual Literacy: Understanding and Applying NewEducational Communication Media Technologies" was held in Delphi, Greece in June,1993 under the auspices of the European Cultural Center of Delphi. The Symposiumattracted scholars, educators, media practitioners, and teachers from various institutionsaround the world. In addition to the 53 papers presented, a number of other activities tookplace, such as interest group meetings, a holography workshop, and visits to Greece'sarchaeological cities and museums in Athens, Delphi, and Olympia.

The importance of the I.V.L.A.'s international symposia, in general, and theparticular purposes of the 1993 Symposium were underlined in the addresses of the Chairof the Symposium and the three Keynote Speakers. The major issues are also discussed inthe papers contained in this volume that were carefully selected, reviewed, and editedbefore they were accepted for publication. It is, therefore, a publication on an issue that isas significant to contemporary visual communication media educators as were theresponses of thc Delphi Oracle to the Ancient World.

Nikos Metal linosChair1993 Symposium of the I. V.L.A.

vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The International Committee of the International Visual Literacy Association startedthe preparations for the 1993 Symposium in 1990. The Symposium was organized by theChair of the Committee with the assistance and advice of Committee Members RunePettersson (Sweden), Robert Muffoletto (U.S.A.), and Carol Lorac (England) to whomthis author expresses his sincere thanks.

This book is the result of the systematic instruction and monitoring of the submittedpapers and the collaboration of many individuals. Papers submitted were reviewed bythree committee members (R. Pettersson, R. Muffoletto, and N. Metal linos) on thefollowing:

1. Relevance to the theme of the Symposium.

2. Originality and significance of the issues discussed.

3 . Research methodology, validity, and reliability of the study.

4. Academic standards and form of submission.

The publication was also supervised by my colleagues W. Lambert Gardiner and HalThwaites of Concordia University to whom I express my deep appreciation and thanks fortheir assistance. Foremost, this publication was made possible because of the care, thescholastic attention, and the hard work of my wife Daisy, to whom I owe an enormousdebt.

Finally, I would like to thank the authors whose works appear here for responding tomy invitation to attend the Symposium and for their cooperation in submitting their papersaccording to the editorial instructions and publication guidelines.

Nikos MetallinosEditor

LISTING OF AUTHORS

Anderson, James A.Baggaley, Jon

Boulet. Marie-Michèle

Calliabetsou, Penelope

Cambourakis, George

Cape II, Peter

Cunningham, Ann

Curtiss, Deborah

Fletcher, James E.

Fredette, Barbara W.

Gardiner, W. Lambert

Kayafas, Eleftherios

Kokonis, Michael

Knupfer, Nancy Nelson

Knupfer, Peter

Lorac, Carol

Loumos, Vassili

Lowe, Richard

Meimaris, Michael

Metalli nos, Nikos

Monfils, Barbara S.

Muffoletto, Robert

Pettersson, Rune

Pnevmatikos, Demetres

Raptis, Nicos

Rcid, Kathaleen

Rezabek, Landra L.

Roth, Susan King

Schiferl, Ellen

Schneider, Raymond

Si I verstei n, Ora

Sutton, Ronald E.

Takakuwa, Yasuo

31,

211

I 37

144

223

31

38

44

51

21

57

68

31

159

73

148

90

195

22793

3

23697

243

102

261

170

109

114

119

127

267

183

191

viii

1. 1

Tamir, Pinchas 166

Theodoropoulos, Georgios 195

Thwaites, Hal 201

Tiemens, Robert K. 10

Tsatsakis, loannis 31

Zettl, Herbert 5

'1171,i; ',VP A L.) WTTE1P/PREN:s71.s*

VERBO-VISUAL LITERACY: UNDERSTANDING ANDAPPLYING NEW EDUCATIONAL COMMUNICATION

MEDIA TECHNOLOGIES

byNikos Metal linos

On behalf of the OrganizingCommittee and the Board of Directors ofthe International Visual LiteracyAssociation and my colleagues of theEuropean Cultural Center of Delphi, Iwelcome you to the Third Symposium ofthe International Visual LiteracyAssociation: Verbo-Visual Literacy:"Understanding and Applying NewEducational Communication MediaTechnologies."

The speed at which the visualcommunication media technologies aredeveloping and the time required to fullyunderstand and effectively apply them aredisproportional. Those of us involved invisual communication media education, thefield of study dealing with thedevelopment of the languages of visualcommunication media, have come torealize that the constant and rapiddevelopments in visual communicationmedia technologies hinder the organicevolution of visual communication mediaeducation. We arc not fast enough indeveloping the appropriate grammar ofvisual communication media, whichdepends on vigorous research studies andempirically verified media theories. Weare faced with a challenging academicproblem and a complex educationaldilemma that we have come here todiscuss.

The aim of this Symposium is tobring into focus the specific issues raisedby the rapid developments of educationalcommunication media technologies and tocarefully analyse the process required forintegrating and applying them to the fieldsof visual literacy in general, and educationin particular. Our task, here, is bothcomplex and challenging. We have toincrease our awareness to face these

14

complexities and we must focus ourattention to the educational value of thesetechnologies. Since we cannot, and neednot, stop the rapid development, we mustincrease our efforts in establishing thebasic rules under which they operate.How can we adhere to this premise?

In my view, we can rise to thischallenge if we succeed in identifying theproblems, if we clarify the issuesinvolved, and if we establish strategies thatwill help us to understand the educationalmedia technologies. This Symposium hasthree sessions, each of which exploresthree specific goals as follows:

Session 1. New Visual Communi-cation Media Technologies

Provides an overview of the presentstatus of new communication mediatechnologies as they relate to thedevelopment of verbo-visual literacy ineducation, and includes papers dealingwith such particular issues as:

I. Information, design, graphics,text picture analysis, etc.

2. Computer graphics, electroniccinematography, hypermedia, computerimagery, etc.

3. Television/video technologies,switchers, editors, audio consoles, futuretelecommunications, etc.

Session 2. Research FindingsRelated to New Visual Communica-tion Media Technologies From aRange of Different Perspectives

Examines the views and discussesresearch findings of specialists on

4

audience effects--particularly on students--of such media.

1. Studies on video technologyaudience effects.

2. Special studies on verbo-visualcommunication-related factors.

3. Theses papers on new visualcommunication media technologies andtheir specific application to education, i.e.,distance education, etc.

Session 3. Future Strategies andInfrastructures

Establishes strategies and developsappropriate infrastructures which willenable the optimum future development ofthe field of visual literacy.

1. Summaries of theses papers.

2. Synopses of workshops,discussions, dialogues, and debates.

3. Evaluation and final planning.

We have gathered here, in Delphi,once known as the center of the world(01.tcpak6g tic rrig) where similargatherings were held, and suggestionswere once provided by Apollo'sspokeswoman, Pythia, to stated problemsand serious dilemmas. We are asking onebasic question:

Given the existing visualcommunication media technologieshardware and software, what strategiesmust we establish and what infrastructuresmust we develop that will enable us torespond, effectively, to technologyinnovations?

As Apollo's spokeswoman Pythiawas given three possible answers to fmchquestion, or three potential solutions to astated problem, so have we, today, at thisSymposium and in response to thisquestion, provided these three sessions, asthe three potential exegeses(interpretations) of the dilemma.

Verbo-Visual Literacy

We hope to receive suggestions fromall of you, gathered in this historical place,if not to resolve this centuries old problem,at least to familiarize ourselves with itsnew face.

Welcome to Delphi.

The Delphi Oracle being consultedby King Aegeus of Athens (from avase painting).

15

THE AGE OF PIXELS:A CALL FOR VISUAL LITERACY

byHerbert Zettl

I am very much flattered by Dr.Meta llinos' kind invitation to share mythoughts and ideas with such an augustbody of scholars. At the same time, I feelsomewhat burdened by the fact that I do soat the classical center of the world and inthe shadow of Apollo. While my remarksto open this 1993 Symposium on Verbo-Visual Literacy may be slightly lessoraculous than Apollo's, they are,nevertheless, intended as a challenge forall of us to deal with the age of pixels, theproblem of visual illiteracy despite arunaway visual technology, the need formore reliable methods and techniques ofaesthetic inquiry, the power discrepancybetween the visually literate and illiterate,and with the dangers of visual pollution.

But the age of pixels presents us alsowith an unprecedented opportunity todevelop and communicate with a new andpowerful visual language, very much inthe spirit of the Greek painter Zeuxis whobegan a whole new era of visual reality byadding attached shadows to his painting ofgrapes. Today, like Zeuxis some twenty-five hundred years ago, we stand at thethreshold of a new visual reality--the ageof pixels--and we must accept thechallenge and responsibility to guide itscourse. This Symposium is an importantstep toward this endeavor.

If we had been asleep for the past tenyears and deprived of television andmagazines, we would notice little changein content: The news still thrives on themisery and irrationality, rather than theachievements, of humankind; politicalcandidates still promise the heavens andthrow mud; and commercials still selleverything from deodorants to presidents.When watching soap operas, we wouldnot even be aware that we had slept, VanWinkle-like, for the past ten years.

However, we would be quitesurprised, if not bewildered, by the changein visual presentation. News presentationsrival the best of video games. Titles,people, and whole scenes freeze, stretch,shrink, turn, flip, and fly away intoinfinity, irrespective of the gravity andseriousness of the stories. The camera hasbecome restless, replacing deliberate andprobing insight with casual glance. Buteven the print media have copied thenervous blip culture of video: gaudycolors, lines, and ill-placed photos breakthe continuity of layout and render storyand advertising copy all butindistinguishable. We may ascribe suchrazzle-dazzle displayt, to the playful spiritof MTV youth. But I suspect that it ismuch more the product of competitivehardware and software manufacturers thancreativity exploding in a new Zeitgeist.

Many a graphics generator wasdeveloped and used not in order toenhance communication, but because thecompetition had a newer and seeminglybetter one. There is the erroneousassumption that it is the degree of pixelmanipulation, the way pictures dance,rather than the significance of the message,that holds us glued to the set. We tend tobuy the latest digital image equipmentsimply to keep up with the Joneses or tobe one step ahead of them. Resourcefulinventors delight in building paint boxesthat can generate millions of colors,regardless of whether we can perceive thatmany, or graphics generators that cansurrealistically morph things into animalsand animals into humans--all in real time.

I am always amazed by the speedand alacrity with which this newtechnology is applied to visualcommunication, regardless ofappropriateness as to style or content. For

6

example, some of the weather maps I seeon thc air look as though they had justbccn pulled off a first-grade bulletin board;but because they arc computer-generated,we tend to accept them at face value. And,apparently, nobody in television ncwsseems to think that there is anything wrongwith having even the most grisly warscene freeze, tumble, morph into a Romanmosaic, and then have its tiles explode inorder to make room for the next evidenceof human folly and anguish. What bothersme here is not that the age of pixels isprimarily hardware- and market-driven, orthat the new visual media try to forge anew aesthetic, but that we are so quick andeager to drop our aesthetic sensitivity andjudgment.

But being hardware-pushed andhaving creative people explore a newmedium in a rather free-wheeling,seemingly aimless way, is not altogetherbad. As any other creative endeavor, pixeltechnology needs this initial time of casualexploration, a time of play, free of socialresponsibility and cultural baggage.Eventually, it needs the discipline of art.And this is where we come in: as artists,scholars, critics, and educators. In each ofthese roles, we need to do some seriousthinking, talk to one another, make ourfindings public so that everybody else hasan equal chance to become visually literate.We face a dual challenge: (a) to helppeople attain even a modicum of visualliteracy so that, they become aware of theirvisual environment and recognize the moresubtle elements and techniques of aestheticmanipulation; and (b) to step up ourresearch efforts in visual communication inorder to help guide the age of pixels and,ideally, chart its course.

I do not have to dwell on theimportance of visual literacy education.Wc have all had a stake in it for quite sometime. Likc air, most people take theirvisual environment for granted, be it actualor virtual. They become aware of it onlywhcn it is pitch dark, or when thetelevision set goes on the blink. I am oftenpuzzled by how much highly literatepeople are illiterate when it comes to the


understanding of visual structures andaesthetic codes. I remember attending asymposium on television violence, inwhich well-known psychologists arguedthe causal connections between violentscreen behavior and blood on the street.Their aggression index for the screen eventwas based strictly on how often and howhard the actors punched each other on thenose. When I suggested that they mightbe missing an important factor in theiraggression index, namely aestheticviolence, I got a blank stare. Afterexplaining that I could make even atranquil scene communicate violencethrough lens distortion, editing, and aspecific sound track, I finally succeeded ingetting a brief and polite smile from one ofthem. I do not blame them; they simplydon't know any better. It is up to us toremedy this problem.

As concerns our research efforts, thcfield is fertile, and wide open. Even bydisregarding the new developments indigital visual communication, such asmultimedia and virtual reality, we still haveplenty to do when studying some of themore subtle aesthetic elements andstnictures of the traditional screen display.

I have spent considerable timeinvestigating the problems of structuringscreen space in news, and the specificstructural requirements of multi-screenpresentations. Many of you are probably..familiar with my efforts to define suchphenomena as graphication, first-andsecond-order space, and personification intelevision news, and to describe thcstructural and dramaturgical differencesbetween single-screen and multi-screenprescntations.

Just in case you have missed it, letme fill you in very briefly. When thenews anchor or host converses with aguest or field reporter who appears on asecondary screen, such as thc famous boxkeyed over the news anchor's shoulder ora large television set, we tend to extend thenews anchor's space (first-order space),into our own living room and share it withthe news anchor. In effect, we and the

A Call for Visual Literacy 7

news anchor are now watching togetherthe person who appears in the box or thesecondary television set. By sharing ourown space, we tend to bestow on the newsanchor more real-life qualities than theperson trapped in second-order space.

My multi-screen experiments, whichstretch over almost two decades, suggestan incredible potential for visual impactand effective learning. If done correctly,the simultaneous presentation of separateevents fuse into a new, more intense andcomplex, configuration very much likenotes in a musical chord. This relativelysimple extension of screen space has anamazing effect on all screen aestheticsfields. For example, zooms lose theirpower, lateral movement gains inprominence, and the off-screen space ofthe outside screens becomes severelycurtailed. By its ability to increasecomplexity while maintaining order andunity--very much in the cubist tradition--the multi-screen setup offers opportunitiesfor developing a new dramaturgyappropriate to the medium as well as ourcomplicated lives.

W hi le such phenomenologicalresearch may succeed in identifying subtleaesthetic factors and their relationships,and even our reaction to it, it does sowithout reliability. Thanks to myesteemed colleagues, we have at ourdisposal some instruments that can identifyand measure some of the more obviousaesthetic variables. But then, the resultsoften defy actual experience and commonsense, however numerically significant.We still lack instruments and methods thatare sensitive enough to detect and measurewith accuracy and reliability the moresubtle and complex aesthetic variables andstructures. The problem is not unliketrying to measure love.

And now, enter the personalcomputer and the age of pixels. Thedevelopments in multimedia and virtualreality are so rapid that even the peoplewho are developing it can' t keep up withit. I have the feeling that the computer hastaken over, telling us what to do.

I always thought that I had beenworking in multimedia all my professionallife--by combining text, still and movingimages and sound, into effectivemessages--until the computer told meotherwise and claimed authorship. Andwhen we look at some of the newmultimedia creations, they seem ratherprimitive in concept and execution. Thesmall, low-definition images do not carrythe involving power of impressionism, orthe fun of stamp collecting; they are merelyhard to see.

However, I feel that we are nowbarking up the wrong tree. Advancedcompression technology and moresophisticated algorithms will certainly takecare of such obvious problems. What ismuch more important for us to see is thatdigital multimedia systems have catapultedus into cyberspace in which the friendlyinteraction of humans and machines is thenorm rather than the exception. We nowhave an interactive learning system that canbe a true alternative to the classroom or thebook, provided that it is used correctly.For example, I have tried in vain toillustrate good and bad editing sequencesin a book. The problem is that the bookcannot show a sequence in motion, even ifwe shake the book a little. To seesequence motion in one's mind requiresediting experience. But then, these peopledon' t need my book. As we all know,teaching the aesthetics of continuityediting on an actual editing system is verycostly and inefficient. A good multimediaprogram could offer the student toexperiment with various shot selectionsand sequences, and to compare his or herselection with examples of good continuityediting, all under the student' s, rather thanthe instructor's, control. Multimediasystems are ideally suited to teach visualliteracy, assuming that the available imagesare literate in the first place. Because thismedium often shows several images at thesame time, we can use our discoveries inmulti-screen aesthetics to assure aneffective multi-image display.

As concerns virtual reality, I am surethat Plato would have preferred it to his

C

8

cave in trying to explain the really real, andKant would have had some moreammunition in explaining the differencebetween phenomena and noumena.

At first glance, virtual reality seemsnothing more than an extension ofmultimedia displays. All but the mostsophisticated systems deliver no more thancrude reality images that move innickelodeon fashion and that implypainting by numbers. Once again, I feelthat such criticism, however justified,misses the point. Virtual reality extendsnot only our visual field, but our control ofcyberspace, and immerses us in themediated reality.

A much more serious problem ofvirtual reality seems to be an ontologicalone: the confusion of lens-generated andcomputer-generated images. So far, theultimate goal of computer graphics isparadoxically not to simulate the realenvironment, the way we actually seethings, but the way a camera sees them.Many virtual reality displays apply suchwell-known lens distortions as z-axiscompression and stretching, forced linearperspective, variable depth of field, andzooms. Such distortions areunderstandable, if the computer takes as itsraw material the photographic image. Butif it is building the image synthetically,such lens-dependency makes no sense.Contrary to the lens, which transmitsinstantly the portion of the world it sees inanalog fashion, the computer must buildits world inductively bit by bit,painstakingly adding pixel after pixelthrough complex algorithms. Comparedto the lens, synthetic images seem severelylimited by available program modules.Here, wc probably need a reorientation ofwhat computer-generated visual imagesought to look like. Perhaps they shouldnot try to rival the lens-generated images,but rathcr create their own style of eye-percei ved, or brain-perceived,environments. It is up to us to identifynew aesthetic parameters and codes ofvirtual reality that arc structurallyappropriate and unique to this ncwmedium and its communication functions.


This is where HDTV went wrong. Insteadof capitalizing on its own uniqueattributes, such as real-time layering ofeffects, it tried to mimic the movies. Wecan prevent virtual reality from falling intoa similar ontological trap.

Finally, here is list of what Iconsider to be important short-range andlong-range objectives:

1. That we actively participate in thenew developments of visual technology,help people use the new digital technologywith imagination, but also with prudenceand responsibility, and that our demandfor new technology is based on social needrather than profit and greed.

2. That we step up our efforts tohelp everybody obtain a minimal degree ofvisual literacy. I feel that a knowledge ofhow images influence our thinking,feeling, and behavior, has become one ofthe major social powers, very much likemoney and information. The visuallyilliterate will always be vulnerable toirresponsible persuasion and will remaininfonnation-poor.

3. That we increase our systematicresearch in media aesthetics, that wcdevelop more effective methods andtechniques of aesthetic inquiry, and thatwe share information on an extendedbasis. I would like to see the I.V.L.A.enlarge its clearinghouse to include morefrequent electronic communication, and tobroaden the scope of the journal to newfields of electronic visual communication.I would like to see the journal publisharticles that struggle with significantquestions and tentative ideas as well as theones that claim to have definitive answers.

4. That, while vigorously pushingthe new frontiers in the age of pixels, wcbeware of the ever-increasing visualpollution and that we establish an ecologythat helps to keep our visual environmentrelatively smog-free, prevent visualapathy, and that help us see and feel withheightened awareness and joy.

19

A Call for Visual Literacy 9

5. That we always use visual mediawith prudence and responsibility, andwithin a basic ethical framework. And,finally,

6. That we always temper ourenthusiasm for modern technology with asense of history and purpose, andanalytical thinking with true understandingand compassion.

ANALYZING THE CONTENT OF VISUAL MESSAGES:METHODOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS

byRobert K. Tiemens

The visual image is so rich, soabundantly loaded with information, that itis impossible to describe or codify itscontent in any complete way. Theseemingly simple task of analyzing a 30-second television commercial which maycontain hundreds of images (depending onhow the unit of analysis is defined), canbecome a massive undertaking. Thosewho are engaged in the study of visualcommunication understand howimpossible it is to construct a verbaldescription of a visual message. Visualimages must be seen to be understood andappreciated.

The richness of the visual image canoften conceal many of the relevant featurescontained in a visual message. Even thetrained critic or observer sometimesoverlooks the subtle use of productiontechniques because of the overwhelmingamount of information that the visualmessage contains.

This paper is concerned with howthe content of visual communication textcan be systematically coded and analyzed.The paper sets out to achieve threeobjectives: (a) to identify specificproduction variables that shape the visualmessage--variables that give the messageits form, (b) to operationally define andsuggest a rationale for observing andanalyzing those production variables, and(c) to describe the development of aninteractive computer program thatfacilitates the systematic coding andanalysis of visual data.

Systematic analysis of visual contenthas received limited attention (Avery &Ticmens, 1992; Barbatsis & Guy, 1991;Barker, 1985; Mayer le & Rarick, 1989;Porter, 1987, Tiemens, 1978, 1979;Tiemens, Sil lars, Alexander, & Werling,

1988). Nevertheless, these studiesdemonstrate how empirical treatment of thedata can enrich the analysis andinterpretation of visual content.

One might suspect that to reducc avisual image to an array of empirical data,based on a discrete number of categories,would compound the difficult task ofcapturing the essence of the visualmessage. In fact, the opposite is true. Byreducing the visual data to a set ofnumbers, we often expose characteristicsof the message that are obscured by themassive amount of information containedin the images themselves.

There are two major obstacles inusing a content-analysis approach to studyvisual images. First, the simple task ofcoding visual data can become extremelytime-consuming due to the vast amount ofinformation that visual images contain.The researcher must, therefore, avoid thetemptation to code everything and bediscerning in establishing the parametersthat will guide the analysis. Second, evena reasonable number of coding categoriescan produce an immense amount of data,and the subsequent analysis of the data canbe unwieldy.

V/Z: An InteractiveComputerized Coding Program

VIZ is an interactive computerprogram designed to facilitate the codingof visual data. The program is still in thcdevelopment stage, but several prototypeshave been completed and tested.

VIZ presents a series of screenscalling for the input of data for eachvariable. As thc data arc entered thcprogram automatically advances to the nextscreen. That is, when a code "1" that

Analyzing Visual Messages 1 1

represents a category is entered at thekeyboard, the program automaticallyadvances to the next screen. Thus, onlyone key stroke is needed to enter the datumwhich expedites greatly the process ofcoding.

As the data are entered, a descriptionof the shot according to each code, isprinted on the top third of the computerscreen allowing the coder to confirm itsaccuracy. When all data have been enteredand confirmed as being correct, theinformation for each shot is written to asequential data file on the computer disk.This data file is formatted in such a waythat it can be used in any standardstatistical program.

Figure I shows a representativescreen from the VIZ program. Theexample illustrates how the selection ofMedium Shot as a descriptor for cameraframing leads to a sub-category (presentedthrough a pop-up window) that promptsthe coder to enter the number of personsshown in the shot. The figure alsoillustrates how a summary of the codedinformation is recorded on the screen.

Table I outlines the basic categoriesthat are included in the coding program.Each of these categories identify specificproduction variables that represent variousformal qualities of a visual message. Eachof these categories constitute a differentroutine in the VIZ coding program. Amore complete discussion of each variableand the rationale for using each variable inthe coding program follows.

Production Variables

Shot Length

The shot is the unit of analysis that istypically used to study visual content.'

IA shot is usually defined intraditional film terms as the continuous,uninterrupted filming by the camera.However, this definition does not accountfor changes in the visual content that occur

The relative duration (length) of a shotreveals two things: First, it indicates thedegree to which visual details of an eventare emphasized. The longer a visual imageremains on the screen, the more dominantit becomes; and the cumulative time whichan image is shown (combined for multipleshots) becomes a useful index forcomparing and contrasting visual content.

Second, shot length determines thecutting rate of visual pacing of a mediateevent. Zettl (1990) calls this manipulationof cutting rate tertiary motion and suggeststhat it can heighten the intensity of an eventand influence the viewer's perception ofwhether the event is fast or slow. Penn(1971) has shown that cutting rate canaffect the perceived potency of an activityof shot content, particularly when personsare depicted in the scene.

VIZ calculates the length ofindividual shots (in seconds) by simplysubtracting the beginning time of one shotfrom the beginning time of the next shot.Thus, coding of shot length isautomatically calculated from a minimumamount of information that the coderenters.2 A useful technique to facilitate thecoding of shot length is to insert orsuperimpose time-code markers on videotapes that are used for analysis. This

through movement of the objects withinthe frame or movement of the camera.Therefore, the VIZ program relies on anoperational definition of shot as a changein the visual content of framing of thescreen image.

2Typically, shot length is recorded innumber of seconds, though shorter unitsof measurement are possible and may bemore suitable for coding some kinds ofvisual content. Some television spotsincorporate shots that are less than 1/2second in length. In analyzing the contentof these messages it may be more useful tocode shot length by the number oftelevision frames. The present version ofVIZ limits coding of shot length toseconds.

12

procedure allows for very precise codingof shot length (to 1/30th of a second, ifdesired.

Transition

Transitions define the relationship

Figure 1. Representative Screens


between shots; that is, how two visualimages are related. Visual transitions, likeshot length, influence the visual rhythm orpacing of the event. A cut produces aquick and abrupt change from one shot tothe next. Combined with shots of shortduration, cuts heighten the fast pacing or

from the VIZ Coding Program

LAST SHOT CODED (ABC) #248 25:42 CLOSE UPOBJECT(S)

not Number 3 Time: 25:47 CUT

OMSHOT COMPOSITION

Camera Framing:

1. COVER SHOT (Faces or details not distinguishabla)2. WIDE ANGLE (Generally, more then 6 persons, signs, etc.)3. MEDIUM ANGLE (Framed at about the vaist)4. CLOSE UP (Shot includes person's shoulders)5. EXTREME CLOSE UP (Shoving face only)6. CLOSE UP FOREGROUND, MEDIUM SHOT BACKGROUND

/NM

LAST SHOT CODED (ABC) #248 25:42 CLOSE UPOBJECT(S)Shot Number 3 Time: 25:47 CUTFraming: MEDIUM SHOT

Nom SHOT COMPOsrnoN

Camera Framing:

1. COVER SHOT (Faces or details not distinguishable)2. WIDE ANGLE (Generally, more then 6 persons, signs, etc.)

elm MEDIUM SHOT

Hov many persons axe shovn in the shot?

This example illustrates how VIZ guides the researcher through the coding program.Coding of thc visual image as a medium shot (code 3) prompts the coder to enter thenumber of persons shown in the shot. If the shot is coded as an extreme close up (code 5),the pop-up window would not appear since the ECU is defined as showing only a person'sface. Instead the program automatically enters a "1" for the number of persons shown.

23

Analyzing Visual Messages 13

Table 1. Categories for Coding Visual Information

1. Identification of segment (e.g., shot number)2. Shot transition

a. Cutb. Dissolvec. Super Imposition or Long Dissolved. Special effects (e.g., wipes, flips, etc.)e. Camera/lens movement, movement of subject or object

3 . Length of segment (in seconds)4. Camera framing

a. Cover shotb. Wide angle shotc. Medium shot

(1) Number of persons shown in the shotd. Close up

(1) Number of persons shown in the shote. Extreme close up (only one person shown)f. Close up foreground, Medium shot background

5. Camera treatmenta. Objective camera treatmentb . Subjective camera treatment

6. Vertical camera angle of person(s) shown7. Vector orientation (camera position relative to person(s) shown)8. Camera/subject motion

a. Static (no motion)b. Subject movement

(1) Movement along the Z-axis(2) Movement only along the X-Y axis(3) Direction of movement not relevant to the shot

c. Camera movement(1) Zoom in/out(2) Dolly in/out

(a) Uses Z-axis staging(b) Does NOT use Z-axis staging(c) Z-axis not relevant to the shot

(3) PaniTilt(4) Boom, truck, etc.

d . Subject + Camera movement(1) Uses Z-axis staging(2) Does NOT use Z-axis staging(3) Z-axis not relevant to the shot

8. Shot contenta. Primary Category

(1) Sub-category 1(a) Sub-category 2(1) Sub-category 3

b. Etc.c. Etc.

14

tertiary motion of an event. Dissolves, onthe other hand, have a more fluid qualityand tend to slow the pace and convey amore relaxed mood. In addition,dissolves create a momentarysuperimposition which visually blendstwo images together.

Long dissolves (i.e., 2 seconds orlonger) strengthen the connection orvisual association between two shots. Asone shot slowly blends into the next, thevisual images are fused together into acomposite image, emphasizing therelationship between the visual content ofthe two shots. VIZ records superimpositions and long dissolves as aseparate category so that the researchercan examine these instances more closely.

Wipes, flips, rotations, squeezezooms, and other electronic transitionscan impart special connotations of howtwo images are related. An electronic flip,for example, could show a contrastbetween visual images suggesting thatthey represent dichotomies or opposingpoints of view. Similarly, Zettl (1990)demonstrates how a wipe presents theimage of the new shot pushing the oldone off the screen. In this manner, thewipe can suggest the replacement of oneconcept by another, visualized bypushing away one imagc and replacing itwith another.

camera movement, lens movement,and subject movement often alter thevisual content or makeup of the screenimage. For example, a closeup image ofa person or object may be interpreteddifferently whcn the lens zooms out toreveal the context of that image or toshow thc juxtaposition of another personor object. V/Z treats camera movementor lens movement as a traditional device,marking the end of one shot and thcbeginning of another. Of conise, thesechanges can be ignored by the researcherwhcn analyzing thc raw data produced bythe coding program.

Entering the choice of camera orsubject movement also cause the program


to branch to a sub-routine that allows forthe coding of more detailed information(see description under the subheading ofMotion).

Camera Framing

Camera framing alters the relativesize of an image within the defined spaceof the television frame, therebyinfluencing the visual emphasis orintensity of the image. Closeups creategreater intensity and give the imagegreater importance by directing theviewer's attention to eventful visualdetail. Wide angle shots, on the otherhand, diminish the relative size ofpersons or objects shown on the screenand thus de-emphasize their visualimportance.

Labels used to describe cameraframing (e.g., close-up, medium shot,wide-angle shot, etc.) are relative termsand are subject to individualinterpretation. Therefore, in coding suchdata it is useful to have more completedescriptions so that camera framing isconsistently defined for each shot. VIZincludes the following descriptors to aidcoders' judgments:

Cover shot (faces or details notdistinguishable)

Wide angle (generally more than 6persons shown on thescreen)

Medium shot (person shown oncamera framed at aboutthe waist)

Closeup (shot of person showshis or her shoulders)

Extreme Closeup (shows only theperson's face or less)

Closeup foreground, Medium shotbackground

If the shot is coded as a mediumshot or closer, VIZ prompts the coder toenter the number of persons shown oncamera. This becomes useful foridentifying two-shots or other groupingsthat might be relevant to the visualanalysis.


Alternatively, visual aids such asthe one shown in Figure 2, can be used toillustrate more explicitly variations incamera framing. Aids such as thesereduce the ambiguity that is inherent inthe traditional nomenclature of cameracomposition, and help to increase thereliability of coders' judgements.

Figure 2. Visual Diagram toFacilitate Coding of Camera

Framing

Camera Treatment

Most often the function of thecamera is to observe the event, in whichcase it is used as an objective camera.The viewpoint of an objective camera isas an unseen observer and the personsseen on the screen seem unaware of itspresence. Subjective camera treatmentoccurs when the person or personsshown on screen look at or talk directly tothe camera. In this case, the camera nolonger observes the event but ratherparticipates in the event. The camera, andconsequently the viewer, becomes moredirectly involved in the screen event.Objective/subjective camera treatment isan optional coding category in the VIZprogram.

Vertical Camera Angle

Armer (1986) describes how thevertical camera angle influences ourperception of a person shown on thescreen:

When we look down on someone,figuratively as well as literally, weplace him or her in an inferiorposition. He or she becomesKibordinate, recessive, smaller thanwe. . . .We look up to people werespect, who occupy a higherposition in society, who towerabove us intellectually orprofessionally. Similarly, when adirector places the camera beloweye level, looking up at a character,that character assumes a position ofdominance, of strength, ofimportance. (pp. 183-184)

There is considerable empiricalsupport for Armer's explanation(Kepplinger & Donsbach, 1990; Mandell& Shaw, 1973; McCain, Chilberg, &Wakshlag, 1977; Tiemens, 1970);however, as Kepplinger (1991) poim.cout:

. .research in this area does notshow a consistent effect for specificcamera angles. . . .The codesactivated by camera angle are nodoubt interacting with other codesthat are simultaneously processed.Together they construct the meaningand effect of a particular shot. (p.32)

Vertical camera angle becomesparticularly relevant when two personsare shown on camera, as in an over-the-shoulder shot. In such instances thevertical positioning of the camera willdetermine the relative screen placement ofthe two persons shown in the frame andthus give one person a visual advantageover the other. The person whose imageis higher in the frame generally takes on agreater dominance and creates the illusionthat he or she is looking down (literallyand figuratively) on the other person.This phenomenon was clearly evident inthe 1976 and 1988 presidential debates(Tiemens, 1978, 1989).

The VIZ coding program offers thefollowing choices for coding verticalcamera angle of a shot:

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16

High camera angle

Medium camera angle

Low camera angle

(Camera lookingDOWN atsubject)(Camerapositioned atEY E LEV EL)(Camera lookingUP at subject)

Camera angle not applicable

Vector Orientation

The degree to which televisedevents are visually unified and coherent isthe result of how vector combinationsmaintain an appropriate pattern of screendirection. For example, a cioseup of aperson facing screen-left juxtaposed witha shot of another person facing thescreen-right show converging vectorsand suggest that the two are looking at orinteracting with one another. If both

Figure


shots show the two individuals facing thesame direction, it suggests that oneperson is looking away from the other(continuing vectors). Zettl (1990)illustrates how, in a public speakingevent, the vector combination maintainsan expected speaker-audience relationshipif shots of the speaker and the audienccproduce a converging vectorcombination.

The V/Z program treats vectororientation as the relationship betweencamera position and the person(s) shownon camera. The program presents agraphic illustration to facilitate the codingof this data (see Figure 3). By analyzingthe vector orientations of juxtaposedshots, the researcher can establish theinstances in which a televisedpresentation uses converging orcontinuing vectors.

3

LAST SHOT CODED (ABC) #121 23:14 CLOSE UP-- DELEGATES/FLOOR AUDIENCE

Shot Number 13 Time: 23:21 DISSOLVEFraming: MEDIUM SHOT 2 PERSONS SHOWNShot Content: DELEGATES1FLOOR AUDIENCEDemographics: WHITE, MALE, 35 YEARS AND YOUNGERHIGH CAMERA ANGLE (Camera looking DOWN at subject)

um CAMERA POSITION

1. Front2. Left Front3. Left Side4. Left Back5. Back6. Right Back7. Right Side8. Right Front

4

3

2

6

7

Graphic aids can be presented on the screen to facilitate the coding of data. In thisexample, thc diagram illustrates the camera position (relative to the subject being show) tocode vector orientation.


Motion

Motion is a particularly relevantvariable because it attracts our attentionmore than any other visual element.Thus, we usually attend more to what ishappening on the screen when the imageis moving. Of course, this could bedetrimental if the motion detracts from thepoint of the message; i.e., it can createcommunication noise.

Zettl (1990) classifies motionaccording to three distinct types: (1)primary motion, the movement ofsubjects or objects in front of the camera,(2) secondary motion, movement inducedby the camera or lens, and (3) tertiarymotion, the movement and rhythmestablished through editing.3

An important element of primaryand secondary motion is the axis alongwhich the motion occurs. Zettl (1990)notes that motion along the z-axis (towardor away from the camera or along the axisthat the camera is pointing) is particularlyadvantageous on the small televisionscreen and creates one of the strongestindicators of depth. Thus, any codingscheme that includes motion as a primaryv -.liable should classify that motionaccording to whether it or not it occursalong the z-axis.

Figure 4 shows how the codingprogram accommodates the classificationof different levels of camera and subjectmovement. If subject movement orcamera movement are important variablesthe program cues the coder for moredetailed descriptions of the movement,including whether or not the movementoccurs along the z-axis.

Shot Content

3Tertiary motion is operationalizedbasically by the length of shots in a videosegment. For that reason I have includedthe concept of tertiary motion under thegeneral heading of shot length.

6 Pi

Shot content is a crucial variable invisual analyses. The relevance of othervariables used in the coding scheme isoften found in how they interact with, orare used to define the visual content of ashot. The categories that one can use toclassify visual content are endless andmust be chosen on the basis of thespecific research questions.

The coding program allows foreight general categories of visual content.Beyond these categories, three additionalsub levels of categories can be includedwith a maximum of six categories in eachsub level. Thus, if human subjectrepresents a general choice for shotcontent, sub levels may include gender,race, or age of the person shown oncamera.

Practical Considerationsand Advantages

An interactive computer program,such as the one described here, offers anumber of advantages for contentanalyses of visual media. An enumerationof some advantages follows.

A primary advantage of thetechnique is that the process of coding ismuch faster. Because each category isrepresented by a single screen (or pop-upwindows within the screen), there is noneed for complicated coding sheets.Entering a code for each variable isaccomplished by a single key stroke andthe laborious task of writing numbers byhand on a coding sheet is eliminated.When a code is entered, the programautomatically advances to the nextcategory.

The ease and efficiency of enteringdata arc also facilitated by having theprogram enter some data automatically.For example, each unit of analysis (in thiscase a shot number) is identified andentered to the data file automatically.Siinilarly, the variable of shot length iscalculated by the program and enteredinto the data file automatically; the coder

18 Verbo-Visual Literacy

Figure 4

LAST SHOT CODED (ABC) *248 25:42 CLOSE UP--OBJECT(S)

Coding Shot *249 at 25:47Medium Shot 2 persons FemaleHigh Cemera Angle Front left

= MOTION WITHIN THE FRAME1. Static (no molion)2. Subject Movement3. Camera Movement4. Subject Movement + Camera Movement

LAST SHOT CODED (ABC) #248 25:42 CLOSE UP--OBJECT(S)Coding Shot *249 at 25:47Medium Shot 2 persons FemaleHigh Camera Angle Front left

MOTION WITHIN THE FRAME1. Static (no motion)2. Subject Movement3. Camera MovementSUBJECT + CAMERA MOVEMENT

1. Zoom!dollyin2. Zoornidolly out3. Pan4. Tilt5. Other (e.g., boom upldovn, truck, etc.)

LAST SHOT CODED (ABC) #248 25:42 CLOSE UPOBJECT(S)Coding Shotit249 at 25:47Medium Shot 2 personsHigh Camera Angle

MOTION WITHIN THE FRAME1. Static (no motion)2. Subject Movement3. Camera Movement-= SUB JECT + CAMERA MOVEMENT

1. Zoom/dolly inZOOM/DOLLY OUT

FemaleFront left

T1. Utilizes z-axis staging2. Does NOT utilize z-zxis staging3. Z-zxis not relevant to shot

Sub-categories of coded information are presented by windows. In this example, threelevels of information about motion arc presented. Organizing the categories in this fashionhelps the coder to proceed in a logical manner from one step to the next.

29


only needs to enter thc ending time foreach shot.4

VIZ can be programmed to skipcategories which are not relevant andautomatically enter a zero data code. Forexample, if a shot is coded as a covershot the program will skip thosecategories that call for close-up detail(e.g., number of persons in the shot;gender, race, or age of persons shown inthe slot, vertical camera angle, etc.).

The program prohibits codes whichare out of range from being entered, thusreducing the likelihood of miscoding thevisual material. For example, if themaximum data code is 6 and the coderenters a higher number, the program willsound a beep, alerting the coder that adifferent code must be entered. Similarly,the time marking the ending of each shotmust be greater than the ending of theprevious shot, thus reducing the chancesof entering wrong data.

Internal checks for reliability orconsistency of the data are built into theprogram whenever possible. Forexample, if a medium shot is coded asshowing more than six persons within theframe, the program will remind the coderthat the shot should be classified as awide angle shot and offer the opportunityto recode the shot.

Finally, a major advantage is thatthe data are written directly to a disk filewhich can be translated to a spreadsheetprogram or as a data file for a statisticalprogram such as SAS, SPSS,MINITAB, etc. This avoids the step ofwriting the data by hand and thenrekeying it for computer analysis. Noneof the data is coded by hand or in writtenform which further diminishes thelikelihood of coding errors.

4The beginning of time of each slotis automatically recorded as the time atwhich the previous shot ended, but thccoder does have thc option of entering adifferent beginning time.

30

Finally, we must recognize that anempirical analysis of visual content issimply one approach toward interpretingthe text of televised messages and cannotstand by itself. Empirical analysis ofvisual content must be accompanied byother, more qualitative, methods ofinterpretation. It has the advantage,however, of rendering a complete andobjective picture of what the visualimages contain. A tremendous strengthof the content analysis approach, assuggested by this paper, can rendertremendous insights by revealing nuancesthat are otherwise overlooked. As such, itcan enhance our understanding andinterpretation of visual messages.

References

Armer, A. (1986). Directing televisionand film. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Avery, R. K., & Tiemens, R. K.(1992). Tracking the eye: Aninvestigation of a combatphotographer's visual odyssey.Feedback, 33(1), 12-15.

Barbatsis, G., & Guy, Y. (1991).Analyzing meaning in form: Soapopera's compositional construction of"realness." Journal of Broadcastingand Electronic Media, 35, 59-74.

Barker, D. (1987). Television productiontechniques as communication.Critical Studies in MassCommunication, 2, 234-246.

Kepplinger, H. M. (1991). The impactof presentation techniques:Theoretical aspects and empiricalfindings. In F. Biocca (Ed.),Television and political advertising.Vol. 1 (pp. 173-194). Hillsdale, NJ:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Kepplinger, H. M., & Donsbach, W.(1990). The impact of cameraperspectives on the perception of aspeaker. Studies in EducationalEvaluation, 16, 133-156.

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Mandell, L. M., & Shaw, D. L. (1973).Judging people in the news--unconsciously: Effect of cameraangle and bodily activity. Journal ofBroadcasting, 17, 353-362.

Mayer le, J., & Rarick, D. (1989). Theimage of education in primetimenetwork television series 1948-1988.Journal of Broadcasting andElectronic Media, 33, 139-157.

McCain, T. A., Chilberg, J., &Wakshlag, J. (1977). The effect ofcamera angle on source credibility andattraction. Journal of Broadcasting,21, 35-46.

Penn, R. (1971). Effects of motion andcutting-rate in motion pictures. A VCommunication Review, 19, 29-51.

Porter, M. J. (1987). A comparativeanalysis of directing styles in HillStreet Blues. Journal of Broadcastingand ElectronicMedia, 31, 323-334.

Tiemens, R. K. (1970). Some


relationships of camera angle tocommunicator credibility. Journal ofBroadcasting,14, 483-490.

Tiemens, R. K. (1978). Presidentialdebates: An analysis of visualcontent. Communication Mono-graphs, 45, 362-370.

Tiemens, R. K. (1979). The visualcontext of argument: An analysis ofthe September 25, 1988 presidentialdebate. In B. Grombeck (Ed.),Spheres of argument (pp. 140-146).Annandale, VA: Speech Communica-tion Association.

Tiemens, R. K., Sillars, M. 0.,Alexander, D. C., & Werling, D. S.(1988). Television coverage of JesseJackson's speech to the 1984Democratic National Convention.Journal of Broadcasting andElectronicMedia, 32, 1-22.

Zettl, H. (1990). Sight, sound, motion:Applied media aesthetics (2nd ed.).Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

ASSESSMENT OF THE VISUAL IMAGE IN FILM,TELEVISION AND THE NEW VISUAL MEDIA:

RESEARCH DESIGN

byJames E. Fletcher

The visual image, whether a part ofthe new visual communication mediatechnologies or of education in general,Doses particular challenges for quantitativeresearch.

The new media and education differin the context provided for the image. Ineducation the image is controlled by aninstructor or by the designer ofinstructional environment. An institution--the college or the school system--bindsstudent and teacher into a common fabric.When speaking of visual media scholarstend to understand and explain imagesfrom the perspective of the institutionswhich prepare and market image-bearingmedia. This distinction affects the conductof research into the nature of the image aswell.

For purposes of this essay imagewill be defined as a presentation which isnot part of the here and now of itsaudience: It represents a discontinuity intime and space from the immediate visualexperience of the viewer (Fletcher, 1979).To describe precisely the effects of someelement of a visual image or series ofimages the researcher must be able tospecify (a) the institutional context inwhich the image is presented, (b) thedistance in time and space from the image,to the time and space represented by thecontext of the viewer, and (c) the relativeprominence of the image as a proportion ofthe total visual field of the viewer; (d) inaddition, the researcher must be able todescribe the contents of the visual image inunambiguous fashion.

If the environment of the viewercannot be specified, then the researcherwill not know whether thc responses to animage in that environment is really a

response to the environment rather than tothe image. Likewise, if the content of theimage cannot be describedunambiguously, the researcher will notknow which visual element should becredited with the effect measured in theviewer.

Experiments--Sacred Cows or Bum Steers

The experiment as a tool of scientificinquiry presumes a relatively well defineddomain of investigation in which scholarshave strong expectations as to therelevance of the measures employed. Thelogic of the experiment is that a number ofvariables relevant to the phenomenonunder study are held constant or controlledwhile one or more other variables aresystematically manipulated and still othersmeasured for effect. Those variableswhich are systematically manipulated arecalled independent, while those measuredare called dependent (Fletcher, 1978).

One of the first steps in assessing thevalidity of an experiment is to assume thatthe independent (manipulated) variableshave been systematically changed acrossthe experimental images to be presented tostudy participants so that these changes--and these only--may be taken as the reasonthat viewers respond differently to theimages.

Consider an example from the studyof image asymmetry. Asymmetry isspecified with relative ease: if right half ofimage is not the mirror of left half, then animage is asymmetric. Zettl (1973)identifies a series of factors which maymake an asymmetric image rightasymmetric or left asymmetric. Theyinclude focus of attentiol pictorial weight,

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21

magnetism of lite frame, index vectors.Most of these factors are difficult to applyunambiguously to images. Asymmetryand opposite asymmetry, on the otherhand, are relatively easy to specify andaffirm. As a consequence, validating twoimages as asymmetric and mirrorasymmetric may be a relatively simplematter a photographic slide projected as itcame from the camera and reversed left toright in a slide projector represent anunambiguous manipulation of asymmetry(Metal linos, 1985). A manipulation muchmore difficult to validate would be that ofimages which must differ from 30 percentto 60 percent left asymmetric.

Experiments may not be particularlyeffective in studying visual images untilthere is a more complete catalog ofdimensions along which a visual imagecan be unambiguously described. At thesame time, however, there are goodreasons to employ some of the techniquesof experimentation in designs for the studyof visual images.

Elements of Study Design

One useful way of examining studydesign is to consider sources of thevariance evident in the dependent measures(measures of effect upon an audiencemember or consumer) employed in thestudy. Consider a study in which grade.school students are asked to report on afive step like/dislike scale their liking ofvarious images presented by slideprojector. The resulting judgments ofliking provide a range of values for eachimage. The variance in this measure (X)for any one of the slides presented in thestudy could be described by this model:

var = var X var s var V var

where var I variance due to imagemanipulation

var x variance evident inmeasure X

var s - variance due to uniquequalities of thestudy participant


var v - variance due to studyenvironment

var E- variance due to errorin measure X

The part of the variance in the dependentmeasure which is due to the studymanipulation must be isolated in the study.Each participant is responding with her orhis own peculiarities, for example. Theeffects of individual differences may beremoved from the liking measure by usinga large sample of participants wheredifferences will be less confounding. Or astudy design such as the repeatedmeasures design may be employed toremove this source of variance statistically.Or the sample may be recruited frompersons expected to have the same inherentbiases in responding to asymmetric images(such as elderly left handed portraitpainters from Poughkeepsie.).

The study design may remove theinfluence of variance due to environmentby holding constant the environment inwhich the image is presented. This iscommonly done by conducting the studiesin laboratory settings. One considerationamong others is that the image occupiesthe same segment of the visual field ofeach study participant.

Variance due to error in thedependent measure is reduced to aminimum by selecting measures which archighly reliable, as indexed by a reliabilitycoefficient. The newer or more complexthe dependent measure, the more importantit is that the research report include anestimate of its reliability.

If in a study of visual images it hasbeen possible to control or account forvariance due to individual differences instudy participants, variance due to thestudy environment and variance due tomeasurement error, the design is said to bcsensitive, permitting the researcher toequate a measured difference in responseto difference in images.

33

Research Design 23

Measures and MeasurementTechniques

An explosion in interest inquantitative measures appropriate to studyof visual images has occurred in the pasttwo decades. Some of the new measuresare the consequence of greater interest invisual images as a subject for study.Others are a byproduct of technologydeveloped for other uses. Measures andmeasurement techniques will berepresented in this discussion by (a)magnitude estimation scaling, (b) Clozeprocedure, (c) multivariate measures offeelings, (d) tachistoscope, (e) eye-tracking, and (f) electrodermal recording.

Magnitude Estimation Scaling

Magnitude estimation scaling is amethod of soliciting audience judgmentswhile keeping restraints upon thosejudgments to a minimum (Mee land &Kaplan, 1967). The study participant isasked to employ an interior standard for aquality--attractiveness, for example. Theparticipant may use any number systemwhich comes to mind, so long as numbersincrease as perceived attractivenessincreases and to the same extent. Thusone subject may see Picture A as having anattractiveness equal to 1/4; Picture B as 10.Another subject may judge Picture A tohave an attractiveness equal to 10, PictureB to have an attractiveness equal to 3500.The result is a set of numerical judgmentsfrom participants that go far beyond thethree to seven steps of common perceptualscales--at least in terms of power todiscriminate.

When the responses are analyzed,the researcher puts each score in ratio tothe first judgment offered--yielding a ratioscale of attractiveness. In a study of theattractiveness of landscape photographspresented in opposite asymmetries themeasure was used to estimate whether"indexing vector" or position of midlinewith respect to mass of object of interest(Dondis, 1973, pp. 92-93), is the betterpredictor of more attractive asymmetry.Results (Fletcher, 1979) indicated that

direction of perceived asymmetry interactswith experience of the viewer, but thatposition of midline with respect to mass isa useful predictor of more attractiveasymmetry.

Magnitude estimation scaling worksbest when participants are able to thinkabout their judgments before recordingthem and when a series of judgments arerequired in the same study session. It isappropriate to study of still images likelyto differ in subtle ways as judged byparticipants. It is not appropriate to suchcomplex visual presentations as televisionor motion picture dramas.

Cloze Procedure

The early development of Clozeprocedure was as a measure of readability(Wimmer & Dominick, 1991). Whenemployed as a measure of memory orrecall, Cloze procedure is well suited totelevision or film presentations in whichspecific memory of a rule or of anargument are desirable goals for the visualpresentation studied.

The instrument for Cloze procedureis a copy of the verbal text of thepresentation in which one out of every fivewords is removed. The study participantis asked to write in the missing words.The frequency with which blanks appearin the copy can be varied by theinvestigator to make the task easier orharder.

The strength of Cloze procedure as ameasure of recall or memory is that it hashigh reliability. It works well incombination with other measures when theanalysis will involve such multivariateroutines as factor analysis, multipleregression, discriminant analysis, orcanonical correlation.

Measures of Feeling

Few areas in the behavioral studieshave occasioned more literature orcontroversy than that of human emotion.In many studies emotion is taken as a

generalized state; in others, it is conceivedas a state of arousal with a cognitive label(Schachter & Singer, 1962). One of thedifficulties is that for study participants toidentify which emotion they areexperiencing, they must use language, andthe use of language may change theemotion either as it is experienced or as itis remembered.

An attractive alternative for capturingthe affective reactions of viewers ofimages is the measurement of feelings.Recent work at Duke University hasdeveloped a series of reliable scales whichreflect feelings as participants are able toshare thcm. Unlike some other measuresthese scales differentiate weak andmderately experienced feelings as well asthose that are intense (Goodstein, Eden, &Moore, 1989). The scales look like this:

Upbeat Feelings

Agree

Agree

Agree

Agree

Agree

Agree

Warm

Amused5 4 3 2 1

Carefree5 4 3 2 1

Cheerful5 4 3 2 1

Happy5 4 3 2 1

Playful5 4 3 2 1

Silly5 4 3 2 1

Feelings

Disagree

Disagree

Disagree

Disagree

Disagree

Disagree

AffectionateAgree 5 4 3 2 1 Disagree

HopefulAgree 5 4 3 2 1 Disagree

KindAgree 5 4 3 2 1 Disagree

PeacefulAgree 5 4 3 2 1 Disagree

WarmAgree 5 4 3 2 I Disagree

Skeptical Feelings

CriticalAgree 5 4 3 2 1 Disagree


DisinterestedAgree 5 4 3 2 1 Disagree

OffendedAgree 5 4 3 2 1 Disagree

SuspiciousAgree 5 4 3 2 1 Disagree

SkepticalAgree 5 4 3 2 1 Disagree

Uneasy Feelings

Agree

Agree

Agree

Agree

Agree

Agree

Sad5 4 3 2 1 Disagree

Uneasy5 4 3 2 1 Disagree

Lonely5 4 3 2 1 Disagree

Anxious5 4 3 2 1 Disagree

Regretful5 4 3 2 1 Disagree

Concerned5 4 3 2 1 Disagree

Scores on these scales are not onlyreliable; they are relatively independent ofother measures. In studies of imagecomposition they will provide gooddiscriminators of the overall effect ofchanges in the relative position orperspective of objects in the image.

Tachistoscope

The tachistoscope--a device forcontrolled exposure to visual experience--is widely used in psychology and inreading research. A common form oftachistoscope appropriate for studies ofvisual communication is a slide projectorequipped with a shutter which whenactivated allows a slide to be projected fora study participant. The activationmechanism permits the shutter to open fora precisely measured period of time.

The idea is that the tachistoscopeallows the image to be seen in too littletime for the viewer to rationalize or plan anexploration of its parts. Thus thc firstexposure of an image might bc .1 second.After the exposure thc participant is askedto report whatever she saw of the image.Then a second, longer exposure of the

35

Research Design

image is presented and the participantasked, "What additional things have younow seen in the image?" (Dunn, Barban,Krugman, & Reid, 1990, P. 489;Zikmund, 1989, p. 282).

The data produced by thistachistoscope procedure are the meanaccumulated length of exposure requiredfor a particular visual element to bereported as seen. The sooner that elementis reported by study participants, the moreprominent that element is considered to bein the image.

The tachistoscope is useful incomparing images which are equivalent inpurpose but different in the relativeprominence the designer intends to givesome feature of the composition. The stepsfrom one period of exposure to another arenecessarily rough. Investigators botheredby this limitation of tachistoscopes willwant to investigate eye-tracking.

Eye-Tracking

Eye-tracking equipment is extremelyexpensive--so expensive, in fact, that mostinvestigators rent the equipment from theApplied Sciences Laboratories ofWaltham, Massachusettsa part of MIT.

Eye-tracking devices record themovement of the eye as it scans an image.Most such devices do this by reflecting asmall light source off the flat spot of thecorneum. This fine point of light is thensuperimposed upon a video representationof the visual image viewed by the studyparticipant.

In the early days of eye-trackingstudies the study participant's head washeld in a sort of vice, or the participantwas asked to bite into a wax mouthpiece tohold her head in a fixed position.

The eye-tracking apparatus of todayis much less demanding of the participant.A television camera and light source torecord the direction of gazc duringexposure to the visual image is locatedseveral feet away from the participant.

25

The record of the participant's exposure tothe image is a videotape showing thelocation of the point of gaze as a cross.Figures near the margin of the frame showthe relative diameter of the pupil of the eyeat each moment. A cross representing thepoint of gaze and other information areshown superimposed over the visualimage being studied.

The videotape is then subjected toanalysis by computer. Important areas ofthe visual image being studied aredesignated as boxes. The computersummarizes the entire exposure of theparticipant to an image by accumulatingsuch numerical indices as the length oftime before point of gaze reaches aparticular box, dwell time or thecumulative time during which the point ofgaze rests in each box, the number andlength of fixations in each box, the numberand degrees of movement for each saccadein each box, the number and duration of allfixations in each box, and the averagepupil dilation in each box.

This is a large volume of informationon the behavior of the eye during exposureto a visual image. Unfortunately, sciencefalls short of the capacities of technology.We are not entirely sure, for instance, howthe ratio of number of saccades to degreesof arc movement in saccades are related--nor what such relationships imply aboutlearning or perception of visual images(see Groner, Menz, Fisher, & Monty,1983).

At the same time, for an investigatorthese detailed records mean thatdifferences can be measured betweenvisual images that differ in relatively smallways. It is also true that dwell timetypically enjoys a moderate to highcorrelation to reports of recall and affectrelated to the image. While eye-trackingstudies have a history of nearly a halfcentury, relatively few have beenpublished. Most of these have beenstudies involving small samples. Largestudies with many images in the analysisarc now being undertaken, and the

3 C

26

technique is one that should intereststudents of visual images in the future.

Electrodermal Recording

Electrodermal recording--measuringelectrical changes in the skin--began morethan a century ago (Neumann & Blanton,1970). The preferred electrodermalmeasurement method today is continuousrecording of skin conductance (SC).

In SC measurement two electrodesare placed in a palm of the studyparticipant. The electrodes are made of asilver/silver chloride mix; they contact theskin through a low concentration saline gel(.5 % N NaCI). A tiny voltage (.2 volts) isapplied to the skin, and the ease withwhich the current passes is recordeddigitally in a computer.

The skin of the palm is made a betteror worse conductor by action of thesympathetic nervous system in response tocentral nervous processing of stimulationfrom the environment of the studyparticipant. The mechanisms in the skinwhich respond to information processingare .the walls of the sweat glands whichbecome more or less permeable to thepotassium ion--more permeable and moreconductive as the individual takes in moreinformation from surroundings (Fletcher,1985).

So far as studies in the informationprocessing of visual images is concerned,thc most promising construct associatedwith SC is that of the orienting response(OR). This system of ideas was born inRussian neurophysiology (Sokolov, 1963)and has been influential in the rest of theworld in thc past two decades. Variousindices based on the OR have been relatedto common notions of attention and toinvolvement or allocation of informationprocessing resources. The conditions inthe perceptual environment of anindividual which give rise to changcs inSC have been summarized (Fletcher,1985):


(1) message features that to theindividual are unpredictable (becausethey are novel, incongruous,inherently uncertain, or greater orsmaller than expected in somerespect); (2) message features thatimply an obligation to act, eithermentally or physically (because thereceiver's name is called; a referencegroup norm is invoked; otherprevious experience involving threator action is evoked); and (3) messagefeatures that are directly at odds withthe policies or states then governingthe receiver's behavior. (p. 99)

Allocation of information processingresources is indexed by the moment-by-moment average of SC levels by theresearch of a number ofpsychophysiologists (Dawson, Filion, &Schell, 1989; Filion, Dawson, Schell,Hazlett, 1991). This notion fits at leastone definition of communicationinvolvement: "Commitment of the centralnervous system to devote attention to amessage" (Fletcher & Shimell, 1989).

When mean SC is measured as anindividual views the images of televisionor film, it represents the capacity of theimages to dominate the experience of theviewer. When this average increasesduring viewing, the images are havinggreater influence upon the viewer, and viceversa.

The prospect of SC measures appliedto studies of the imagery of new mediapromises new understandings of the timeand persuasive vectors created by thcvisual components of multimediapresentations, enhanced television andvirtual reality. The measures are highlyreliable (reliability coefficients typicallyabove .9) and extremely sensitive. Theirapplication to the study of static imageshas not been extensive to this point, but inthe few studies available the measureshave performed well when time ofexposure was controlled across thesample.

3 Pig

Research Design

Summary

While the objectives of quantitativeresearch on visual images do not at themoment warrant the experiment asprincipal study design, the techniques andrigor of experimentation have great appeal.Gradually the body of information aboutvisual causes and human effects willjustify a science in this area.

Fifteen years ago an earlier paper onthis topic ended with these words,repeated here as a coda to this discussion:

But more important than newmeasures and new procedures, newcurious eyes and ears need to scan theexotic terrain of visual communication,finding in it not only a Shangri-La formystic contemplation and scholarlyrapture--but a rational encyclopedia ofinductively based generalizations which,when mastered, offer new views of humancapacity to share both personal insight andcollective dream. . .how we got to be thisway. . .how we are shaping the visualuniverse. . .for our posterity. . .and forour own maturity (Fletcher, 1978).

References

Dawson, M., Filion D., & Schell, A.(1989). Is elicitation of the autonomicorienting response associated withallocation of processing resources?Psychophysiology, 26, 560-572.

Dunn, S. W., Barban, A. M., Krugman,D. M., & Reid, L. N. (1990).Advertising: Its role in modernmarketing (7th ed.). Hinsdale, IL:Dryden.

Filion, D., Dawson, M., Schen, A., &Hazlett, E. (1991). The relationshipbetween skin conductance orientingand the allocation of processingresources, Psychophysiology, 28,410-424.

Fletcher, J. E. (1979). The wordlessdimension. In T. Gamble (Ed.),

27

Intermedia: Communication andsociety. Durham, NC: Moore.

Fletcher, J. E. (1978). Empirical studiesof visual communications: Somemethodological considerations. Paperpresented at the annual meeting of theSpeech Communication Association,Minneapolis, MN. (ERIC DocumentReproduction Service No. ED 166737)

Fletcher, .1. E. (1978). Physiologicalresponses to the media. In J. R.Dominick & J. E. Fletcher (Eds.),Broadcasting research methods (pp.89-102). Boston, MA: Allyn &Bacon.

Fletcher, J. E. & Shimell, J. (1989,October). Physiological indices ofcommunication involvement andattention in the analysis of broadcastcommercials. Paper presented at theAssociation for Consumer Research,New Orleans, LA.

Goodstein, R. C., Edell, J. A. & Moore,M. C. (1989). When are feelingsgenerated? Assessing the presence andreliability of feelings based onstoryboards and animatics.Unpublished manuscript, FuquaSchool of Business, Duke University,Durham, NC.

Groner, R., Menz, C., Fisher, D. F. &Monty, R. A. (1983). Eye movementsand psychological fiinctions:International views. Hillsdale, NJ:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Mee land, T. & Kaplan, R. L. (1967).Application of magnitude estimationscaling weights to reports of insurgent-inspired events. Report prepared forUSMACTHAI under supervision ofOSD/ARPA RDFU-T (DefenseDocumentation Center No.AD921305).

Metallinos, N. (1985). Empirical studiesof television composition. In J. R.Dominick & J. E. Fletcher (Eds.),

28

Broadcasting research methods (pp.297-311). Boston, MA: Allyn &Bacon.

Neumann, E., & Blanton, R. (1970). Theearly history of electrodermal research,Psychophysiology, 6, 453-475.

Schachter, S. & Singer, J. E. (1962).Cognitive, social, and physiologicaldeterminants of emotion.Psychological Review, 69, 379-399.

Sokolov, E. (1963). Perception and theconditioned reflex (S. Waydenfeld,Trans.). Oxford: Pergamon.


Wimmer, R. D. & Dominick, J. R.(1991). Mass media research: Anintroduction (3rd ed.). Belmont, CA:Wadsworth.

Zettl, H. (1973). Sight sound motion:Applied mediaoaesthetics. Belmont,CA: Wadsworth.

Zi km und, W. G. (1989). Exploringmarket research (3rd ed.). Chicago,IL: Dryden.

31)

A, L' 4 1- IS 1: 1 / ( 'i" )1141/IN A ".1 TA" -IN1 1 I:" P I 1 7 Ei- 'HWY- Od.","1 I.-:sv

EDUCATION IN ELECTRONICS: A MULTIMEDIAMETAPHOR

byGeorge Cambourakis, Eleftherios Kayafas,

Vassili Loumos and Ioannis Tsatsakis

Introduction

Education, by means of computers,especially since CAI (Computer AidedInstruction) was introduced in the late50's, went through a lot of stages betweensuccess and failure and faced a lot ofcriticism. After thousands of computerinstallations in elementary and secondaryschools (Price, 1991) and the relevantstudies, educational software has beenenriched with important assistanc.: toolsfrom multimedia technology.

Great importance is given to thedefinition of the educational material byteachers themselves, something that in thefirst steps of CAI applications had beenmisunderstood. Today, nobody doubts thepositive results of the computer'sinvolvement in education. Some of theobvious advantages are:

immediate access in every layerof knowledge.unlimited time of occupation,flexibility in the choice ofpresentation media, comparedwith the traditional supervisoryeducational assistance tools,reduction of the educational time(Price, 1991).

Education in electronics is arepresentative case that combines almostall the methods met in a CAI application,such as:

hypermedia/hypertext,drafting, animation,topology recognition (in thesense of connection analysis),drill and practice methods,

41

tutorial systems,simulations, similarities,metaphors,knowledge representation.

Aiding tools are available by now, inorder to build an educational environmentthat simulates the tasks and the skills metin an electronics laboratory:

Circuit Analysis, Synthesis andSimulation Software

All these programs use sophisticatedfeatures developing complex circuits,which otherwise would require a greateffort. But as the complexity of electronicdesign is increasing, the correspondingtheoretical concepts are becoming moreinvolved and complicated. From thestudent point of view, the effort spent indrawing lines, busses, etc., as well aslearning basic and advanced theory is quitenecessary, but also time consuming andvery difficult to understand. Therefore,these sophisticated tools are not alwayssuitable as teaching aids for basic coursesin electronics and electronic design.

Mathematical packages forFormula Editing and Processing. Onecould proceed with these tools byconstructing equivalents of transformationformula, and using them parallel withother applications.

Instrumentation synthesis andsimulation, using special software andhardware peripherals. It could be anexcellent assisting tool for simplifying therequired materials.

Drafting tools for imageprocessing and enhancement .

31

Context-sensitive help markers,that can help the author in the constructionof hypertexts.

Authoring tools and authoringlanguages. Although authoring systemsare easy to use and can reduce dramaticallythe developing time, a certain amount oftime is spent in learning how to use themand how to build complex tasks, in whichcase, a third generation language would beeasier, faster, and much more flexible.

Evolutionary database systems,using object oriented structures.

Multimedia peripheralsimplemented with the appropriate softwaresuch as video controllers and soundsynthesizers.

Programming these tools is notalways an effortless process. A certaincapabi I i ty i n prog ram m i ng is requi red toconnect and combine all these discretetools into an integrated and interactiveenvironment.

On the other hand, such animplementation using all these discreteprograms as background processes wouldconfuse the author and overcharge thetrainees with additional commands andmenus.

Furthermore, no simulation systemwill familiarize the trainees with electroniccircuits, as much as a real electroniclaboratory, but such an approachrepresents an inexpensive and veryattractive solution.

Architecture and interface designhave goals in common, to create active,attractive and operative environments.This principal will be kept in this paper.

Goals and Strategy

According to the above thoughts, agood approach is to build somc of theset(x)ls considering the level of utilization.We will use the chapter of operationalamplifiers as a tutorial example in


introducing novice students to electronicsthrough a computer environment, in aform of experiment pages.

This allows teachers to prepareeffortlessly their educational material andthe students to experiment on the behaviorof electronic circuits. They can change thevalues of parametric elements and observethe output in a graphical window. Theapplication is composed of three discretemodules: The Author, The Student, andThe Examiner.

The Author is an interactive modulethat facilitates the preparation of theeducational material, creates pages fromimages of electronic designs, organizesthem in a object- oriented database, anddefines text parts from the above icons asparameters, in order to obtain furthercalculation capabilities on transientformulae functions.

The Student module contains anintroduction to the base theory of op-amps, help utilities, examples, andreference educational sources. It allowsthe construction of user sessions inconjunction with the desired skills takinginto account the user's capabilities andknowledge. It enables the user toexperiment on preselected pages bychanging the values of the electronicelements and observing the output. In thisway the user defined values are evaluatedas formal parameters in the transientformula. The result is shown in aappropriate graphical window (virtualinstrument).

The Examiner finally creates aquestionnaire on the logic of the circuit toexamine the user's understanding of theeducational material. The module watchesthe user's achievement and degree ofunderstanding. It controls the answers byscaled criteria and redefines the skill levelby adapting the user's session to hisperformance.

Not all of the implementationdepends on teacher's analysis, choice ofeducational, material, and authoring. An

Education in Electronics 33

effort should be made to solve thefollowing problems.

1. Database consistency againstimproper operations by novices.

2. Compatibility between variousavailable peripherals (e.g., different screenresolutions, different CPU speed thatinfluences the animation speed, etc.).

3. Data exchange, while switchingbetween various tasks (considering thelogical synchronization and thecomputation steps).

4. Standard approach for varioustasks in order to reduce the requiredamount of code.

5. Automation as possible, of theembedding and calling images, executablecode, and other binary sources (MSAccess User Guide).

6. Configuration of the applicationinto a network.

According to the above list, it wasessential to distinguish the implementation

of the three modules in two developmentlayers. These layers are authoring andprogramming, bounded by the criterion ofindependence between programs and data.

Authoring

The authoring layer is applicationspecific and deals with the definition andimplementation of:

Data classification and structures(e.g., tables, indexes, trees,etc.).

Authoring tools required forimporting and processing data(forms, drafting utilities, etc.).

Forms of the lessons (nodes inmultimedia terms).

Data capture for monitoring thestudent's activities.

Protocols for data exchangebetween modules.

The diagram of Figure 1 is a representativeform of the Authoring Screen.

Figure 1. Initial Screen of the Authoring Module

CZ Aulhore Module : Lesson Milker rsiget help en... remember whet te de formulas probes... Quiz... wiles next

=etifaielsnrsedf Fl...s'izz-= --'--.z... ---:...."

this portion of text is imported by the helputility from file menusine. Ibis file canbe edited at any time . to reflect initialdirectives both for leather and student module.Alf menus.titles and contents .in all modulesare constructed at run time. by processingthis fife.

a

r

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34

As we can see in Figure 2, themetaphors refer to seven basic tasks:Circuits, visual formulas, formulaprocessing, virtual instruments, assist,query-examination, and activityacquisition. A further classification of dataprocessing (icons, text, and keywords)leads to icons tasks, hyper tasks, andcontext tasks.

Circuits and visual formulas consistof bitmap icons edited to improve theirappearance and facilitate hyper areaboundaries definition.

Virtual instrumentation is based onLab View® which allows the measurementof a series of different parameters on thecircuit, as well as their visualization.

In the case of formula processing,input variables are linked with theappropriate icons of the visual formulasand circuits. That way, a new value of aninput parameter enforces updating of all


related screen and background objects.

A hypertext case sensitive help isavailable through assist. Query andexamination follows the predefined linksin a sequential order according to the skilllevel.

Activity acquisition is the taskdesigned to capture the answers andestimate the level of understanding bymeans of some explicit rules.

Programming

The programming layer deals withdefinition and implementation ofinstruction sets and procedures.

The instruction sets are used throughthe three modules in such a way thatcommon tasks can share the same code.

On the other hand, proceduresautomate standard database tasks, reduce

Figure 2. The Structure of the Application

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44

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The busses represent thecommunication between variousprocedures via global variablesDOE (dynamic Data Exchange)is the standard communicationprotocol in Windows 3.1This allows values from onemodule(windowl.to be passedto another application.

Header Supplier UserLessens NuristanFormates monitoriesinstruments

DAA IASE SYSTEM

111*M I

ovEcn


interaction with the operating system, andimplement the data exchange.

In the center is the scheduler thatperforms all the necessary tasks that dealwith the interconnections. It:

1. Retrieves information aboutusers and the appropriate lessons, orstores constructed lessons.

2. Opens files and retrieves thenecessary objects related to that lesson.

3. Gives the appropriate values andproperties to the screen objects and atcertain time intervals, updates globalvariables according to implied logic.

4. Establishes the communicationwith external applications (DDE method).

Finally, at run time, the scheduler isresponsible for capturing the user'sactivities (mouse movemetits, key strokes,etc.).

According to an implied logic thescheduler interprets these activities into atabular information. Any change to thisinformation invokes the scheduler to checka table of values for integrity and to updatethe screen objects.

Figure 3 shows the databasestructure and all the necessary linksbetween hyper areas, hyper-text symbols,and properties.

Figure 3. The Links Between Circuits, Formulas, and Instruments

LESSON 8 op-amp applications

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36

Implementation

As it was previously mentioned,Assist is a hypertext case sensitive helpsystem. To improve its performance, textis kept as items in a choice menu thatorganizes them in tree structure by meansof menus and sub-menues. The titles ofitems serve as context help for all theapplication.

A very convenient way to implementa link between selected areas and theircontext can be done by using the hex codeobtained from the selected (in sequentialorder) background color (see RGB columnin Figure 3). These values (which must bereserved for hyper areas) can serve as anindex in the symbol table. This methodleads in a very fast and convenient hashfunction. The hyper areas appear inincrement tones of a color.

The student has to invoke theexaminer (questionnaire is opened at thelesson's session). Selected links and titles(sec Figure 4) of questions are retrievedaccording to skill level. The questions arepresented to the student and he/she has toclick inside the right hyper area as aresponse to the question, or he/she has tocalculate a result of a function a:id pastethe answer in the calculator's box. Theprofessor decides if any help will beavailable to the student. The same table oflinks used for the association of hyperareas and hyper text is also used for theexamination.

The Acquisition task is designed tocapture the answers and estimate the levelof understanding by means of someexplicit rules: Instead of considering aparticular programming approach, a moregeneralized structure is constructed. Itbehaves as an interpreter of key words andexpressions cmbedded in a script file.These keywords include logical operators,arithmetic operators, functions, directives,and application variables (field names). Arule thcn could be constructed simply as aline in the script file:


if clause filter:rnin(v1,v2)<100. and .skill=8:

then statement:continue=continue-5:

then message:it must be>.100 try again:

else statement:continue=continue +10:

else message:good ! proceed with next:

Figure 4. A Script to Implement aSimple Rule

The interpreter then is responsible toincorporate these instructions into thechecking loop, in the form of macros andproceed with the control.

if clause filter:coniinue>upperbound:

then statement

then message:excellent! skip this lesson

else statement

else messege

to vatch table:USEIR-NAME8cammtwe:

Figure 5.A Script to Record Student's Score

By these means the teacher couldconstruct without effort his/her own rules,without worrying about changingprograms or adding new ones. Alsohe/she can obtain additional information,using the same structure, about useractivities in a database table. As anexample the above script file could containa message for teacher purposes.

46


The Platform

MS Windows 3.10 with theutilization of DDE. Dynamic Dataexchange is a method supported byMicrosoft Windows operatingenvironment that allows two independentapplications to communicate with eachother in a client-server model andautomatically exchange data .

MS Access®, as database systemfor the examiner module implementation,MS Access Basic, as a programming toolfor embedding user functions.

MS Visual Basic® for stand-alone modules.

LabView for Windows®(National Instruments Corp.), a graphical,visual programming tool forinstrumentation (virtual instruments), suchas signal generator (for drill and practice instudents module), formula processing (byconstructing background instruments aslinks to the formal parameters of transientfunctions).

Utilization of some Windowslibraries (DLL) for screen capturing andconstruction of screen images.

Conclusions

In this paper we have demonstratedan integrated environment for education in

electronics, both for novices andadvanced students. Attention was paid tothe role of the teacher. Coursedevelopment time is reduced, to aminimum, without the utilization of specialau tho ri n g tool s and programminglanguages.

An effort has been made also tocapture the user's activities in a flexibleway so that a maximum interaction withthe application can take place, both for theteacher and the student, with the minimumeffort in programming.

References

Laurel, B. (1990). The art of human-computer interface design. Addison-Wesley.

MS Access user guide. MS Press.

Price, R. (1991). Computer-aidedinstruction. Brooks, Cole.

Van Horn, R. (1989). Advancedtechnology in education. Brooks,Cole.

Waern, Y. (1989). Cognitive aspects ofcomputer supported tasks. Essex:John Wiley & Sons.

Waterworth, J. (1992). Multimediainteraction with computers. EllisHorwood.

47

THE MULTIMEDIA FACTORY

byPeter Capell

Abstract

Currently, multimedia systems suffer froma common problem: complexity.Nowadays these systems can incorporate anumber of elements: intelligentdiagnostics, computer graphics, digitizedsound, digital or analog video, music, andso on. Most systems are created ad hocsuch that the development method isdiscarded and forgotten soon after thesystem is created. However, with the useof existing technologies as well as thosecreated in the development of the PianoTutor, multimedia system development canbe given a significant boost towardsbecomi ng a production line process.

Introduction

One problem in developinginstructional multimedia systems is instructuring content. Most developers havethe same types of questions: How do Iorder the ideas I want to teach? Whatwould happen if I put concept y beforeconcept x? Oftentimes a large curriculumcan be daunting and the order andsequence of ideas is not obvious, or evenlinear--maybe the student should choose.The Piano Tutor project went down thesepaths and produced software to cope withthe complexity of the tasks involved--fromautomated curriculum design assistance tocomputer-screen graphics development.The Piano Tutor's tasks were non-trivialbecause the curriculum consists of onehundred lessons which are executedaccording to thc student's accomplishmentof as many skills that are considered asprerequisites to and objectives of the sct oflessons.

The byproducts of our developmenteffort exist now as fully functionalsystems. It is my belief that thc toolset iscurrently advanced enough to permit us to

create the multimedia factory. Weunderstand the elements required toengineer our systems, however, theprocess is still relatively undefined. Weare on the brink of being able tosystematically construct what Wenger(1987), described as knowledgecommunication systems.

Yes, we certainly have theconstraints of limited resources anddeadlines for projects to weigh against anyheady development efforts, however I donot believe that it is resources anddeadlines that are the actual constraintslimiting the vision of multimedia systems.Instead, I choose to blame the process.Here is why:

In the 1980's there began in earnestthe development of intelligent tutors.These systems could make simpledeductions about the state of the learnerand adjust teaching strategies or thccurriculum, or both, to fit the system'sbest reasoning about the student.Unfortunately, the focus throughout theperiod, such as Meno Tutor, Buggy,Proust, and the Algebra Tutor (Sleeman &Brown, 1982; Wenger, 1987), oftenseemed not so much upon the learner asmuch as the pompous question of"Where's the intelligence?" My view as aneducator and non-computer scientist wassomething like: ". . .it's just a computerprogram. It's as intelligent as itsprogrammer." Unfortunately, the questionreally was about proving something aboutartificial intelligence more than makingexcellent learning environments.

All of this is not to denigrate thefantastic achievements of those systems.John Anderson's LISP Tutor exceeds theefficacy of classroom instruction by a largemargin (Anderson & Reiser, 1985). Sofar, thc Piano Tutor has been able to move

48

The Multimedia Factory 39

its limited sample of students through oneyear's worth of piano instruction (oneyear's worth as judged by two professorsof music on the project) in less than a thirdof that time.

In addition to the success of thesesystems, there was the development of anew idea--using a computer as themodeling environment for specific learningparadigms and theoretical examination.Computers became laboratories for theevaluation and testing of ideas in cognitivescience.

Beside these interesting andprofound developments in the intelligenttutoring community, was the continuingpractical application of computers andvideo to conduct training. The emergenceof affordable computer video technologycreated a whole new poradigm in videoand computer-based instruction. Forpeople in the trenches doing real trainingand instruction, computer video providedan exciting new platform upon which tobuild simulations, surrogate travel,surrogate worlds, and so on. We saw theAspen Project, and Discovision and welearned all about levels 0-4, strugglingmightily to make sure we understoodthem. Specifically, I can rememberholding to a mental model that level onewas less than level four until I met EdSchwartz at the University of Delawareand saw a beautifully level one applicationof videodisc in the music series developedthere. There was a lot of excitement in thisperiod where new doors were opening tomachine-based education at unprecedentedrates.

In fact the rate Of door opening hasnot really settled down since, and this hasturned out to be somewhat of a deficit.Endemic to the information age is theprofusion of options. Now we have DVI,CD-I, videodisc, digitized voice, andMIDI. We have multiple possibleimplementation platforms with multipleconfigurations per platform. We have avariety of new and improved authoringtools as well. And while there is noquestion that the tools have improved,

there is still a question of what these toolsare building. Most often the systemsbeing built are either exploratory orprototypical--intended either as researchprojects of proofs of cutting edgetechnologies. Either that, or we have amix of applications that are not reallystretching technology at all--point ofpurchase applications and buyer assistanceguides that are little more than databaseswith fancy graphics. These systems areuseful, however we need now to considerbringing what is now cutting edge into theworld of the commonplace, and I believewe are currently on the verge of being ableto do so.

There are many important obstaclesto this notion having nothing to do withavailable technologies, not the least ofwhich is money. The Piano Tutor cost$200,000 per year for three years, notincluding three years before the projectwas funded which were used forfoundation research, planning, and theeffort to obtain grant money. A biggerobstacle however is perception. I amhoping that we are moving towards a timewhen these environments will proliferateon their own, based on a commonunderstanding of their value. In otherwords, it will be understood how to buildthem, and they will be built because theirvalue is taken for granted.

In order for this wide rangingunderstanding to happen, the proper mixof elements must take place between thediagnostic power of the intelligent tutor inaddition to multimedia and training-typesystems. And their needs to be a relativelystandard process for their development.There needs to be a multimedia factory,consisting of the tools and methods tobuild these complicated systems quicklywith replicable success.

On the Piano Tutor Project, I believewe developed a few useful tools and madesome discoveries that could prove usefulin building the multimedia factory. BeforeI describe those, I will providebackground on what the Piano Tutor is.

4 9

40

Piano Tutor

The Piano Tutor is a multimediaworkstation that teaches basic pianoplaying. The system employs real-timemusic technology, expert tutoring, andvideodisc. In developing the system, acurriculum analysis system was developedto model the curriculum in order to test theintegrity of its instructional design.

The Piano Tutor operates in twomodes; as a teacher and as a silentobserver/evaluator during practice. In itsTeaching mode, Piano Tutor guidesstudents through a dynamically changinglesson path with appropriate interruptionsfor suggestions and corrections. In itsPracticing mode, Piano Tutor providesguidance without interruptions, providingstudents with graphic evaluations of theirplaying, among other capabilities.Students may work with a teacher or bythemselves, receiving expert pianoinstruction at a pace set by their ownability.

Piano is composed of a computerconnected to a velocity sensitive, piano(MIDI) keyboard, MIDI synthesizer, andvideodisc controller. The computer servesas the controller for the workstation and asa music score display. The videodisc isused to provide detailed visual and verbalinstructions, the keyboard is the student'sinput device, and the synthesizer allowsthe student to hear what he or she hasplayed.

In order to evaluate the student'sperformance, turn music score pages at theappropriate times, and accompany astudent's playing, the system recognizesand evaluates keyboard input. The MIDIinterface reports the notes played, but theheart of the system is the pattern-matcher.The matcher allows the system to identifywhcrc the student is in a score, eventhough he may be playing at varying ratesof speed and playing many wrong notes.The information gathered by the pattern-matcher is used to evaluate the student'sperformance, accompany the student, and


coordinate the display of the score (turnpages on the computer screen).

Although the practicing and teachingsystems are separate components, each hassimilar software building blocks:

pattern-matchermatches, musicperformance with music score inreal time,

digital recorder--recordskeyboard performances in digitalform,

playback--plays recordedkeyboard performances,

performance evaluator--conductsevaluation of studentperformance,

score display systems--handlesall score displays,

intelligent decision maker--determines the appropriatelessons to execute relative toimmediate student input from thekeyboard and studentperformance history,

videodisc controller--handlesvideo-disc interactions,

accompanist--provides accompa-niment for any prerecordedscore.

The system provides directinstruction in its teaching-mode andpassive criticism in the practicing-mode. Inthe teaching mode, Piano Tutor activelyteaches new concepts, evaluates thestudent's performance, and directs thestudent's progress. The practicing systemprovides passive visual criticism to guidethe student in evaluating and correctingerrors without interruption during play.

In teaching mode, Piano Tutorinstructs beginning piano students in basicperformance skills. The current curriculum

0 0


provides approximately one year's worthof piano instruction (Dannenberg,Sanchez, Joseph, Saul, Joseph, & Cape 11,1990).

The Curriculum Analyzer

Instructional design for anautomated, non-sequential lesson plannerproved to be a solvable but non-trivialexercise (Cape 11 & Dannenberg, in press).Piano Tutor's strategy in coping with thisproblem comes directly from the mostbasic principles of instructional systemsdesign (ISD), (Dick & Carey, 1985).Two of the most basic ideas of ISD are:(a) Students are evaluated according toobservable skills, and (b) students mustfulfill the requirements of less complicatedskills before moving to a new skill. Thismeans that any lesson taught by the PianoTutor has prerequisite skills and anobjecti ve.

Observable skills are distinguishedcarefully in ISD to avoid the uncertaintiesof ad hoc curriculum writers who specifytheir objectives with comments such as:"The student will understand how to readat the first grade level." The ISK model isan inherent challenge to these kinds ofvague goal statements requiring detailedinformation such as: "What does'understand how to read at the first gradelevel mean?" The instructional systemsdesign expert will always want to see anoperational definition for any goalstatement. In our example, the ISDspecialist will ask: "What must the studentdo in order to demonstrate the ability toread at the first-grade level?" Will thestudent have to read "War and Peace"? Orwill she only be required to read a fewsentences? ISD is all about specifying andverifying learner behaviors as evidence oftheir comprehension, and then adaptinginstruction to adjust to weaknesses.

In one sense, it is easier toimplement a model with ISD's rigor in acomputer system because people rarelyhave the fortitude to be as exacting as theyneed to be. One instructional breakthroughfor us was the development of an analysis

model that helped us to determine whetherits prerequisite skills were always met in anetwork of one hundred lessons. Theproblem is that Piano Tutor scores skills,not lessons. So by obtaining certainskills, one gains access to new lessons. Itis not easy to figure out in one's headhowever, whether or not there may behoks in the curriculum, where for examplea lesson teaches a skill that is not used byany other lesson in the curriculum, orwhere a lesson is cutoff from the rest ofthe curriculum because its prerequisitescan never be met.

The curriculum analyzer turned outto be central to the development effort,permitting us to create lessons and skills,simulate them, and determine whether ourcurriculum was complete unto itself. Italso showed the utility of the systemsapproach to instructional design in a veryformalized way with practical results.Further, any system of like complexitywill have to cope with this problem. Webelieve that our method is sound,complete, and replicable for systems ofhigh complexity with large number oflessons.

Video

The next most difficult problem inmy area of the Tutor was the production ofa videodisc to accompany the 100-lessonset. We wanted only one videodisc, sothere would be no need to change discs inthe middle of curriculum. Since thesystem would be executing lessons withmany possible orderings, the student couldpotentially wind up changing discs againand again as the system would requirevideo stored on either of the two discs.And so our effort began to try to put asmuch as possible onto only one disc.Hopefully this need will soon be oviatedforever with DVI, CDI, or some othervariant, but in our experience coping withthis issue we discovered some usefulvideodisc production techniques that willhave implications no matter what the videostorage medium.

42

We learned to script our lessonsindividually and to time them. We had thescripts in electronic form, and so thesewere entered into a database. Perhaps themost time-intensive aspect of videoshooting is changing camera angles.Having each script in the database, weencoded each paragraph with a marker asto its angle. In other words, someparagraphs would be marked overhaul,others left side, and so on. This enabledus to run simple queries to the database toextract all the scripts with a side angle orall the scripts with an overhead shot forexample, enabling us to do the action andreading for each script cluster leaving thecamera in position. This saved a lot oftime. Given the modular nature of thesystem and the sheer number of lessons,had we shot in script-by-script fashionmoving the camera in order accordingly,we would easily have spent weeksaccomplishing what took only three daysotherwise.

Additionally, digitized voice savedus cnormous amounts of videodisc real-estate because it permitted us to repurposeportions of thc disc just by silencing theaudio portion of the disc and playing thedigitized voice synchronized to the samevideo as needed. Without theseefficiencies and methods, our effort wouldcertainly have been lost.

Mixing Multimedia Elements

Although there arc now manymultimedia event schedulers on themarket, this was not so when we weredeveloping the tutor. A member of ourteam wrote a multimedia timeline programthat permitted us to integrate video,digitized audio, MIDI, and screengraphics. The system provides the userwith a timeline onto which events areplaced, so that at time zero, a videopresentation would begin, then a graphicon the screen appcars with accompanyingvoice over, and so on. Thank goodness,these systems are now widely available ascommercial products such asA uthorware TM .


So What?

This is the question that researchersin any field should be asking at everymoment. The importance of any of theelements described above is not containedin any one of them, but in all of them as asystem. Currently there is an explosiongoing on in multimedia, especially in theuse of digital video. Systems, such as"From Alice to Ocean" (Dannenberg, etal., 1990), provide users with beautifulgraphics ani an interesting interface tonavigate, but we need not stop hcre. Inthe future these beautifully crafted systemswill incorpoyate user diagnosis andintelligent feedback. We now have theelements in place to bring about what theearly attempts at programmed instructioncould not--a truly gripping learningexperience using the best of moderntechnology.

The Multimedia Factory

And so what is the multimediafactory? A factory is a cohesive set ofoperations that are dedicated to the creationand assembly of a finished product. Inother words, lots of efficient operationscooperating to produce some sort ofwidget.

Why a factory? As multimediaaficionados, we all want these efforts tosucceed. It is an exciting technology thatwe know in our hearts is going to sweepus into a future of wealth and happiness--or at least we hope. Our big obstacles arccreation and development costs--costs inresources, time, and money. Myargument is that we are still spending fartoo much time on the inefficiencies oflearning curve, not because of ourmisunderstanding of new technology, norbecause we are valiant explorers, butbecause of inefficiencies of process.

On one hand wc could say we need afactory to keep up with the tide of events.All of us have seen technologies that haveseemed to take inordinate amounts of timeto develop--consider how long videodischas been around. And so we need the

52


factory because of the obstacles toprogress that still haunt our efforts--cost,time, and complexity. We need the factoryto help us to quickly create modules thatcan be assembled into larger components.

If systems go the route of greatercomplexity as I predict, we will need thefactory if only to keep up with the tide.But if things do not take off as I expect,and we want to create the future, we willneed to have the factory to convince ourfunding sources that we can producesystems with broad functionality forrelatively low cost.

Conclusion

The reason for my excitement at thismoment in time is that I believe the worldof multimedia and knowledge systems ofthis kind are at a point where they Will bemanufactured as products instead of beingexplorations in and of themselves foracademic ends. There really has been a lotdiscovered in the development of thesevideo and computer-based interactivesystems over the past ten years, and Ibelieve it is now time for advances in theircreation to take hold.

And so the questions that will pressthe multimedia community in coming yearswill bc the issues of defining process.How are these systems created? Whichparts are gruesomely time consuming?How can we automate or standardizethese? What will be our generaldevelopment strategy?

As a developer in this field, I

sincerely hope that we will be able tocapture our lessons learned so that theprocess of multimedia development willbecome standardized enough that wc canconsider more radical extensions includingadvanced intelligence instructionalsystems, and so On. I would like to seestunning interactive systems with theability to provide instruction in complexdomains so that students of thc ncxtgeneration cannot pull themselves away.We arc now at the point of departure.

References

Addison-Wesley (1992, July). FromAlice to ocean. (Based on TracksDavidson, R. Pantheon Books).

Anderson, J. R., & Reiser, B. J. (1985).The lisp tutor. BYTE, 159-175.

Cape 11, P., &.Dannenberg, R. (in press).Instructional design and intelligenttutoring: Theory and the precision ofdesign. Journal of Artificialhztelligence in Education, 4(1).

Dannenberg, R., Sanchez, M., Joseph,A., Saul, R., Joseph, R., & Cape 11, P.(1990). An expert system for teachingpiano to novices. IC:MC GlasgowProceedings (pp. 20-23). SanFrancisco, CA.

Dick, W., & Carey, L. (1985). Thesystematic design of instruction.London: Scott, Foresman.

Slecman, D., & Brown, J. S. (Eds.).(1982). Intelligent tutoring systems.New York: Academic Press.

Wenger, E., (1987). Artificialintelligeace and tutoring systems.Mountain View, CA: Morgan &Kaufman.

MULTIMEDIA AND MULTIETHNIC LEARNING:VISIONARIES AND ILLUSIONARIES

byAnn Cunningham

Have you ever been at a multimediashow augmented with a host of high-techequipment where you thoroughly enjoyedthe show, but do not remember what itwas all about? And did you ever wonderwhy that is?

Chances are, the show was createdby a team of equipment experts with aflare for showmanship, but who lackexpertise in visual communication andlearning. Today, many multimediapresentation techniques adopted forinstructional purposes have similar formatand style. They somehow give a falsevision that the more glamorous the show,the better for everyone. They are theillusionaries in the educationalpresentation business.

In order to create an effectivetechnology-based presentation, thecreator must have a clear vision on themany aspects involved in thedevelopment of a show. A visionary willidentify characteristics of the audience,organize presentation contentappropriately, and match them with thetechnological tools best suited for specificinformation presentation.

This paper introduces the conceptand role of multimedia presentation, andinvestigates implications of its uses andmisuses in the learning environment.Additionally, guidelines are provided forthose who plan to integrate various typesof instructional tools to enhance learning.

Multimedia Defined

The term Multimedia is interpretedin a wide variety of ways depending onthe interpreter's prior knowledge andexperience. A librarian may consider aCD-ROM database installed at a computer

workstation a multimedia station. A full-service Learning Resource Center directormay insist that a true multimediapresentation requires a host of innovativetechnological tools such as a laser discplayer, camcorder, voice synthesizer,video board, and audio board, in additionto a computer workstation with a gigabyteCPU and Super VGA monitor.

The simple truth is, multimediameans a collection of two or morepresentation mediums of any type.Generally speaking, a presentationmedium is a vehicle (print/non print) ormechanism (projected/non projected) todeliver information. It encompasses abroad range of materials and equipment.

Role of Mediated Presentation

Depending on the purpose andtarget audience, technology-assistedpresentations may be categorized intothree main types. They are: Show andShow, Show and Tell, and Show andSell. Although they may not havedistinctive features which can beidentified as such, one can easily sense itduring the presentation through thenarrator's tone of voice, type ofvisual/special effects, and orientatioli ofinformation.

Show and Show usually shows offtheir "stuff" without much thought inplanning or goals to be achieved. Themain purpose of such presentations, oftenfast-paced attention-getting imagesequences with upbeat soundtracks, butwithout noticeable script or verbalinformation, is to entertain or impress theaudience. Demonstration shows areprime examples. This type ofpresentation is rarely suitable as a tool toconvey instructional information.

54

Multiethnic Learning

Show and ml, on the other hand,has a story to tell or a message to convey.The audience may or may not agree withthc story or message, but that is entirelybeside the point. The topic of thepresentation may be on religion, politics,or other special interests and events. Itscontent and method can be instructionaland it is widely used in classrooms,especially for young learners.

Finally, Show and Sell has a clearlydefined purpose or objective. Thepresenter must convince the audience,and prompt an immediate action byhaving the audience agree with themessage being presented. Commercialsare prime examples of this type ofpresentation. Learning activities such asdebates and panel discussions can betransformed into this type of presentationby emphasizing the importance of currentissues of differing viewpoints.

Teaching and learning is a causeand effect relationship between theinstructor and the learner. Figure I

illustrates the role of various media in aneducational setting where it can be utilizedto support and strengthen the interactionbetween the instructor and the learner.Depending on the teaching methods andmedia selected by the instructor, theoutcome could vary significantly.Teaching methods procedures selected tohelp learners achieve the prescribedobjectives through internalization ofinformation presented. Media, on theother hand, are vehicles that deliverinstructions between a source and areceiver. A particular medium mayproduce different results depending onlearner characteristics such as the size ofgroup, prior experience, and type oflearning tasks.

Multimedia as Instructional Media

Instructional media is a set of toolsor materials adopted for learning. Sometechnological tools are better suited forlearning than others. While each mediumhas its advantages in conveyinginformation, not everyone learns

45

efficiently with techniques selected by thepresenter. Therefore, it is imperative toexamine positive and negative qualities ofeach medium to be adopted in order toascertain the potentials and limitations.

Figure 1. The Role ofPresentation Media in Learning

INSTRUCTOR

METHODS(Teaching Strategies)

MEDIA )

EVALUATION

LEARNER ))

Figure 2 illustrates how a typicaltechnology-based multimedia station isdesigned. This system, if adoptedeffectively, would accommodate both thcindividualized and group instruction for awide variety of learners and topics. Moreoften than not, the selection of thctechnological tools are made by teachersnot based on the students' needs, but as away to substitute an unprepared lesson,or a desperate attempt to stay current in

46

the field of instructional technology.Teachers sometimes feel left out by notbecoming a part of all the hooplas in themarketplace, and try to 'dabble on' thisand that. Such approach will producemeager improvement, if any, in finallearner achievement partly because itrelies on patchwork rather than holisticcurriculum.

Each ethnic group possesses uniquequalities in how they react and relate todifferent sources of information. Thus,there exists multiple learning styles withina group of students who study the samelearning content. This multiplicitygenerates compound effects on thelearning outcome as each medium isadded as a delivery tool for instruction.A visionary takes these factors intoconsideration when designing anddeveloping learning activities for a groupof multiethnic learners.


Visual Communication andVisual Learning

Educators and presentationprofessionals are keenly aware ofvirtually limitless possibiLties ofmultimedia-oriented presentations.Nevertheless, just putting together ashow simply will not do in today'scomplex learning environment. We livein a Global Society where the instructormust deal with a multiplicity of effects ofsocioeconomic, cultural, and linguisticdifferences. Furthermore, certain groupsof people may be less opted for, orintimidated by the gadgetry employed tomake a presentation.

The majority of technology-basedmultimedia learning activities arecomposed of pictorial images. Pictorialimages are the basis of visual

Master Control Computer

( CD-ROM )

Computer Lesenlisc

Laserdbe

LCD Display/TV Monitor

Large Group Instruction

Terminals I CD-ROM

I.Workbook!Tests I

Individualized Instruction(Workstations of Varied Setups)

VCRReviev

Self-Paced Individualized PerimTesting/Wrg/Assessment/Evaluation

Figure 2. Multimedia System

5G


communication which influences visuallearning. Therefore, to optimize visuallearning, the presenter must be able tointegrate tools and materials forsuccessful visual communication betweenthe information source and learners.

This can be accomplished onlywhen the media reflects the accurate levelof audience visual literacy because apicture that could be worth a thousandwords can also become a thousandconfusions if not presented appropriately.This factor is especially important toconsider in the areas where an influx ofnewly arrived immigrant children begintheir schooling.

While there are visual learners whocan easily transfer pictorial images intoverbal information, there are verballearners who feel the pictures are in theirway of information processing. As aconsequence, somc individuals wouldrather read a book than see a motionpicture to learn a story, direction, orevents. It all depends on how eachindividual differs based on their priorexperiences in terms of pictorial imagesand symbols. It is up to the presenter tomake a careful analysis and assumptionsbefore launching a graphics presentationproject. The following are some of theaspects to be considered when planning avisual learning activity.

Information Density

The amount of information, eitherverbal or visual, in one projected visual(approximately 20 words per page orscreen) or one presentation segment(approximately 20 minutes) should beobserved, to insure proper digestion ofpresentation. Thc larger the number ofwords or longer segment of thepresentation, thc less effective thepresentation will become because theaudience will lose interest and the abilityto concentrate. Furthermore, projectedpresentation should be used to conveykey ideas and concepts. If additionalinformation needs to be provided, it

47

should be in the form of handouts orreading material.

Information Indigestion

Many of the multi-mediatedinstructions are driven by a nonlinearrandom-access information linkingtechnique through the use of an authoringtool such as Hypercard (Macintosh),Link Way (IBM), or Toolbook. Thetechniques often lead to an excessivebranching which cause the learners tobecome overwhelmed by the amount ofinformation offered to them. Hence, theybecome completely lost within a segmentof instruction. Worse yet, they areunable to relate one area of topic andsubtopic to another. As a result, thelearners are unable to digest the databeing presented.

Visual Noises

When dealing with graphic images,the project/program designer shouldavoid embellishment graphics (puredecoration) whenever possible, especiallywith older audiences, because thoseimages and symbols can become excessbaggage or visuai noise in ones cognitiveprocess. They are like a jumble ofmeaningless words that can be verydistracting. Embodiment graphics, on theother hand, are pictorial elements thatsupport and supplement the verbalnformation being accompanied, which

are useful in clarifying similar concepts orideas.

Instructional Design

Rather than selecting a medium andfinding a way to use it, onc should focuson the learning content analysis andascertain the level of complexity of theinformation. Among media buffs andprofessionals, there is a tendency to makesimple things much more esoteric thanthey need to be by trying to present thesame information through a differentmedium. Such approaches often lead toan overkill.

48

Figure 3. Learning Content Analysis

LEARNINGCONTENTANALYSIS

Will AudioHelp Recall?


No Yes

Will PictorialHelp Recall?

Audiotape OR

OtherActivities:

AciingiStege ReadingDiscussionDebateDemonsttationFieldtripGamePanel DiscussionResearchRole-PlayingSimulationWriting--

EssaysReportsRevievs

In AdditionFlashcardsPostersBulletin Boards

Yes( Audio

Necessary?Slide/TapePresentation

In Addition

[Animated GraphicsNecessary?

Yes

Yes

[(Videotape orMotion Picture

Require Interactivity orHigher Motivation

'NN

f\ Compute r Softvere(Simulation)

(II Graphics format Unavailable

e.g. ,Special Presentation ofInternal Parts/Movement

MULTIMEDIA././Require Additional Database Linking Techniques (

Gagnd, Briggs, and Wager (1988)developed a flowchart to demonstratehow certain types of medium can beselected by examining the learningcontent. Thcy provided a systematicapproach in examining the efficacy oflearner outcome through a carefulanalysis of the design and development of

instruction. Figure 3, developed by theauthor, which is based on Gagnd and hiscolleagues' principles in instructionaldesign, is a diagram that illustrates thecriteria on how to reach the decision inselecting multimedia as a deliverymechanism.

58


According to this diagram, it isentirely possible to achieve the sprre levelof learner achievement by usin; flashcards as opposed to a computerdrill/practice program. The use ofcomputer software, therefore, should beconsidered an alternative or supplement tothe main teaching methods rather than foruse in place of planned teaching activities.It is also important to note that there are avariety of other human-interactiveactivities that can be more stimulating,thought-provoking, challenging, realistic,and cost-effective than media learning.Technological media should be called foronly when necessary.

A similar approach to this process isknown as Learning Task Analysis(Braden, 1988). He maintains that aperson who designs learning activitiesneeds to undergo a concept mapping by:(a) Examining the learners' cognitive andphysical makeup, (b) juxtaposing thefindings onto the learning events, and (c)implementing content-specific learningtasks. This is a crucial procedure infacilitating visual learning where visual-verbal translation is to take place throughmeta-cogni tion.

Development ofTechnology-Based Curriculum

There exists a consensus amongtheorists and practitioners that the currentmediated instruction is in need ofmodification to accommodate growingstudent populations with multifacetedmultiethnic backgrounds. The mainfocus of thc technology-based educationshould be an ideal matching between thelearners, ir ructional materials, and toolsthat delivc r Jie most efficient learning.

A plethora of research studies(Kulik, Kulik, & Cohen, 1980) supportsuch need by emphasizing the importanceof Instructional Design and Development.Clark (1983) reiterated the fact that apresentation medium is nothing but adelivery vehicle of selected information.It is up to the user (instructor/presenter)how to utilize them. Equipment will not

49

make any student learn better unless it iscarefully chosen based on various factorsthat make up the learning environment.

Heinich, Molenda, and Russell(1992) made an in-depth analysis of thesystematic approach where theyenumerated necessary steps to befollowed to deliver an effective mediatedinstruction. Designing and developingmediated instruction requires a team effortof experts from the instructional design,v isual communication, teachingcommunity, and creative arts. Theperson in charge of the entire projectdevelopment must have a clear vision ofwhat will work.

Conclus!on

On the contrary to many whobelieve that technological tools wouldsolve virtually all ailments of today'seducational systems, insurmountableproblems have been created by notknowing how to emulate the tools withspecific learners. A key to the success inmulti-mediated instruction is a clearunderstanding of each component. Theequipment is only as good as theindividual who knoWs how to utilize it toits full potential. Otherwise, the onlyreflection of multi-mediated learningwould be just the multiplicity of numberof equipment utilized.

The process of selecting the mosteffective media involves a careful analysisof: (a) Learners' prior experiences, (b)teacher competency in instructionaltechnology, (c) techniques in contentorganization, and (d) teaching strategies.In addition, an instructor or presenterneeds to make a periodic examination of(a) availability of equipment in workingorder, (b) trained personnel who canprovide technical support for a complexpresentation, and (c) environmentallayout to insure sensible seatingarrangements, proper equipmentplacement, and adequate supply of outletsand ventilation.

50

Figure 4. Development of Mediated

PLANNING

Learning Styles:

LearnerCharacteristics

TeachingStrategies

Media end Methods

Environment:

Classroom SupportSystems

PRODUCTION

InformationSequencing:

Hierarchical OrderPriority

Screen Display

Graphics Design(Visual vs. Verbal)

TextSegmenting:

InformationChunking

Figure 4 is organized as a review ofwhat has beek. discussed, and to give anoverview of the entire process in thedevelopment of technology-basedlearning. The process consists of the threemain steps: Planning, Production, andPresentation. An important phase,Evaluation (Formative and Summative)may be added to this illustration. Thepurpose of this step is to examine areas tobe improved or eliminated (partially orentirely) in future presentations.

References

Braden, R. A. (1988). Task analysis forvisual-verbal cross coding learning

4 tasks. In R. A. Braden, D. G.Beauchamp, L. W. Miller, & D. M.Moore (Eds.), About visuals:Research, teaching, and applications.Readings from the 201h annualconference of the International VisualLiteracy Association (pp. 73-78).


Instruction

PRESENTATION

Preparation:

Reviev andRehearsal

Execution:

Well-Trained StaffProfessionalismShovmanship

AlternativePlans:

What ifs(Backup Activities)

Blacksburg, VA: International VisualLiteracy Association.

Clark, R. E. (1983). Reconsideringresearch on learning from media.Review of Educational Research,53(4), 249-262.

Gagné, R. M., Briggs, L. J., & Wager,W. W. (1988). Principles ofinstructional design. New York:Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.

Heinich, R., Molenda, M., & Russell, J.D. (1989). Instructional media andthe new technologies of instruction(4th ed.). New York: Macmillan.

Kulik, J. A., Kulik, C. L., & Cohen, P.A. (1980). Effectiveness ofcomputer-based college teaching: Ameta-analysis of findings. Review ofEducationalResearch, 50, 524-544.

60

THE REWARDS OF VISUAL LITERACY:AN ARTIST'S PERSPECTIVE

byDeborah Curtiss

Introduction

In 1972 when I began teachingdrawing and painting at the PhiladelphiaMuseum of Art, I was startled by mystudents' inability to talk about visualexperience or to understand me when Ispoke about possibilities of visualexpression. Word and image seemedmore in conflict than as two cooperativerealms of inquiry. Thus my researchbegan into what I eventually learned to bea significant part of visual literacy. Thecourses I developed and taught, and thebook I later wrote, were mutuallyreinforced by, and reinforcing of, mywork at the easel. I found visual literacyand all its ramifications to empower all ofmy studio and classroom work. Itawakened me to new ways to think aboutvisual experience, for example, torecognize the gap between intent of themaker and the message received by theviewer. I became not only more acceptingof differing interpretations, but encouragedthem.

Thus, as an artist, I came tounderstand visual literacy by an indirectroute. While I consider that my study ofthe topic has been life long, and I beganformal art training at age 17, I did not learnthe term, visual literacy, until 1977 when Idiscovered Donis Dondis's (1973) book,"A Primer of Visual Literacy". This wasin conjunction with teaching a course ofmy own design, Visual Awareness, atTemple University in Philadelphia. It wasanother ten years, after publishing my ownbook, "Introduction to Visual Literacy" in1987, that I learned of the I.V.L.A. As aresult, I have a perspective that issomewhat different from many membersof I.V.L.A., but no less encompassing. I

shall therefore begin with a brief overviewof my perspective in order to establish a

shared concept of this complex andfascinating topic.

What is Visual Literacy?

As with all things visual, visualliteracy by nature defies exactitude, but incoming to terms with it, I and othersborrow from the accepted definition ofverbal literacy: the ability to speak, read,and write a language. If we accept thepremise that visual statements--whether inthe form of paintings, sculptures,buildings, park-spaces, ordinary objects,posters, films or videos--do communicate,the model serves us well. Let me explain.

Seeing objects, so to navigateourselves in the world without bumpinginto them, entails a constant visuospatialdialogue between us and common reality.This process is as basic to us as isspeaking--most of us walked before wetalked. Navigating in the world, therefore,may be considered the visuospatial analogof speech. The ability to receivecommunication from visual statements,whether it is information, ideas, or estheticfulfillment, so to understand andappreciate visual expression, can similarlybe regarded as analogous to reading. Theability to create visual statements in at leastone medium--whether as basic assketching and taking a snapshot, or ascomplex as making a film or designing abuildingcan be considered analogous towriting.

Most of us here, however, will notclaim that visual literacy is a literal orliterary concept. Nor is it an attempt tomake literature out of visual expression.Rather, by using the model ofcommunication, and the notion ofacquiring visual skills and acumen just aswe acquire skills of reading and writing,

52

we provide a way to think and talk aboutvisual learning and experience. Itbecomes, moreover, a way to bring theverbal and visual together.

In summary, and I paraphraseI.V.L.A.'s founder and mentor, JackDebes, a visually literate person is onewho can identify, analyze, interpret,evaluate, and produce excellent visualmessages.' These abilities are, I posit,basic and central to being an educatedperson at the end of the twentieth century,for at this time of proliferating visualcommunication, if we cannot see critically,can we really claim to be able to thinkcritically? It is my thesis that visualliteracy, at this juncture of technology andknowledge, must become an integral andactive part of every person'scommunicative lexicon.

With a tremendous proliferation ofvisual communication, however, I findmyself too frequently affronted with visualclutter, indifference, and ignorance. It isas if that which is essentially visual: Thekeen perception, the assessment, theendeavor to develop and express anesthetic, is ignored or overlooked. How,when this is perhaps the most joyful aspectof visual communication, can we continueto ignore it?

Visual Ignorance

Let us look to the roots of visualignorance. When children are taught toread, write, and compute, their senses assignificant learning tools are oftensuddenly ignored, neglected, and left tof.'nd for themselves. When one considersthat from birth a child learns almostentirely through instinctive sensoryexploration--through touch, taste, smell,and sound as well as vision--this suddenneglect, virtual denial of the senses afteragc five or six, might be an act ofviolence, one that violates essential aspectsof our beingness. One would hope thateducators or psychologists would have

',John L. Debcs, Founder of theInternational Visual Literacy Association, 1968.


recognized this oversight, yet, to myknowledge, little attention has been givento the possibility that learning disabilitiesmay stem from this neglect of sensorydevelopment. Even in perception theory,sensory learning has been more interestingto study than to teach. (As far as I can tell,this neglect is worldwide. If anyoneknows of a culture or place in whichsensory education is actively nurtured, Iwould certainly like to know about it.) Aswe are educated, so we educate, and feware acknowledging or taking responsibilityfor nourishing the fundamental hunger thatour young people have for sensorystimulation and integration.

Except, that is, for the enterprisingmedia and entertainment moguls whoexploit this voracious hunger by providinga barrage of sound and sight. FromSaturday morning cartoons to boomboxes, video games, MTV and the RAVErage, a majority of our young people arebombarded and desensitized more thanthey are educated. The result may be,rather than nourishment of the sensorycraving they feel, anesthetization, or theestablishment of addictions that mayactually prevent growth of keen andsensitive perception.

News Possibilities

With the new technologies availablefor research and development as learningtools--such as interactive digital orcomputerized television, VCRs, teletextsand teleconferencing, and video discs--wehave a daunting array of possibilities. Thechallenge to learn media languagingsystems and educational potential isdemanding, and those of us who are nowdevoting our careers to visual technologyoften find it difficult to make time toactually view the images. As we integratevisual media in education, let us keep atthe forefront the fundamental importanceof sensory learning and its centralitythroughout education. Historically, thearts have served that purpose. More oftenthan not today, however, the arts areconsidered by anyone other than art

0 4')

The Rewards of Visual Literacy 53

professionals and majors to be a fringebenefit, and educationally expendable.

Perhaps because there seem to be norules, logical or otherwise, beyond thelimitations inherent in materials andtechnology, many individuals, despitetheir high level education, find visualproblem-solving and esthetic judgmenteasier to dismiss as unintportant thanaddress as the basic forms of inquiry andexpression that they are. The truths ofquality and excellence have to bediscovered, usually by devious andimprobable routes, and such an uncertainprocess terrifies many of us. Visualthinking is sophisticated, challenging, andexciting, for visual problem-solving bothincorporates and transcends the dialectic,utilizes, by necessity, the scientificmethod, and not only employs all modelsof artificial intelligence being exploredtoday, but inspired many of them. Visualliteracy educators therefore have aresponsibility to be sure their students aregrounded with the basics, the basic verbaland visual vocabularies that will provide afoundation for visual education andexpression in all media and at all levels.

Basic Visual Literacy

As part of Strategies andInfrastructures for the Future, I propose acourse of study in basic visual literacy. Itwould include a combination of readings,visuals, lectures, discussions, andexperiential studio-type, hands-on,explorations. The teaching of history andperception, the reception of visualstatements, is integrated with visualexpression, the active making of visualstatements.

In coming to understand visualstatements, whether in a museum, at workor home, or on television, one knows thatthere is a difference between form andcontent. In most curricula today, learningabout visual form takes place primarily instudio art courses, and content study takesplace primarily in art history andcommunications courses. From theperspective of visual literacy, these two

basic facets of visual messages are learnedand experienced as interactive andsynergistic, and as relevant to our being inthe world.

While studying excellent andnoteworthy works of art of the past, orcontemporary expressions of the present--learning about the meaning, the contextand significance of the work--the studentmay perform graphic analyses of magazinepictures in order to learn about andascertain the use of the visual elements, thealphabet of visual expression.

How the elements are combined isthe grammar, the compositional principlesof visual communication. Students learn toanalyze visual statements in the classroom,at galleries, and at home for theirunderlying designs: orientation, balance,focal points, rhythms, tension, conflict,and resolved unity. Learning to seebeyond the surface of an image is one ofthe most important aspects of becomingvisually literate, for it alerts us to hiddencommunications, and empowers us toevaluate more astutely a multitude of lifeand professional situations.

The characteristic ways an artist orvisual communicator designs and shapes avisual statement, in which it becomesidentifiable as the work of a particularindividual, group, region, or period,determines the work's style. The style isalso a significant part of its communicatedcontent. As we recognize examples ofrepresentation, objective abstraction, andnon-representation; or classicism,romanticism, and jazz to post-modernism;we can concurrently create simple visualstatements that exemplify these qualities.By making examples in readily availablemedia, such as drawing, photography,collage, or on computers, we gainexperiential reinforcement of stylistic,formal, and communication concepts.

The interpretation of the meaning ofvisual statements is always relevant. Howis the subject, information, story, socialfunction, and intent to be interpreted, bothwithin the historical context in which the

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work was created, and from theviewpoints both individuals and scholarshold today? Historians, past and present,have interesting and diverse ways of look-ing at art and visual communication.Iconographic, connoisseurial, structuralist,social, semiotic, and deconstructionistapproaches to experiencing visualstatements, are all part of a visually literateperson's lexicon for interpreting all visualexperience. The recognition of hiddenintent, persuasion, manipulation, and theethics of any information embedded invisual expression, relies upon the visualliteracy of the individual viewer to discernand evaluate.

We would not consider a personfully literate who could read but not write,so a person who only passivelyappreciates art and visual communicationsis not fully literate either. The ability todraw, to take a decent photograph, toarrange objects effectively in space, andincreasingly, to use computers and video,are fundamental skills that every educatedperson should possess. The purpose isnot to aspire to make great art or artists,any more than the purpose of teachingwriting is to create poets. Through activecreation of visual statements, one comes toperceive and know a wealth about theworld in which we live, as well asappreciate the visual statements of others.In visual problem solving, forces,structures, relevancies, and implicationsare discovered, developing paths andmethods of thinking that simply cannot betaught intellectually.

Today, when trendy popularity oftenreigns as a measure of merit and banalitycan pass for wisdom, all of us need tohave the synthetical and interactive tools ofvisual literacy to evaluate and takeresponsibility for the visual statements wesupport and make. Only then can werediscover the richness of the world withan educated and civilized vision, withsensitivity to the visual statements ofothers, and to the ecology of which we allarc a part.

Verbo- Visual Literacy

As one of my literature colleagues isfond of telling his students, "If you don'tmaster the written word, you are destinedto be manipulated and mastered by it." Bythe same token, if we continue to neglectvisual literacy in education at all levels, weare at risk of being generously manipulatedand mastered by the media of televisionand advertising. Some say we already are.Thus it is our task to support and nurturecreativity through educational courses thatare germane to the issues at this time.

Let us begin with ourselves. Each ofus, as we got dressed as we are right now,engaged, to some degree of consciousnessor lack thereof, in making a visualstatement. Each of us individually andtogether as a group, are visual statements.What we wear, how we carry ourselves,how we look, says a lot about who weare, what we care about and value. Whatwe don't. What we project into the world,what we wish to hide or wish to reveal.Whether we wish to attract one kind ofperson and not another. Visual literacy isbased upon visual responsibility as well asvisual response. It has a multitude ofrewards which I shall now address.

The Rewards of Visual Literacyfor an Artist

My work in visual literacy wouldnever have been possible withoutsomething I can only call my own personaland passionate love for the world ofvisible and visual experience. Early in mycareer I chose several challenges:

To carry on the tradition of thenude in Western art.

To do so with a uniquelypersonal response that isinformed by both tradition andawareness of developing trends,but shackled by neither.

To depict the essence of ourhumanness, of o u rconsciousness.

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The Rewards of Visual Literacy 55

To keep drawing and painting,realism and abstraction, on equallevels of importance.

This combination of visualexperience with verbal expression of thatexperience inspired me to launch DEalpSEE, a visual literacy consultancy underwhich auspices I give lectures,workshops, jury exhibits, etc.

Another reward has beenparticipation in a demonstration affordableartist housing project. In addition to beingan artist to qualify, however, I also had tofinance a down payment and prove that Icould garner a stable income to pay off a30-year mortgage. Having just finishedwriting my second book, "Making ArtSafely" (Spandorfer, Curtiss, & Snyder,1993), I hung out my shingle as awordsmith and am currently working atPhiladelphia's largest architectural firm asa writer. (To my delight, there are anumber of artists who also must earn theirliving other than through their personalwork.) Thus qualifying financially, weartists purchased an abandoned factorybuilding, gutted it and built 18 combinedstudio and living spaces. Visual literacyserved me well as I designed my ownspace, hired workers to build a loft, installlighting, industrial carpeting, and to paintthe ceiling and walls. Having moved intoit in August 1992, I am proud to say that Ihave the home and studio of my dreams,one where I can paint all day by naturallight.

In my painting now I am in a periodof experimentation including aforthcoming exhibit in which I shall focuson thc architecture of Prague; quitedifferent from the elegant architecture ofthe human figure.

Whatever the subject, in my paintingI move on several levels simultaneously. I

celebrate thc elements: line as melody,color as flavoring; shading and value formystery and illumination. While I

instinctively employ the Bauhaus designprinciples with which I was educated, due

to my work in visual literacy I am moreconscious, more verbally aware, .ofbalance, figure/ground relationships, anddynamic forces as energy. Style optionsand painting techniques threaten to crowdmy consciousness with possibilities forpainting requires so many choices to bemade continually while one works. Someof these choices I make consciously whileothers, due to the intrinsic spontaneouselement of true creation, remainmysterious until after the work iscompleted. Later I may recognize choices,and question or justify them as an exerciseof my ever growing visual literacy.

While developing my work in visualliteracy, all these options initially crowdedmy mind, threatening that I become acalculated rather than spontaneous painter.Nevertheless, I accepted the challenge toextend my verbal vocabulary about visualexperience, and I am not sorry. I think thatmy work is stronger for it, and therecognition I continue to receive may ratifyit.

The Rewards of VisualLiteracy for All

Now for your Rewards: When youare visually literate, you will be aware andattuned to everything visible around you.This will be affected by the degree towhich you choose to be visually aware,for we would be zombies if we proceededin a constant state of keen visualreceptivity.

By the same token, when boredomthreatens while waiting for someone orthing, you have the povver to becomeinterested in the most trivial thing that lieswithin your field of vision. You can see itas the remarkable visual phenomenon that .it is, watch it dance with all that surroundsit.

As you rcad a story, a passage ofhistory or literature, you can envisionyourself in that place and timc, use yourvisual imagination to bring it alive, make itvivid and memorable instead of an abstractand distant place and time.

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As you watch television, you willrecognize hype and differentiate it fromsubstance, separate sham from truth.

When you go home or to your workplace, you will know how to assess yourenvironment and whether it is designedwell for its purposes; whether your roomnurtures and relaxes you, or annoys withits discombobulation. You will have ideasabout the poetics of space.

When you shop you will assess aproduct for its positive or negative visualpresence. When you dress in the morning,you will see yourself objectively in themirror, and have a sense of how and whatyou communicate.

Those who are visual literacyresearchers and teachers will educatevision--encourage critical seeing andviewing--with every person and in everyway possible.

And finally, you will spend the restof your lives looking at everything youchoose, with a keen and observant eye thatis able to differentiate possibilities fromactualities, and dare to make the possibleactual; to contemplate the ideal and make itreal. With visual literacy we areempowered to expedite thinking andcritical assessment in all realms ofexperience.

The Art of Visual Literacy

As for me, all of those arc part of myincredibly rich life, and I am dedicated to


bringing visual literacy and all it implies toa broader audience. With my work,whatever the subject or medium, I hope toopen doors of perception in ways thataffirm life and its potential for excellence,integrity, beauty, and enrichment. At thesame time, I am aware of realities andatrocities both in the world and withinmyself. But through all, I continue toexplore a synthesis of drawing andpainting, to seek a voice that isauthentically my own, to paint what it isthat I have to say that can be said no otherway. As a creative artist, I have the powerof creative transformation, and the art ofvisual literacy suffuses my life with, andin, all that I do; rewarding me in ways thatare immeasurable. It is a pleasure to knowthat my fellow members of the I.V.L.A.are with me in this remarkable realm ofinquiry.

References

Curtiss, D. (1987). Introduction to visualliteracy. A guide to the visual arts andcommunication. Englewood Cliffs,NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Dondis, D. A. (1973). A primer of visualliteracy. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Spandorfer, M., Curtiss, D., & Snyder, J.( 1993 ). Making art safely:Alternatives in drawing, painting,printmaking, graphic design, andphotography. New York: VanNostrand Reinhold.

6

AESTHETICS FOR THE 21ST CENTURY:ANOTHER CHALLENGE FOR EDUCATION

byBarbara W. Fredette

Nelson Goodman tells us that "art isnot a copy of the real world, one of thedamn things is enough." But how will wehelp students to judge or find value in the'worlds' created through new media? Thispaper examines aesthetic theories whichhave guided our value systems for imageryof the past and the present and makesrecommendations for an approach toaesthetics which is grounded in andconnected to prior image traditions butwhich takes into account the new imagetechnologies. These new technologiesinclude time arts such as photography,film, video, holography, and computerbased systems as well as interactiveprocesses where one or morespectator/creators can be involved both asobserver and designer. The search foraesthetic continuity between the oldertraditions referred to as mark making andthe new ones which are recordingprocesses (marking time) is attempted.Implications for education which includeconsideration of developmentallyappropriate school curricula are given inconclusion.

What is Meant by Aesthetics

"Aesthetic derives from the Greekword AISTHETIKA, meaning 'thingsperceptible through the senses,' with theverb stem aisthe, meaning 'to feel, toapprehend through the senses" (Abbs,1991, p. 246).

Aesthetics was first used by aGerman philosopher in 1744 to refer to theScience of the Beautiful. (Even then aneffort was being made to connect Scienceand Art.) The present use of the termaesthetics refers to philosophic inquiry intothe naturc and value of art and its placewithin a broad cultural context. In a recentarticle Marcia Eaton (1990) suggests that

(37

the question "what is art " is the mostimportant "issue in contemporaryaesthetics--especially if this discipline is tocontribute practically as well astheoretically to society" (p. 98). Shesupports her position by telling us thatattempts to find answers to this questionare important as a way of uncovering thevalues of our culture.

"In order to become art, artifactsmust be treated in special ways" (Eaton,1990, p. 98). One important thing thatpeople do when they consider something awork of art is that they talk about it.

Eaton (1990) suggests that it is not thecontent of this talk that is important but itis the goal of the discussion that is thecritical aspect. "When artifacts arediscussed as works of art, the goal is tobring the viewer or listener to perceiveaesthetic features that might have becnmissed if the viewer or listener had beenleft on his or her own" (p. 99). As aneducational focus in schools, aesthetics istaught to broaden students perspectives onart and to develop critical skills.

Aesthetics Versus AestheticEducation

A few art educators have becninterested in aesthetic education since the60's but when the Getty supported effortcalled Discipline Based Art Educationbecame the "village dance," teachingAesthetics as one of the four disciplinesbecame a concern of many art educators.There is a difference between aestheticsused as a noun, referring to philosophicalinquiry in the arts and esthetic used as anadjective defining education as in aestheticeducation. The Getty approach suggeststhat the contcnt for aesthetics as adiscipline comes from the concerns of

58

aestheticians which include concepts,theories, and issues in the Arts. Aestheticeducation as defined by Madeja (1977) isin "its simplest form learning how toperceive, judge and value aestheticallywhat we come to know through oursenses." This earlier educational multiartsapproach was interdisciplinary in the sensethat all of the arts were addressed throughthe study of their essential elements andorganizational principles with theexpectation that these basic leamings couldbe connected with other areas of the schoolcurriculum. In comparison the Gettypromoted discipline based art educationseems to believe in and promotes theintegrity of the separate arts whileacknowledging that the four disciplines areessential to education in each of them.

I see a relationship, a continuitybetween the two approaches (aestheticsand aesthetic education) rather than adistinct difference which requires aneither/or selection. Aesthetic education is abroad view in which aesthetic concern maybe applied to a wide range of phenomenaas a way of gaining familiarity with thespecific focus. For example the basicelements of time, space, light, andmovement may be explored through awide range of perceptual activities.Aesthetics tends to be limited to a contentfocus on works of art.

In 1982 Kern assured us that thepurpose of aesthetic education was to helpstudents to understand and to cope withaesthetic experience as a natural, normalcomponent of all human experience.Aesthetic experience is different from otherexperiences in that it is valued intrinsically.It is valued for itself rather than for sonleextrinsic end. There can be an aestheticdimension to all experience, in otherwords many phenomena can beexperienced from an aesthetic point ofview. Aesthetic response is, in effect, alearned filter which gives a particularflavor to perceptual experience.

Aesthetic Experience Defined

Aesthetic experience can be


described (after the fact), but what makesan experience aesthetic (before the fact) isnot easy to answer. Kern (1982)suggested that when all the qualities of anobject or an event achieved an harmoniouswhole, an ideal state of harmony, we mayachieve an aesthetic experience. Beardsley(1982) provides five criteria that maycharacterize an aesthetic or art experience:

Criteria of Aesthetic Experience

1. Object directedness.

2. Felt freedom.

3. Detached affect.

4. Active discovery.

5. Wholeness. (pp. 299-289)

Although Beardsley (1982) suggeststhat only the first of these criteria--objectdi rectness--i s a necessary characteristictaken as a whole these attempts to identifythe nature of aesthetic experience enhanceand expand our reflections on what isinvolved in responding to works of art.

A parallel aspect must also beconsidered, that is, what makes a negativeaesthetic experience. Kern (1982) andothers have suggested that aestheticexperiences (or the phenomena to whichthey refer) could be placed on a continuumwhich would range from aesthetic (high inaesthetic potential) through anaesthetic(mundane) to unaesthetic (intense negativeexperience). Where something would beplaced on this continuum is dependent onhow its aesthetic qualities are experienced.How a person experiences the aestheticqualities of something is dependent on twothings: their aesthetic preferences and theircapacity for aesthetic experience. Manypersons believe that their capacity issufficient as it is referenced through theirpreference: "I know what I like."

Aesthetic JudgementVersus Personal Preference

I have developed an inquiry process

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Challenge for Education

ISU IT5

for my non art trained university studentswhich I believe helps reveal to them thedifference between personal preferenceand aesthetic judgement_ In this activity Ishow three objects to the student and askthem to examine them closely and then toanswer a set of questions. The same threequestions are asked about each object. Theobject arc: a mathematical formula, a copyof a Greek poem (in Greek), and are prod ucti on of a Cubist portrai t byPicasso. The questions are:

1. What is it'? (describe briefly).

2. Do you like it? Dislike it? Why?

3. Is it good? Not good? Why?

No one has trouble recognizing "what"each thing is and describing it, some withmore specificity in terms of its perceivedform. As expected the next two questions,especially for the formula and the Greekpoem, pose a problem. Some, womenespecially, say they do not like the fonnela(as categorical dislike). They mhysometimes say that, as a consequence oftheir dislike for math, the formula is notgood. More often they recognize thatwithout knowing what it means theycarniot evaluate it (say that it is good orbad). The same is true of the Greek poem.Some say they like it because they likepoetry but them admit that they cannotjudge it without being able to read it. ThePicasso is, for many of them, anothermatter. Unfortunately many who dislikethe distortions of the cubist portrait saythat it is a "bad picture." Others say thatthey like Modern Art and therefore it is"good." The students are asked to reflectupon this process and recognize that thetwo questions ask about different things.We assure them that they are entitled topersonal preference (to like or dislikespecific works of art) but that this is not asufficient basis for judging its aestheticworth. Their capacity for reading theaesthetic qualities of art must be educatedjust as the aesthetics of Greek poetrybefore they can judge the worth of theGreek poem. This is an important lesson.

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While many phenomena can provideaesthetic experience, only works of art, artobjects and events, are created primarilyfor that purpose. Although some maydisagree with identifying it as the primaryfunction certainly a major function of awork of art is to provide opportunity forintense aesthetiC experience. Works of artexist for aesthetic reasons and theexamination of these reasons or purposesare encountered through the study ofaesthetics. It may be useful to look at theplace of aesthetics in the four disciplinesthat encompass art education. (Muchabout the educational importance of eachof these components of art education canbe found in the many publications of TheGetty Center of Education in the Arts.)The four disciplines arc:

Art Production

Creation and Performance

Art History

. Cultural and Historiaal Context

Art Criticism

Perception and Analysis

Aesthetics

Nature and Value of the Arts

Art criticism and aesthetics may beseen as very similar efforts in treatingworks of art as educational material.Criticism focuses on specific works of artin a more in-depth manner. Aestheticsalso uses specific works of art but usesthem as a way of getting at larger ideasabout art. Knowledge acquired throughart, criticism and art history become thecontent for aesthetic inquiry.

have developed a format for artcriticism which is a variation of Feldnian's(1973) Critical Performance. I call it asystematic approach to "reading" pictures.The sequentially addressed componentsfor it are these:

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Own


First Impression:

DESCRIPTION

ANALYSIS OF FORM*********************************

CREATIVE INTERPRETATIONGather information about the work

CRITICAL INTERPRETATIONSummarizing statement

(Fredette, 1986).

This exercise has proved to besuccessful in helping non art trainedstudents uncover aesthetic meanings inworks of art through their own perceptualefforts. These meanings may then beapplied to aesthetic inquiry about thenature or value of art. In other wordscoming to know a specific work in depth,pursuing the multiple dimensions ofmeaning within it through an art criticismapproach, provides a resource of specificinformation that can be examined throughbroad aesthetic inquiry. It is alsoimportant to recognize that through thisactivity of response to a work of art thestudents are also practicing importantresponse skills. These skills included:

I. The ability to describe aestheticqualities (discrimination).

2. The ability to explain aestheticmeanings (interpretation).

Questions which sometime arise atthis point are: What are aesthetic qualitiesand furthermore, what is the basis ofaesthetic meanings? Although both ofthese are complex matters I will attempt toclarify them in a succinct manner.

Aesthetic Qualities

Sensory Qualities

Early work in aesthetic education(Kern, 1982; Madeja, 1977) identifiedthese as the traditional design elements of

the visual arts (color, line, shape, texture)with the inclusion of sound, space, andmotion. Also included were the traditionalprinciples of design called FormalQualities. These included: rhythm,balance, tension, proportion, harmony,unity, and variety. Degge (1985), in a"Model for Visual Aesthetic Inquiry inTelevision" identified "Design Operants"which appear to satisfy the same notion ofvisual attributes or grammatical initiates asthe sensory and formal aesthetic qualitieslisted above. Design operants, which shesuggests are the "designing tools of themedium" (p. 87), include grammatical,formalistic, and formulaic clusters ofvariables which provide a focus foraesthetic inquiry into television imagery.Degge's work is included to show thatalthough specific qualities may change inrelation to a particular medium the conceptof aesthetic qualities as a basis fordescription and analysis remains.

Representational Qualities

The variety of meanings accessiblethrough the presented form are another setof aesthetic qualities. In reference to themore traditional two and three-dimensionalarts of painting, sculpture, andphotography these have been identified asrepresentations of: i nternal /ex ternalimages, signs, symbols, feelings, abstractconcepts, metaphors. These attributes ofrepresentation may suffice for "still" artsor "timed marks" but contemporaryimagery such as film, television, and avariety of computerized forms requireattention to the aesthetic qualities of theunique perceptual experience of the newimager. In her examination of the aestheticqualities of television imagery Degge(1985) refers to Berleant whom she writes"argues that (in television imagery) thereare distinguishable kinds of aesthetic facts,among them 'experiential facts.' These. . .

are made up of statements by artists andqualified perceivers alike 'that presume todescribe the characteristics of aestheticexperience itself.'" One experientialcategory is given as "immediacy" and"ubiquity." Immediacy, however, may becomplicated by "issues of reality." What

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Challenge for Education 61

is real? And to whom is it reality? Deggepoints out that different versions of realityexist for different viewers. She quotesTarroni who writes that "a televised eventpasses through a number of filters(technical and human) which leave itirremediably mutilated and distorted" (p.92). To what extent does this make thetelevision imagery anaesthetic orunaesthetic? Other aspects of reality are"authenticity" and "time." Each of theserepresentational aspects provide optionsfor varied aesthetic intention.

In summary, aesthetic qualities arethose aspects of any given phenomenawhich are perceptible directly or throughinterpretation. In this sense aestheticqualities are features of specific works ofart. But aesthetic inquiry must go beyondspecific works. In order to answer theBIG questions asked in aesthetic inquiry itis necessary to consider aesthetic theories.

Aesthetic Theories

For many people aesthetic theory issynonymous with philosophy of art,referring to abstract notions of the natureand value or purpose of art. Westerntheories or philosophies of art tend to fallinto four major categories or types ofaesthetic tradition (Anderson, 1990).These four approaches are useful toconsider because they implicitly fundnotions of the meaning of art even forthose unfamiliar with them as specifictheories.

Art as Imitation:Mimetic Theories of Art

The purpose of the work of art is torepresent or imitate something in the realworld as it generally appears or in someidealized form (better than life). Thesetheories can be traced back to ancientGreece but seem to prevail even today.Heroically proportioned Roman statues,still-life paintings that "fool the eye," andphotorealism are exemplars of this theory(Lankford, 1992, p. 8). In popular art,movies which tell it as it is or televisionprograms which portray working class

7

families (even though stereotypical) followa mimetic charter (Anderson, 1990).People who question the artistic value ofthe distortions of Picasso or Van Gogh arepersons who implicitly adhere to anaesthetic criterion of mimesis. Accordingto this theory "artworks may be judged ontheir 'correctness, completeness, andconvincingness" (Lankford, 1992, p. 8).

Art as Teacher: InstrumentalTheories

The purpose of the work of art is toprovide a guide for life, to have beneficialeffects on people. This pragmatic theory ofart "emphasizes the use of art as aninstrument for furthering moral, religious,social or political points of view. . .usingthis theory, artworks may be judged bytheir effectiveness in influencing thethoughts and actions of individuals insociety" (Lankford, 1992, p. 8). But if artcan inspire it can also corrupt. Somepeople fear art as a result of this theoreticalposition which leads to censorship.Although there is no way to establish theextent of specific effect it is apparent tomany that particular popular art formsserve as establishment propaganda(Anderson, 1990).

Feldman (1973) tells us that:

. . . instrumentalists do not believeaesthetic values exist independently,that satisfactions or meanings in artcan be experienced apart from theirinvolvement in some larger purpose.They would argue thatMichelangelo's Pieta is a great worknot only because it representsrealistically a central event inChristianity but also because itsupports crucially important ideasabout grief and maternal love. (p.462)

Instrumentalism "emphasizes thelegitimacy of art related to the dominantconcerns of life and thus acts as correctiveto the artistic tendency to becomeexcessively involved with purely technicalproblems" (Feldman, 1973, p. 465).

62

Art as Feeling: Expressive Theories

Based on these theories the purposeof the work of art is to reveal, the innerpsychological experience or feelings of theindividual. It is well known that the artscan provoke powerful feelings (Anderson,1990). Lankford (1992) revealed threeversions of this theory which exemplify"different relationships between theemotional life of an artist, the evocativepower of an artwork, and the responsivefeelings of an audience" (p. 8). One viewis that the artist undergoes an extremeemotion and transmits it to the viewers ofhis artwork. A second interpretationsuggests that the artists feelings/emotionsbecome clearer as the artist works andthese clarified feelings are exemplified inthe art which in turn evokes empathy onthe part of the viewer. A third view is thatthe feelings expressed in the art are thereas a result of a deliberate consciousproduction effort by the artist and arerecognized by the viewer through the samecognitive realm. Under the aegis of thistheory artworks are judged by thevividness of their emotional substance.

Feldman (1973) acknowledges thatall art communicate feelings to some extentbut to meet this challenge of commonfactor expressionism "offers us the idea ofintensity of experience in the presence ofart. The best work arouses the most vividfeelingsfeelings stronger than those wewould experience in everyday life" (p.459).

Art as Form: Formal Theories

This may be the most compellingtheory of our century. "Formalismemphasizes the composition or structuralarrangements of works of arc" (Lankford,1992, p. 9). The form of the artwork isthe essential property to be considered.Thc idea of significant form is manifest.Lankford (1992) relates that "critic andaesthetician Clive Bell, in seeking someproperty common and unique to artworks,concluded that the unifying property was'Significant Form': a special combinationof lines, colors, shapes, and their


interdependent relationships which, whenperceived, stirred a particular kind ofemotion-aesthetic emotion" (p. 9).Anderson (1990) suggests that this iswhere the notion of skill comes in toconsideration in art. Art's formal qualitiesare the result of masterful manipulation oftechniques by artists. The word art refersto the highest level of skill.

Feldman (1973) wrote:

If we penetrate to the heart offormalism, we should find the wishthat works of art depend for theireffectiveness solely on the principleof unity in variety, with that unityachieved through the non-symbolic,non-cognitive properties ofmaterials. (p. 457)

He goes on to tell us that "if pressed, theformalist might say that an organization isbest when it embodies the ideal structuralpossibilities of the visual elements presentin the work" (p. 457). He suggests that theformalist shares with the Platonist thenotion that there is an "ideal or perfectembodiment of all things, and that art,when it is successful, reveals, represents,or communicates that ideal."

Current writers have added to thislist of theories. Carmen Armstrong (1990)has developed a teaching resource foraesthetics in which generalizations basedon theoretical positions are used as thebasis for questions suited to differenteducational levels which she calls "verticalsequencing" To Art as Imitation, asExpression, and as Formal Organizationshe adds Art as a Social Institution and Artas No Theory or a Combination ofTheories.

These theories of art, ideas about thepurposes and products of aestheticendeavor are important to anyone who hasan interest in aesthetics. Weitz (1991) toldus not to take the theories literally butinstead to see each of them as emphasizingsome aspect of art that adds an importantdimension of meaning. Single works ofart may have multiple meanings, the

7"4


Krietlers referred to this as multi-leveledness, Goodman calls it density(Fredette, 1986). Each theory or categoryof theories may provide a differentperspective on a work which enriches aninterpretation of it. Weitz (1987) suggeststhat:

What is central and must bearticulated in all the theories are theirdebates over the reasons forexcellence in art. . . the whole ofwhich converges on the perennialproblem of what makes a work of artgood. To understand the role ofaesthetic theory is not to conceive itas definition, logically doomed tofailure, but to read it as summaries ofseriously made recommendations toattend in- certain ways to certainfeatures of art. (p. 153)

This effort may not be limited to traditionalforms of art but is applicable as INell to theartistic forms created by new media.

Aesthetics for the Future

When I initially identified theproblem for this paper my intention was toreview aesthetics ideas and issues relatedto the imagery of traditional art forms andbased on these suggestions for a newaesthetic to be used as a basis forassessing the nature and value of theimagery found in new technology. Afteran extensive review of the literature (whichmerely touched the surface of a surfeit ofresources on this matter) I have come tothe conclusion that it is not a new aestheticwhich is needed. No, what is needed is asystematic effort to adapt the analyticcriticism format to the attributes of the newforms of imagery. Engaging in thisanalytic process would in turn provide thegroundwork for the synthetic effort ofaesthetic inquiry.

The processes of analysis such asthose encountered through the systematicapproach to reading pictures may remainthe same. What needs to change, to bebrought up to date, is thc list of aestheticqualities or attributes which must be

apprehended in order to develop aneducated aesthetic stance toward the newforms of imagery. These attributes, ordesign operants to use Degges (1985)term, should satisfy the two categories ofwhat it is (the directly perceptible qualities)and what it means (the interpretive-representational, symbolic or metaphoriccontent aspects). Technical aspects shouldbe included in the first category andcontextual, sociological aspects in thesecond. In order to use these qualities orattributes as a basis for aesthetic educationteachers will need to have several kinds ofknowledge about them.

Reimer (1992) identifies anddescribes four types of aestheticknowledge or cognition. Because of theimplicitemphasis on knowledge as fact orknowing about something it is important toconsider the other types or ways ofknowing a particular object or form whichmay be addressed aesthetically. Besidesknowing about or knowing that, in otherwords having the facts about something itis also important to know of (or within), toknow how, and to know why. Knowingof or within includes understanding thcrole of form, the role of content andfunction, and the role of feelingencountered through an artwork. Reimer(1992) suggests that knowing how isartistic cognition and it includes how toimaginc, craftsmanship, how to besensitive, and how to be authentic. It isobvious that these types of knowledgemay come about as a result of productionor creation of an artwork. Personalcreative efforts contribute an importantdimension to aesthetic response to theaesthetic work of others. Although it maybe called to question there is somegeneralizability of the abstract notion ofcreating which may reach acrosstechnologies. Certainly the craftsmanshipinvolved in 2-D painting is different fromthat involved in creating a hologram butthe concept of craftsmanship engaged inthe process of creation may bridge the twoefforts. The last type, knowing why, mayrepresent the highest level of knowledge assynthesis. Knowing why about an artform includes all of the other dimensions

64

of knowledge. Acquiring all of thesedimensions of knowledge may appear tobe a formidable task of preparation butthey are the necessary groundwork forengaging in aesthetic inquiry. Thisapproach also acknowledges theconstructivist notion of psychology whichis currently in favor--individuals mustconstruct their own knowledge. It cannotbe given to them or poured in. Thisreview of the four dimensions or aestheticknowledge may be seen as a structure forthe construction of aesthetic knowledge.

Evolution of Imagery Technologies

What new forms of imagery foraesthetic contemplation will require thisconstruction of knowledge? What newdirections for learning through art need tobe considered? To answer this questionLoveless (1992) writes about the evolutionof media technologies and identifies "theirchanging effects on consciousness andtheir parallel role in redefining literacy (p.115). He suggests that children of thefuture will need to be literate with bothdata in motion and images in motion. Thelanguage of the motion of images found inphoto, film, video, and satellitecommunications is the basis of the latterliteracy.

Loveless (1992) reminds us thatMcLuhan told us, "the artist's obsessionwith the eye as we have known itthroughout earlier traditions in the arts wasnever the same for at that time a newparadigm was created" (p. 117). Lovelessreviews the visual arts traditions which hesays have always been concerned withcreating images as an obsession with theeye using whatever technology wasavailable.

Thc first tradition, painting, was aneffort to produce an original form whichrepresented an illusion of what was real.Sculpture, he suggests, is the secondmajor tradition based on imaginative usesof three-dimensional space. Each of theseforms of imagery changed as new toolsand technologies became availablebringing new styles and traditions. The


third major tradition, photography, cameabout through the "invention of optics andthe isolation of chemicals" (Loveless,1992, p. 117). It changed the way theworld could be seen by providing accessto new ways of seeing such as exactseeing (portrayal of a moment in time),rapid seeing (through a succession ofshots), slow seeing (time exposures), andsimultaneous seeing (through imagessuperimposed upon each other). Thegeneration of successive images in timeeventually became the tradition of film andvideo.

Holography is offered as anintroduction to the fourth tradition(Loveless, 1992). It is identified as amedium which brings together art andsculpture.

It creates a lenseless photographythat combines illusion and reality, theaesthetic with the mathematical. . .

since each part of the hologram isequal to the whole, we have a 3-dimensional concept of lateraldisplacement. This introduces a newfantasy of the fourth dimension. Outof this tradition arises the laser andother light-generating forms as wellas new technologies for synthesizingimages. It is at this point in thehistory of image making that thecomputer becomes accessible to theartists. (p.118)

Image making through electronicmedia must take its place as the fourthtradition in art and as such will need to beaddressed through aesthetic inquiry.Questions about the aesthetics of newmedia bring the concept of technology intoplay. Technological or media generatedissues may be an appropriate focus foraesthetic inquiry. The artists use of newmaterials or tools may generate discussionabout the legitimacy of works of art. Whatmakes an object or event produced throughnew media art, or non-art?

I suggest that a source for the answerof this question may be found in theconcept of children's development in

Challenge for Education65

graphic expression. When a child firstholds a drawing tool and makes marksthey are exploring what is for them a newmedium. The first marks they make arescribbles. Scribbles are records of theactions of exploration of the medium.Children enjoy thc power of bringing intoexistence something that wasn't therebeforetheir marks. I offer the notion thatall explorations of a new medium byanyone are in effect scribbles. This is nota negative judgment, it is a way of lookingat the possible evolution of skill with amedium which may (or may not) result inachieving the level of an. This preliminaryeffort is a kind of pentimento effort, thepractice of skills which must precedefuture efforts. These efforts when directedtoward the goal of art must represent theconsciously directed intention of the artist.While some happy accidents may occur atpreliminary stages in the exploration of anew medium the creation of an requires aconsistent repeatable level of skill whichknowingly utilizes aesthetic qualities andattributes integral to the specific medium.This is the artistic cognition that wasreferred to earlier. It is the aesthetic effortrequired to make new worlds through newmedia. Worlds that not only give us newthings to sec but also new ways to seethem. Artists have created a variety ofdifferent worlds for us to see and with thenewer media more and more are possible.

Educational Issues in Aesthetics

Aesthetics as Philosophic Inquiry

Crawford (1991) assists us inunderstanding aesthetics as philosophicinquiry. He suggests that this is not tomake philosophical aestheticians ofstudents but instead to broadenperspectives and help them to developcritical skills. Philosophy, he writes, "isnot simply reflection but criticalreflection, the assessment of chains ofreasoning. . . in the attempt to gain insightinto our beliefs and values. . . .

Philosophical inquiry, being bothreflective and critical, always begins bytaking one step back from the phenomenait seeks to understand" (p. 19). He makes

t?

the connection to aesthetics by telling usthat: "Aesthetics is that branch ofphilosophical activities which involves thecritical reflection on our experience andevaluation of art" (p. 20). Many issuesmay be addressed in Aesthetics. A primaryconcern is with "aesthetic values and ourstandards for the interpretation andcriticism of particular works of art.Another major focus concentrates on themany ways in which artworks can come tohave significance or meaning" (p. 20). Insummary Crawford (1991), writes:

Philosophical aesthetics is the criticalreflection on our experience of art,whether from the standpoint ofcreators, appreciators, or critics. It

aims at understanding thccomponents of these experiences andthe bases of the values we find there,as well as at gaining insight into howthese values integrated, or sometimesconflict, with other values (such asthose in the moral, economic,political, and religious realms). (p.231)

Aesthetics for Young Students

Smith (Levi/Smith, 1991) suggeststhat aesthetic learning in the schools is along journey. The purpose of this journeyis the cultivation of percipience which isSmith's term for a well developed sense orart. He devised a sequential pattern for thedevelopment of percipience which beginswith familiarization, exposure, andperceptual training in Phases I and II

which encompass kindergarten through thesixth grade. He proposes that thcproduction of art would be the basis forthis goal. Phase III for grades seventhrough nine is the time to develophistorical awareness and Phases IV and V(grades 10-12) is the time for theappreciation of exemplars and criticalanalysis. In some ways this appears toshort change both children and aestheticsas an educational focus. While childrencannot be expected to engage in inquiryinto the nature or value of art without anadequate vocabulary or personalexperience with art they should bc

66

introduced to talking about art as early aspossible so that it becomes a familiar andnecessary way to think about art.Eventually this talk will become criticaldiscourse.

Hagaman (1992) tells us ". . .theelementary art classroom is as much aplace for talk about art as it is for makingart. Such talk need not be theory-driven,alien, or dull, but must begin withchildren's own experiences and theircraving for meaning" (p. 106). TheNAEA (1992) in "Elementary ArtPrograms: A Guide for Administrators"includes Aesthetic Valuing as the fourthcomponent of a curriculum outline. Thegoal is "to develop a base for makinginformed aesthetic judgements" and theobjectives are:

1. Make informed responses toworks of art, nature, and other objectswithin the total environment by usingobjective criteria for analysis,interpretation, and judgements.

2. Derive meaning and value fromexperiences by making and justifyingjudgements about aesthetic qualities inworks of art and other objects within thetotal environment.

3. Use analysis interpretation, andjudgement about visual relationships basedon learned aesthetic values (p. 6).

The contentiskills listed are:

Analyze Design ElementsRecognize Use of DesignElementsRecognize Art Media andProcessesRecognize Artistic StylesDescribe AestheticCharacteristicsDiscriminate Artistic StylesAnalyze Aesthetic Similaritiesand DifferencesRecognize Artistic CharacteristicsRecognize AestheticCharacteristics. (p. 6)


Appropriate activities for grades K-2and 3-5 are given with each of theidentified content/skills except "describeaesthetic characteristics" which is notexpected of grades K-2.

Conclusion

Aesthetic ways of knowing mustbecome part of the basic education of allstudents. What is learned is dependent onthe ways in which it is taught. Students atall levels should be given opportunities toengage in talk about art that reveals notonly the ideas encoded in the art but alsoimportant things about themselves ashuman beings. The art which engages thistalk should represent a wide range ofimagery including that produced withelectronic media.

Technology is both science and art.I have attempted to show that aestheticknowledge is important, perhaps asimportant as scientific knowledge inunderstanding the imagery of our culture.Science and art are not antithetical but infact from the beginning have beenconjoined. The Greek goddess Technewas the patron Goddess of both practicalknowledges and of art. The Greek wordtikein (to create) comes from her name(Shlain, 1991.)

"The meaning of aesthetics, like themeaning of 'love,' depends on who says itand where" (Anderson, 1990, p. 33).

References

Abbs, P. (1991). Defining the aestheticfield. In Smith, & Simpson, (Eds.),Aesthetics and arts education (pp. 245-222). Urbana, IL: University ofIllinois Press.

Anderson, R. L. (1990). Popular art andaesthetic theory: Why the Muse isunembarrassed. The Journal ofAesthetic Education, 24(4), 33-46.

Armstrong, C. (1990). Development ofthe aesthetic resource : An aid forintegrating aesthetics into art curricula

76


and instruaion. Northern IllinoisUniversity. Copy of paper receivedfrom author.

Beardsley, M. C. (1982). Quoted inLevi/Smith (1991), Art education: Acritical necessity. Urbana, IL:University of Chicago Press.

Crawford, D. (1987). Aesthetics indiscipline-based art education. In R.A. Smith (Ed.), Discipline-based arteducation. Urbana, IL: University ofIllinois Press.

Degge, R. M. (1985). A model for visualaesthetic inquiry in television. TheJournal of Aesthetic Education, 19(4).

Eaton, M. M. (1990). Context, criticism,and art education: Putting meaninginto the life of Sisyphus. The Journalof Aesthetic Education, 24(1), 47-58.

Feldman, E. B. (1973). Varieties ofvisual experience. New York: HarryN. Abrams.

Fredette, B. (1986). How do picturesmean. In E. J. Kern (Ed.), Collectedpapers: Pennsylvania's symposium onart education, aesthetics, and artcriticism. . Harrisburg, PA:Pennsylvania Department ofEducation.

Hagaman, S. (1992). Aesthetics inelementary art education. In A.Johnson (Ed.), Art education:ekmentwy. Reston, VA: National ArtEducation Association.

Kern, E. (1982). The nature of aestheticeducation. A four part articlepublished by the PennsylvaniaDepartment of Education.

Loveless, R. (1992). Open the windowto the 21st century by chancing aromance with contemporary mediaforms: A challenge for the arts inhigher education. In N. C. Yakel(Ed.), The future : Challenge ofchange. Reston, VA: National ArtEducation Association.

Maquet, J. (1990). Perennial modernity:Forms as aesthetic and symbolic. TheJournal of Aesthetic Education, 24(4).

NAEA. (1992). Elementary art programs:A guide for administrators.

Osborne, H. (1991). Types of aesthetictheory. In Smith, and Simpson,(Eds.), Aesthetic and artseducation.Urbana, IL: University ofIllinois Press.

Reimer, B. (1992). What knowledge isof most worth in the arts. In Reimer,and Smith, (Eds.), The arts,education, and aesthetic knowing.Chicago, IL: NSSE.

Shlain, L. (1991). Art and physics. NewYork: William Morrow.

Weitz, M. (1987). The role of theory inaesthetics. In J. Margolis (Ed.),Philosophy Looks at the Arts (3rded.). Philadelphia, PA: TempleUniversity Press.

USING HYPERMEDIA TO TURN UNIVERSITY TEACHINGINSIDE OUT

byW. Lambert Gardiner

Five Processes of Change

Innovations in computer technology,i nnovations i n telecommunicationstechnology, their convergence intoinformatics, and their penetration intosociety has resulted in a paradigmatic shiftfrom an industrial society, based onenergy, to a post-industrial society, basedon information (see Figure 1). Therevolution is over. Focus now shifts from"What's happening?" to "So what?" Wenow consider the-implications of this shiftfor our various institutions. The majorimplication for my discipline ofcommunication studies is that it introducesa fourth generation of media.

convergence in informatics

IIpenetration into society

Figure 1 Five Processes of Change

Four Generations of Media

Carl Sagan (1977) classifies tools asextragenetic (that is, outside the geneticcode but inside the body) or extrasomatic(that is, outside the body). Any mediuminvolves use of tools for the storage andthc transmission of information. Thosetwo distinctions yield a two-by-two

matrix, which can serve as a usefultaxonomy of media (see Figure 2).

0

A

0

Extragenetic

&traumatic

TRANSMISSION

Exlragmtic &traumatic

SNOW INN TELL

(Oturs awl SNsell

(loek and Film)

Figure 2 Four Generations ofMedia

In the first generAtion (speech),storage and transmission of informationare both extragenetic; in the second (print),storage is extrasomatic; in the third(video), transmission is extrasomatic; andi n this emerging fourth generation(hypermedia)--which completes thetaxonomy--both storage and transmissionare extrasomatic. Information is storedelectronically in diskettes (floppy, hard,video, CD-ROM, etc.), and transmitted bythe informatics infrastructure of a networkof computer nodes linked bytelecommunications. Whereas the secondgeneration assists in the creation of aconceptual map of the objective world(verbo-literacy), and the third generation inthe creation of a perceptual map (visualliteracy), this fourth generation enables usto integrate those maps (verbo-visualliteracy).

Using Hypermedia

Three Interfaces of Adam

Since the shift from an industrial to apost-industrial society is a structural ratherthan a sectorial shift, it is necessary tohave a broad model to understand it. Thatis, a model which desc ies the wholesociety rather than simply . -le sector ofit. The Three Interfaces of Adam is anattempt at such a broad model.

Figure 3The Three Interfaces of Adam

The person could be considered asthe triple overlap of three spheres--ecosphere, sociosphere, and technosphere([Gardiner, 1987] see Figure 3). It isimportant that the environment bedifferentiated into the natural world(ecosphere), social world (sociosphere),and artificial world (technosphere),because, whereas the person is part of allthree, the relationship between the personand each of the spheres is different. Theperson is the most complex system in theecosphere, an element of the sociosphere,and the source of the technosphere. Thestudy of the person in each of thosespheres is therefore different. Person-in-ecosphere is the domain of the naturalsciences, person-in-sociosphere is thedomain of the social sciences, and person-in-technosphere is the domain of whatHerbert Simon (1981) has called "thesciences of the artificial."

Two Hemispheres

Within each person in the center,there is a subjective map of the objectiveworld (see Figure 4). We usually considermedia as mediating between people.However, they can also be considered as

69

mediating, within each person, betweenthis subjective map and thc objectiveworld. The subjective map could beconsidered as composed of a perceptualmap and a conceptual map, correspondingroughly to the thing and the word in theobjective world and to text- and image-based media (see Figure 5). It is a usefulmetaphor to consider the perceptual map asa function of the right hemisphere and theconceptual map as a function of the lefthemisphere.

ecospace .

79

technospace

teChnosphere

self-amcW

al person

Figure 4 Objective World andSubjective Map

SUBJECTIVEMAP

MED IA

OBJECTIVEWORLD // AdOrlir

Figure 5"Media"ting Between Subjective

Map and Objective World

Some tasks are best performed bythe left hemisphere and some by the right.We academics tend to privilege the lefthemiSphere. For example, it is obviousthat recording directions given over thetelephone lends itself best to the perceptualmap. This has only become obvious tome, however, within the last year (partlyas a result of thinking about those things).For example, look at Figure 6. On the left(for the left hemisphere), you see myattempt to record the directions to thehouse of my friend Sally written on 22March, 1990; on thc right (for the right

70

hemisphere), you see my attempt to recordthe directions again, drawn on 7 July,1990--just over three months later. (In theinterval, I had forgotten how to get there--partly because I had used my lefthemisphere inappropriately.) The secondstrategy was superior--not only because Iwas able to get there with only one stop toglance at the map but also because I stillremember how to get to Sally's place yearslater--the physical map has been etched inas a mental map. We have to learn to fireon all our cylinders.

CONCEPTUAL MAP

12 1.../tn.irritrd

SOki-tii OFF Lt

Livr,-Evial,, R.

fSE-L-r.4 R.L.Citkc-L-F-

13 Ni

tk

PERCEPTUAL MAP

Eec...rose

(*;

0 t.w

3T. 7-6111,' Savrk

Figure 6How to Get to Sally's Place

One Corpus Callosum

Within this metaphor, the computercould be considered as the corpuscallosum. This captures the two basiccharacteristics of computer-based media--integration and interactivity. The corpuscallosum links the two hemispheres, as thecomputer integrates text and image, and itmay link the cerebral cortex with the restof the body, as the computer providesinteractivity between thought and action.

Now that we have the technology tosimulate the entire nervous system, we canseriously consider mapping our subjectivemaps isomorphically on to the objectiveworld. The structure of hypermedia--anetwork of interlinked nodes--isisomorphic with the structure of the mind--a network of interlinked concepts--and thestructure of the informatics infrastructure--a network of computers interlinked withtelecommunications (see Figure 7). It


serves then as a positive prosthetic whichfits.

A major problem of our post-industrial society is the management ofcomplexity. Our rich informationenvironment enables us to make a subtlesubjective map of the objective world. Thecomputer helps us manage thiscomplexity. Just as the telescope bringsthe too-far near enough to observe and themicroscope makes the too-small largeenough to observe, so the computer makesthe too-complex simple enough toobserve.

NODE 1 UNK NO0 E 2

KNOWLEDGE

//o<tc-71.)

STACK

button

subjective map

/metamedla

AINFORMATICS

rirTait--117:---Ceomputo objective world

Figure 7Isomorphism of Hypermedia

To do so, however, we must stopusing it as a typewriter. It is necessaiy togo beyond word-processing (one-dimensional) to idea-processing (two-dimensional) to meta-media (three-dimensional). See Figure 8.

ONE DIMENSION WORD-PROCESSING THE STRING

sh Nalt tdah Non Nalt IAA ONO Olott Net MA MO Mott bloh NM WO WA IAN Nob MO Won

TWO ONENSIONS IDEA-PROCESSINGIsuoi I

THE TREE

MA I

CE111 =ES MOO QM

THREE DIMENSIONS METAMEDIA

blabblah efp

THE WEB

blah 31

blab 1 2

Figure 8Three Dimensions of Computing

so

Using Hypermedia 71

Hypermedia has incredible potentialas a tool for teaching in the university,which has confined itself largely to thefirst two generations of media--talk andchalk. This paper describes the use ofhypermedia by the author in his lectures,seminars, and tutorials.

The four communication settings inuniversity are listed in Figure 9.Hypermedia simulates the fourth setting,which is the real-life situation of thestudent. He/she is dealing withinformation from many sources (variousprofessors, parents, friends, media, andso on), impinging on a single destination.Let us look, in turn, at the use ofhypermedia in each of the three othersettings.

ONE

SOURCE

ONE

SOURCE

MANYsums>

MANYSOURCES

ONE

DESTINATIONTUTORIAL

<MANYDESTINATIONS LECTURE

<MANY SEMINARDESTINATIONS

ONEHYPERMEDIADESTINATION

Figure 9 Four CommunicationSettings in the University

Hypermedia in Lectures

Before each of my classes, thestudents are given a handout whichincludes an outline of the presentation, thefigures, and the references. This enablesthem to be scholars rather than secretaries.There is no need to feverishly makemessy, inaccurate copies of my material.They are encouraged however to make,rather than take, notes on the content of thelecture.

The cards are projected on a screenusing an electronic blackboard attached tothe computer. This establishes a commonvisual space. The advantage of theelectronic blackboard over the traditionalblackboard, is that the material need not be

laboriously and messily written anddrawn, then rewritten and redrawn thefollowing year. The advantage over theoverhead projector with transparencies isfully appreciated only when animation isused. It is difficult to show 24transparencies per second.

The handout is a hard copy of aHypercard stack. A disk containing all thehandouts in electronic form is given to anystudent who requests it. They areencouraged to use this stack as a starter setto which they add their own cards andlinks, and to use the computers in theuniversity lab if they do not have one athome.

Hypermedia in Seminars

Despite those innovations, the settingis still teacher--rather than student--directed. This may be an inevitable featureof the lecture setting. It is still show biz.The innovations simply permit the teacherto put on a better show.

I have transferred a solarium in myelectronic cottage into a Smart Room,which is my vision of the seminar room ofthe future (see Figures 10, 11). It differsfrom the traditional seminar room largelybecause it contains Caesar. This is asystem for pulling information into theroom from other computers over themodem, from CD-ROM discs, fromvideodiscs, from the hard disk, and so on(see Figure 12).

Si

Figure 10 The Electronic Cottage

Ivireos owe I

72

seat

heat

shelf

leaf

Figure 11 The Smart Room

NW/ftow#015, AIN *Ninny

Irlorts0-411111.A.11,1M-OliiirjalltbM,

Pyritic

s4i

INN

reenj

dirrlis nerd.switeMmirOw

OHMadoil Obiebb,

4aws MArlriredrilm,ders,ibe1441LAINddalt...E.titai EOM

Mee. reeks tareJeves astno,priri MO413

Figure 12 Caesar

Hypermedia in Tutorials

Whereas tutorials are the basis ofuniversity education at Oxbridge, they playa minor role in North America. Honorsprojects and directed studies are veryminor (and unrewarded) aspects ofteaching. Perhaps, now that we haveelectronic colleagues to do thc outside-ininformation-providing aspect of teaching,

Verbo-Visual Literacyf

tutorials could play a larger role, since theteacher has more time and energy for theinside out inspiration-creating aspect ofteaching. The advantage of the tutorial isthat the student chooses the topic, theprofessor, and directs the project. Unlessthey learn to do so, they will never becomeindependent scholars. It is not by chancethat Oxbridge has produced so many finescholars.

When a student approaches me abouta tutorial, I consult my colleague,Siliclone. This is a satellite braincontaining all my favorite sources, notes,quotes, anecdotes ([Gardiner, 1987], seeFigure 13). Rather than vaguely mutteringthe names of some possible sources, Iprint out the information in my siliclonewhich is relevant to his/her topic. Thissynergy between the person and themachine is an attempt to find some optimalorchestration of natural and artificialintelligence.

NOTE ANECDOTE SOURCE LISTEN . SPEAK

QUOTE IMAGE RESOURCE READ WRITE

Figure 13 The Siliclone

References

Gardiner, W. L. (1987). The ubiquitouschip: The human impact of electronictechnology. Hudson Heights, Quebec:Scot & Siliclone.

Sagan, C. (1977). The dragons of Eden:Speculations on the evolution ofhuman intelligence. New York:Random House.

Simon, H. A. (1981). The sciences ofthe artificial (2nd ed.). Cambridge,MA: The MIT Press.

S BEST COPY AVAILABLE

ENHANCING LOCAL AND DISTANCE EDUCATION WITHCOMPUTER-PRODUCED VISUALS

Nancy Nelson Knupfer

The increased capability andavailability of computers for education hasled to questions about the potentialapplications and impact of this medium onthe teaching and learning process. Thedesign of visual images can greatlypromote or interfere with learning. Imagedesign needs to consider several variablesincluding, but not limited to, the audienceand intended message, along with themedium and technological constraints.

When learners use computers on aiocal basis, they have opportunities tointeract with the program. This interactionenables each learner to control the pace,length of a session, and path through theprogram (Jonassen, 1988). Distanceeducation offers the ability to reach a largerrange of students, but the technology oftenlimits the type of interactive possibilities.Computers can be used to offer onlineinstruction in both live and delayed modes.A udiographics and other types ofshareware even can allow multiple users tomanipulate th 2. same screen image. But themost common usage of computers indistance education is in the preparation of avisual image that is then sent to thestudents by videotape, televisionbroadcast, coded transmission, facsimilemodem, or in print format by usingfacsimile or paper distribution systems. Ascomputer-based multimedia productsbecome more standardized, they too have aplace in the distance learning scheme.

Ongoing improvements in computerhardware and software have removedsome of thc former technological barriersand now computers can supplement textwith colorful graphics in both static andd y nam i c modes. Computer-controlledmultimedia presentations can displayimages that arc either digitized such asthose on CD-ROM, or analog format such

as those played from a videodisc. Someequipment even allows a mix of bothanalog video and digital displays on thesame screen.

Because computer and televisionscreens contain similarities, there are somedesign considerations that are common toboth media. Presentations that mix imagesfrom a computer with images from avideodisc, television camera, or otherprojected image generally follow thc rulesof televised video screen design with somespecial consideration for the computer-based medium. This paper addressessome design considerations for computer-produced visual displays that are intendedfor either local or distant audiences. Itassurnes that electronically-producedinstructional images require differentdesign considerations than those that arelimited to print.

Information display can be organizedinto three perspe,lives: the structure of theimage, the mean ng of the image, and thepower of the image (see Figure 1). Thestructure of the image contains theessential elements of good screen design.These elements can enhance the learner'sability to perceive and interpret theintended message. This leads to thelearner's ability to apply meaning withinthe given context. Finally, images addpower to text-based messages; they havethe potential to both clarify the messageand add emotional impact.

Structure of the Image

The structure of thc image firstconsiders the visual as a whole, then itscomponents and the elements of goodscreen design. In order for the variousimagc components to work together,elements of well-planned screcn design

8

74

Figure 1. Effective Instructional Images


Structure

Essential Elements ofGood Screen Design

Meaning

Learner's Percrtptionand Interpretation

Pover

Emotional Impactof the Image

must weave the components together in anaesthetically pleasing and understandableformat. Thus, one must consider both theimage and the screen design.

The Image

The image contains a mix ofcomponents that can work together orseparately to modify the intended message.As you read this section, try to visualizethe possible image variations that resultfrom influences such as text, color,graphics, animation, and multimedia.

Text

Since text dominates computer-basedinstruction (Soul.r, 1988), it is importantto design text displays that communicateclearly to the reader. With appropriatefonts and spacing, computer screens canwork very well for presenting limitedamounts of text. Large amounts of textwork better in printed form (Soulier,

1988) since they induce eye fatigue(Hathaway, 1984; Mourant, Lakshmanan,& Chantadisai, 1981) and are likely to beforgotten when presented on the screen(Wager & Gagne, 1988).

In addition to the amount of text, itsdensity, along with typographic cueingand the mix of upper-case and lower-casecharacters can affect legibility (Hartley,1987; Hathaway, 1984; Morrison, Ross,& O'Dell, 1988; Ross, Morrison, &O'Dell, 1988). Variations in font type,size, and density along with direction andscreen placement can add meaning to thetext image (see Figures 2 and 3). With theexception of titles, headings, or specialeffects, the text should contain a mix ofupper and lower case letters.

No matter what the screen design,legible text requires an appropriate fontthat is properly spaced. There isdisagreement about thc appropriateness ofserif or sans serif style fonts. Some

84

Local and Distance Education

authors claim that fonts with serifs, asopposed to block-style lettering, are abetter choice for computer screens(Soulier, 1988). Yet others believe thatsans serif fonts with proportional spacingprovide a cleaner effect that is easier toread than their seriffed counterparts(Gibson & Mayta, 1992; Kemp & Dayton,1985). Fonts with small serifs can addinterest to the display, while elaborately-seriffed fonts are difficult to read,especially if the image is to be viewed ontelevision or in a large room.

Text legibility also depends upon thepoint size of the font. The point size oftext on a computer screen can range from12 to over 100 points per inch and remainlegible. However one should consider theintended usage when selecting point size.Images that are likely to be projected forlarge audience reading should not use apoint size smaller than 26 (Gibson &Mayta, 1992) and images that are notlikely to be projected or broadcast willseldom require an extremely large font.Also consider the user; when designingscreens for young children or people withvisual impairments, use a larger font.

In addition to style and size of thefont, the weight of the typeface, linelength, phrasing, and spacing betweenlines of text affect the legibility ofcomputer screens. The weight of a fontcan vary from light, narrow, fine lines toheavy, broad, bold lines. A medium tobold weight is very good, depending uponthe mix of elements on the screen. Gibsonand Mayta (1992) recommend that boldtypeface be used throughout allcomputerized screen images that areintended for broadcast so that the textshows up against the graphics. At theleast bold fonts should be used for all titlesand headings as well as for particularwords that need emphasis. Drop shadowsbehind the text characters can add legibilityif used carefully.

Because computers, monitors,software, and projection systems arebecoming more capable, perhaps it is notas critical to adhere precisely to

0 0

75

recommendations about font style andweight as it was in the past. An importantcontributing factor is the availability ofgood resolution provided by a VGAmonitor and a quality projection device.Also, color can be provide visual cueswithin the text.

Color

Specific educational objectives canbe enhanced by using color in visualillustrations (Dwyer, 1978), but while afew colors can cue the learner about theintended message, too many colors can beconfusing. Color should assist the user infocusing on the material; it should never bea distraction (Gibson & Mayta, 1992).Accordingly, Hannafin and Peck (1988)suggest using a bright color to cue thelearner for new information, whilepresenting the remainder of theinformation in standard colors consistentwith the rest of the screen. Soulier (1988)recommends checking the program on amonochrome monitor and using a patternas a backup technique to aid those peoplewho are color blind.

Although this document is printedwithout color, Figure 4 shows an exampleof how color can be used to highlightmenu choices. In part A, the learner seesthat the Child Development module hasfive selections, with Review currentlyhighlighted using a border color thatmatches the background of the ChildDevelopment box. Part B shows that thelearner has single clicked the NormalDevelopment topic and that box as well asthe boxes of the newly revealed subtopicchoices are now bordered in the highlightcolor. Highlighting the menu selections inthis way can be particularly helpful insituations where there are many potentialbranches.

A few colors with good contrastvalues will show up well on both color ormonochrome displays, but an extremecontrast like stark white On a blackbackground will cause bleeding andillegibility; it is better to usc light grcy toachieve the desired effect. Also avoid high

76

Figure 2. Light and Airy Text

Verbo-Visual ljteracy

Figure 3. Bold, Forceful Text

STOP!

values of red and orange because they canbleed into the surrounding colors.

In addition, certain colors that lookideal on an individual computer screentend to flare or wash out when they areprojected to a large screen or transmittedover a distance. To avoid disappointmentit is best to experiment with a few colorcombinations using the equipment that willsupport the image when it is actually

projected. Complementary colors with lowsaturation would have a good chance ofworking.

Graphics and Animation

Graphics add interest to the screenby providing visual variety (Kemp &Dayton, 1985) and offer anotheropportunity to suggcst meaning to thelearner. Possible graphic treatments range

86


from simple to complex, from smallmonochromatic embellishments todramatic, richly-colored, full-motion videoimages complete with sound effects.

Like verbal metaphors, visualmetaphors can help us to understand anunfamiliar concept. Metaphoric graphics(Soulier, 1988) may be used to clarify ameaning within the computerized message,or they can guide the user through themechanics or functionality of using thesoftware. For example, standard weathersymbols might represent part of thecontent in a lesson about tornadoes whilean exit sign icon would symbolize thefunctionality of the software.

Computer images are frequentlytransferred to other media such astransparencies, camera-ready art,computer-designed slides, animation,video segments, and so on. One type ofgraphic application that is regularlyproduced beyond the original computerscreen is the common tabulated data graph.Graphs that represent data need to be

77

clearly designed so the reader can interpretthe meaning based upon the legend,scales, symbols, and other provided cues.

Graphs that display data dependupon the reader's thought processing,interpretation, and comprehension; to beeffective they must consider the intendedvisual message carefully. Sophisticatedgraphic displays that are designed tosuggest inferences, generalizations, andevaluative interpretation can help studentsinterpret meaning (Reinking, 1986; Singer& Donlan, 1980). High-level instructionalgraphics, such as symbolic, schematic, orfigurative displays can be effective inteaching, and the visualization of abstractideas through figurative displays may verywell enhance learning (Nygard &Ranganathan, 1983). All graphics do notrequire the same level of detail and clarity,but even simple, decorative graphics at thepictorial level have their place. Indeed,Boyle (1986) suggests a need fordesigners to address cognitive processesby developing more materials for graphicthinkers, not just graphic readers.

Figure 4A. Color Highlighted Menu, Part 1

TOUR MAP

I CHILDDEVELOPMENT

Oveiviev

NormalDevelopment

ISingle click 03 viev 1

subtopics. Double I

click to go to topic.

Developmentat Risk

Assessmenttechniques

Reviev


Figure 4B. Color Highlighted Menu, Part 2

TOUR MAP Overviev

NormalDevelopment

I CHILD DevelopmentDEVELOPMENT at Risk

[ cogaitive beuviors sadskills Aavelo auk

Psychological ant ettotioaaldevelopmeat

Physical Developatat

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miFessmenttechniquts

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imomimmmllg)NmmTo assist with designing computer

graphics, Soulier (1988) offers thefollowing guidelines: Keep illustrationsappropriate for the audience; use simpleline drawings when possible; preloadgraphics into the program so that theyappear quickly on the screen; use standardsymbols and symbolic representations; andkeep graphics on the same screen in closeproximity to the corresponding textmessage. These few tips can greatlyimprove the aesthetic appeal of a graphicand promote clarity of the message.

Most development software allowsthe use of simple animation to illustrate amotion, provide interest, or draw attentionto particular areas of the screen (Kemp &Dayton, 1985). Although it is tempting toembellish the graphic, it is important to useanimations only when appropriate andkeep them short (Soulier, 1988).

Animate only a few graphics that willaid the learner's comprehension of the

material by, for example, gaining attentionor illustrating a concept. When usedsparingly animations can be effective, butthey can become irritating, distracting, ordisruptive to the thought process ifoverused or left on too long. Wheneverpossible, allow the user to interrupt theanimation.

Computer-Based Multimedia

Computer-based multimedia includesa wide range of possible delivery options,but is usually characterized by mixingvideo images with computer images. Thepossible styles range from single computerscreen, to projected computer screen, to360 degree theater in the round displays.

A currently popular instructionalpractice uses multimedia to supportlectures with images from a videodisc orcompact disc driven by a computerprogram. Despite its great potential forproviding rich imagery and stimulating

88


thought, this delivery method often fallsshort of expectations because of clutteredscreens or inappropriate lesson delivery.One of the greatest problems in actualusage is the size of the text; the audiencecannot read text from a distance unless it isenlarged. A second common problem iswashed out colors in the computergraphics; color selection that does not holdup during projection. The generalsuggestions for computer screen designfound below may be applied to variousforms of multimedia dispiays as well asmore traditional computerized images.

Screen Design

Good screen design aids the learnerby using visual components to portray themessage in a way that provides bothclarification of information and visualinterpretation. To visually aid the learner,it is necessary to consider the specificelements of good screen design as well asthe general screen layout.

Elements of Good ScreenDesign

interesting screens are composed ofa variety of elements that work welltogether. Many of these elements areequally important so they are presentedhere in no particular order. The goal ofgood screen design is to use the variouselements together to compose a simple,consistent design that provides sufficientinformation while avoiding clutter.

Unlike printcd material which can beskimmed at will, the computer screenlimits the learner's view of the overallcontent. Screen designs that are simple,straight forward, and consistent can helplead learners through the material, whilecomplicated designs can lead tofrustration. The basic simplicity of framelayout and user options does not restrictthe ability to add interest and meaning witha full range of simple and complexgraphics.

Ccrtain user options should alwaysbe available. For example, status lines at

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the top or bottom of the screen that containconsistent information help the learnerassess progress and maintain some controlover the program direction. The readershould control the display rate whenpossible so that there is adequate time toread the text, interpret the graphics, andconsider the meaning of the message.

Menus should be clear, concise,uncluttered, and consistent. Icons withinmenus can be very helpful if the meaningof the icon is readily apparent. The rangeof possible choices in some programs canlead to cluttered or excessively layeredmenus; pull-down menus can be asolution. Highlighting or fading somemenu choices will quickly give a visualcue about which items are currently

Careful nositioning of tcxt on thescreen can citiq to its aesthetic appeal andlegibility. Although centering can workfor lists, diagrams, or graphic mixes, mosttext should be left justified and limited to65 characters per line or 25 characters perline for projected images. Partitionedscreens in which text is confined tospecific areas, can work very well.

Ross and Morrison (1988) suggestusing a hierarchical text display that isvertical and uses indentations similar to anoutline. They further recommend a low-density text display with reduced wordingand sentences limited to one main idea. Itit also important to use care when splittinglines so that phrases remain completeSoulier (1988). Personal preference variesconcerning single or double spacing oftext, but do provide text breaks where thccontent allows.

In addition to font size, the textlegibility is influenced by contrast with thebackground. Common considerations forboth computer screens and video imagessuggest cool, neutral background colorslike grey or blue instcad of bright, verylight, or very dark backgrounds. Tastefuluse of enhancements such as outlined,inversed, flashing, or drop shadowed textcan add to legibility.

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Special techniques for changing thescreen display, such as zooming, panning,tilting, and wiping onto the screen, canvary the viewer's perspective of the image.For example, a section of the screen can beenlarged to give a close-up view ofspecific details. Or the image can changefrom a long shot displayed in a small partof the screen to an extreme close-upshowing part of the same image displayedin full screen mode. This technique cangive the learner the sense of moving in totake a close look at the image. Imagine,for example, the visual effect of looking ata long shot of a group of trees in a smallbox on the screen and then changing to afull screen display of a close-up shot ofleaf on one of those trees.

When broadcasting computergraphics for distance education, overscanand underscan considerations becomeimportant. Overscan fills the screenbeyond the edges so that no blank spacewill show around the edge when the imageappears on a television monitor; computergraphics need to be produced in overscanmode so that no blank edges or distractingvideo signals will show around the edgesduring transmission (Gibson & Mayta,1992). Underscan protects a blank areaaround the screen edge so that imagesdon't get cut off during the transmissionprocess; important information should beplaced within a safe area, usually themiddle two-thirds of the screen (Kemp,1980). It is important to pay attention toboth overscan and underscan because thedesired result is neither an empty pocketaround the around the screen nor loss ofimportant information around the edges.One way to handle overscan andunderscan variations is to use a borderaround screen; this fills the screen edgecompletely while marking the safe area.

Screen Layout

Thc elements of good screen designwork together to build a cohesive screenlayout. The computer scrccn layoutshould never be visualized as a printedpage filled with text, but guidelines similarto those offered for desktop published


materials can be helpful. These includebalancing text with white space,improving the aesthetics of the page, andpositioning graphics as the dominantvisual element (Parker, 1987). Designingthe display with attention to legibility, thepurpose of the particular frame, andconsistent protocol, can result in visuallyinteresting computer screens. Avoidcluttering the screen with too manyimages; provide print copies ofcomplicated images that are important toremember.

Like silence within oralcommunication, empty spaces can be usedto advantage on the computer screen. Forexample the screen can be used toorganize or highlight information, to drawattention to particular parts of the frame.The mix of graphics and text can provide avisual cue; so can boxing and grouping ofinformation. Partitions, borders, standardicons, and consistent placement ofcommon elements will visually aid thereader.

While partitions and borders candraw attention to an area, artistic sense canstill flourish. Figure 5 shows a screenlayout that protects a bordered area forgraphics where the designer hasincorporated two borders, one within theother. The image is allowed to overflowthe internal border while being containedby the external border.

Generally headings are centered andbold, sometimes even boxed. For long orcomplicated sequences, subheadings canbe used that include numbers or Romannumerals to aid the reader in visuallyfollowing the general flow of information.As a general rule, information should flowfrom the top, left part of the screen to thebottom, right part of the screen becausethat is the way people in our culture read.Figure 6 shows artistic variation that splitsa title between the top and the bottom ofthe screen. Because the information flowsfrom top left to bottom right, this titleworks. It also provides a subtle hint tothe reader about the program content; boththe title and the quilts discussed in the

Local and Distance Education 81

program must be pieced together to makea whole. Variations in standard layout canwork if they are with purpose and fit thesituation.

Good layout technique depends uponan understanding that not all computerframes are alike. Hannafin and Peck(1988) address transitional, instructional,and question frames. Transitional framesare used to tie together the different partsof the a computerized lesson: they providean orientation to the beginning of, andvarious sections within, the program; theyserve as bridges between various topics orsections; they provide feedback,directions, and instructions; andperiodically, they present a progress reportto let the learner gauge success.Instructional frames present basicinformation to the learner: these frames canalert the student to a need for prerequisiteinformation; provide links betweenrelationships from past and currentlearning; and provide definitions,examples, and rules. Question or criterionframes solicit input from the student tohelp individualize the instruction; theseframes usually are based upon a true orfalse, yes or no, multiple choice,

completion or short answer, or aconstructed response which is consideredto be a more open-ended answer.

There are also variations to thegeneral type of frames. For example,sometimes a frame contains bothinstruction and a question. Copy frames,prompt frames, hint frames, and interlacedframes are some types of variations(Hannafin & Peck, 1988). Copy framesprovide information and a question aboutthat information in the same screen. Thistype of format can be helpful in directingstudent attention, emphasizing importantpoints, and for assuring a high degree ofsuccess for particular students. Butbecause they are so obvious, copy framesare considered very elementary and need tobe used sparingly.

Prompt frames direct the learner tosupply input; these can be used effectivelyfor questions as well as instructionalscreens. Hint frames are usually providedafter a student has failed to enter anexpected response; they offer guidance butdo not supply the correct response.Interlaced frames are hybrids whichcombine various components from the

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standard frame types; they might includeinstruction, question, and feedback all onthe same screen. This design can appearcluttered if not presented carefully but ithas the advantage of allowing the studentto visually examine and compare thequestion and feedback.

Each type of frame depends upongrouping of information in a way thatvisually aids the reader. To make optimaluse of visual cues, it is helpful to designstandard protocol for each type of frameand use it consistently throughout theprogram. Whatever protocol is chosenwill need to comply with the overallprogram design. Programs that vary thescreen location of pertinent information orprocedures used to advance throughout theprogram can be confusing and frustrating(Mackey and Slesnick, 1982). Althoughstandard protocol is necessary (Heines,1984; Lentz, 1985; Simpson, 1984)designers can provide artistic variation toother parts of the screen to suggestmeaning.

Meaning of the Image

Information becomes valuable as ittakes on meaning for an individual.Since visuals are meant to aid in the

discovery of meaning, it follows that well-.designed visuals will help studentsinterpret the meaning. Computer imagesvary widely in potential design and usage.Images can be static or dynamic, concreteor abstract, and they can change as a resultof user interaction with the program. Alearner's interpretation of the image can beaffected by the text, type of graphic, andlayout employed.

Layout must consider the principlesof perceptual organization, which includesimilarity, proximity, 'continuity, andclosure (Bloomer, 1976). These fourprocesses, by which the mind organizesmeaning, depend on how physically closethe objects are, how similar they are,whether there is a continuous line to guidethe eye, and whether the minimal amountof information is present that is necessaryto obtain meaning or closure.Comprehension is directly affected by theway the mind organizes meaning from theplacement of graphics and text.

Creating Meaningful Data Displays

Since powerful computers andsoftware are now available to manypeople, the practice of transformingnumerical data into visual displays is no


longer limited to trained professionals. Itfollows that some design guidelines areneeded.

Graphs

There is a wide selection of softwarethat produces graphs to tabulate orrepresent data. These data displays cantake the form of circle or pie graphs, baror chart graphs, line graphs, histograms,and scatterplots, among others. The easeof creation does not always result in good,meaningful graphics. It is important tofollow some common sense approaches tographical data display, whether theinformation is to be used on or off thescreen, locally, or at a distance.

It is tempting to use varioussoftware features to make elaborate andcolorful graphs, but in reality simple isbetter when displaying data (Tufte, 1983).To help learners interpret the meaning ofgraphs, use only those dimensions andcolors that arc necessary to convey themessage; three dimensional graphs shouldonly be used when the third dimensionrepresents a third aspect of the datainterpretation, and color should only beused for contrast as an interpretational aid.To help illustrate the point, two poorgraphs and a better graph are provided,each presenting the same information in adifferent way.

The three graphs all illustrate the rateof ticket sales at Kansas State University(KSU) over the last twenty years. Thehorizontal scale reflects two-year intervalsand the vertical scale shows increments of5,000 tickets sold. Figure 7 displays thcoriginal graph printed in a local newspaper(Seaton, 1992). It is cluttered, numeralsare redundant, thc horizontal scale isinconsistent, the title is within the graph,the legend is scattered throughout the data,and the accompanying article disagreeswith thc displayed information (the fulltext of the article is not contained hcrc,only thc title). The caption below thegraph appears to be not centered but that isnot a flaw; it is the title of theaccompanying article in its original

83

placement on the newspaper column. Thcreason that it appears here is because itdoes not match the information providedin the graph. Both the title and text of thearticle claim that football ticket sales haveincreased for the 1992 season over the1991 season. However there is no dataprovided for the rate of 1992 ticket saleswithin the graph nor within the article.

It is confusing that the graph goesout of its way to vary the horizontal scale,yet omits 1992 information. This scenariodemonstrates a typical example ofunusable information that was meant toenhance an article. In practice, the readersifts through visual clutter only to find thatthe comparative information is missing inthe end.

Figures 8 and 9 provide alternatedisplays to the same information. Figure8 employs the very popular threedimensional display in which the thirddimension is meaningless. Figure 9 is notperfect, but it presents the three pieces ofinformation in a way that can beinterpreted from the visual pattcrn. It is animprovement over the original graphpresented in the newspaper, but still omitsnecessary 1992 data which remains amystery.

The critical point is that visualinformation is frequently misrepresentedby lay people who produce data graphswithout the benefit of proper guidance.This practice can be dangerous since it canconfuse and mislead consumers.Computers are not responsible for poorvisual design, but they make it possiblefor uninformed users to produceinadequate products.

Data Visualization

Data visualization is a waydisplaying information as an image insteadof a series of numbers. It allows datafrom scientific events to be visualized in asymbolic, pictorial way that can seemmore understandable to the lay audienceand to professionals who prefer tointerpret data visually as opposed to

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numerically. For example, digitizedcomputer imagery can show a tornado inaction. The visual display of the tornacL'sdynamics allow scientists to study thepatterns of wind, motion, and behavior oftornados in a way that could only beinterpreted before from numericalrecordings. Some other examples of datavisualization include: symbolic imageryabout atmospheric conditions from otherplanets, that has been collected via satellitemeasurements; visual display of datacollected from a physics experiment, suchas data points that represent the upwardand downward trajectory of a ball as it istossed into the air from a moving object,travelling at a certain speed; visual displayof possible outcomes of automobileaccidents occurring between a certainnumber of automobiles with specificcharacteristics, travelling at a particularspeed under given road conditions, etc.This last sort of visual information couldbe used to solve mysteries about howparticular accidents happened for lawenforcement or insurance purposes, or itcould be used by automobilemanufacturers who seek to design safervehicles.

Data visualization displays images ofan event in action while standard types ofgraphs display patterns of numericalinformation resulting from the event. Eventhough the general public can betterunderstand a data visualization than a setof numbers, the method is controversialbccause some scientists question itsaccuracy for displaying scientific data.These objections are not necessarily wellgrounded, but most likely reflect a set ofvalues that fear removal of the traditionalprofessional skill required to interpret thestandard numerical data.

People need to know that there issomething in between the two extremes ofdata visualization and lists of numbers; inthe middle lie the various common graphsthat so many people have come to relyupon. However, those graphs are limitedin the type of information they canaccurately display, particularly when


motion and various dimensions areinvolved.

Power of the Image

Computer graphics and appropriate screendisplays lend power to communicationsby adding an image to the text. Visualimages can aid message interpretation andenhance learning. They can also addpower to the message by providing anemotional element that is beyond that ofother communication strategies. Realismcan be enhanced by providing a graphiccomponent. Images can represent realisticdata ranging from simple sketches orgraphs to intricate displays or vividlyemotional scenes. Virtual reality can evenconjure tip imaginary situations throughartificial iniagery.

Because computers display imagesfrom peripheral devices, it is possible todisplay still or dynamic photos of realevents. These events and their results cancombine with text and audio segments toprovide a sense of realism to the user thatotherwise would not be possible. Forexample, the ABC News videodiscprovides real news footage that goesbeyond newsroom reporting to providevisual displays of field events. Alongwith the understanding provided by therealism of these events, comes thepotential to stir emotions for variousreasons.

Going Beyond Reality

Virtual reality offers the opportunityto remove a person from the realenvironment and create a feeling of livingwithin an artificial mode. Some examplesof this sort of application include specificvideo arcade games, airplane simulators,and architectural design software in whichthe user's actions are reflected visuallywithin the software display.

Within virtual environments createdby the computer, participants become partof the software environment and feel asthough they are within the computerizedimage that is displayed. Rather than


viewing the image from without, theparticipants change perspective and viewthe image from within the software.

For example, arcade gaMes in whichthe player becomes part of the game, asopposed to manipulating the game as aviewer, employ virtual reality. Instead ofmanipulating a lever and observing theresult of its movement on a screen-disp'iayed game, the player mightwear a viewing device over the eyes and amanipulative device such as a data gloveto control a particular action within thegame. The viewing device limits theplayer's view to the three-dimensionalimage of the game and the data gloveproduces simulated movements within thegame based upon a realistic motion of theplayer's hand or arm, such as throwing aball. This produces the feeling of actuallyplaying the game.

Virtual reality is used within high-class pilot training in which the traineeobtains the feeling of actually flying theaircraft. Placed within a simulated cockpitthe realistic knobs, switches and levers(pilot control devices) become the inputdevices, while the flight control panel andthe windshield become the viewingdevices where the pilot observes the effectof control movements. Not only does thecontrol panel light up appropriately, but itsgauges reflect the trainee's actions at theflight controls, while the control paneldisplays various maps of the flight pathand even simulates a radar screen. All thewhile, thc pilot views the surroundingsthrough the simulated windshield and canobserve other airborne craft in theimmediate area as well as the appropriateground activity based upon the altitude,speed, weather conditions, and generalvisibility being simulated. This type ofpilot training usually progresses in stagesfrom standard classroom training, totraditional computer-based training, andthen on to the flight simulator for theartificial practice flight, prior to engagingin a training sortie in a real aircraft.

The third virtual reality example,architectural software, produces the ability

85

for the common consumer to obtain thefeeling of entering and moving aroundwithin an environment prior to its actualconstruction. A good example of this typeof application is a department store whichcreates custom-designed kitchens. Acustomer can don a viewing helmet and abody movement probe in order to try out anew kitchen prior to its actual construction.Sophisticated software allows thc customerto try different room arrangements whiledoing such things as stretching to reach thchighest shelf or testing the comfort of thecounter height and drawer positions.

These virtual environments aredigitized images that not only displayinformation to the visual senses, but allowthe user to participate in the resultingdisplay by contributing othercommunication strategies such asmovement or speech. You can imagine thatsuch images can get very complicated andcan stray from the standard rules ofcomputer screen design. Certainly aitificialreality opens new doors for visualcommunications with computer input anddisplay devices.

Summary

Structure, meaning, and powercombine to produce effective instructionalimages that can be created on computers.The structure of the image considers boththe components of computer images andthe elements of good screen design; theinterworkings of both produce effectiveinstructional displays.

New levels of knowledge, a varietyof media options, and sophisticatedsoftware, offer the ability to improvecomputerized images and their resultingproducts. Although text remains a veryimportant part of computercommunications, today's technologyencourages the use of more morcgraphics.

Visual communication combinedwith sound cognitive strategies canprovide meaningful messages for learners.In order to provide meaning, computer

86

graphic displays need lb follow somerules of good design.

Understanding and emotional impactcan be enhanced through powerfulcomputer imagery. The imagery canrepresent real situations or it can create an

40,000

4011

30,000_

20,000

10,000

0

=.1

Figure 7.


artificial situation that appears to be real.Today, artificial reality remains limited toa small set of applications and isaccessible to a restricted range of people,yet its future potential is tremendous interms of visual communications andeducational impact.

Cluttered Graph

038,002

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9 6

Local and Distance Education 87

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Figure 8. Graph with Excessive Dimensions

KSU Tickets Trends

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88

References

Bloomer, C. M. (1976). Principles ofvisual perception. New York:Reinhold.

Boyle, M. W. (1986). Hemisphericlaterality as a basis of learning: Whatwe know and don't know. In G.D.Phye & T. Andre (Eds.), Cognitiveclassroom learning: understanding,thinking, and problem solving. SanDiego, CA: Academic Press.

Dwyer, F. M. (1978). Strategies forimproving visual learning. StateCollege, PA: Learning Services.

Gibson, R. & Mayta, M. (1992, August).Designing computer-basedinstructional graphics for distanceeducation. Paper presented at theeighth annual conference on DistanceTeaching and Learning. Madison, WI.

Hannafin, M. & Peck, M. (1988). Thedesign, development, and evaluationof instructional software. New York,NY: MacMillan.

Hartley, J. (1987). Designing electronictext: The role of print-based research.Educational Communication andTechnology, 35(1), 3-17.

Hathaway, M. D. (1984, January).Variables of computer screen diplayand how they affect learning.Educational Technology, 7-11.

Heines, J. (1984). Screen designstrategies for computer-assistedinstruction. Bedford, MA: DigitalPress.

Jonassen, D. H. (1988). Instructionaldesigns for microcomputercourseware. Hillsdale, NJ: LawrenceErlbaum.

Kemp, J. (1980). Planning & producagaudiovisual materials (4th cd.). NewYork: Harper & Row.


Kemp, J., & Dayton, D. (1985).Planning & producing instructionalmedia (5th ed.). New York: Harper& Row.

Lentz, R. (1985). Designing computerscreen displays. Performance andInstruction, 24(1), 16-17.

Mackey, K. & Slesnick, T. (1982). Astyle manual for authors of software.Creative Computing, 8, 110-111.

Morrison, 0. R., Ross, S. M., & O'Dell,J. K. (1988). Text density level as adesign variable in instructionaldisplays. Educational Communicationand Technology, 36(1), 103-115.

Mourant, S. J., Lakshmanan, R., &Chantadisai, R. (1981). Visual fatigueand cathode ray tube display terminals.Human Factors, 23, 529-540.

Nygard, K. E., & Ranganathan, B.(1983, Spring). A system forgenerating instructional computergraphics. AEDS Journal, 16(3), 177-187.

Parker, R. C. (1987). The Aldus guide tobasic design. Seattle: AldusCorporation.

Ross, S. M., Morrison, G. R., & O'Dell,J. K. (1988). Obtaining more out ofless text in CBI: Effects of varied textdensity levels as a function of learnercharacteristics and control strategy.Educational Communications andTechnology Journal, 36(3), 131-142.

Reinking, D. (1986). Integrating graphicaids into content area instruction: Thegraphic information lesson. Journal ofReading, 30(2), 146-151.

Ross, S., & Morrison, G. (1988).Adaptin instruction to learnerperformance and backgroundvariables. In D. H. Jonassen (Ed.),Instructional Designs forMicrocomputer Courseware (pp 227-

9 8

Local and Distance Education89

245). Hillsdale, NJ: LawrenceErlbaum Associates.

Seaton, J. (1992, September 4). Ticketsales show increase over 1991. TheManhattanMercury, 7 .

Simpson, H. (1984). A human-factorsstyle guide for program display. In D.F. Walker & R. D. Hess (Eds.),Instructional software: Principles andperspectives for design and use.Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Sinvr, H., & Donlan, D. (1980).Reading and learning from text.Boston, MA: Little, Brown.

Soulier, J. S. (1988). The design anddevelopment of computer basedinstruction.. Newton, MA: Allyn &Bacon.

Tufte, E. (1983). The visual display ofquantitative information. Cheshire,CN: Graphics Press.

Wager, W., & Gagne, R. (1988).Designing computer-aided instruction.In D. H. Jonassen (Ed.), Instructionaldesigns for microcomputer courseware(pp 35-60). Hillsdale, NJ: LawrenceErlbaum Associates.

J

IN SEARCH OF AN AUDIO VISUAL COMPOSING PROCESS

Carol

For those of us working within thearea of audio visual media, it is rather likeriding a roller coaster which is constantlybeing up-dated, redesigned, and with noconsciously defined sense of direction.

Whether you are concerned with:

1. Technological development (andthis effects every aspect of our work tosome extent--long before the applicationsor effects can be appreciated, understood,and disseminated the technological wizardshave moved on!

2. Economic structures, policyframeworks, or organizational practices--blink, and the rules have changed!

3. Impact on social behavior orcultural values--are the magicians in theconsciousness production factorysubverting reality with illusion?

4. Media practice--are thepotentially diverse audio visual composingprocesses being dominated by theimagicians of the global tongue?

We may be grateful to discover thatriding a roller coaster presents us with thepossibility of two existences. The oneoutside which moves past so fast itrcmains by and large a fairly blurredsensation and the one i.13ide whereby youtry to focus on the place you have selectedand attempt to make some sort of sense ofit, however slow the progress seemsagainst the speed of everythingsurrounding you.

This paper briefly describes the workof thc International Media Literacy Projectwhich is based at Royal University ofLondon, U.K., and is cooperating withuniversities and colleges internationally.Thc International Media Literacy Projectdeveloped an evolving audio visual

Lorac

communication system and the relationshipof this to the teaching of media practice inuniversities and colleges.

Clearly, the emergence anddevelopment of audio visual texts ontelevision and video owe much to thepioneering endeavors of prior audio visualcommunication systems, namely film andradio. Indeed, the fundamental activitiesinvolved in audio visual composingprocesses which embrace filmic andtelevisual composition are the main focusof the International Media Literacy Project.However, it is pertinent to consider thespecific developments inherent intelevision, and in particular video, becausethis provides an opportunity for examininghow these audio visual media haveextended the scope of audio visualcommunication systems in a number ofsignificant ways.

The relatively recent extension ofexpression through audio visualcommunication systems, by theintroduction of television and then video,has been predominantly determined by thetelevision broadcasters and videoproducers in the large audio visualpublishing houses. They have beendeveloping specific types of productionprocesses for the creation of particularkinds of media texts. This has been inresponse to the gradual realization of thepotential for audio visual communicationto cover ever more areas. The result hasbeen the production of a whole new rangeof audio visual genres. Another factor hasbeen the developing audio visualtechnologies which have enabled newforms of image manipulation, and throughthis, new types of production values andaudio visual compositional possibilities.

In this environment of continuallyevolving production processes, it has beenuseful to establish the relationship between

100

An Audio Visual Composing Process

professional media practices andcommunicative purposes. This hasprovided a way of understanding howaudio visual c,mmunication systems,developed by the publishing houses, areoperating. Clearly, their specific purposeshave influem .;c1 the ways in which theyhave developed and used audio visualcomposing processes.

Looking at the evolution of audiovisual composing processes in this way, itmight be fitting to signal that when thepurposes for audio visual communicationare extended beyond the presentpublishing interests then it is likely thatother audio visual formulations will needto be developed. This might indicate that amore broadly based approach to theteaching of audio visual composingprocesses may be relevant in preparingstudents as audio visual communicators.

The linking of audio visual media tocomputer technology will mean a moreintegrated audio, visual, and printcommunications system in the future. TheInternational Media Literacy Project hasbeen bearing this in mind as it has beenexploring the possible ways ofapproaching the teaching of audio visualcomposition in the twenty-first century.

The increase in multi-nationalproduction and marketing strategies fortelevision and video, and the implicationsimplicit from the development of satellitesystem, has produced an internationalaudio visual communication network and,therefore, audience. The InternationalMedia Literacy Project has been exploringwhether indigenous languages andcultures, and visual and performing arts,have an influence on the media texts beingcreated from a diversity of backgrounds;or whether the influence of globaltransmission of dominant audio visualcompositional forms have produced aninternational form.

The evolution of an audio visualcomposing process which might haveinternational multi-cultural roots will needto be considered in light of the developing

91

patterns of other media--architecture,painting, and music. Clearly, theinternational skyline, city, motorway,airport, or shopping area havehomogenized once culturally distinctarchitectural forms. Modern painters willoften have an international look rather thanbeing very nationally specific. Popularmusic certainly contains internationalsounds and is now an internationalphenomena. Questions reflecting thenational/international debates surroundingcultural identity in a global communicationera are being addresscd.

The International Media LiteracyProject has been developing a programmeof activity which may provide ways ofunderstanding how audio visualcomposition occurs in different culturaland language settings. The results of thismay shed light on the role that audio visualcommunication might play in a range ofnew applications.

The international programme ofactivity involves teachers of mediapractitioners and audio visualcommunicators, from a large cross sectionof continents, collaborating on a joint pieceof research which will provide extensivedocumentation on the ways in which theyteach media practice and in particular audiovisual composition. The participants fromeach country arc providing three sets ofmaterials: examples and extracts fromnational film and television output, casestudies of their practical teachingstrategies, and examples of their studentsvideo texts.

The compilations of extracts fromnational film and television output will beselected on the basis of attempting toidentify a particular national look. Thislook may be a particularly visualphenomenon, or may be achieved by theuse of specific movement or rhythm, or bysome other factor altogether. Comparativeanalyses may produce some identificationof key elements which might in turn bcrelated in some way to a diversity ofcultural visual imaging, languaging, anddrama, or music.


The international case studies onteaching media practice should provide theopportunity of seeing whether there aresimilar general patterns, and particularindividual difference, in the process ofaudio visual composition. Comparingthese case studies will enable a cross-cultural enquiry, as well as an opportunityof identifying basic elements, in an audiovisual composing process. It should alsoprovide access to differing approaches tothe teaching of audio visual composition.

In addition, examples of setassignments will be given to students andthe resulting video texts will be examinedto provide insights into the relationshipbetween different kinds of audio visualteaching and the unfolding audio visualcompositional forms developed by mediastudents.

The Media Literacy Project has beenlooking at the audio visual composingprocess by examining its compositionalelements. The current approach has beento look at the visual and performing arts,their relationship to human communicationand the ways which their vocabularies areused within audio visual composingprocesses. Not only has this perspectiveprovided a framework for looking at anaudio visual communication system as ameans of developing an intelligence offeeling (because of the role played by the

effective domain in the expressive systemsof the arts), but it has also provided a wayof presenting an innovative framework forteaching media practice.

Furthermore, the results of thisresearch programme may illuminatequestions pertaining to the culturalinfluence on audio visual composition.We may discover specific national,cultural, and language differences or thenotion of an international audio visualcompositional process (which may havemuch to do with innate aspects of seeing,hearing, and thinking than with the globalcapacities of the audio visual technologies)may be reinforced.

It is hoped that by tapping into theexpansion of new media programmes,within the higher education system, whichhave included the teaching of mediapractice, that it is now possible to provideinformation on the nature of audio visualcomposition--the theories underpinning theart of media practice, methodologies forteaching audio visual composition, and therelationship between teaching strategiesand the acquisition and use of an audiovisual communication system. Thisinformation could provide the frameworkfor developing appropriate strategies formeeting the needs of new applications formedia communication in the future.

TECHNOLOGICAL LITERACY OR ILLITERACY?THE REALITY ABOUT GREEK TEACHERS

byMichael Meimaris

Assumptions Taken UnderConsideration

Active primary school teachers aregraduates of the two-year termPedagogical Academies, which wereabolished in 1986 along with the foundingof four-year term Educational Departmentsinside the universities.

These educators have the obligationto teach the whole school curriculum; thereare no specialties.

Therefore, thcir training on basicSciences (Mathematics and PhysicalSciences) is insufficient, being orientedmainly towards the subject matter taught inprimary schools. In Greek primaryschools there exists a detailed curriculumdescribing analytically each book chapterper teaching hour according to everysubject and relating exclusively to theteaching manual-book, which is uniqueand obligatory for all schools.

The Greek teacher's everydaypractice consists of teaching by the book,instead of teaching the student's relation toknowledge, using the book as anaccessory.

With the appearance of newaudiovisual techniques in education, theefficacy of the previous method isseriously questioned.

As a learning process we accept thetheory of constructivism, based on theconccpts already available to people, theconstruction of knowledge being the resultof thc active subject (Fort, 1992).

As a teaching principle we accept thefollowing thesis: "Thc teaching of a certainsubject presupposes the knowledge of the

103

subject's entire domain, its evolution, andapplications" (Strantzalos, 1991).

Any form of introduction of the newtechnologies to schools will therefore haveto take into consideration:

1. The perceptions and practices ofthe teachers themselves about the teachingand the learning process.

2. The teachers' own knowledgeabout the new technologies.

3. The possibilities of a wider useof new technologies (Meimaris, 1992).

The Present Situation Concerningthe Relation Between the NewTechnologies and Education in

Greece

Educational television has been inuse since 1978 without becomingfunctional in the process of school life.

The practice of sending videocassettes and television sets to schools inremote areas, which was done in a limitedway the last few years, has not producedspecific results on a regional level, nor hasit had any effect on an all-round level.

For the time being, the 5,000 to6,000 PC's that are programmed to reachmainly secondary schools and to a smallerdegree primary schools, are in the processof being bought for the hardware, while asfar as software is concerned, there existonly general outlines.

It has not been verified if the abovementioned PC's will be used for ncwtechnology literacy programs or as a toolof initiation to informatics, or as a newtechnology method of approach for the

94

teaching of a large number of lessons (orfor office work!).

There exists a promotional yearbookon informatics, which can adhere tograduates of Computer Science,Mathematics, and Physics. It is obviousthat these graduates will teach theirstudents based on their fields.

In a number of private schoolscomputers are functioning on a laboratorybasis, but they have not been in use as aclass accessory.

Special Training in the NewTechnologies for the Teachers

The mass training of teachers is thework of the P.E.C. (PeripheralEducational Centers) established in 1985and functioning since September 1992.Attendance is obligatory for all activeeducators of all levels and specialties.

There are 14 P.E.C.'s in Greece,three of them in Athens and Piraeus, whilethe capacity of each is approximately 400trainees for a three month period.

P.E.C.'s offer for the first threemonths of each academic year a pre-service training period, followed by twoin-service periods for the remaining sixmonths.

Thus, it can be assumed that in thenext eight to ten years all Greek activeeducators will have completed a threemonth training period on the P.E.C.'s.

The function of P.E.C.'s provideslessons five hours daily, five days a week,for a three month period of audio-visual aswell as new technology lessons andcomputer laboratory cover respectively oneand two hours weekly: i.e., we have 10hours of theory and 20 hours of practice(hands-on) for teachers per training term.

Outside thc P.E.C. structure therearc held, occasionally, special trainingseminars on computing languages, logo,word processing, spread sheets, etc.,


usually as an initiative of private and socialsources--communities for example. Theteacher's participation in these multi-hourand not clearly education oriented seminarsis limited.

Teacher trainees have not receivedlessons connected with the newtechnologies and computer science duringtheir basic education in the PedagogicalAcademies.

Basic Elements of Training in NewTechnologies During the Three

Month Term of P.E.C.

During the ten hours of theory thefollowing subjects are examined:

1. Basic elements of computerscience and N.T.'s (Binary system,computer configuration, networks,hypermedia).

2. Examples of educational videocassettes (Greek and foreign productions).

3 . Initiation to educational television(from the conception and design of ascenario to the production anddistribution).

4. Examples of multimediaeducational products (CD-i with disksfrom Smithsonian Institute, Time-Life,Van Gogh, and applications for children).

During the 20 hours of lab work,with two persons per machine (PC's 286network with a 386 Hos. computer), thefollowing subjects are examined:

1. Familiarization with themachines.

2. Basic principles of MS/DOS.

3. Word processing.

4. Examples of Logo an differentschool data processing applications.

1 0 ,1

Technological Literacy or Illiteracy?

The Questionnaire's Design andProcedure

The questionnaire is designed insuch a way that will permit theinvestigation of:

1. Teachers' literacy in the N.T.'sand their ability to use them.

2. Teachers' pre-existing opinions-attitudes concerning the introduction ofN.T.'s in education, especially in relationto their own training and schoolcurriculum.

3. Their relation to educationaltelevision.

4. Their potential to organize alesson using different elements based onthe N.T.'s.

The questionnaire was submittedduring the function of the P.E.C. inPiraeus, in two training terms, the firstconcerning pre-service training and thesecond concerning in-service.

About eight hundred (800) educatorsof all levels and specialties from the greaterPiraeus area and the Cycladic andDodecanese Islands were questioned.

Methodology

For the analysis of the complete setof data, linear (factor analysis) and nonlinear (cluster analysis) statistical methodshave been used. More specifically:Correspondence Analysis (Benzecri,1973) and Ascending HierarchicalClassification have been employed for theexploration of the latent structure ofdifferent data matrices constructed fromthe initial table of data (Meimaris, 1978).

First Results

Complete data processing beingunder way as these lines are written, wearc obliged to present here elementsconcerning the pre-service training ofprimary school teachers.

95

In this phase the questionnaife wasaddressed to 120 pre-service teachers ofprimary schools:

73% female and 27% male,

65% 26-27 years old,

Half of the above were graduateso f regional pedagogicalacademies,

80% had graduated in 1986,

all had experience of schoolteaching as substitutes,

31% had given private lessons,

73% had a teaching experience ofmore than three years,

9% (11 persons) owned a PC; sixof them used the PC regularly andonly one had the proper training,

Out of the total number of 120teachers, only four had beentrained in computers of whom twoneither own nor use a PC; onlyfour use a PC at school and ofthose only one had the propertraining.

In reference to the question about theteachers literacy in the N.T.'s, we noteamong others the following results:

Items in relation to no don'tcomputers relation know

mouse 26% 21% 42%diskette 82% 7% 7%software 46% 2% 37%fax 36% 34% 18%logo 16% 18% 49%0-1 14% 2% 65.59

Concerning the question aboutwhether they have attended educationaltelevision programs, they answered:

1.05

96

62% yes, 27% no, and 10% gave noanswer, while they had an overall positiveview concerning its educational value andits assistance towards the lesson's bettercomprehension.

Concerning the hypotheticalexistence of all the new technology itemsin the classroom, they prefer television andvideo as an accessory to teaching, and to alesser degree the computer, especially inmatters of the environment. As a moded'emploi they propose a projectionfollowed by discussion and commentary.

Looking to the introduction of theN.T.'s to education:

In Relation to the Educator'sTraining

1. 17% propose only formathematics teachers to be trained inprogramming languages and use.

2. 47% propose short term trainingfor teachers of all specialties orientedtoward programming languages.

In Relation to School Curriculum:

1. 39% propose the introduction ofa special lesson on informatics,

2. 45% propose the creation of acomputer lab,

3. 26% prefer the introduction ofN.T.'s to school through the differentalready existing lessons without creating anew one.

Discussion

It appears that the ownership, theuse, and the training in a personalcomputer are in themselves quite differentthings.

This in itself is unavoidable but asfar as educators are concerned it breedscertain dangers about the implementationof the N.T.'s in education.


In an educational policy it wouldseem quite an easy thing to obtain apersonal computer for work at school orfor the teachers training (at home, with thehelp of a grant as is the case for buyingbooks). The difficult thing is the propertraining in the new technologies and theirmultiple uses.

This training will have to cover thecost of both the initial phase of trainingand the hands-on phase as well as theobservance of real-life teaching situationswith the use of PC's, and to foresee futureuses.

Therefore, more time is neededbefore educators can arrive at a level thatwill permit them to organize experimentaleducational scenarios.

References

Benzecri, J. P., et. al. (1973). L'analysedes donnees. 2 volumes. Dunod.

Fort, M. (1992). Constructivism: Fromthe cognitive to the pedagogical model.Proceedings of the second internationalsymposium on the didactics ofmathematics (pp. 351-368). Athens,Greece: Protaseis.

Meimaris, M. (1978). Statistique dePenseignement en Grece. Les cahiersanalysedes donnees, vol. 111, 3, (pp.355-366).

Meimaris, M. (1992). New technologiesand education. Proceedings of thesecond international symposium on thedidactics of mathematics (pp. 147-158). Athens, Greece: Protaseis.

Strantzalos, C. (1991). Mathematics inthe secondary school curriculum.Proceedings of the 1st internationalsymposium on the didactics ofmathematics (pp. 4-18). Euklides,3(8), 29.

1 0 13

SCHOOLS AND TECHNOLOGY IN A DEMOCRATICSOCIETY:

EQUITY AND SOCIAL JUSTICE

byRobert Muffoletto

Questions need to be addressedconcerning the role of education andtechnology in a fair and equitable globalpolitical and economic system. Asindividuals, and as a profession, involvedin the research, development, production,and dissemination of educationalexperiences for children and adults, weneed to consider what we have created andwill create in light of social justice anddemocratic principals.

Our history in educationaltechnology is full of attempts to design andproduce effective learning environments.(I realize it is not our history but a historythat has evolved out of conflicts andcontradictions representing variousinterests. There are many histories, manyvoices yet to be heard.) We, as aprofession, have consumed variouslearning theories and have producedvarious formats for the delivery ofeducational and instructional materials.Our collective purpose has been to increasethe effectiveness of teaching materials andthe efficiency of the learning process. Atthe same time, our purpose has been anideological one. The materials we have andwill produce speak of us and others inways which construct them as we wish tosee them. Technology is not a neutralconduit, but an ideological apparatus. Itspeaks of the world as we have created it.

Our field is grounded in logicalpositivism, capitalism, and a 19th and 20thcentury notion of progress and classicalrealism. Technology, both as machine andas system, was and is linked withmodernism and progress. Reality,especially social reality, and the storiestold about it by experts, is understood tocxist outside the individual and has for themost part gone unquestioned and

107

unrecognized by researchers in our field.Beneath all of this lies the ideology of themachine and the expert (Muffoletto,1993).

Our field has strived to createthrough various presentational formats areconstructed reality. Most of the debatein these attempts has centered on theveracity of the experience; does it feel real,does it reflect reality, is it efficient, and isit effective in its delivery. There has beenlittle debate on the consequences of thosestrivings for a reconstructed reality on thelives of real people and their culture. Withthe recent developments in virtual realityand multimedia hardware and software wemust begin and continue our attempts toaddress the psychological, social, andpolitical implications and effects of whatwe do as perceived experts, as educationaltechnologists and media educators. Nolonger can we afford to claim the neutralityof a modernist tradition or the non-historical consciousness whichaccompanies a positivist discourse towardsreality and experience. As educators,researchers, and developers of learningexperiences we must find avenues andentry points for debates and practices thatargue and provide for spaces that supportand maintain democracy and social justice.The first step I believe is to recognizeourselves for what we are: a social,historical, and epistemologicalconstruction. The second step is to definewhat we mean by democracy and socialjustice. The third is to position ourdefinitions in practice.

Technology as a Medium forDiscourse

Technology is more than a tool, it isa medium which cffects how wc think and

98

interact with others and machines(Rhcingold, 1991). It is a form which notonly controls and limits discourse butdetermines the nature of the content as well(Postman, 1992). Technology is morethan access to information and learningexperiences. Technology determines thenature of that information ar well as ourunderstanding of it. As a medium ofexperience (discourse), technology effectsour consciousness, our visions, and ourexpectations. The wetware of a modernisttechnology constructs the individual as asubjcct (Berger & Luckmann, 1966;Muffoletto, 1991). The technologicalmedium is more than a mind manager anda reality simulator, it is a consciousnessgenerator --an ideological horizon line.

Information

If technology is to provide us withaccess to information, there are a numberof issues that must be considered andaddressed. Simply providing access toinformation is not enough in a socialcontext where historically access has beenlimited to the wealth, gender, and race ofthe individual or community. Access toinformation must also include equity inaccess to ways of thinking aboutinformation. If information is to be used toempower people within the democratictradition, then educational experiencesmust provide a means for equal access toways of thinking as well as valuingdifferent ways of thinking.

To have information and not knowwhat to do with it, is as serious problem asnot having information at all (of coursethis begs the question about the nature ofinformation, epistemology, legitimization).Individuals who historically have beenpositioned on the margins of power andknowledge because of their culture, theireconomic class, their gender, their race, ortheir religion, may have been given equalaccess to information (even in limitedways), but not ways of knowing(thinking). For example, thc cultural waysof making sense in the United States hasbeen limited to primarily one cultural andeconomic framework (white, middle-class,


male, and European). How one thinksabout the world and one's self in itdetermines the rationale for understandingwhy things are the way they are (commonsense), and not why reality is thoughtabout in that manner.

How one thinks about the world aswell as self, is how one has been told toact and think in relationship to self andothers. Having information, but notdivergent ways of thinking, maintains theindividual and the community in apowerless relationship to those who do.Having access to information may create afalse consciousness resulting in less realpower than before.

Simulations as Experience

Virtual reality, as a technology ofexperience, poses a number of questions.First and most basic, we must considerwhat the relationship is between a virtualreality and something we call reality. Is itgood enough to be concerned with onlythe veracity of the experience and itscorrespondence to what is believed to beout there? (The physical and socialsciences can be separated here, butquestions concerning how we know realityand truth are essential to both paradigms.)In doing so we must offer up for analysisthe manner in which we came to thinkabout what is out there. We tend to forgetthat our understanding of what we think isout there is a result of the tools we use toexplore it, the language we use toconstruct it, and the beliefs and contextused to understand it and give it mean'ng(Goodman, 1978; Rorty, 1991). Changethe tool, the language, or the system, andreality differs. As individuals concernedwith the creation of simulations, otherworlds, we can not forget that we existwithin a social reality, a virtual realty ofsorts. We must also recognize thatthrough discourse management, ourconstructed reality has become reified andobjectified.

Second, if virtual reality isunderstood in terms of simulations, looks,feels, and sounds-alike, virtual reality

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Technology in a Democratic Society 99

must be understood as a discourse. As adiscourse virtual reality must be analyzedas any other discourse? Borrowing fromCherryholmes (1988) we would need toquestion virtual reality by asking: Who iscontrolling the discourse (reality)?; Who isallowed to speak and listen?; What is beingsaid?; Who benefits from what is beingsaid?; as well as, What is not beingspoken?

Any simulation or virtual reality mustbe considered from two differentperspectives. On one side we mustconsider who is constructing the world tobe experienced by users (students,teachers, workers, infonauts). Notionsconcerning hypertext environments,interactive video, and virtual reality includeauthors and readers, suides and travellers,navigators and explorers. Notechnological environment, as a system, isauthorless. Every author, everyprogramming production team, everynavigator, holds a world view, anideological perspective, a consciousnessabout seif and others. On the other side,we must consider the social,psychological, and political effects of aconstructed world on the readers of thevirtual text.

Social Learning

How we come to be as subjects, associal beings, is a result of experiencingconstructed texts (texts is used here in apost-modernist manner) and meanings(Belsey, 1980). All texts are hegemonicand are part of a larger discourse encodedwith meanings, values, and ideologicalperspectives on others and self. How andwhat we learn about a social world is theresult of experiences with variousdiscourses about that world. In doing so,we either reproduce dominate meaningsand ways of knowing or offer oppositionaland alternative discourses (Hall, Hobson,& Willis,1980). In either case, individualsas members of interpretive communities(Fish, 1980) understand a reality to be as itis, to be real and truthful, because of theirexperiences with various formative andinformative discourses (Ellsworth &

Whatley, 1990). Questions referring toequity and social justice emerge out of adiscourse on social learning, power andcontrol, benefit, and history.

School Reform and Technology:Towards Social Inquiry and Justice

Curriculum materials, deliverysystems, and learning environments maybe understood as social texts,representational in nature, always overtlyreferring to something else, while covertlyreferring to themselves as a formativemedium. The form and content of learningenvironments not only speak to methodsand content, but also refer to ways ofthinking and knowing. Thinking about alllearning environments, methodologies,and contents as representational, asideological representations, adds anotherdimension to our thinking aboutschooling, technology, and change.

Change always refers to difference.In education as well as business, change isconsidered as a reply to some identifiedproblem. How these problems areidentified is as important to understand aswhat the problem is reported as being.Needs assessments, goal development,and vision statements refer to a history, thepresent, and to a future. Futures arenormally related to notions of progress.

What the problem is, is determinedby who (who being not an individual but acommunity) is asking. If problems andsolutions are defined in terms ofefficiency, outcomes, and management,the problems and solutions will be of onenature. If problems are contextualized in adiscourse of democracy and social justice,efficiency, outcomes, and managementmay be part of the solution but to what andhow they refer to will be different. Aseducation in the United States considerswhy and how it must change, technologyas a medium which effects knowing,institutional and individual relationships,as well as a sense of self and others, mustbe better understood within a discourse ofdemocratic ideals. The problem needs tobe redefined. (Again, the language has to

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be problematic when we consider thatthere is not one education, but many.)

Critical Theoryand Educational Technology

Critical theory offers an entry pointfor unpacking the values, assumptions,and practices of educational technology.From a post-modernist perspective criticaltheory claims no absolute authorship. Itdeclares its own subjectivity andideological construction. As a theoryworking within a post-modernist tradition,those who practice critical theory areconcerned with questions of power,control, and epistemology as socialconstructions with benefits to some andnot to others.

A critical theory of educationaltechnology would be concerned withissues of consciousness and epistemology,power and control, institutional andindividual relationships (Feenberg, 1991).Questions concerning equity and socialjustice, and the construction of individualsas subjects within an ideological discoursewould be critical to the unpacking andredefinition of the theories and practices ofeducational technology. A major impact ofcritical theory on the field of educationaltechnology would be to recognize itself asa social construction with a history ofconflicts, struggles, and contradictions. Inunderstanding the social and historicalnature of the field, the values andassumptions which are expressed throughvarious discourses would be open foranalysis.

Conclusion

Schooling, in reflecting a democraticsociety, requires a society to bedemocratic, non-racist, non-sexist, and notclass based. In positioning education as amajor socializing institution, with a majorrole in forming the world views andsubjectivities of its participants, theproducts and processes of educationaltechnology do play a major role in howcommunities of individuals think aboutothers and self. A critical theory position,


breaking from the common sense reifiedworld offered by modernist and positivistalike, would need to address issuesconcerning the function of schooling and atechnology of instruction in a democraticsociety.

References

Cherryholmes, C. H. (1988). Power andcriticism: Poststructural investigationsin education. New York & London:Teachers College Press.

Belsey, C. (1980). Critical practice.London & New York: Methuen.

Berger, P. L., & Luckmann, T. (1966).The social construction of reality: Atreatise in the sociology of knowledge.Garden City, NY: Doubleday.

Ellsworth, E. & Whatley, M. H. (1990).The ideology of images in educationalmedia: 1-:idden curriculums in theclassroom. New York & London:Teachers College Press.

Feenberg, A. (1991). Critical theory oftechnology. New York & Oxford:Oxford University Press.

Fish, S. (1980). Is there a text in thisclass? The authority of interpretivecommunities. Cambridge & London:Harvard University Press.

Goodman, N. (1978). Ways ofworldmaking. Indianapolis &Cambridge: Hackett .

Hall, S., Hobson, D., Lowe, A., &Willis, P. (1980). Culture, media,language:Working papers in culturalstudies, 1972-79. London:Hutchinson.

Muffoletto, R. (1991). Technology andtexts: Breaking the window.Paradigms regained: The uses ofilluminative, semiotic and post-moderncriticism as modes of inquiry ineducational technology. Englewood

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Cliffs, N.J.: Educational TechnologyPublications.

Muffoletto, R., & Knupfer, N. (Eds.)(1993) Computers in education:Social, political, historicalperspectives. New Jersey: HamptonPress.

Postman, N. (1992). Technopoly: Thesurrender of culture to technology.New York: Alfred A. Knopf.

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Rheingold, H. (1991) Virtual reality.New York: Summit.

Rorty, R. (1991) Objectivity, relativism,andtruth. Cambridge, MA: CambridgeUniyersity Press.

BEFORE THE CHALLENGE

byDemetres Pnevmatikos

Quality in education is a centralpreoccupation in all developed countries.Improving the quality of basic education--primary and secondary--obviouslycomprises a number of changes incurricula, teaching methods, and theorganization of schooling with particularemphasis on the role of the teaching staff.On the other hand, teachers have begun tobe dissatisfied with the inability of theschool to link school and society. Manyteachers, also, have turned towardstechnology because of "a felt need toreflect the nature of our rapidly changingsociety in education and to underline itsrelevance for all pupils" (Dodd, 1978, p.37). From this point of view, educationhas always followed technologicaladvances in trying to apply scientificachievements to teaching practice.Contrary to the other fields, educationaltechnology is characterized by a lack oftargets. Although, multimediaapplications, for example, promised rapidchanges in education, there is no plan toassimilate these ideas and knowledge.Therefore, it is time for education to defineits targets in aspiring to the school of thefuture and call in experts that could solvethe problems that might arise. Thisimplies that the psychologists,pedagogists, and computer scientistsshould cooperate to solve the problemswhich arise. In order to show what Imean exactly, in this paper I shall attemptto describe the school of the future and Ishall point out some of the problems thatmust be resolved from each science.

The School of the Future

Forgive me, if the first part of myproposal seems like a science fiction storybut as Denis Healy (1987) said: "Theapplication of information technology toeducation requires new and imaginativeapproaches" (Lesgold, 1987, p. 13).

Classroom Organization

The structure of a classroom in aschool of the future will not be toodifferent from a current classroom. Theclassroom will still have its blackboard.On one side, behind the teacher's desk,there would be a screen whose size wouldvary with the size of the classroom. Onthe teacher's desk, there would be a highcapacity multimedia system, equippedprobably with peripheral CD-ROM, full-motion video, touch sensitive screen,voice/document delivery system, printer,etc. On the desks there would be PCsequipped with appropriate software forevery lesson. They would have a CD-ROM as well as CD-WRITE and an on-line link with the school's library.

Class-Student Organization

A common feature of all students ofeach class will not be their chronologicalage but the possession of the same level ofcognitive abilities, corresponding to therequisite level for the comprehension ofevery unit of the lesson. Students wouldbe tested on every subject and assigned toa class in accordance with the results.

Library Organization

The school's library will not havebooks, magazines, or newspapers. It willhave a computer capable of linking withdatabases and in a short time it will be ableto provide information for everything thathas been written, providing writing abilityof information on a CD-ROM, for furtherprocessing, for every type of schoolThere will also be in the library a relevantsoftware series with multimediaencyclopedias so that students areinformed directly. The contents ofencyclopedias would be graduatedaccording to the level of cognitive demand.

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Before thc Challenge 103

Curriculum and Syllabus Design

If we accept that the spectrum ofscientific knowledge of every scientificregion is reproduced almost every tenyears, it is apparent that the curriculumshould be reorganized and the educationalvalues required in future life should beevaluated. Therefore, the curriculum'sobjective targets will provide to itsstudents a fundamental body of knowledgefor every scientific field. They shouldstress the cultural educational values ofcach country and encourage a sense ofuniversal moral values in combination withthe commonly accepted educational valueswhich would be necessary for theconservation of our planet. Thecurriculum will put on a scale theknowledge, based on the allocated abilitieswhich are required for their resolution andthey will provide to students the ability toattend courses according to thedevelopment of their capacities, puttinginto practice the individualization inteaching. There will be lessons which willhelp students acquire a clear picture of theway they operate as cognitive beings,laying equal emphasis on metacognition(Flavel, 1979; Wellman, 1985) and onknowledge. The content of the lessonswill be clearly defined but beyond thefundamental knowledge, it will provide theopportunity for a broader exploration ofthe lesson. It will also pose theunanswered questions which engage thefield of the lesson for the students toconsider these subjects in depth.Teachers, to accomplish every lessontargets, must have the opportunity to selectfrom a series of alternative methods, oneof which will correspond to the specialneed of each student's socioeconomicstatus.

Teaching OrganizationLesson Planning

Teachers will be aware of students'capacities for the acquisition of newknowledge, and they will also have a clearpicture of students individual differencesand will be aware of the factors thatwould potentially affect their teaching.

Collaterally, teachers will have in theirpossession plenty of media and methodsto succeed in their target. Teachers shalldevelop in this way to the maximumdegree, the technological potential.Initially, they will be able to present thelesson plan on the screen and pose thequestions that will occupy the class duringthe lesson. By using the multimediasystem they will b.s, able to give a vividpicture of the phenomena they will teachnot only in laboratory conditions but alsoin real conditions. Students will be able toexperiment on the computer themselvesthrough a simulation program, to searchfor other useful information from thelibrary, to transmit new knowledge to newapplications. To establish the unansweredquestions and to formulate possiblesolutions for these questions or, evenbetter, to experiment about theirresolution. Finally, students will be ableto evaluate themselves by answering thespecial test made to test the degree ofacquisition of new knowledge. Thecomputer will be able to process (aided bya statistical program like SPSS) theanswers automatically and to give thepicture of every student's record.

Development PaceStudent Grading

This system will assist thecontinuous assessment of the students'progress. When students rise to a higherdevelopment level in some lesson andpossess the fundamental knowledge, thenby rights they will be able to attend thelesson at the same level. This means thatthe importance of the course is not limitedto the acquisition of the necessaryknowledge but also to the development ofcognitive abilities, of self respect, of selfawareness, and of meta-cognitiveawareness.

The Problems WithComputer Science

Multimedia systems provide thepotential for multi-sensory presentationsand therefore in addition to the fact thatthey maintain the student's attention during


the lesson, they have the capability toaccelerate and improve the comprehensionof information. It is a fact that computerscience has succeeded to manyapplications which only a while agobelonged to the field of science fiction.This fact allows us to be optimistic abouteven more applications in the future.Since 1978, when Philips Laser-Visionwas first presented (it was based on avideo disk appliance which had the abilityto store pictures) we have seen until nowmore complex applications concerning livevideo and sound in analogical form. TheCD-ROM, the VGA card of IBM, Apple'slogismic Hypercard, have progressed tomore complex applications likevoice/documentary delivery (Scherr,1989), CD-Write (Udell, 1993). Verysimple educational applications haveprogressed to the Computer-AidedLanguage Instruction (CAL), (Last,1984), or the educational encyclopediaslike MAMMALS Multimedia Encyclopedia(one complete encyclopedia for the animalkingdom of mammals based onHypertext), Compton's MultimediaEncyclopedia, the concise ColumbiaDictionary of Quotations and HammondAtlas. In other words, the newinformation technology offers a widevariety of programs covering nearly all thestages of learning. However, buildingone's educational program presents someproblems. Some of them I shall try todescribe now. I will not go into technicaldetails as I am not an expert in this subject.However, I will point out some of theproblems that researchers have detected inan attempt to apply useful educationalprograms for us to have an understandingof them.

Researchers from the Center foreducational Research and Innovation(CERI) who consider the building ofeducational programs for mathematics,emphasize that creating of such programsmust include "knowing what the problemis and knowing a method of solving it"(Howe, 1987). Therefore, in buildingsuch a program for computers "we candistinguish errors which are due to theinexact or imprecise conceptualization of a

problem from errors occurring as a resultof representing the problem in programform" (p. 235). That implies that first tfall we should have a clear and documentedview about the structure of the problemand secondly we should commandproportional flexible methods andtechniques which will allow us to transmitthis structure into the program explicitly.Dr. Jean-Paul Haton (1987) hasconsidered artificial intelligence researchfor systems that would be able to use allthe knowledge, including humanexpertise, available in a given domain. Heconsiders the application of knowledge-based techniques to understandingsystems, especially speech understandingand computer vision where the basicproblem consists of interpreting inputphysical data. In these two related fields,Dr. Haton notices: "there exists a closeinteraction between numerical data-processing (perceptual aspects such as insignal processing and pattern recognitiontechniques) and symbolic computation(cognitive aspects). Moreover, it isdifficult to implement reasoning processesdue to the multiple knowledge sources andto the fact that data are incomplete and/orerroneous (p. 1). We should thereforecommand a clear view of the symbolicoperation of the human's cognitiveoperations to project them later on incomputer operation. We should alsoknow which of the human capacities canbe developed by computers and which cannot.

Sperandio and Scapin (1987) pointout the problems of the ergonomics aspectin man-machine communications:

Speaking to the machine in naturallanguage may seem more naturalthan using a keyboard. It is certainlymore natural, but not necessarilyfaster nor safer. First of all, today'smachines recognize spoken wordsonly within boundaries that are muchmore restricted than man to mancommunication. This technologicalconstraint requires the operator tospeak in a more stereotypical waythan in everyday life, and to use a

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Before the Challenge 105

reduced language. Therefore, theuser has a greater risk of violatingthese boundaries, these rules, than ifhe/she was using a more classicalentry mode, such as a key-board.Current software design cansometimes be described as an artrather than a science, dependingmore on individual judgment thansystematic application of knowledge.It is that knowledge, both in terms ofmethods and existing results thatsoftware ergonomics can provide.(pp. 83-84)

In other words, planners ofeducational curricula should select fromthe superabundance of offered techniquesthe most operative. Even though allprograms of new information technologyare material well produced, ProfessorGilbert de Landshere (1987) pointed outthat taken in isolation, and not seen astools for use in an educational project,many of them are of dubiouspsychological and pedagogical value.Therefore, criteria of coursewaredescription and evaluation must beadapted, improved, and extended. It iscustomary to consider the user interface(screen layout, forms of control andfeedback, nature of dialogue), the technicalquality of the program, and its pedagogicalstructure and function.

Psychological Problems(Cognitive Sciences)

Cognitive science emphasizes therole of prior knowledge in learning. Wehave already pointed out the need of thecomputer programmer to know the exactoperation of the human mind to construct anew educational program for a computer.Furthermore, in the first part classorganization based on the same level ofcognitive abilities in each domain ofknowledge was discussed. However,there are many different aspccts of thegrowth and organization of cognitiveabilities. Jean Piaget (Inhelder, 1963)suggests a holistic model for the structureand development of the mind. On thecontrary, neo-Piagetian researchers

propose more flexible systems for thearchitecture of the mind. Demetriou andEfklides (1993) suggested three differentsystems (the processing system, thehypercognitive system, and the specializedstructural system) in which the humanmind is structured. The first one refers tothe most general system of intellect. Thisinvolves components which are so generalthat they are present in every intellectualendeavor. The second one, thehypercognitive system, does not havesolutions to problems. It simply directsthe mind, when it is in a state ofuncertainty, to select a course of action thatseems more relevant and promising, giventhe presentation(s) of the solution of theproblem. The specialized structuralsystems are complex modules involvingconcepts, mental acts, schemes, oroperations interconnected into networksthat make their co-activation possible forthe sake of particular mental goals. Thesenetworks may be conceived as abilities.That is to say, they make the person ableto understand whole domains of realityand they structure the action required forefficient interactions with the elements ofthese domains. From this aspect, the mindis conceived more as a network ofrelations connecting the intellectual unitsinto systems which are functional vis-à-visthe demands of specific environments inthe individual's own history (Demetriou,Efklides, & Platsidou, 1993).

Therefore, the structure andorganization of knowledge in every specialfield of reality should have a particularinner structure and organization andshould follow a particular developmentalrate. This means that the exact structureand developmental rate of every field ofreality should be explored and later oneducational programs built which wouldtake into account all these specialties. Afirst step towards this direction, pertainingto religious thinking has already been done(Pncvmatikos, in preparation). It wasestablished that although studentspossessed the corresponding abilities for ahigher level of religious thinking than thcone thcy demonstrated, they remained,however, at a lower level of religious


thinking. The factor which was ofsignificant influence was thesocioeconomic status. That means, tha:research beyond the structure of everyform of complex thinking, should beturned into pointing out explicitly allfactors responsible for the creation ofindividual differences. In other words,one must specify precisely the manner inwhich knowledge is acquired and built inevery domain of reality and secondly oneshould define all factors which areresponsible for the creation of individualdifferences. Today there is no doubt that athorough analysis of the domain specificknowledge of a person is a necessaryrequirement for understanding theperson's problem-solving activities in eachdomain (Glaser, 1984). Beside that, thereexists a need, as many agree,"metacognitive processes should receivemore consideration in development ofteaching programs. A teaching programshould help explicitly to acquiremechanism to control and monitor thedomain-specific knowledge and cognitiveskills" (Corre, 1987, p. 167). What is therelevance of metacognition to each one ofthe fields of reality? Does their influenceoccur in the same way in all developmentallevels? These are questions that should beanswered. For the time being, "recentstudies of training in the development ofcognitive strategies demonstrate thesuccess of cognitive and meta-cognitivetraining measures with students withlearning disabilities, students withdifferent levels of maturity, and students indifferent college semesters" (Corre, 1987,p. 167).

Psychology should research thestructure of every particular field of humanknowledge, should build hierarchicaldevelopmental models for each one,should point out the relations between eachlevel of development of this hierarchy andthe cognitive abilities and metacognition,and finally should specify the responsiblefactors for the creation of individualdifferences as well as the manner in whichthese factors interact in each field ofreality. This point needs attention becausethe success or failure of every course will

be dependent upon the reliability of theresearch and also upon the aspect that willbe adopted for the architecture, structure,and development of the human mind.

Pedagogical Problems

In recent years much has beenlearned about expertise in many differentareas, and one way to view education is"as the conveying of expertise to children.We continue to expect our children to befacile at the basic skills of reading,writing, and arithmetic computation, butincreasingly, we also expect them torespond flexibly, like experts, tocontinuing technological change (Lesgold,1987, p. 20).

On the other hand, time exerts greatpressures on education. Pressuresproduced by the time problem combinedwith other weaknesses of educationalsystems have led to widespread belief thateducational standards have been lowered.The rapid pace of our society, andparticularly the media, reinforces the beliefof many children that skills can beacquired very quickly. Most teachers donot have the opportunity to attend atraining course during their career. Inscience the amount of importantknowledge continues to grow and it iseasier for those responsible to add to thecurriculum than to redesign it. This is thepicture of education all over the world.The curriculum of the school of the futuremust be redesigned. We will soon have anew cognitive science telling us howlearning takes place and what is learnedfrom certain standard components ofschooling. We need to turn to ouradvantage new skills, new tools, ncwteaching methods, new time, and studentdivision.

Conclusion

We have considered the school of thefuture. We have also pointed out some ofthe problems that should be solved. Thisdemands hard worked from manyscientists and the joint efforts of variousscientific disciplines in order that our

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Before the Challenge 107

dreams should be made reality. It mayalso be necessary to outlay a lot of moneyat time for scientific research. So muchscientific potential and such a prohibitiveamount of money is impossible for onlyone country to provide. There is the needto create an international institute whichshould research and join the effortsbetween the institutions all over the world.Furthermore, the national institutionsshould be activated to define theireducational values and national ideals.They should also describe those specificfactors of their nation, that would createthe differentiation environment in whichthe cognitive abilities are growing.However, this is a vital question: If todaya great number of illiterates exists all overthe world, what is going to be the numberof illiterates in the future under the newdemanding conditions? This questionneeds to be answered.

References

Corre, Y. (1987). Scientific andtechnological concepts. In Informationtechnologies and basic learning.Center for educational research andinnovation (pp. 151-2 14). Paris,France: Organization for EconomicCooperation and Development.

Demetriou, A., & Efklides, A. (1988).Experiential structuralism and neo-Piagetian theories: Toward anintegrated model. In A. Demetriou(Ed.), The neo-Piagetian theories ofcognitive development: Toward anintegration (pp. 173-222).Amsterdam: North Holland.

Demetriou, A., Efklides, A., & Platsidou,M. (1993). The architecture anddynamics of developmental mind:Experiential structuralism as a framefor unifying cognitive developmentaltheories. Monographs of the Societyfor Research in Child Development,58, (5, serial no. 234).

Dodd, T. (1978). Design and technologyin the school curriculum. Great

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Britain: Hodder & StroughtonEducational.

Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition andcognitive monitoring: A new area ofcognitive developmental inquiry.American Psychologist, 34, 906-911.

Glaser, R. (1984). Education andthinking. The role of knowledge.American Psychologist, 39, 93-104.

Haton, J. P. (1987). Knowledge-basedand expert systems in understandingproblems. In J. P. Haton (Ed.),Fundamentals in computerunderstanding: Speech and vision (pp.1-22). Cambridge University Press.

Howe, J. (1987). Arithmetic andmathematical concepts. In Infortnationtechnologies and basic learning.Center for Educational Research andInnovation (pp. 217-257). Paris,France: Organization for EconomicCooperation and Development.

Inhelder, B. (1963). Criteria of the stagesof mental development. In R. G.Kuhnen & G. G. Thomson (Eds.),Psychological Studies of HumanDevelopment (pp. 28-48). New York:Appleton-Century-Crofts.

Landsheere, G. (1987). Reading. InInformation technologies and basiclearning. Center for EducationalResearch and Innovation (pp. 55-115).Paris, France: Organization forEconomic Cooperation andDevelopment.

Last, R. (1984). Language teaching andthe microcomputer. England: BasilBlackwell.

Lesgold, A. (1987). Informationtechnologies and basic learning: Mainissues and future prospects. InInformation technologies and basiclearning. Center for EducationalResearch and Innovation (pp. 13-49).Paris, France: Organization for


Economic Cooperation andDevelopment.

Pnevmatikos, D. (in preparation). Thestructure of religious thinking.

Sherr, I. (1989, December). Pepperoniand paperwork. Byte, 309-316.McGraw-Hill.

Sperandio, J. C., & Scapin, D. L.(1987). Ergonomic aspects of man-machine communications. In J. P.Haton (Ed.), Fundamentals in

computer understanding: Speech andvision (pp. 79-91). Cambridge, MA:Cambridge University Press.

Udell, J. (1993, January). Byte.McGraw-Hill.

Wellman, H. M. (1985). The child'stheory of mind: The development ofconceptions of cognition. In S. R.Yussen (Ed.), The growth of reflectionin children (pp. 169-206). New York:Academic Press.

TEACHING WITH DISTANCE DELIVERY SYSTEMS:STRATEGIES FROM A TO Q

byLandra L. Rezabek

Though nuances of the definition stillare debated, the term distance educationbroadly refers to a wide variety ofeducational activities conducted when thesource(s) and recipient(s) of theeducational event are geographically ortemporally separated (Garrison, 1990;Keegan, 1990). Distance educational canassume a variety of forms, from verytraditional courses provided via videotapedlectures t o computer-mediatedcommunication among teachers andstudents that occurs when participants'schedules allow them to send and receiveelectronic messages. Though time-honored, print-based correspondencecourses are indeed considered a form ofdistance education, developments intechnological hardware and softwareprovide means of instantaneous, live, two-way interaction among instructors andstudents. Technological advances nowoffer distance education participantscommunication options such as audio,audiographic, facsimile, compressedvideo, VSAT (Very Small ApertureTerminals), microwave, satellite, cable,computer-based, and a variety of otherdelivery systems. Indeed, distancedelivery systems frequently are hybridsystems, taking advantage of the attributesof a variety of delivery technologies.

The focus of this paper, however, isnot on the ncw delivery systems (for aconcise overview see U.S. Congress,Office of Technology Assessment, 1989,Chapter 3). As with any type ofeducational hardware, distance deliverysystems themselves serve as the tools ofteaching and learning, not as the primaryconsideration. Though the attributes ofdistance delivery systems must beconsidered during the design anddevelopment of distanced educationendeavors, traditional principles of

instructional design and developmentcontinue to serve as the foundation foreducational planning. However,participants using new technologicaldelivery systems may require assistance inlearning to engage successfully andserenely in distance teaching and learning.This paper focuses on tips and strategiesfor educators interested in expanding theirteaching repertoires to include the use ofdistance delivery systems.

In honor of the nation of Greece,host country of the 1993 Symposium ofthe International Visual LiteracyAssociation, strategies for teaching withdistance delivery systems are associatedwith each letter of the Greek alphabet andare discussed below. Since many distancedelivery systems are available, strategiesare generic and can pertain to the use ofboth audio and visual systemsincorporating either live or delayedcommunication with a variety of learners.This brief overview of strategies is merelyan introduction to the many opportunitiesawaiting educators who engage in distanceteaching.

Attitudes. Educatorsengaged in distanceteaching must carefullyassess their attitudesabout distance education.Teacher predispositions

can be a crucial factor determining thesuccess or failure of distance programs.Attitudes of students, administrators, andother stakeholders are important as well,but an unhappy teacher forced into adistanced role can sabotage a program justas a committed teacher can contribute theenergy and enthusiasm that leads to thesuccess of the endeavor. Wise distanceteachers know about both the strengths

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and limitations of distance education andbelieve it is a worthwhile endeavor.

beta

Barriers. Distanceteachers are overcomingbarriers of time andgeography, just by thenature of distanceeducation. Other

barriers, ranging from tight budgets toluddite colleagues to administrative redtape, often present obstacles to educatorsteaching at a distance. Wise distanceteachers identify existing barriers anddevelop strategies for dealing with them,knowing that new barriers will arise topresent additional challenges.

Groups. As the role ofeducator shifts from thatof a dispenser ofinformation to that of afacilitator, coach, andmentor, teachers are

increasingly incorporating student groupactivities into the instructional process.Group assignments can be a challenge toarrange in a distanced context, but theycan be a very beneficial element of thedistanced educational experience. Carefulpreplanning, assignment of group rolesand responsibilities, use of on-sitefacilitators, and frequent communicationamong group members and the instructorall support the inclusion of group work indistanced settings. Wise distance teacherstake advantage of group options duringinstruction.

B

deft&

Determination.Distance teaching is notcasy. Those who naivelystate that teaching at adistance is just liketeaching in a face-to-face

situation probably have never taught at adistance. However, distance teaching is notnecessarily harder than normal teaching. Itmerely requires the determination toincorporate new teaching strategies and tomodify traditional ones in a new type oflearning environment. Wise distanceteachers are determined to provide


successful experience for their distancedstudents and will select strategies to do so.

Evaluation. Distanceteaching requires thateducators consistentlyevaluate not only theperformance of theirstudents, but the

successes and limitations of the entiredistance teaching experience. In adistanced context, teachers will want toevaluate their own performance; theappropriateness and effectiveness of thedelivery systems; and the support receivedfrom administrators, staff, site facilitators,and technicians. Wise distance teacherswill solicit assistance with evaluation of themany factors affecting the overall successof distanced teaching endeavors.

Zest. Just as ateacher's enthusiasm iscontagious in a liveclassroom, a distancedteacher's zest istransmitted across

geographical space and over time. Wisedistance teachers will remember that theirdegree of zest for distance teaching andlearning will be translated to studentsusing audio or visual means and thatstudents will perceive and often reflect thatenthusiasm.

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Eerie. Sometimesteaching at a distance mayseem a little strange.Depending on the type ofdelivery system beingused, a teacher may have

the eerie feeling that no one is out thereattending to instruction. Feedback isimportant to teachers as well as to studentsin order to combat an eerie sense ofisolation. Teachers may also fcel a littleunsettled when working with new deliverytechnologies for the first few Liles, butcomfort levels rapidly rise as teachersbecome accustomed to the hardware and tothe strategies to take advantage of ncwteaching options. Wise distance educatorsrealize that eerie feelings will bc replaced

Distance Delivery Systems 111

by a new sense of confidence in dealingwith distanced teaching situations.

Thoughtful andThorough. Teaching ata distance may encouragea teacher to be morethoughtful in planningi nstructi onal activities.

When using some distance deliverysystems, a degree of spontaneity may besacrificed in order that predeterminedmaterials arrive at distant locations in timeto be used in class. Wise distance teachersuse this fact as incentive for timely,thorough preparation of materials and forprior planning of instructional strategies.

6 71theb

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Interaction. Interactionfrequently is consideredcrucial to good teachinga n d learningenvironments. Whenworking in distanced

contexts, teachers may wish to beespecially mindful of the opportunities forinteraction that they build in to lessons.Simple strategies such as calling onstudents by name, assigning students fromdistant sites as spokespersons orequipment operators for the group,directing students to ask questions andinteract directly with each other, assigninggroup tasks, requiring individual or groupreports during class, and other activitiesthat encourage interaction in face-to-faceclassrooms often can be translated todistanced classrooms. Though theattributes of some delivery systems maytend to limit interaction, wise distanceteachers use their own creativity andexpertise to overcome these limitations.

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Kinks. Working withdistance delivery systemsusually means workingwith technology, andhardware glitches at onetime or another. Distance

teachers also will face kinks in the smoothoperation of a distanced program due tohuman factors. Wise distance teachers donot let kinks in the system tie them up in

knots, and they proceed to the best of theirability in the face of challenges.

Learners. Learners area crucial variable in thesuccessful distanceeducation equation.Wise, learner-centereddistance educators will

realize that their educational philosophiesand classroom strategies that focus theeducational act on learners and learningrather than teachers and teaching can betranslated to distance situations. Some ofthese strategies may include the use ofstudent-negotiated learning contractsincluding identifying the objectives andgrading criteria, a consideration ofstudents' learning style preferences ininstructional planning, and encouragementand validation of student ideas andcomments.

Media. Media such asslides, laser discs, audiorecordings, videotape,and graphics can beselected and incorporatedappropriately into

distanced contexts just as they are in liveface-to-face teaching settings. Thoughcopyright issues, distribution schedules,and fidelity of transmission are just a fewof the concerns that arise whensupplementing distance instruction withadditional media, wise distance teachersrealize that principles of communicationand learning that support the use ofeducational media in face-to-face situationsapply in distanced contexts as well.

N121*

Needs. Distanceeducation currently is invogue. Unfortunately,many educators selectdistance education as atrendy solution without

determining what the problem is orwhether a problem exists at all. A wisedistance educator will help determine theneeds of the school or institution which isconsidering distance teaching and learningoptions. Once needs are identified,distance delivery systems and solid

112

instructional design principles can assist inthe development of appropriate distancedinterventions.

Xerography. Distanceeducation endeavorsoften extend beyond thedissemination of print-based instruction, butxerography, facsimile,

and other print-based technologies stillsupport distanced teaching endeavors.Distance teachers may choose to distributecopies of graphic and written informationto distanced students to reinforce otherteaching-learning activities. Wise distanceteachers will take advantage of the speedand general accessibility of facsimile andxerographic technologies to supplementtheir distance teaching with print-basedmaterials.

Organization. Distanceteaching requires a greatdeal of organization onthe part of the teacher andthe many types of peopleinvolved in distanced

endeavors. Wise distance teachers willdraw upon principles of instructionaldesign and development to help organizetheir instructional responsibilities and willwork closely with colleagues to organizeall aspects of the distanced teaching andlearning experience.

Punctual. In manyinstances, distancedelivery systems areleased, rented, orotherwise scheduled to beused for specific finite

blocks of time. Some deliverytechnologies, such as satellitetransmission, may begin and end preciselyat predetermined times, regardless whetheror not an instructor is running late to classor is in mid-sentence. Wise distanceteachers will be punctual in starting andending class sessions, particularly whenthe technology is unforgiving.


Repetition. The oldadage, "Tell them whatyou're going to tell them,tell them, then tell themwhat you told them,"rings true for distance

educators. Distance teachers will soonlearn that repetition of Assignments, duedates, and key point9, is appreciated bydistanced students who want to confirmthat they are not losing any valuableinformation due to transmission noise orother technological or human interference.Wise distance teachers will repeatimportant points and confirm that thestudents have received the messages byasking students to restate the informationthemselves or to respond in otherappropriate ways.

Simplicity. It may bea tendency of humannature that someeducators want to use thenewest, most complex,most dazzling

technologies available, and this inclinationoften holds true in distance educationcontexts. However, the goals of adistance education endeavor often can bereached using simple delivery systems,alone or in hybrid combinations, ineffective ways. Wise distance educatorsrealize that simplicity of presentations anddelivery systems often is virtuous.

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Team. Team work isperhaps the single mostimportant factorcontributing to thesuccess of a distanceeducation endeavor.

Teachers, students, staff, administration,technicians, site facilitators, vendors,production personnel, aides, instructionaldesigners, and a variety of other peoplemust coordinate efforts and share expertisein order to establish and maintainsuccessful distance education programs.Wise distance teachers will be team playersand will know that they can not besuccessful without the help of others.

Distance Delivery Systems 113

Update. Technologieschange. Teachingmethods change.Instructional media andmaterials change.Students characteristics

change. Course goals change. Wisedistance teachers consistently update theirknowledge of and expertise using distancedelivery systems and modify their distanceofferings to meet changing instructionaldemands.

Philosophy. Distanceteachers frequently naveformulated a philosophyof education that isreflected by theirchtssroom style and

teaching strategies. Distance educationcourses can be delivered using traditionallecture formats dominated by teacher talkor can be designed to reflect theperspective that teachers are facilitators,coaches, and mentors. Wise distanceteachers recognize the aspects of theirteaching philosophies that will translatewell using distance delivery systems andthen work with other members of thedistance education team to make sure thedelivery systems are used effectively tosupport their philosophy and style ofteaching.

X

Humor. Even the mostprepared distanceteachers using the mostreliable equipmentsupported by the mostappropriate human,

financial, and physical resources will havea bad day when something, if noteverything, goes wrong. Wise distanceteachers will maintain a sense of humorand perspective and will encourage theirstudents and colleagues to do likewise.

Pshaw! Regardless ofthe teacher's skill, thedistance program'seffectiveness, and theparticipants' goodhumor, distance teachers

may find themselves in situations where a

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Av.

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four-letter expletive may be bothappropriate and therapeutic. In thosemoments, wise distance teachers will relyinstead on this exclamation of impatience,disapproval, irritation, or disbelief.

Optimistic. Engagingin distance teaching andlearning is a continuingchallenge that requirestime and commitment.Learning the limitations

of delivery systems, translating successfulface-to-face lessons into distance contexts,and dealing with instructional and non-instructional student problems are just afew of the challenges of distance teaching.Wise distance teachers will remainoptimistic about the opportunities distanceeducation offers to their students and willvalue the opportunities for their ownpersonal and professional growth.

Though this is the end of the Greekalphabet, this is not the end of thestrategies that distance educators canincorporate into their teaching. Wisedistance educators will continue to try newideas, overcome new challenges, anddevise new approaches to teaching at adistance. As distance educationopportunities expand to influenceincreasing numbers of educators andeducational consumers, entries areconstantly added to this lexicon.

7.10.122607

References

Garrison, D. R. (1990). Understandingdistance education: A framework forthe future. New York: Routledge.

Keegan, D. (1990). Foundations ofdistance education. New York:Routledge.

U.S. Congress, Office of TechnologyAssessment. (1989, November).Linking for learning: A new coursefor education, OTA-SET-430Washington, DC: U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office.

AN INTERDISCIPLINARY APPROACH TOCONCEPT DEVELOPMENT FOR INTERACTIVE VIDEO

COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

bySusan King Roth

New technologies are changing theway we communicate, learn, and teach. InWinter of 1993 a design research projectwas conducted in the Department ofIndustrial Design at The Ohio StateUniversity by interdisciplinary teams ofgraduate students from Industrial Design,Industrial Systems and Engineering,Marketing, and Communication. Theobjective of the course was to allowstudents with diverse backgrounds toapply knowledge from their respectiveareas to the development of conceptsthrough team methods. The project,sponsored by Thomson ConsumerElectronics and Indiana Bell, involved thedevelopment of future applications forinteractive video communication systems.This area of research is enormously activeat the present time with telephone andcable companies, electronics firms, filmand television production companies,computer hardware and softwarecomp-iiies, and others, trying to assurethat they will not be left out of whatpromises to the be the next great wave ofeconomic and technological development.

The original intent of the course wasto focus on human factors in the designprocess. Because of the scope of theproject and the exploratory interests of thesponsors, however, a longer time thanexpected was spent in the discovery phase(searching for useful and relevantapplication areas) than in the design phase.Extensive readings were assigned tostudents (and instructors) in order thatparticipants from all disciplines get up tospeed with the latest information onelectronic communication technologies.

Emphasis was placed throughout thccourse on the importance of working ininterdisciplinary teams. Team members

evaluated each other at midterm and at theconclusion of the course and thisinformation contributed to each student'sfinal grade.

There was extensive communicationwith the sponsoring organizations inIndiana. Three videoconferences and twoface-to-face meetings took place over aten-week quarter. The sponsors freelygave the student teams information andfeedback, but very little direction. Theirpurpose was exploratory.

The course was taught by co-instructors Susan King Roth, AssistantProfessor of Visual CommunicationDesign in the Department of IndustrialDesign at OSU, and Dr. Elizabeth B.N.Sanders, Vice President for Research andStrategies at Fitch, Inc., an internationaldesign firm.

Guest lecturers were invited fromother departments to complement thebackground of the instructors. Theseguests included Dr. Steven Acker from theDepartment of Communication, and Dr.Dave Woods from Cognitive Engineeringdiscussed human factors researchmethods. John McClusky from theDepartment of Industrial and SystemsEngineering discussed team formation.

Course Structure

The course was structured aroundperiodic scheduled meetings with thesponsors in the form of face-to-facemeetings, videoconferencing sessions, ande-mail communications via computer. Theinstructors developed a calendar at thebeginning of the quarter that included keymeeting points and other events as theyshould occur in sequence to assist the

1 2 4

Interdisciplinary Video115

problem-solving process.

We were fortunate to have extensiveaccess to videoconferencing facilities atOhio Bell headquarters in Columbus(through arrangement with Indiana Bell),so that we were able to use the same live,interactive video technology that was alsothe subject of the course, therebybecoming aware of the advantages anddisadvantages of communicating andcollaborating in this way.

'

Students located at the Ohio Bell videoconferencefacility seated before the camera and televisionmonitor unit that transmitted and receivedcommunications from Indiana and Columbus. Asecond camera overhead transmitted graphics.

Team Formation

Nineteen graduate students from fourdifferent academic departments participatedin the class. Students were solicited fromBusiness (MBATTechnology Management)Communication, Industrial and SystemsEngineering, and Industrial Design. All ofthe class meetings, videoconferences, andpresentations were videotaped by aCommunication student. Another studentfrom Communication provided a meta-analysis of the course, working teams, andgroup dynamics incorporating informationrelated to collaborative research projectsinto her thesis study. All students werepursuing graduate degrees in theirrespective departments; many were maturewith previous professional experience, andthe represented various cultures and ethnicbackgrounds.

The first step in team formationrequired that thc students share

1.25

infomiation about themselves by filling outa short questionnaire. This informationwas used to form three preliminaryresearch teams balanced in terms ofdepartment, age, sex, and country oforigin.

Each of the teams selected a contentarea in which to conduct research for thefirst four weeks of the quarter.

The goal of the research teams wasto gain an in-depth understanding of thepreliminary area of focus (either society,technology, or individual/group) and toexplore opportunities for futureapplications of interactive videotechnologies. At midterm, the researchteams presented their understanding of theproblem space and ideas for applicationsas well as desirable attributes for thecommunication systems.

New teams were formed after themidterm presentation. Four concept ordesign teams were formed by balancingdiscipline and research focus. Minoradjustments were made due to personalityfactors that emerged in the first set ofteams.

Project Groups

The assignment of projects to thefour design teams was a highlycollaborative process. Selection of theproject areas was done in a face-to-facework session following the midtermpresentation. Present at the work sessionwere students, instructors, sponsors, andseveral outside guests with an interest inthe subject.

Research team members wereresponsible for submitting index cardsdescribing potential applications thatemerged during the course of theirpreliminary studies and discussions. Over70 ideas were offered as a result ofbrainstorming. Closely related ideas wereplaced in the same category, resulting in16 separate categories. With guidancefrom the sponsors, four very distinct

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project areas were chosen. These fourareas were:

1. Remote Troubleshooting/ Dia-gnostics (on the scene access to experts).

2. VolksVision (personal applica-tions of video and electronic technology).

3. Education (K-12, highereducation, continuing education).

4. Town Hall (political and socialgroup interaction).

Assignment of projects to designteams took place the following week. Weassigned project areas randomly bydrawing student names when some of theproject areas proved more popular thanothers. This resulted in an equaldistribution of students to all areas.

Each team was responsible fordeveloping concepts in the project areaassigned and presenting results in the formof a preliminary and final presentation tothe sponsors and the class. Each was toproduce a written document as well.

Evaluation

Students were evaluated on theresults of their teamwork (60% of thegrade) as well as their performance as teammembers (40%). Results of theirteamwork were shown in a preliminarypresentation via videoconference facilitiesand in the final presentation (a face-to-facemeeting). The final presentation used avariety of media such as slides, video, andcomputer-generated interface designs todemonstrate proposed applications.Written reports included:

a problem statementtechnological underpinningsmarket analysis and planninguser researchproductiservice embodimentsrecommendations to Thomson-Indiana Bell.


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Cards representing 70 ideas generated during abrainstorming session were placed on the wall inorder to establish categories of ideas on a ConceptLocation Matrix. A separate attributes sectiondescribing desirable attributes was also creatcd,with cards copied and distributed to each of thefour concept groups. Combining ideas withattributes resulted in further concept generation anddefinition.

Participants from the Department ofCommunication played a significant role inthe evaluation of existing applications,with one of the highlights of tne coursebeing the lecture by Dr. Steven Acker oneye contact and the effect of image size andother factors on acceptance ofvideocommunication as a reasonablesubstitute for face-to-face communication.Communication students brought aknowledge of media and public policy tothe teams.

Students presented extensiveresearch reports during the finalpresentation, with Business studentssupplying the marketing plan, whileDesign students produced visualizations(concept sketches and computer-basedinterface designs) for products andsystems developed by the teams. Allmembers of the teams supplied conceptsand participated in brainstorming sessions.

Because of the experimental natureof the course, it was important thatstudents be given a means of evaluatingthe course and the instruction. The formused for this purpose provided feedbackthat encouraged us to continue with futureendeavors.

The course was extremely successfulin terms of the outcome--thc research

Interdisciplinary Video 117

reports were outstanding. It also provideda real-life experience with afuzzy designproblem (one without clearly definedparameters) and important experienceworking in interdisciplinary teams. Therewere a few negative aspects of teamwork,such as the fact that one team had fewermembers due to unforeseeablecircumstances and did not benefit fromequal contributions by remaining teammembers. In the future, team dynamicswill be more carefully considered andcontrolled. Rather than expecting a leaderto emerge naturally, as had been predictedby students from the MBA managementarea, it would be preferable to assign ateam coordinator or facilitator to assureprogress and direction in the future.

Also, we would extend the amountof time available for this course to twoquarters, or at least more than the usual tenweek quarter. We hope to develop othercollaborative sponsored research projectsbuilding on the strength of this experience,the wealth of brainpower in a variety ofdisciplines existing on campus, and theneed to present opportunities for bothgraduate and undergraduate students towork on interdisciplinary teams.Additional time should ideally be devotedto testing proposed applications with usergroups, and incorporating feedback intothe design of new user interfaces. Themost difficult aspect of predicting userreaction to new applications of technologyis the inability of users to visualize orimagine how these technologies might beused. Prototypes facilitate visualization.

The key to acceptance for any newcommunication or information technologyis attention to the human use of thesystem. For this reason, many of theconcepts were based on needs and wantsof potential users, with consideration ofsocial and cultural factors surrounding theproduction and consumption ofcommunication technologies.

In terms of project development, thedesign of applications for newtechnologies presents a challenge thatinvolves more than one content area. It is

very important to acknowledge that oneperson (or discipline) can not possibilityknow all there is to know about designingsuch a system or product, but mustunderstand when to call in experts in agiven area to produce the best solution.

Consistent with the project goal ofdeveloping future applications for newtechnologies was the finding that the useof e-mail and videoconferencing tocommunicate greatly enhancedmanagement of the course. The ability todistribute timely information to studentsand receive their questions and commentsthrough e-mail, and to use videoconferencing to communicate withsponsors in another state facilitatedprogress of the course and contributed tothe successful completion of the designresearch project.

Assigned Reading for the Course

The following reading list wassupplemented by current related articlesfrom the media and research journals:

Acker, S., & Levitt, S. (1987).Designing videoconference facilities

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for improved eye contact. Journal ofBroadcasting and Electronic Media,31(2), 181-191.

Bodker, S. (1991). Through the interface.A human activity approach to userinterface design. Hillsdale, NJ:Lawrence Earlbaum Associates.

Chapter 6: User interface design:Advice to the designer, pp. 139-164.

Bretz, R. (1983). Media for interactivecommunication. London: Sage.

Part I: Some familiar interactive mediasystems, pp. 29-68 (televisionsystems).

Part III: System design features:Issues and problems, pp. 167-263.

Compaine, B. (1988). Issues in newinformation technology. Cambridge,MA: Program on InformationResources Policy, Harvard University.

Chapter 1: Introduction: Theinformation "revolution" is morethan technology, pp. 1-14.

Chapter 5: Information technologyand cultural change: Toward a newliteracy, pp. 145-178.

Chapter 9: Contradictions andconcerns, pp. 293-302.

Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985).Naturalistic inquiry. London: Sage.

Rosen, A. (1987). Telecommunications.San Diego: Harcourt BraceJovanovich.


Chapter 8: Teleconferencing, pp. 183-196.

Chapter 10: The electronic home, pp.220-241.

Schwartz, P. (1991). The art of the longview. New York: Doubleday-Currency.

Ulloth, D. (Ed.). (1992). Communicationtechnology. Lanham, Maryland:University Press of America.

Chapter 2: Teleconferencing: Arapidly growing innovation, by L.Lappin, pp. 19-26.

Chapter 13: Interactive video: Alearning tool, by R. Gould, pp.137-144.

Chapter 14: Social effects ofinteractive video, by N. Greco, pp.145-152.

Credits

This paper includes materialdeveloped by Susan King Roth, AssociateProfessor of Visual CommunicationDesign, The Ohio State University, andDr. Elizabeth Sanders, Fitch Inc., Co-instructors. A related article was publishedin the Winter 1994 issue of Innovation,journal of the Industrial DesignersAssociation of America. Theinterdisciplinary project course was madepossible by generous funding fromIndiana Bell (Ameritech) and ThomsonConsumer Electronics.

Photographs by Rich DiCenzo.

DESIGNING VISUAL METHODS OF COMMUNICATINGVISUAL CONTENT WITH ART HISTORY SOFTWARE

byEllen Schiferl

Words vs. Images

Art history is a hybrid discipline thatcombines the verbal with the visual, yetverbal communication traditionally hasdefined the field. In class, students hearwords and see slides but they take verbalnotes and thus words become the basis forstudying and understanding. Wordsdominate the scholarly approach to arthistory as well because academe canassess verbal publications more easily intenure and promotion and because photos,particularly color photos, are expensive toreproduce. Unfortunately, words providea limited vehicle for communicating visualideas. Our eyes perceive an immensevariety of colors, textures, and shapes thatallow us to make an almost infinite numberof visual distinctions that words cannotcommunicate. With a greater reliance onvisual means to teach visual concepts, arthistory could be taught more effectively.

Paths to Visual Literacy

At the university level, art historycourses, like studio and art educationcourses, play a vital role in communicatingthe importance of visual literacy, yet eachart discipline defines visual literacydifferently:

Art appreciation and studiocourses emphasize art terms andvisual elements (Dondis, 1973).

Art education focuses onperceptual and cognitiveapproaches (Arnheim, 1969;Gombrich, 1956).

Art history currently stressescultural values such as thesignificance of afterlife in Egyptor harmony in Japan.

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My art history curriculum movesbeyond cultural context toward an evenmore fundamental question: How dopeople in a particular culture perceivereality? Here world view becomes aperceptual concept. As an extension of themind, our eyes construct the visible worldfor us. While the biological mechanismfor perceiving images is common tohuman beings, these images are processedby selecting certain forms. The mindselects forms on the basis of theirimportance and thus the perception ofreality interconnects with what a culturedeems important. Art cannot reproducethe reality of the eye but it can reveal thevisual emphasis and spatial logic of aparticular society. Further, art functionsas both a passive reflection of perceptualsystems as well as an active agent ingenerating those systems. By studying theart of different cultures we gain a betterunderstanding of different patterns ofthought.

Software example

The interactive software exampleused in this essay, Space: The VisualFrontier, represents an intermediary stepbetween the heavy dependence on wordscharacteristic of current art historyinstruction and a more rigorous approachto communicating visual concepts throughvisual means which will be presented inthe near future. In the Visual Frontiersoftware, most screens are evenly dividedbetween text and visuals, but in contrast topublications and slide lectures, many ofthe visuals include animated overlays anddiagrams to relay concepts.

The program focuses on one of themost significant shifts in the history ofrepresentation globally, the development


of linear perspective in early fifteenthcentury Italy. Typically art historiansteach linear perspective as an advancedmethod of representing the visible worldthat signaled an increased interest in thephysical rather than spiritual environment.Today many North Americans regardlinear perspective as realistic and moresophisticated than other methods of twodimensional representation. The programdelves into the religious, economic, andscientific sources of linear perspective andthe examples for this paper stem from thereligious section featuring BernardoDaddi's Meeting at the Golden Gate (14thcentury), Masaccio's Trinity (1420s), andLeonardo da Vinci's Last Supper (1490s).

After outlining some Medievalperspective techniques, such ashierarchical scale (Figure 4), the programshows how Christian art communicatedspiritual content thmugh spatialorganization. The placement of images ofGod the Father, the Holy Spirit, Christ,the Virgin Mary, St. John the Evangelist,and the male and female donors followsestablished conventions for conveying therelative importance of each figure byaligning them according to the centric,vertical, and depth hierarchies (Figures 5-8). These visual hierarchies spurred thedevelopment of linear perspective (Figures9-10) and explain why linear perspectiveflourished in religious images. Far fromdeveloping in opposition to Christianspirituality, linear perspective reinforcedreligious models.

Visual Restraint

Educational software should bevisually appealing to the user but designersshould exercise discipline to ensure thatform does not interfere with content. Theprimary challenge in designing the VisualFrontier program was to keep the text,graphics, and background from competingwith the illusionistic techniques of thepaintings. However, completely flatgraphics would appear dated incomparison to Macintosh system 7 icons.As thc focal point of the program'scontent, Masaccio's Trinity determined the

color harmonies for the entire program andbuttons composed of six shades of graypresented a shallow three dimensionalframe for easy recognition.

Visual Targeting

I began designing computer tutorialswhen I realized that computer animationswould be more effective than waving myhand before a projected slide to makedifferent points about the direction of theeye or the relationship of the figures. Inthe program, animated overlays serve avariety of purposes. The white oval inFigure 4 identifies key figures, the redlines reveal the spatial structure in Figures6 and 7, and the orthogonal lines link theviewer's space to the projected space ofthe painting in Figure 10.

Image Manipulation

Slide comparisons, a standardtechnique of art history instruction, clarifythe differences between two artists,themes, or cultures by juxtaposing images.In the Visual Frontier, transformation,rather than juxtaposition, reinforces thedifference between Medieval andRenaissance approaches to space whichstudents often find difficult tocomprehend.

To dramatize the differences betweenthe hierarchical scale of the Middle Ages(where the size of the object is determinedby its importance, Figure 4) and thehierarchical depth of the Renaissance(where the size of the object is determinedby its distance from the viewer, Figures 8and 10), the program transforms the visualstructure of the Renaissance painting intothe visual structure of a Medieval artwork.The figures expand or shrink according totheir spiritual significance and since thebackground no longer needs to be anextension of the viewer's space, itbecomes a uniform gold field (Figures 11,12). By transforming one visual logicsystem into another, students recognize thespatial order governing differentrepresentational approaches.

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Art History Software 121

Kinevisual Testing

Computer programming allows theuser to move an object form one place toanother on the screen. With kinevisualinteraction, the viewer can engage in thedecision making process of the artist andappreciate the significance of the artist'schoices. The example in Figure 3represents one of the simplest applicationsof kinevisual testing and follows ananimated diagram that replicates aRenaissance method for producing linearperspective. To connect this technique toLeonardo da Vinci's Last Supper, studentsview the painting, mentally determine thelocation of the vanishing point, and thenmanipulate the mouse to superimpose thered dot on the vanishing point. Dependingon the student's action, the response variesfrom "You found it!" to "Close enough!"to "Please try again."

Student Responses

The Visual Frontier was tested andqualitatively evaluated in four differentcourses with three different instructors(Art History survey from Paleolithicthrough Medieval, Art History surveyfrom Renaissance through the 20thcentury, Cross-cultural Perspectives in ArtHistory, Renaissance Art). Theevaluations served as a means to an end--abetter program, rather than as a researchtool for its own sake. Responses to theopen ended questions improvedsubsequent versions of the program andprovided insights into the value ofcomputer based instruction (CBI).

In the first version, studentscomplained that the structure returnedusers to the main menu at the end of eachunit. While nonlinear approaches are oftentouted as a major advantage of CBI,students feared they would miss a section.As a result, later versions allowed studentsto move through the entire program usingthe forward arrow or select a particularsection with pull down menus.

As expected, students respondedfavorably to the interactive and multimedia

131

aspects of the program and saw CBI as analternative to books rather than to theclassroom. When asked specificallywhether they would rather use a computeror a textbook, 68% preferred thecomputer, 9.5% preferred the textbook,and 23.5% wanted to use both, asurprising response for a student bodycomposed of 85% non-traditional studentswith an average age of 26.

Sample comments from one class:

I would rather use the computer.It, depending upon the program,forces you to make decisions asyou go along. A book throws alist of questions at you typicallyat the end of the chapter.

The computer made it much moreinteresting. The info broken upinto sections made it a lot simplerto digest rather than sitting downwith a whole text.

The advantage to using atextbook is that you can do itanytime and anywhere. I felt likeI had accomplished more usingthe computer. It was moreinteresting and fun.

The computer is less hard onyour eyes and you are a moreactive participant.

The more senses used, thegreater the learning--hearing,reading, and interacting with thecomputer are all valuable.

To be honest, art history is notmy favorite cubject to study.Using the computer program, Igot to take a more active part inthe learning and it makes thematerial more exciting for me.Using sight, sound, and touch tolearn has a lot of advantages--itkeeps you focused a lot longer.

Yes, the moving visual displays

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convey the point much easier.

I like being actively involved in.. . seeing things move asdemonstrations. So many timeswhen you read a book theillustrations are barely skimmedover; on the computer you can'thelp but see the point being madeand you can't help but learnbecause you are involvedactively.

I like the action part of theprogram. It added a bit of life tothe assignment. I was curious tosee what would happen.

Challenge for the Future

Computer programs provide oneroute to developing more visually directmethods of teaching art history. As visualmedia, computer technologies stimulatenew ways of communicating concepts andwe have only glimpsed their potential fornew approaches to instruction. One of themajor challenges for instructional softwaredesigners is to create programs that stretchbeyond the distillation of information andthe appeal of multimedia presentation to amore comprehensive approach thatstimulates another level of thinking. As anintermediary step, the Visual Frontierdemonstrates more visually orientedpedagogical tools but the ultimate goal is anew level of visual thinking for thediscipline of art history. By reshaping theart history curriculum toward more


visually oriented methods ofcommunicating visual content, studentswill receive a clearer message about thesignificance of the visual knowledge.

Credits

The following have all beenreproduced courtesy of Art Resource, Inc.:

Bernardo Daddi, Meeting at the GoldenGate, predella panel from Madonna andChild with Saints polyptych (Florence,Uffizi), tempera on wood.

Masaccio. Trinity. (Florence, Sta. MariaNovella), fresco.

Leonardo da Vinci. Last Supper. (Milan,Sta. Maria delle Grazie, refectory), fresco.

References

Arnheim, R. (1969). Visual thinking.Berkeley, CA: University ofCalifornia Press.

Dondis, D. (1973). A primer of visualliteracy. Cambridge, MA:Massachusetts Institute of TechnologyPress.

Gombrich, E. (1960). Art and illusion.A study in the psychology of pictorialrepresentation. Princeton, NJ:Princeton University Press. (reprint:1989)

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Software: Space: The Visual Frontier. Linear Perspective.

Author: Ellen Schiferl. University of Southern Maine

Format: One 1.4 M floppy disk including program,sound, images.

Computer: Macintosh with 8 bit color, 13" or larger screen.

Level: Advanced high school or university.

Contents: Who/When/Where: Historical background

What: Perspective methods defined with animations

Why: Religious, cconomic and scientific context.

Features: Animated diagrams and overlays explain key conccpts.Sound: music interludes and pronunciation of names.

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THE MODEL TECHNOLOGY SCHOOL: TOWARD LITERACYTHROUGH TECHNOLOGY

byRaymond J. Schneider

In 1985, the Florida Model SchoolConsortia Act addressed strengthening thepublic school system by establishingprototype technology throughout the state.The Model Technology Schools (MTS)program was set up 'to research anddemonstrate the effective use oftechnology in instructional deliver andenhancement.' Literacy is a strong focusarea in the five model schools.

Literature has long been the favoredtool of literacy--familiarity with the classictexts of a culture, its crafted expression offeeling, thought, imagery, and languagestyle shapes the aesthetics and ethos of theculture wherein it lives. Of all literature,poetry most appropriately preserves thethemes and forms of cultural expression.Yet, through a lack of understanding andappreciation, poetry has become amarginalized, even endangered, subject inEnglish education today.

I propose a poetry curriculumstructured with increasing complexity forK -12 . Student understanding andappreciation of poetry will be enhancedthrough the medium of performance, madeimmediately accessible via laserdisctechnology. The laserdisc performanceswill allow sound, music, and dance intothe figures and the forms of poetry. Thiswill pull poetry out of its traditional printbias and into the verbo-visual tech culturewhere it belongs.

The Florida Model SchoolConsortia Act

In 1985, the Florida Legislaturepassed the Florida Model SchoolConsortia Act (228.0855 Florida Statutes)to strengthen the public school system byestablishing prototype technologythroughout Florida (UCF/DOE, 1992):

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Their mission is to experiment andconduct research on how educationaltechnology can be most efficientlyand effectively incorporated into thepublic schools. The initial goal wasto learn how to use technology tobest prepare students to adapt to therapid changes in society broughtabout by the infusion of technologyin all facets of life. At the same time,the project should discover how toprepare teachers to incorporatetechnology into their teaching,learning, and management functions.(pp. 20-31)

Schools throughout Florida wereinvited to submit proposals to meet thcobjectives of the new statute. The ModelTechnology Schools (MTS) ConsortiumCommittee selected five schools (twoelementary and three secondary) forinclusion in the project. An MTSFacilitator was funded for each of theseschools to oversee the ongoing schoolproject and serve as a resource person forall school personnel.

Webster Elementary ModelTechnology Pilot Program

Webster Elementary School (K-5) inSt. Augustine was the smallest of the fiveschools chosen for the MTS pilotprogram. A committee of public schooladministrators, university consultants, andlocal business partners had worked withthe Webster principal, teachers, andparents to develop a concrete plan for their5-year model technology grant program.All Webster teachers were asked toidentify specific ways technology couldenhance their class preparation andinstructional presentation, and to suggestspecific software which could meet theirneeds. Many of the teachers' suggestions

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were incorporated into the successful grantproposal which emphasized teachertraining.

The 1988-89 Planning Year

Initially, there was some resistanceto implementation of the MTS program atWebster, so teachers were given theopportunity to transfer out. None did so.In-service training began during the initialplanning year; every member of theWebster staff (instructional and non-instructional) took part in the program.The technology they worked with includedCD-ROM, interactive video, laservideodiscs, video recorders, computerhardware, and several different softwareapplications. Teachers earned in-servicecredit, released time, and limited stipendsas incentives to participate actively in theprogram. By the end of the 1988-89school year, each teacher had logged over40 in-service training hours.

Under the guiding principle thatcurriculum should drive the technology,the teachers developed a list of hard toteach areas, by grade and subject matter,and began to identify specific technologyto facilitate instruction in these areas.Hardware and software were prioritizedand purchased as the MIS grant moneybecame available. Teachers wereencouraged to check out equipment andsoftware for home practice.

The Implementation Years

During the 1989-90 school year, in-service training continued two days aweek, with an additional focushands-onstudent involvement with the newtechnology. At the end of the school year,Webster students produced a videotape toillustrate this new involvement.

In 1990-91, an Apple-Share networkwas installed throughout the school. Theteachers chose Macintosh workstations asmost suited to their needs and computerskills. Cabling was run simultaneouslyfor this network of teacher workstations,as well as the classroom phone lines and


closed circuit television system planned forlater stages in the grant. This was adifficult and expensive process, given thecement block construction of the original(1959) building and the presence of firewalls throughout (Eason, 1992).

The Apple Share LAN has beenuseful for sharing information such asworksheets or project notes with otherteachers. As an additional incentive toteacher involvement, all communicationsfrom the school administration are sent viaelectronic mail. The network is also usedin teacher-parent communication. Parentscan dial into the Teacher's voice mailbox24 hours a day to learn what is going on inthe classroom, the weekly spelling list,field trips that are planned, etc. Accordingto Webster MTS Facilitator CathyHutchins (Schneider, 1993), thisnetworking brings down the wallsbetween the classrooms and encouragesteacher-sharing even across grade levels.However, Webster has already outgrownthis limited access network.

Within the 93-94 school year,Webster will upgrade to a multi-use Novellnetwork with on-line classroom access tothe school media center. Recognizing thatthe idea of an individual classroomworkstation for each student is notfinancially feasible, the goal at Webster isto have five networked workstations ineach classroom.

Active Learning

All technology is geared towardactive student learning by individuals or insmall groups. This goal was based onobservation of students in the IBM andApple labs and at the five Macintoshworkstations currently set up in the schoolMedia Center.

Use of the new technology isespecially evident in the kindergarten andfirst grade classrooms, where interactivesoftware packages are replacing the basalreaders. The software monitors individualstudent progress and builds the cumulativestudent record. This frees the classroom

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teacher to work with individuals or smallgroups as needed. Expert students areidentified and given extra media access sothey can be an in-class resource to fellowstudents.

At Webster, there is little studententhusiasm for the old-style handwrittenresearch report, especially in the area ofscience. Students are encouraged to usethe computer as a word processor. Theirfinal reports are output on one of the threelaser printers that are part of the system.

F o r classroom presentations,students access slides and videodiscs,sequencing the media segments, addingtitles, and incorporating these visuals intotheir oral reports. Thus, moderntechnology actually encourages studentcreativity and imagination. Students at themedia center workstations build programs,save to a videotape, and then modify asneeded to show in their classrooms. TheMedia Center is currently experimentingwith CDI (Compact Disc Interactive),where the program is developed at theworkstation and written onto a CD using amouse.

In much the same way, teachers usescanned original art or purchased imagebanks to build instruction modules forpresentation to the whole class, smalltarget groups, or even individual students.

The new multi-user network withfive classroom workstations will greatlyfacilitate student and teacher access to allavailable media. Slides, film strips, laserdiscs, video tapes, and other resources arecurrently being catalogued on anautomated library system for classroomuse.

The Hypercard software originallypurchased proved to be very difficult formany teachers to learn since it requiresprogramming knowledge. However, theMedia Specialist and seven of the expertteachers have programmed Hypercardstacks and made these programs availableto other teachers. The new Hyperstudiosoftware is much faster and more user-

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friendly for the media novice who isassembling a classroom presentation.

Closed Circuit Television

In January of this year, Webster'sclosed circuit television studio becameoperational, complete with two commercialPanasonic cameras, line and cameramonitors, and a switcher. Grades 3 and 4produce the daily news show. Students ingrades 1 and 2 handle the weather andfeatures, respectively.

Project Evaluation

One key component of the FloridaMTS project was ongoing research andevaluation within each model school,which would be shared with schoolsthroughout the state. Ongoing researchprojects at Webster include surveys of useof the technology by teachers both in-school and out-of-school. Although all thetechnology was made available, teacherswere encouraged to use the equipment theyfelt best met their own instructional goalsand needs. Survey data indicate anaverage use of 1.97 hours per day for eachof the 43 participating teachers.

Teachers were asked to completereports indicating how the new technologyhas changed their instructional methods.Their comments included the following:

1. More emphasis on writingskills/word processing.

2. Variety of presentationalmethods.

3. More hands-on student activity.

4. Increased opportunity forworking with individual students.

5. More organized presentation ofmatetial.

6. Better classroom visuals(videodiscs).

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Current surveys indicate that theteachers use the technology more for inter-teacher and teacher-parent communicationand for improved record-keeping than theydo for actual instruction. MTS Facilitator,Cathy Hutchins, estimates a 3-5 yearlearning curve for integrating technologyinto everyday classroom curricula(Schneider, 1993). However, as teachers'level of technological expertise increases, acorresponding increase in instructional useis anticipated.

Webster teachers have one day amonth released time to plan the use oftechnology in their classrooms.Curriculum planning software has beeninstalled at each teacher's workstation. Akey part of the Webster MTS program hasbeen early identification of expert teacherswhose enthusiasm for and creative use ofthe new technology sets them apart. Theseexpert teachers are sent to special trainingprograms, and serve as in-schoolresources for their fellow teachers.

Long-term follow-up of student skillacquisition would be an ideal evaluationtool, but this has not been possible.Construction of two new schools in thedistrict, and the resultant shift of studentshas left only 33 students at Webster of the900 who were there during the initial yearof the grant.

Literacy and Technology

Although literacy is a fundamentalgoal of the MTS program, much of theavailable software is designed for scienceand math. Literature has long been thefavored tool of literacyfamiliarity withthe classic texts of a culture, its craftedexpression of feeling, thought, imagery,and language style shapes the aestheticsand ethos of the culture wherein it lives.

Poetry and Culture

Of all literature, poetry mostappropriately preserves the themes andforms of cultural expression. Thus,poetry celebrates and preserves thesensibility of each culture. American


poetry comes up from the biblical sadnessin the parallelism of African-Americanspirituals such as Deep River and GoDown, Moses and Blues poetry to thefearless free verse and industrial vigor ofthe American Midwest. America grewfrom the informal, blank verse of RobertFrost's New England to the small townfree verse epitaphs of Edgar Lee Master's"Spoon River Anthology" (Masters,1962), from the syncopated jazz poetry inthe chants and ballads of Vachel Lindsay'stribute to the American dream to themilitant elegies of the same dream by"Beat" poets Lawrence Ferlinghetti and LeRoi Jones.

Yet, through a lack of understandingand appreciation, poetry has become amarginalized, even endangered, subject ofmodern English curricula in Americanschools.

This author's immediate teachingcontact with the students at threeuniversities (Eastern Illinois University,University of Bridgeport, and Universityof South Florida) has reinforced theconviction that the figures and forms ofpoetry, and, consequently, the culturalthemes found in poetry that make up theethos of our country are seriouslyneglected at both the elementary andsecondary levels of education.

The result is that much of the richerlevels of national expression historicallyembedded in the language of poetry haveyielded to the peripheral sound-and-sightbites of commercial television. Moreover,so much of lasting value that is offered ontelevision is spectator-centered, prioritizingpassive viewing.

Poetry and Active Learning

The presumption of technology-based education, such as the MTSprogram, is that any new knowledge andinstruction would include an activelearning component employing interactivetelevision methodologies. While thesepractices are in place and ongoing in areasof science, geography, biology, and some

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Literacy Through Technology131

language arts, the introduction of poetry asan ingredient of language arts curriculumis rare.

For the past 30 years, the presentauthor has been adapting and staging proseand poetry while teaching college studentscommunication as performance. Recently(this past year), during a course in videoperformance, the idea of exploring howcomputer technology can make suchperformance more accessible to studentsemerged.

Poetry and the Video Medium

This course featured the Americanclassic, "Spoon River Anthology," a seriesof 244 verse epitaphs, created by EdgarLee Masters in 1915. This work givesvoice to the charazters of a smallMidwestern town who are interlocked byfate (Masters, 1962).

The students in this course first tooktIrse short verse epitaphs and presentedthem directly as soliloquies to the camera.They gradually began to see that, thoughthey had met the television requirement ofintimate immediacy, they were still word-bound. In the imaginative autobiographiesthat the students created to givebackground to the characters, there was aheavy imbalance of verbal over visualdiscourse. Like so many television newsprograms and educational television today,they were preserving what was essentiallya radio format.

With the cry, "Tell a vision!" thegroup moved to image sequence.Recognizing that MTV and televisioncommercials held an image bite of slightlyless than two seconds, the poems werereprocessed to fit a lyric flow of imagechanges that might be suitable to the videoexperience. To explore this newproduction concept the students focusedon the introductory poem, "The Hill,"(Mastcrs, 1962, p. 23-24) that summarizes"Spoon River Anthology."

The class was divided intoalternating production/talent and

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talent/production groups to come up withtwo separate video versions of that sameintroductory poem. The productiongroups when formed had creativeauthority, of course, over their respectivetalent group during the rehearsal andshooting process.

The outcome of this project was aleap forward in the success of thisbeginning class. The mutual engenderingof creative solutions to image flowchallenges kept the class at these projectsthrough the 105-minute dinner breakbetween the two scheduled class sessions.

Time and time again, they worked inthe studio from 2:00 to 6:15. The resultantvideotapes ably illustrate the success ofthis active learning process; the matcheddissolves, superimpositions of ghost-likeconversations among the dead townresidents, drawing the face of the narratorthrough the tombstone image, embeddingthe tragic rites of final passage from out ofthe church hill, and so forth were some oftheir experimental imaging effects.

Toward a New Poetry Curriculum

This successful experience, withstudents handling the performance ofpoetry in a video format, suggests thepossibility of such video products beingused to make poetry more available andappreciated as an elementary educationaltool. If the forms and figures of poetry,especially in the heightened and activeforms of children's poetry, could beentered into by means of moderntechnology, elementary and secondaryschool students might involve themselvesactively in the richest texts of their culturei n an increasingly sophisticatedcurriculum. What I speak of is as old asGreek culture itself, where the oral text ofHomer's epics were communally enteredinto at Panathenea (Bahn & Bahn, 1970).

Now, it became clear that poems assimple and profound as Robert Frost's"Stopping by Woods on a SnowyEvening" (1992, p. 133) or LawrenccFerlinghetti's "Constantly Risking

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Absurdity" (1992) could be brought to lifethrough video performance by a group ofyoung people in a choreographed chambertheatre format or by using the poem asvocal text under a series of visual images.Winter forest slides would make theexperience of Frost's snowy evening moreimmediate, and images of circus acrobatsmight illustrate Ferlinghetti's experience ofthe personal dangers in risking the art ofpoetry.

Finally, it is then only a small step tohaving students in active learning projectsassigned to find these images (whether stillor moving) and assemble them to createtheir own evocation of what the poemsmean to them in visual terms. Students,working individually or in groups, fromtheir own level of sophistication, mightsearch out the images to express the formand feeling as well as the actual poeticdevices manifested in the poems, andshare these poems with their fellowstudents, using technology.

Learning the forms and devices ofpoetry becomes a process of felt sensing.A line of anapests, for example, whenused to describe the galloping of a giraffein Nicolai Gumilev's (1957) poem of thesame name can turn the line of verse into avocal image. The line itself describes thegiraffe thus:

He is KINGly and STRAIGHT and hisMOVEments inCREDibly LIGHT.

The linked string of two slackfollowed by one stressed syllable isdeliberately designed to create the echoingsound of the hoof beats of the gallopinggiraffe. The teacher may explain thisdevice by reading the line aloud or thestudents may chant the line withexaggerated emphasis on the stressedsyllables. However, if the sight andsound of a film of an actual giraffegalloping as projected on a classroomtelevision or computer screen can matchthe verse line, voice-recorded by a trainedperformer, the viewing student(s) can seeand hear the reason for the device of thepoet in so arranging the beat of his verse.


The function of the anapest that moves theline is made immediately available: therhythm becomes audio-visual.

To move from poetic form to figuresof speech, another use of creativetechnology, would be to consider the samepoet's use of the device of metaphor. Toquote a later verse from the same poem,

I know that the ostriches witness awonderful sight

When at nightfall he hides in hisemerald cave.

Now the figure of speech, emeraldcave, could be eminently clear to a thirdgrade student simply by transforming acolored photograph of a cluster of emeraldgems into the cluster of green-leafedbranches in a low-hanging tree where thegiraffe rests at night. This process ofchanging one computer image intoanother, called morphing, is well withinthe capability of current computertechnology. The student, without thetedious necessity of defining the poeticdevice of metaphor, verbo-visuallycomprehends "seeing one thing in terms ofanother."

Onomatopoeia (w ords w hoseutterance mimics meaning) can betechnologically exaggerated, for example,by increasing the volume in a film ofsnakes hissing, by audio/visual raindropsplopping, by a close-up of bees buzzing,or by a film of water swishing andsplashing on the rocks. "Assonance andinternal rhyme in Gwendolyn Brooks'(1962) "We Real Cool" can be madeaudio-visual by Afritan-Americansyncopated dancers stretching the vowelsand echoing the drums and cymbals at tneend of each line of verse.

Finally, if a student should use thelaserdisc and computer with Frost's poem,"Stopping by Woods on a SnowyEvening" (1992) she/he might prepareslides or photos of New England snowscenes with horse and sleigh, winter forestscenes, and starry skies outside a window

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Literacy Through Technology 133

of a bedroom where a child sleeps. Thesepictures, found in magazines, newspapers,or art book illustrations, reinforce apresentation preparatory to a performanceof the poem. The iambic rhythm(characteristic of Frost) and the rhymes inthe line endings might be superscriptedand underlined thus:

Wliose woods these are I think I know.

His house is in the village though:

He will not see me stopping here

To watch his woods fill up with snow.

My little horse must think it queer

TO stop Withouta farmhouse near

Between the woods and frozen lake

The darkest evening of the year.

He gives his harness bells a shake

To ask if there is some mistake.

The only other sound's the sweep

Of easy wind and downyflake.-The woods are lovely, dark and deep,

But I have promises to keep,

And miles to go before I sleep,_,

And miles to go before I sleep.

Advanced students might try tomatch the poem with one of their own,even counting the syllables (eight) in eachline and then printing out both Frost'spoem and their own on facing pages.

In summary, therefore, I propose acurriculum for teaching poetry in gradesK-12 using laserdisc technology such asthat in place at the Webster MTS. Theseries of lesson plans would facilitateincreasing comprehension of the devicesof poetry, but the curriculum base would

be poems enriched by American valuesand experience.

References

Bahn, E., & Bahn, M. (1970). A historyof oral interpretation. Minneapolis,MN: Burgess.

Brooks, G. (1992). We real cool. In L.Perrine & T. Arp (Eds.), Sound andsense (p. 168). New York: HarcourtBrace Jovanovich.

Eason, M. (1992, August). Retrofit fortechnology. Innovators andinnovations, 2, p. 3.

Ferlinghetti, L. (1992). Constantlyrisking absurdity. In L. Perrine & T.Arp (Eds.), Sound and sense (p. 282).New York: Harcourt BraceJovanovich.

Frost, R. (1992). Stopping by the woodson a snowy evening. In L. Perrine &T. Arp (Eds.), Sound and sense (p.133). New York: Harcourt BraceJovanovich.

Gumilev, N. (1957). The giraffe. In H.Ferris (Ed.), Favorite poems old andnew (p. 470). New York: Doubleday.

Masters, E. L. (1962). Spoon riveranthology. New York: CollierMacMillan.

Schneider, R. J. (1993, April, May).Interview and school tour with CathyHutchins, Webster, MTS Facilitator,Florida.

UCF/DOE. (1992). Technology ineducation: Florida's model technologyschools. Orlando, FL: University ofCentral Florida, College of Education.

TELEVISION: STUFF OF DREAMS

byJon Baggaley

Abstract

Since the techniques of modernvisual communication are continuallyevolving, visual literacy is not amenable torigorous definition in the same manner asverbal literacy. The fluctuating effects ofmedia, however, can be minutely observedby new data collection techniques whichreveal patterns of audience responsesimilar to those which C. G. Jungobserved in his analyses of wordassociation and dreaming. The techniqueis known as Continuous ResponseMovement or CRM.

T h e Conference presentationdemonstrated, via an electronic audienceresponse method known as Time-Scaling"' , the second-by-second patternswhich unite an audience in tacit consensustowards media presentations, and theunexpected differences which divide them.The points at which an audience shapes themeanings of a presentation--and isoccasionally shaped by it--were illustrated.The current paper discusses the importanceof television as a source of dynamic dataabout the individual and society, and theneed for new forms of mediacommunication which feed thisinformation back to them. Examples aregiven of the author's uses of CRM incontrasting areas of management trainingand community development (withCanadian fishermen). The extent to whichan audience can ever become 'verbo-visually literate' is discussed in terms ofinternational efforts to educate the publicabout AIDS.

Introduction

Community groups concerned aboutthe effects of the media in societyfrequently remind us that today's childspends more time in front of the televisionset than in the school classroom. On this

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basis they argue that television is a moreoverwhelming source of ideas, images,and diversion than any other medium.Media researchers commonly counter thisposition of extreme concern by pointing tothe ways in which the images of televisionare interpreted according to the individualviewer's psychological predisposition.They too argue that television is apowerful modern force. However, theystress that its effects are typically toreinforce the attitudes and behavior towhich the viewer is already inclined; andthey find these effects, in their own right,to be a powerful source of informationabout audience uses and gratifications.

Curiously, one other stimulus sourcewith comparable powers is nowadaysgreatly overlooked. When the televisionset is off and we the viewer are asleep,images and ideas continue to bombard usvia the medium of the dream. The nightlyparade of dreams can divert and disturb uswith the vividness and spontaneity of atechnicolor movie; and psychoanalysts,just like media analysts, have found thedream to be a rich source of informationabout those who experience it. Bothanalysts, doubtless without realizing it,even favour the same research techniques;and today's media analysts are usinginvestigative methods which bear aremarkable similarity to approachesdeveloped by the psychoanalyst CarlGustav Jung 85 years ago. We may turn,therefore, to the work of Jung for insightsinto the directions that current mediarcsearch is taking.

Continuous Response Measurement

In the Journal of AbnormalPsychology (1907), Jung reported his useof a sophisticated laboratory system ofpulleys, weights, slides, and balances,built to measure the second-by-secondreactions of his subjects to verbal stimuli.

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From the information yielded by thishighly precise measuring device, Jungdeveloped insights into the individualpsychological differences between hisexperimental subjects; and on that basis hedevised the celebrated word associationtechnique. Eighty years later, modernresearchers are using similar second-by-second measurement principles in theirstudies of audience reactions to television.Today, their technique uses compact lap-top computer technology, and is known ascontinuous response measurement o rCRM (Baggaley, 1986).

The CRM technique is relativelyunknown outside the worlds ofcommercial and political advertising.Neither is apt to advertise or publish itsapproaches and findings, regarding themas trade secrets to be jealously guarded.But the powers and incisiveness of CRMare increasingly evident.

Study: campaign End time: 00:00:59Vote in next election? - Time sequence 2

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Figure 1. Voters' second-by-second responses to a televisionparty political advertisement.

What, for example, do former USPresidents Reagan and Bush have incommon with some of the most popularcharacters in children's television? Likethe puppets of television's Sesame Street,their public images were monitored andrefined following audience feedbackcollected via some sophisticated CRMresearch techniques. Figure 1 indicates thetype of CRM data collected in the politicalresearch context.


The vertical axis in the Figurerepresents the average responses on a scaleof approval (from positive to negative) to atelevision election campaignadvertisement, given by supporters of twodifferent Canadian political parties. Thehorizontal axis indicates the passage oftime, second by second. Taken as awhole, the graph demonstrates how theviewer's responses fluctuated as a directfunction of the moment-by-momenttelevision stimulus. In the hands of partypolitical researchers, the precise momentsat which the audience responses becomepositive and negative can be charted onthis basis, and used to advise campaignstrategy. In the hands of commercialresearchers, the same techniques are usedto develop maximally persuasive televisionadvertisements for beer and soap flakes.

Fortunately, the use of these incisivetechniques is becoming increasinglyfamiliar to television viewers, particularlyin the media's political campaign coverage.After the 1991 Gulf War, for example, thecrucial role of CRM was noted; and duringthe 1993 Australian national election,viewers of the television leader's debate onChannel Nine saw a simultaneous second-by-second reading of audience responsesknown popularly as the white worm.

CRM 'Behind Closed Doors'

From their innocent applications inthe hands of Carl Jung, to their oftenMachiavellian uses in modern politicalresearch, CRM techniques have a far-reaching and to some extent frighteningpotential; and their quiet evolution in theNorth American television industry makesa fascinating story.

In early 1988, Vice-PresidentGeorge Bush was considered a long shotfor the US Presidency. His position assecond fiddle to Ronald Reaganrepresented a severe handicap to hiselection hopes; and compared to the GreatCommunicator his smiling image seemedwimpy and wan. Clearly some seriousimage-doctoring had to be done.

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Stuff of Dreams

During the final months of thecampaign, Bush underwent ametamorphosis. Gone was the quiet anddiffident Bush: In its place was a tiger. Abattery of opinion research techniques hadsupported the need for the new image.Question and answer techniques definedBush's public image in the regularmanner. In addition, his second-by-second appeal for television viewers wasrecorded on electronic hand-units viaCRM.

The CRM method revealed parts ofBush's public image that other researchtechniques could not reach. The audiences'moment-by-moment reactions showed thatthey had particular respect for him atinstants when he projected a tough-guypersona. In a real sense, their perceptionswere subliminal, for only the researcherswere in a position to recognize the patternsof opinion revealed by different viewinggroups. The art of public pulse-feeling hadreached a powerful new level.

At first blush, such methods soundunethical. Their association with secretivepolitical research adds to that impression;and George Onve ll would be proud to notethat Republican advisors first used thesecond-by-second technique in theirreelection bid of 1984.

However, the same approach haslong since had a far more innocentapplication, in the development of someuseful educational television shows,notably in New York and Toronto; andGeorge Bush and the Sesame Street BigBird owe CRM methods a similar debt ofgratitude.

CRM In Education

The subliminal nature of CRM is amajor reason for its political appeal. Themost persuasive tactics in a person's bidfor high office are often those which thepublic around him does not consciouslyrecognize. But after ten years' work withthese techniques in Canada, wc haveconcluded that thcir potential benefitsoutweigh their abuses. We have used

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them in the development of educationalfilms and television campaigns, to identifyways of communicating topics whichaudiences find difficult to discuss verbally.We have used them in communicationskills workshops, providing teachers andexecutives with feedback on the aspects oftheir presentation which needimprovement. As with any communicationtool, the ethics of CRM obviously dependon the intentions behind its use.

During the '70s, for example, anunusually profitable relationship arosebetween producers and researchers at theChildren's Television Workshop in NewYork. Together they devised some highlypragmatic ways of inspecting their youngaudiences' programming tastes. Inconjunction with the Ontario EducationalCommunications Authority, a second-by-second response system was developed,providing more precise insights intochildren's perceptions than were availableby regular question-and-answer methods.Although the CRM method was not new,the advent of the microcomputer in the late'70s streamlined it; and some of the mostsuccessful series in children's television(e.g., Sesame Street and 3-2-1 Contact)were based upon its findings.

During the '80s, inevitably, CRMhas found more lucrative markets. Toadvertising researchers, the method offersobvious benefits in the pilot-testing oftelevision commercials. Since time ismoney in a 30-second television spot,every second must carry as much weighta s possible. Moment-by-momentmeasurements of viewer's reactionsindicate the specific points at which atelevision spot should be expanded ortightened. In this way the advertisersearches for ways of keeping hisaudience's attention remorselesslyengaged. With modern computer facilities,CRM feedback can bc instantaneous,allowing the evaluation to take placeduring the production process itself. Onthis basis, actors and camera crew can bebriefed about the impact of shots they havejust taped. A live television presenter can

140

even note viewers' responses to onesentence before moving on to the next!

CRM in the Training Industry

Particular uses of these techniquescan be envisaged in the training industry.Management colleges, for example, spendappreciable sums of money to providetheir executive clients with video feedbackexercises dealing with interpersonal skillsand the strategies of public performance.Yet, in terms of depth and precision,conventional feedback procedures languishin the Dark Ages compared with thoseused to sell soap flakes and USPresidents.

In a conventional video feedbacksession, a group of trainees is presentedwith an exercise (e.g., a debate,conference presentation, televisioninterview takes, or a role-playing/simulation game). They carry itout individually or in small groups, andtheir progress is videotaped for subsequentanalysis by the group and/or a specialist.Such exercises have been used since the'60s, to teach skills ranging fromcounselling and negotiating totrampolining and the golf swing.

A typical CRM session is based on asimilar range of assignments, butautomates the audience feedback process.As they watch the exercise, either live ortaped, the group members record theirmoment-by-moment assessments of it onthe hand-held keypads (Figure 2). Theassessments may be given on any basis:interest value, clarity, persuasiveness,credibility, or any other relevant index. Acomputer-animated graph indicates themomentary high and low points in thesequence (as in Figure 1), and can besynchronized with the video record so thatthe reasons for second-by-secondperceptions can be precisely identified.

These procedures obviate a commonproblem of traditional discussionsituations: the inability of group membersto achieve consensus and to level with oneanother. If a trainee public speaker has a


distinctive speech pattern or a nervous tic,the participants in a face-to-face discussionmay find it difficult to agree whether thetrait is harmful to the trainee's impact--oreven to mention it at all. CRM feedback,on the other hand, is clinical andanonymous. The implications of anervous smile or fumble are evident in theimmediate rise or fall of the audienceresponses whenever it occurs. Responseswith no statistical are discounted by theanalysis routines, and trainees readilyacknowledge the detached authority of thecomputer display.

_

JINNI If

Figure 2. A CRM keypad used bya farmer's wife in a field on MountKenya to critique a pilot-testversion of a radio agricultureprogram.

It is reassuring to notc that thesemethods do not tend to breed the bland,stereotyped styles of communicationencouraged by some training approaches.CRM's unusual sensitivity to nonverbalfactors indicates that, in the right situation,an idiosyncratic, even tense style ofcommunication can be a credible asset.With second-by-second precision, theCRM hand-units disclose that nothingimpresses an audience morc than havingsomething sincere to say. The approachoffers, in fact, an antidote to trainingprocedures which yield an off-the-pegstyle of communication, and indicates thatcommunication style without substancecounts for little in thc critical audience cyc.

Just as Republicans Reagan and

147

Stuff of Dreams

Bush may have won their Presidentialelection campaigns by adjusting theirpersonal styles, so their Democraticopponents may have lost them by failingto. In 1988 for example, while Bushturned tiger, Michael Dukakis strove tolook relaxed, to look the television camerain the eye, and to look presidential in theJFK mould. While television comicslampooned his approach, Dukakispersisted in using a smooth, bland stylewhich political analysts have debunked foryears. The Dukakis policies may havebeen substantial, but his style did not helphim to communicate them.

In future contexts, it is inevitable thatstrategic planners will seek to define thepublic mood more thoroughly than theDukakis camp did in 1988. CRM methodswill assist them in this, indicating accurateperceptions of public affairs as well as thepublic relations strategies via which theyshould be discussed. This possibility wasillustrated in an unusual project in AtlanticCanada in 1982.

CRM and the Community

The Canadian seal harvest was undersiege. The European Parliament hadboycotted the seal pelt, and Atlanticfishermen were facing hard times. To helpthem maximize their dwindling income,t he Federal Fisheries Ministrycommissioned an educational film aboutpelting and storage techniques. In order tocheck whether the film needed anyrevision, its rough cut was pilot-tested intwo fishing villages 400 miles from St.John's Newfoundlard.

Eighty fishermen took part in theanalysis. Their literacy levels were low,a n d normal questionnai re/i nterviewmethods were unlikely to be much help inprobing their views. Group discussionswere unlikely to elicit their unguardedopinions in view of the issue's extremesensitivity.

Using CRM hand-units, however,many of the men responded nonverballyand anonymously to the film, with a

1 4 t* L.4

141

decisiveness which surprised eventhemselves. The data were cross-referenced with further responses givenafter the film, and were fed back to themen for their own use. In the process, themen seemed to gain insights about thesimilarities and differences in their viewswhich had not been apparent previously.The feedback sessions proved to be keyevents in a process of communitydevelopment which led, within a year, tothe formation of the Canadian Sealers'Association and to significant socialchange.

On other sccial fronts, the process ofchange takes a Mlle longer. In Montreal wehave been studying attempts since 1986 toinform the public dbout AIDS, andcomparing the campaign styles with thegreatest and least educational impact.CRM studies have revealed that audiencesprefer simple, straightforward styles ofinformation on health topics, and that, forexample, florid or melodramatic elementsare received negatively by viewers. YetAIDS campaigns using a straightforwardapproach have often been withheld fromthe public on suspicion that they may haveharmful effects. Meanwhile, manybroadcast campaigns have used complexadvertising techniques which CRM studieshave shown to be inappropriate.

Clearly something in themanagement of these campaigns is awry.It may certainly be assumed that the diversstyles used in AIDS education to date havebeen developed in good faith. But theycannot all be right; and it is highlyprobable that conventional market researchmethods are failing to define the actualpsychological impact of public healthpromotion strategies with sufficient clarity.

Conclusions

If the studies discussed in this reportare any guide, it is feasible that CRMmethods can provide a quality of feedbackabout media effects which other researchmethods do not yield. Questionnaire andinterview methods, administered beforeand after exposure to campaign materials,

142

may be quite incapable of eliciting the fine-tuned responses which CRM methodsdetect while the materials are beingviewed. When the issue at hand is assensitive as, for example, AIDS, theanonymity of CRM responses is alsolikely to increase their reliability.

Since the images and situationsconveyed by the communications mediaare so varied and so permanentlysusceptible to change, it is possible thatour efforts to understand their effects interms of verho-visual literacy skills may betoo ambitious. In view of the vast rangeof individual differences in viewers'reactions to media, a more pragmaticapproach, focussing on the second-by-second idiosyncrasies of the mediaconsumer, may now be timely. It seemsto be no coincidence, therefore, thatmodern media researchers are returning tothe meticulous techniques used by C. G.Jung to examine individual psychologicaldifferences. Via this time-honoredparadigm, modern researchers may findthe effects of television to be a rich sourceof data about the individuals, just aspsychoanalysts have found the dream to bea mine of information about the dreamer.The contcnt, form, and effects oftelevision may come to be regarded asindeed the stuff that dreams are made on.

Numerous contentious issues arise insociety which this approach tocommunications research could be calledupon to resolve. Health, the environment,trade: public campaigns are needed oneach of these public agenda items, andtheir design strategies need immediateattention. Traditional communicationresearch strategies certainly seemunreliable in dealing with them. (As thischapter is written, a Canadian televisionelection advertisement, presumably basedon the most up-to-date of conventionalresearch methods, is having disastrouseffects for the national political partywhich has sponsored it.) The new CRMtechniques have shown that they can helpin these areas by:

I. Sharpening discussion of issues,


attitudes, and communicaiion styles.

2. Revealing patterns of publicopinion which would never be suspectednormally.

3. Punctuating myths aboutcommunication practice which seemedunassailable.

4. Reassessing stock approaches tocommunications management which donot seem to be yielding results.

Such methods sometimes seemMachiavellian. Or maybe they are simplybetter at distinguishing the politics andstyle which the public wants from those itdoes not. Either way, we have seen todate that continuous responsemeasurements of a person'scommunication style can help him to gainthe most powerful executive office in thefree world. Perhaps they can also helphim to use it in the best possible way.

References

Baggaley, J. P., & Duck, S. W. (1976).Dynamics of television. Farnborough:Saxon House.

Baggaley, J. P., & Duck, S. W. (1979).On making charitable appeals moreappealing. Journal of EducationalTelevision, 5(1), 6-10.

Baggaley, J. P., Ferguson, M., &Brooks, P. (1980). Psychology of theTV image. Farnborough: SaxonHouse.

Baggaley, J. P., & Smith, K. (1982).Formative research in rural education.Media in Education and Development,15, 173-176.

Baggaley, J. P. (1982). TV productionresearch and media development.Media in Education and Development,15(0, 46-48.

Baggaley, J. P. (1982). Electronicanalysis of communication. Media in

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Stuff of Dreams 143

Education and Development, 15(2),70-73.

Baggaley, J. P. (1985). Design of a TVcharacter with visual appeal forpreschool children. Journal ofEducationalTelevision, 11, 41-48.

Baggaley, J. P. (1986). Formativeevaluation of educational television.Canadian Journal of EducationalCommunication, 15(1), 29-43.

Baggaley, J. P. (1986). Developing atelevised health campaign: I. Smokingprevention. Media in Education andDevelopment, 19(1), 43-47.

Baggaley, I P. (1986). Developing atelevised health campaign: II. Skincancer prevention. Media in Educationand Development, 19(2), 86-90.

Baggaley, J. P. (1987). Continualresponse measurement in televisionresearch. Canadian Journal ofEducational Communication, 16, 217-238.

Baggaley, J. P. (1988). Perceivedeffectiveness of international AIDScampaigns. Health EducationResearch, 3(1), 7-17.

Baggaley, J P. (1988). Campaigningagainst AIDS: A perspective for

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Southern Africa. Media in Educationand Development, 21(3), 106-109.

Baggaley, J. P. (1989). The acquiredimmunity to ads syndrome. MarketingWeek, 12(13), 42-47.

Baggaley, J. P., Brauer, A. H., & Glegg,L. (1990). AIDS education: Theboomerang effect. Studies inEducationalEvaluation, 16, 41-62.

Baggaley, J. P. (1990). Media AIDScampaigning: Not just what you say,but the way that you say it! In R.Berkvens (Ed.), AIDS preventionthrough health promotion. Geneva:World Health Organization.

Baggaley, J. P., Salmon, C., Lewis-Hardy, R., Tambe, B., Siska, M.,Jorgansen, C., Harris, R., & Jason, J.(1992). Automated evaluation ofAIDS messages with high-risk, low-literacy audiences. Journal ofEducationalTelevision, 18, 83-96.

Baggaley, J. P. (1993). Kenyan farmersrespond to radio agricultureprogrammes. Ottawa, Canada: Reportto the International DevelopmentResearch Centre.

INTELLIGENT ADVISOR SYSTEMSAND TRANSFER OF KNOWLEDGE

byMarie-Michile Boulet

Introduction

In Quebec, the teaching of music isregulated by the Quebec Ministry ofEducation. That corresponds to amandatory music curriculum (Ministere del'Education, 1981) divided into sixmodules: creation, execution, graphics,musical language, musical literature, andsound environment. This researchconcerns the creation module. The mainobjective of this module is to allow thetransfer of knowledge of the musicallanguage elements. Composing melodiesis the activity proposed by the Ministry ofEducation (Ministere de l'Education,1983). Therefore, in accordance with"'Burns (1988), the Ministry of Educationconsiders that the creative process not onlysynthesizes previous learning but alsoelevates the mind into a higher stage ofreasoning--the problem solving stage.Moreover, in accordance with Moore(1990), the tasks are conceived as"musical problem solving" within acontext of implicit as well as explicitmusical parameters (an incompletemelody). Figure 1 shows the variety ofexercises proposed to students whichcorrespond to musical compositionactivities proposed in "Musicontact 3," abook approved by the Quebec Ministry ofEducation (Fournier, Milot, Richard,Béchard, & De Melo, 1986).

The Technology

An intelligent advisor system is aninstructional technology especiallydesigned to furthcr the transfer ofknowledge. It is an adaptive system aimedat intervening when the user of anyapplication software performs transfertasks (Boulet, 1992). According toLcshin, Pollock, and Reigeluth (1992),transfer tasks have great variation from

one performance to another. They cannoteasily be broken down into steps becausethe activity varies each time the task isperformed. To compose a melody is atransfer task.

An intelligent advisor system is atechnology to be used after the initiallearning of concepts, principles, and rules.It aims 4: providing individualized, fast,and detailed explanations and feedbacks.The intelligent advisor system MUSICrelates to the creation module of the grade9 high school. Its purpose is to help astudent while he or she uses a musicalwriting software to compose a melody.

¶ Functions I Piano I

Process of compositionOAnswer (Q-A)CiAugmentation, diminution, repetitionCOQuestion - Answer@Quit

io J 112 7 II

Figure I. Activities Proposed

The Requirements

Ten years after the implementation ofthe music curriculum, many observed thatthe main objective of the creation modulewas not reached (Boulet, Dufour, &Lavoie, 1992; Fédération des Associationsdes Musiciens Educateurs du Québec,1990). Creation activities were notindividualized, but group based. Studentsdid not really transfer their ownknowledge of the musical languageelements. Consequently, we decided todevelop the advisor system MUSIC.

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Transfer of Knowledge

The Advisor MUSIC

There are three types ofinstructional transactions:

1. Explanations requested by astudent in regard to musical languageelements.

2. Comments on the student'scomposition.

3. Comments on compositionsmade up by the advisor.

Type 1

When students perform exercisesMUSIC can help them by presentingexplanations on prerequisites. The abilityto use the question/answer process ofcomposition being considered, the analysisof the music curriculum, and specializedbooks allowed the identification of 67prerequisites and 29 rules (Boulet, &Dufour, 1991; Boulet, Dufour, & Lavoie,1991a, 1991b).

(Functions

HelpStatement

Playl

Play2Analysis

Pianol

PLi

\.7 II

Figure 2. Functions Menu

For an explanation, the student merelyselects the Help option in the menuFunctions (Figure 2). The explanationrequested is superimposed on the musicalwriting software (Figure 3).

As illustrated in Figure 3, there areunderhned words within each explanation.They represent corresponding pre-requisites. When a student clicks such a

1 5 2

145

word with the mouse, the correspondingexplanation is displayed.

I/Functions! Piano I

(Accidental )It is a sign aiming at elevating orreducing of a semitone the note it isin front of. There are flat, natural ,and sharp.

Fl index

6 7

Figure 3. Explanation

The student can also see an index of allthe explanations available, ask for one ormore melodies related to a particularexplanation, see a map of prerequisites, goback to the previous window, or go to thecurrent composition activity.

ifFunctions J Piano s

Analysis : Answer (Q - A)Your melody being analyzed, I realizethat the answer does not have the samenumber of bars than the question. Thequestion having 4 bars, the answer shouldhave 4 bars.Do you want an example? NEI

0 6 71Y II

Figure 4: Commenting on Melody

Type 2

When a composition is completed,MUSIC can analyze it. Figure 4 presentsan example. Here again, underlined wordsgive access to prerequisites.

Type 3

MUSIC can also create a composition.If the student clicks on the "Yes" buttonillustrated in Figure 4, the advisor

146

composes. The advisor can also commenton its own composition. The comment willbe similar to the one displayed to thestudent (Figure 4).

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of the study was todetermine if the advisor favors the transferof knowledge. Stated in the null form, thefollowing hypothesis was tested:

Ho/. Students exposed to MUSICwill not show any significant improvementwhen transferring the knowledge of themusical language elements.

Procedures

Subjects

The subjects consisted of 27voluntary ninth grade students fromQuebec high schools (at the beginningthere were 29; because of the attrition,only 27 completed the study).

Instruments

The validity and reliability of the testwere established in two pilot studies(Boulet, Simard, Lavoie, & Dufour,1991). 28 ninth grade students participatedin the first. Results are summarized inTable 1. The Spearman Brown and KR20both reached 0.9. We calculated factors ofdifficulty and discrimination and removedeasy or non discriminant items. Wereformulated certain items. The newversion was tested on 51 ninth gradestudents. Results are summarized in Table2. The Spearman Brown reached 0.9 andthe KR20, 0.8. Each item reached asatisfactory level of difficulty and ofdiscrimination.

Results

For the pretest, the mean was29.1%, with a standard deviation of 11.9.Results of the post test are the following:Mean = 66.2%, standard deviation = 14.5.A Two Group Paired t-Test wasperformed to verify the hypothesis: p =


.00. Because the group realized astatistically significant improvement of thetransfer of knowledge, the hypothesis wasrejected.

Table 1Pilot Studies Results

Mean% Std Spearman- KR20Dev Brown

1st 58.3 12.6 .9 .9

2nd 28 11 .9 .8

Discussion

Students improved the transfer ofknowledge. We think that this result mustbe interpreted as the effect of theindividualization. As mentioned before,music teachers have some problems withthe creation module. Correspondingactivities are rarely performed.Corresponding activities are notindividualized. The advisor MUSIC doeswhat is impossible for the human teacherof a class of thirty-three students, i.e., toperform concurrently the following tasks:for each learner's composition to generateadaptive, fast, individualized, detailed,remedial, and corrective explanations andfeedbacks.

We also think that the way weimplemented the advisor MUSIC had aninfluence on the results. We personallyimplemented MUSIC in its environment.Consequently, we were there to make surethat computers and technical featurcsrelated would always be in order. We werethere to make sure that the advisor will beused. Therefore, no technical problemsinterfered with the use of the advisor.

To conclude, we would like to recallthat an advisor system does not aim atreplacing formal teaching. It handles theissue of the transfer of knowledge. Otherstudies with different populations anddifferent advisors will allow to learn moreabout the effectiveness of this particularkind of help.

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Transfer of Knowledge 147

References

Boulet, M. M. (1992). Advisor systems:The development life cycle illustratedby two case studies. Québec: EditionDwayne.

Boulet, M. M., & Dufour, F. (1991).Systeme conseiller en compositionmusicale. Le procédi question-réponse: Analyse des connaissancesrequises en troisieme secondaire pourcorn-poser un theme mélodique enutilisant le procédi question-réponse.DIUL-RR-9 107, Québec: Dép.Informatique, Université Laval.

Boulet, M. M., Dufour, F., & Lavoie, L.(1992). Description d'un systemeconseiller en composition musicale.Recherches en Education Musicale,11, 57-69.

Boulet, M. M., Dufour, F., & Lavoie, L.(1991 b). Systeme con-seiller encomposition musicale. Le procédequestion-réponse: Analyse desconnaissances requises en troisiemesecondaire pour composer une réponsea une question en considérant leprogramme de musique du secondaire.DIUL-RR-9102, Québec: Dép.Informatique, Université Laval.

Boulet, M. M., Dufour, F., & Lavoie, L.( 1991a). Systeme conseiller encomposition musicale. Les procédésd'augmentation, de diminution et derépétition: Analyse des connaissancesrequises en troisieme secondaire pourdévelopper un theme mélodique al'aide de ces procédés en consi-derantle programme de musique dusecondaire. DIUL-RR-9105, Québec:Dép. Informatique, Université Laval.

rt5

Boulet, M. M., Simard, G.,, Lavoie, L.,& Dufour, F. (1991). Elaboration etétude de validité et de fiabilité de l'outilde mesure visant a verifier leshypotheses formulées en regard deseffets sur l'apprentissage d'un systemeconseiller en composition musicale(Perriode de mai 1990 a avril 1991).DIUL-RR-91 0 6, Québec: Dép.Informatique, Université Laval.

Burns, M. T. (1988). Music as a tool forenhancing creativity. Journal ofCreative Behavior, 22, 62-69.

Fédération des Asssociations desMusiciens Educateurs du Québec.(1990). Les actes de la biennale dusommet sur l'avenir de la formationmusicale au Québec. Québec: FAMEQ.

Fournier, G., Milot, J., Richard, G.,Béchard, A., & De Melo, D. (1986).Musicontact 3. Montréal: LesEditions HRW.

Leshin, C. B., Pollock, J., & Reigeluth,C. M. (1992). Instructional designstrategies and tactics. EnglewoodCliffs, NJ: Educational Technology.

Ministere de l'Education. (1983). Guidepedagogique: Secondaire: Musique.Québec: Direction générale dudéveloppement pedagogique.

Ministere de PEducation. (1981).Programme d'études secondaires.Musique. Québec: BibliothequeNationale du Québec.

Moore, B. R. (1990) The relationshipbetween curriculum and learner: Musiccomposition and learning style.Journal of Research in Music, 38 , 24-38.

FROM TEXT TO TELEVISION:HERMENEUTIC TEXTUALISM AND THE CHALLENGE OFVISUAL TECHNOLOGY 1,-; THE TEACHING OF HISTORY

byPeter Knupfer

Just as the audiovisual revolution ofthe postwar period entirely rearranged thehistory and social studies classroom, sohas the multimedia explosion of the 80sand 90s offered real temptations to thehistory teacher. Many of us old enough toremember the novelty of AV presentations--including educational films, ITV, andanalog tape--are now intrigued at theexciting and promising ways that thetelevision documentary or digitizedimaging can help reconstruct and interpretthe past. It is rare indeed to find thehistory teacher unfamiliar with audiovisualmedia, or who has not employed film,videotape, the transparency, or morerecently, the computer, in his or hercourses. But it is less common to observethe gap between the development of visualtechnology and its implementation in thehistory course. It is the purpose of thispaper to suggest some reasons for thisdiscrepancy and to raise some questionsabout how the multi-media revolutionchallenges those of us dedicated to sharingand transmitting the past to the presentgeneration.

The challenge of visual technology tothe historian and to the history teacher is oftremendous magnitude for the simplereason that the transformation of thehuman record means the transformation ofhistory itself. Largely concerned withusing the hum, n record, historians,history tcachers. .t id those entrusted withthe care and preservation of the remains ofour past, are understandably nervousabout the pitfalls of electronictechnologies. At thc heart of this concernis what the profession prpfers to call theobjectivity question--the extent to whichhistorians uncover the truth or merely talkabout what they think to be true.'

The history of mass communicationssuggests that the manipulation of visualimagery can have as powerful an effect onhuman behavior as the manipulation of thewritten word. Recent warnings about ahidden curriculum incorporated in the useof instructional technology indicate thatmultimedia techniques will not escape theperennial controversy about the kinds ofsocial values the schools are supposed ininculcate.2 With the expansion of mediatechnology one can trace the intelsificationof the controversy about hidden messagesin the classroom because the very nature ofthe electronic medium is fluid, ephemeral,and increasingly responsive to themomentary demands of emotion andwhim. If the awesome potential of visualtechnology heightens the importance ofvisual literacy, then it would be valuable tounderstand how the advocates of verballiteracy used the media of their day--especially the lowly schoolbook--toassociate literacy with publicly-approvedsocial values.

The teaching of history was a latecorner to the common school curriculum.Until the middle of the nineteenth century,public education concentrated on trainingyouth in reading, writing, and arithmetic.Verbal literacy and numeracy wereconsidered the platform for an informed,industrious, respectful citizenry ready toparticipate in public life. The curriculum inthe early public schools, therefore,stressed the mastery of language andnumbers, usually through rotememorization and recitation of basicvocabulary and tables of numbers.Although educators occasionallyincorporated historical themes in theirteaching, they were too busy trying tocontrol their unruly charges and to satisfy

.1.55

From Text to Television 149

the demand for fundamentals to offersystematic study in history.

As the common school reformmovement of the 1830s demonstrated,however, this was hardly a morally orideologically neutral agenda. The commonschool reform movement, led by suchnotables as Horace Mann and HenryBarnard, hitched literacy to civics andhelped to bring historY into the classroom.Careful studies of the common schoolcurriculum and its mainstay, the textbook,have amply documented the nationalistic,ethnocentric, and moralistic message that itwas designed to convey. The schoolswere to be the "pillars of the republic" and,like the family, the "nurseries ofpatriotism."3 History textbooks appearedto meet the demand; the most popular oneswent through dozens of editions and werestill in use at the end of the century. Asone influential text writer boasted, "it isfrom our common school histories, thoseunassuming companions of the school-room, and not from those more elaboratewritings which grace the libraries of themean of wealth and the professionalscholar, that the great mass of our citizensmust ever derive their knowledge of thecharacter, toils, and privations of ourfathers, and of the institutions."4

If patriots were made, not born, thenthe work was serious business indeed.Teachers, armed with a transformedpedagogy that now recognized childhoodas a distinct phase of life, had a number oftechniques at their command. They wereinstructed to take children out of theclassroom to any suitable local sceneassociated with some unique historicalevent to stimulate and exhort students inthe lessons of the past.5 The veryarchitecture and governance of theclassroom were designed to transmitrepublican ideas. Monitorial pedagogyplaced younger scholars under thedirection of older ones and rewarded themastery of lessons with advancement topositions of leadership. Where possible,teachers decorated the room with picturesof great leaders, nation and state flags, and

f

maps of famous battles.6

The graphic arts could also bebrought to bear. Text included woodcutengravings of the state seals, of famousleaders, of important events, and ofreligious and classical symbols thatassociated the progress of the nation withprovidential beneficence. GeorgeWashington's paternal visage greetedevery young reader and beckoned him tonational greatness through civic proprietyand republican rectitude. Elaborate charts,and occasionally maps, tracked theacquisition of territory and the industrialand agricultural development of thecountry. Such visual imagery clearly andforcefully reinforced the basic messagethat the republican system was the onlyand the best system adapted to theAmerican character, and that this way oflife could self-destruct if students failed toplace the public welfare above their own.

All of this is evident with even acursory review of common school andpopular history texts. Yet it is also clearthat the ultimate emphasis of early historyand civic training was the text itself:History teachers then, like theirsuccessors, were tied to texts. The mostremarkable feature of early texts is thescarcity, and not the abundance, ofillustrations. Early history textbooksgreeted the young reader not with thedazzling illustrations common to moderntextbooks, but page after page of small-print text punctuated by side bars andcatechisms designed to induce completemastery of the text. Oral and writtenrecitation remained the standard exercisefor history students.7

One survey of hundreds ofsecondary school texts across the entirecentury determined that only the sciencebooks--especially zoology, botany, andbiology, with their emphasis on anatomy--innovated in any serious way in theincorporation of illustrations into the text.8Chromolithography had advanced farenough by the middle of the century toallow publishers to incorporate elaborate

156

150

colored plates, but rarely did these findtheir way into history books. Of thehistory and civics texts, most contained afrontispiece, a picture above the title ofeach chapter, and occasional drawingssprinkled through the book, but thisconstituted barely a fraction of the whole.Even the pictorial histories, written bothfor school children and general audiences,devoted but a tiny amount of their space toillustrations.

This is not to say that writers,publishers, teachers, or the public thoughtillustrations unnecessary. A few well-chosen and -executed illustrations caneconomically and powerfully convey awealth of meanings without the confusionof interpretations fostered by a largenumber of pictures. Benson Lossing's(1857) Pictorial Field-book of theRevolution 9 demonstrated what themarriage of research and graphic creativitycould accomplish. The research, writing,and indexing, plus the creating of exquisite1100 engravings that graced every pagetook Lossing three years of tireless effort.Lossing wanted those illustrations toconvey the actual modern condition ofRevolutionary war sites--they were theforerunncr of the photograph taken fromNature. The typical school text in the1830s and 1840s on the other hand,shamelessly copied from existing worksand could be compiled and published witha ycar. Lossing was an engraver--heeliminated the middle man and did thesketches and woodcuts himself, cutting hiscosts considerably. His school texts(about a dozen of the eighty-odd books tohis credit at his death in 1891), were slapdash affairs, cut and pasted together withmuch less attention to illustration.

Certainly the public liked the graphicarts. Noah Webster's spelling book, firstpublished in 1783 and designed to teach,through orthography and pronunciation, awritten language, included woodcutengravings to illustrate its fables. WhenWebster eliminated the fables andillustrations from the new 1829 edition (infavor of disconnected, contextual


sentences and word lists more like themodern-day spelling book), his public andpublisher complained loudl y.10 Websterrestored a few pictures, but stood by hisbelief that one learns a language bylearning his letters. At that point, WillMcGuffey's more carefully graded books,which taught children to read throughlavishly illustrated stories about otherchildren, captured the market for schoolprimers.

A number of factors--currentpedagogical theory, the architecture of theschool room and governance of theschool, the state of existing technology,the ideology of common school reformers,and the fragmented, disorganizedcondition of extant historical sources forillustrations--help explain thedisproportion of verbal and visual materialin early school texts. Some of thesereasons are self evident, others obscureand complex, but all point toward anideology of literacy and textuality that wasat the heart of common school education inthe prephotographic age. And none ofthem should hide the important point thatillustrations, rather than conveyinformation, were to convey a messageabout American life and the reader's placein it.

A schoolteacher in the early republicbelieved that a student learned more fromreading words than from understandingpictures, charts, or maps. The latter formof education was simply a rudimentarystep on the road to a higher state ofknowledge and skill: the ability tointerpret texts. Pictures--be they maps orsketcheswere to serve texts, and not viceversa. To the teacher, the purpose ofcommon school education was civic andmoral training, and that meant mastery of aunique constitutional and political traditionfounded on written texts. Words and theirmeaning dominated the curriculum of thenineteenth century common school.

The public square that future citizenswere to inhabit was above all dominatedby the sensationalizing newspaper editor


and the orating politician whosemanipulation of language civics andhistory texts constantly warned against.As Michael Warner has pointed out in hisinterpretation of the period's "culture ofprint," mass communications invariablyreinforced textual interpretation. Eventhough the quickened tempo of democraticpolitical culture in the 1840s and 1850sfeatured public rituals (like parades,singing, and campaign placards)ornamented by the graphic arts, the verytext of public discourse was texts,especially the constitution.11

As one civics writer put it in thepreface to his 1823 civics manual, "themost effectual method of preserving ourrights unimpaired, is to make themgenerally known and universallyrecognized; and the best mode of effectingthis desideratum is to incorporate in theeducation of youth official documentscontaining their fundamental basis.12 Onedid not teach the constitution, therefore, bysketching its structure of divided powerson a chalk slate. Instead, the studentmemorized the constitution, usually bypracticing his handwriting with it, byreciting a constitutional catechism in class,and occasionally, by studying a chartcomparing its provisions to those of thetwenty-odd state constitutions.

Existing theory about hermeneutics,the science of textual interpretation,buttressed contemporary faith in textualliteralism. Nineteenth centuryhermeneutics, unlike its post-modernversion, emphasized that the author'sintent determined the meaning of a text,and that although reasonable people mightdisagree over how to construe a text, itsessential meaning remained unified andindivisible. Little wonder thatconstitutional literalism was of suchtremendous importance to Americans that,like the theologians who originated theconcept of hermeneutics, they cited chapterand verse of their constitutional Bible asthe underlying reason for killing each otherin unprccedented numbers in the CivilWar.13 Literacy, language, and law were

156

intimately bound up in the country's civicconsciousness, so that mastery of allbecame the defining characteristic of theyoung citizen. In the study of history thestudent was to see this philosophyteaching by example.

The emergence of mass media,accompanied by the individualization ofreadership, heralded the tremendoussuccess of the common school literacycampaigns. As Carl Kaestle has pointedout, "the big story in nineteenth-centuryAmerican literacy is the development ofcommon-school systems and the nearelimination of self-reported out-rightilliteracy among native-born whites." 14

Civil war and industrializationshattered this cozy marriage of verbal textand visual image and loosened thehistorian's tie to texts. The Civil War lefttoo many loose ends, especially becauseAmericans could interpret it as either avindication or a failure of a unifiedtradition embodied in written texts.History writers had to grapple with thewar's terrifying and unsettling themes.And they also had to confront the war'snew visual heritage: photography, whichtransmitted the brutality, not the glory, ofmass destruction. During the war, aninsatiable public demand for pictorialimages stimulated the rise of illustratedmagazines and provided plenty ofemployment for master sketch artists likeFrank Leslie. Furthermore, the perfectionof lithographic technology equipped thegraphic arts with a magnificent array oftools. Engravings--be they woodcut, steel,or line--now could be supplanted bytremendously detailed pictures completelyunder the control of the illustrator, picturesthat could be transferred cheaply andefficiently to the printed page.15

Photography, unlike engraving,eliminated the middle man. Americansinvested the new medium with powers ofrealism and natural replication that theywould apply later to radio and television.The camera could capture Nature, unlikethe engraver who acted as the medium

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between the sketch illustrator and thereader. Even engravers who had strivenfor accuracy in depicting natural scenescould not compete with the camera. Here,in the words of Oliver Wendell Holmes,was a "mirror with a memory" capable ofbringing history directly before the eyes ofnonparticipants.

The advent of photography coincidedwith the professionalization of history. Anew generation of scholars trained inhistory as an academic science thatpainstakingly reconstructed the pastsucceeded the generation of ministers,lawyers, journalists, and scissors-and-paste compilers responsible for the writingof textbooks. The new history's revoltagainst romanticism and the literarytradition of history writing exalted theuncovering and transmission of factsunmediated by the personality of thewriter.16 History writers still held to thenarrative form, but they directed its coursewith what they believed was a rigorouschain of cause and effect derived from thetedious analysis of the record.

At its beginnings, photography wasnot regarded as a form of artisticexpression. It was instead another way ofdocumenting reality. The camera, not thephotographer, controlled the picture.Furthermore, photographs recorded theunusual, the significant, the prominentscenes of life. For example, by the turn ofthe century, as the Civil War faded frommemory into history, photographic andpictorial histories flooded the mass market.Perhaps more photographs were availableto the public then they are now, and theirsubjects ranged from the boredom of camplife to the eventful turning points of apresidential assassination and theexecution of his murderers.17

The possibilities for textbookillustrations seemed limitless. But judgingby thc textbooks in use up through the1920s, almost a half century after theappearance of photographic transferprocesses, history text writers resisted thetrend. Although textbooks incorporated


some photographic, half-tone illustrations,the pictures rarely conveyed unique ordiscrete historical events. Frequentlybooks printed pictures of pictures:photographs of paintings and sketches.Even though many mid-nineteenth-centurypublic figures rushed to have their picturestaken, history texts fifty years laterpreferred line portraits over the originalphotos. One poSsible reason: writers,proclaiming their fidelity to the truth,thought that photographs conveyedunnecessary truths by showing history'sheroes warts and all. The publication in1890 of Jacob Riis's pioneeringphotographs of slum life in turn of thecentury New York alerted Americans tothe sobering power of photography--yetnone of his startling images appears inAmerican history texts before the 1930s.Like Riis's photographs, the images of theCivil War came to the public largely byway of illustrated magazines and massmedia--not a single academic historianassociated himself with the use andpreservation of this new form of recordingthe past.

Another and perhaps more powerfulexplanation for the continued resistance ofhistory texts to graphic arts andphotography was the nature of thecompetition. With the achievement of highand sustained literacy rates by the end ofthe century, the public's access to massmedia widened at a furious pace. Thehallmarks of modern masscommunications, especially its commercialcharacter and individualistic thrusi, werealready evident by the 1840s. As thecentury passed, mass advertising and theexpansion of visual technology affirmedthe triumph. Americans fascinated withthe drama of recent history not only couldflock to new museums, wherephotographic and other graphic displaysawaited them. They could vacation there,take their cameras with them, and returnwith pieces of history for proud display intheir very own parlors.18

Faced with such competition, thehistory text stayed the course: its emphasis

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on narrative, on high politics, on macroevents like industrialization, war, andterritorial expansion remained essentiallyunchanged and undocumented by visualimages. Teachers could set aside the textand use new forms of historical evidenceto challenge their students, whileprofessional historians still grappled withthe problem of trying to develop a methodof interpreting photographs andestablishing their validity as historicalsources. Change would come fitfully.Albert Bushnell Hart's "New AmericanHistory," published in 1917 and destinedfor many editions, informed the teacherthat its pictures "with the exception of afew reproductions of famous paintings,are all realities, intended to place before thepupil in visible form the faces of publicmen, the surroundings of famous events,and some of the national monuments andbuildings.19 Yef even Hart's bookpreferred artist's reproductions overoriginal photographs. Photography wasnot art; art could more readily be bent tothe needs of the publisher and agenda ofthe writer. In 1928, Row, Peterson, andCompany, a major textbook publisher,announced that "for the first time originalthree color illustrations have been used inan elementary history text." The authors,a trio of the profession's finest scholars,boasted that:

The physical beauty of the book isdue to a conviction which thepublishers share with the authors,that school children are entitled totextbooks having artistic qualities atonce interesting and faithful to truth.No effort has been spared to makethe illustrations of this textbookreinforce the story told in words.Contemporary photographs,drawings, and cartoons havingspecial historical value have beenliberally used. Scenic views portrayour country's natural beauties and itseconomic development.Reproductions of painting andstatuary enable thc child to visualizepersons and things that theycommemorate, and give him a visible

expression of an important phase ofour development expressed in art.20

And what was the truth the booktried to convey? "The story of the greatestof the American nations" a "dramatic andinspiring story--a moving picture ofbrilliant colors and stirring action." Thebook's illustrations were, largely, artists'conceptions of events, material culture,and people. Photography just framed astory controlled by the author; it had yet toenter the textbook universe as anindependent historical source. Up throughthe 1930s, publishers and authorspreferred artwork over photographs, evenafter photography had been in existencelong enough to record events and becomea powerful tool for the history teacher.Although the patriotic, ethnocentric themesremained as the driving force in the writingof these texts, the preference for artworkover photography suggested that historianspersisted in the desire to control the actionand thereby the reaction of the reader.Photographs, when included, had to beexplained to the reader, to preventmisconceptions and connect the image tothe story. Artwork was more malleableand could convey emotions, prejudices,and ideas that photography supposedlyhad yet to capture.

Long after photography itself hadbecome recognized as an art form thatmanipulated images of reality, long afterthe campaigns for verbal literacy achievedtheir greatest successes, historiansremained tied to texts supported by artfuland inaccurate graphics. As historicalconventions and pedagogical theorychanged, artwork marched along in steadysupport. Progressive era educators andhistorians revised history and thecurriculum in alignment with newhistorical theories about class relations andnew educational theories about thesocializing of children. Texts down-playedrecitation and emphasized analysis and theexpression of feelings.

This was true regardless of thewriter's political agenda, for in the 1930s,

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texts employed artists to illuminate thedarker sides of American life. LeoHuberman's elementary text "We thePeople," (1932) relied entirely on ThomasHart Benton's evocative black and whitesketches of class distinctions, the horrorsof the slave trade, and the deadeningimpersonality of industrialism to supportits progressive critique of Americanhistory.

I suspect that a similar tale could betold about the impact of electronic mediaon the teaching of history. The radio, theLP, and the motion picture seemed toAmericans to be other mirrors with amemory: ways of transmitting real eventsunmediated by the personality of trainedexperts. But a number of developments,especially the use of mass communicationsboth as political propaganda by totalitarianregimes and for advertising, made it clearthat visual technologies transmitted notreality, but a number of interpretations ofreality. Television so quickly diffusedthroughout and flattened the culture that itsimpact remains to be assessed fully. Bymaking the viewer an eyewitness, itseemed to have pulled down the finalbarrier between a hictory distant andintangible and the making of events forfuture generations to witness.

The history textbook tried to adapt.In the aftermath of the second world war,the country's reflexive concern aboutrecovering lost values and protecting themagainst ideological enemies of foreign anddomestic origin reinvigorated the teachingof history with a sense of vital purpose.Publishers came out with ever morelavishly illustrated editions, filled withmaps, charts, and photographs. The cycleof historical revisionism, with itsassumption that generations rewrite thecountry's history, encouraged text writersto pose difficult questions and print morecontroversial images. The common schoolreformers had defined republicancitizenship as a patriotic faith, leavenedwith vigilance for one's rights, but basedalmost entirely on the moral capacity ofindividuals to make public decisions. Inthis view, education required the training


of the child's moral sense so that he couldact rightly on the information drilled in tohim day by day. Americans by the middleof the twentieth century had significantlymuted this exclusivity. Cultural literacyentailed not simply the ability to read andwrite, but also the development of critical,independent thinking in public affairs.21Educators in both time periods shared thebasic consensus that a republican form ofgovernment was best suited to theAmerican character, but they had verydifferent notions of that character and howit was formed.

Recently, there has been a surge ofinterest in the question of declining literacyrates.22 Some historians, noting that thesupposed decline dovetails with the declineof narrative forms and the rise of visualtechnology, have tried to maintain the oldemphasis on reading and textual analysis.The textbook publishers, on the otherhand, have moved vigorously into themultimedia markets, aggressively pushingCD-ROM texts that provide instant accessto picture, photograph, chart, and word.Yet the publishers also display anoverweening sensitivity to the historian'sand the teacher's desire to control thestory. For even though multimediaworkstations and CD-ROM databases freethe student from the tyranny of text, theydo not, so the argument goes, free thestudent from the teacher.

In the past decade, historians havebeen responding, if belatedly, to thechallenge of visual technology. Whilethey are quarelling about the relative biasesof narrative forms, they are moving tounderstand the nature and iiiipact of visualtechnology. Scholarly committees of theprofessional societies are investigating thedevelopment of electronic archives, thetransmission and durability of electronictexts, the use of computer-basedsimulations and desktop publishing, andthe collating and preservation of therapidly deteriorating yet vast array ofphotographs that languish uncataloged inmuseums and historical agencies. Toaccomplish this important task, historians


need to develop a set of basic criteria forinterpreting visual images, as they havehad for understanding the documentaryrecord. Ancient, medieval, and biblicalscholars have for years studied the natureand method of text illumination, and haveproduced loose systems for interpretationand analysis.

Simply put, historians and educatorsshould consider mounting a visual literacycampaign of the magnitude and energy ofthe early common school reformers.Historians and teachers working withvisual images, especially photographs,television, and film, need to alert studentsto the inherent biases of these formats.Students will be willing partners in theendeavor, for they seem more capable ofcritiquing film and tape than they are ofprinted text. In that way, they can test thetruth of Oliver Wendell Holmes'sdefinition of the photograph as an illusionwith the "appearance of reality that cheatsthe senses with its seeming truth."23

1See Peter Novick, That NobleDream: The "Objectivity Question" andthe American Historical Profession (NewYork, 1988).

2See, for example, ElizabethEllsworth and Mariamne H. Whatley, TheIdeology of Images in EducationalMedia:Hidden Curriculums in the Classroom(New York, 1990). On the country'semotional and ideological investment inpostwar education, see Diane Ravitch, TheTroubled Crusade: American Education,1945-1980 (New York, 1983).

3For a good bibliography, see JeanDresden Grambs, The Study of Textbooksand Schoolbooks, A SelectedBibliography in William E. Patton (Ed.),Improving the Use of Social StudiesTextbooks, National Council for the SocialStudies Bulletin #63 (Washington, 1980),pp. 61-76. The standard content analysisis Ruth Miller Elson, Guardians ofTradition: American Schoolbooks of theNineteenth Century (Lincoln, 1963); J.

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Merton England, "The Democratic Faith inAmerican Schoolbooks, 1783-1860."American Quarterly 15 (1963): 191-199;Lee Soltow and Edward Stevens, Rise ofLiteracy and the Common School in theUnited States: A Socioeconomic Analysisto 1870 (Chicago, 1981), pp. 11-22; CarlF. Kaestle, Pillars of the Republic:Common Schools and American Society,1790-1860 (New York: 1983), pp. 35,75-103; Lawrence Cremin, AmericanEducation, The National Experience,1783-1876 (New York, 1980), pp. 490-495; Baker, "Learning to be Americans,"in Her Affairs of Party: The PoliticalCulture of the Northern Democrats in theMid-Nineteenth Century (Ithaca, 1983),pp. 71-107; D. J. Booth, "PopularEducational Thought of the Early NationalPeriod in America, 1776-1830..." (Ph.D.Dissertation: University of Colorado,1974); R. Freeman Butts, "HistoricalPerspective on Citizenship Education inthe United States," in Education forResponsible Citizenship (New York,1977), pp. 47-68.

4Marcius Wilson, A Critical Reviewof American Common School Histories(New York, 1847) p. 1.

5Samuel R. Hall, Lectures onSchool-Keeping (Boston, 1829), pp. 95-98.

6Baker, Affairs of Party, pp. 91-105.

7A straightforward description ofcontent, organization, and style may befound in John A. Nietz, The Evolution ofAmerican Secondary SchoolTextbooks...Before 1900 (Rutland, Vt.,1966).

8Neitz, Evolution, pp. 2-6.

92 vols. (New York, 1859).

10E. Jennifer Monaghan, ACommon Heritage: Noah Webster's Blue-

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Back Speller (Hamden, Conn., 1983), pp.128-130.

11Michael Warner, The Letters of theRepublic: Publication and the PublicSphere in Eighteenth-Century America(Cambridge, 1990).

12Pardon Davis, The Principles ofthe Government of the United States.Adapted to the Use of Schools(Philadelphia, 1823).

13Hermeneutics was introduced tothe United States by the country's firstself-proclaimed political scientist, FrancisLieber, who was trained by Germanscholars conversant with ancient texts.See Francis Lieber, Legal and PoliticalHermeneutics (Boston, 1839) and Lieber'sdiscussion of language as "the greatest linkand tie of humanity" in two of his works,On Civil Liberty and Se y..Government(Philadelphia, 1859), 2:185-86, 424,134,and On History and Political Economy,...(Columbia, 1836), p. 14. Post-modernthinkers have radically reorientedhermeneutical methods away fromLieber's intentionalist perspective. SeeShaun Gallagher, Hermeneutics andEducation (Albany, 1992), esp. p. 350.

14Carl F. Kaestle, et al., Eds.,Literacy in the United States: Readers andReading since 1880 (New Haven, 1991),p. 25.

15These developments can be tracedin Estelle Jussim, Visual Cominunicationand the Graphic Arts: PhotographicTechnologies in the Nineteenth Century(New York, 1974) which covers morethan its title implies.

16Novic, That Noble Dream, pp. 21-46.

17For a discussion of the reaction tophotography, see Lawrence Levine,Highbrow/Lowbrow: The Emergence ofCultural Hierarchy in America


(Cambridge, 1988), pp. 160-163; andJussim, Visual communications, passim.

18Richard D. Brown, Knowledge isPower: The Diffusion of Information inEarly American, 1700-1865 (Oxford,1989), p. 219.

19(New York, 1917), p. v.

20Authors' note, Eugene C. Barker,Walter Prescott Webb, William E. Dodd,The Growth of a Nation: The UnitedStates of America (Evanston, 1928), p. vi.The publishers claimed that "the picturestell a true story of some event or personagein American history."

21Richard Pratte, The CivicImperative: Examining the Need for CivicEducation (New York, 1988).

22Kaestle, et al., Literacy in theUnited States, pp. 74-148, analyzecontemporary reading levels and disputeclaims of a decline in literacy.

23Quoted in James West Davidsonand Mark Hamilton Lytle, After the Fact:The Art of Historical Detection (Knofp,1981), p. 229.

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Short-Title List of Teacher'sManuals, History, and Civics Texts

Examined

Barker, E. C., et al. (1928). The growthof a nation: The United States ofAmerica. Evanston.

Bradford, A. (1840). History of thefederal government, for 50 years fromMarch 1789 to March 1839 . Boston.

Brownell, H. H. (1854). The people'sbook of American history, comprisingthe new world . Hartford.

Burleigh, J. (1848). The Americanmanual, ...adapted to the use ofschools, academies, and the publicPhiladelphia

Butler, F. (1826). A history of theUnited States of America. With ageographical appendix, and achronological table of contents. Forthe use of families and schools .

Buffalo.

Butler, F. (1821). A complete history ofthe United States of America,Embracing the whole period from thediscovery of North America, down tothe year 1820. Philadelphia.

Connor, R. D. W. (1921). The story ofthe United States: For youngAmericans. Raleigh, NC.

Davis, P. (1823). The principles of thegovernment of the United States.Adapted to the use of schools .

Philadelphia

Fisher, R. S. (1854). The progress of theUnited States of America from theearliest periods, geographical,statistical, historical. New York.

Flanders, H. (1860, 1874). Anexposition of the constitution...Designed as a manual of instruction.Philadelphia.

Frost, J. (1838). The history of theUnited States of North America.London.

Goodrich, C. A. (1833). A history of theUnited States of America...to thepresent time. Hartford.

Goodrich, S. G. (1850). A pictorialhistory of America: Embracing thenorthern and southern portions .

Hartford.

Graff, H. F. (1972). The free and thebrave (2nd ed.). New York.

Green, R. P., et al. (1984). TheAmerican tradition: A history of theUnited States. Columbus.

Grimshaw, W. (1841). History of theUnited States . Philadelphia.

Hall, S. R. (1829). Lectures on school-keeping. Boston.

Hart, J. S. (1862, 1874). A briefexposition of the constitution of theUnited States for the use of commonschools. Philadelphia

Hart, A. B. (1917). New Americanhistory.. New York.

Hickey, W. (1854). The constitution ofthe United States of America, with analphabelicalanalysis. Washington.

Hopkins, C. T. (1872). A manual ofAmerican ideals. San Francisco.

Howe, E. P. (1861). The young citizen'scatechism...Together with rules forparliamentary and commercialbusiness. Designed for schools .

New York.

Howitt, M. (1860). A popular history ofthe United States of America from thediscovery of the American continent tothe present time . New York.

Judson, H. Pratt. (1906). The growth ofthe American nation . New York.

La Ruc, D. W. (1924). The child's mindand the common branches . NewYork.

Lord, J. (1854). A new history of theUnited States of America, for the useof schools. Philadelphia

Lossing, B. J. (1857). A primary historyof the United States, for schools andfamilies. New York.

Mansfield, E. D. (1834, 1855). Thepolitical grammar of the United States.New York.

Mason, C. (1842). An elementary treatiseon the structure and operations of thenational and state governments...forthe use of schools and academies andfor general readers. Boston.

McCartney, W. (1847). The origin andprogress of the United States.Philadelphia.

McCulloch, J. (1813). A concise historyof the United States, from thediscovery of America, till 1813 (4thed.). Philadelphia.

Olney, J. (1836, 1851). A history of theUnited States,...to which is added theconstitution of the United States. NewHaven.

Olney, J. (1836). A history of the UnitedStates, on a new plan; adapted to thecapacity of youth. New Haven.

Page, D. W. (1847). Theory and practiceof teaching: Or, the motives andmethods of good school-keeping.Syracuse.

Parker, Rev. D. (1848). The^onstitutional instructor. Boston.

Parker, F. W. (1894). Talks onpedagogics: An outline of the theoryof concentration. New York.


Quillen, I. J., & King, E. (1951). Livingin our America: History for youngcitizens. Chicago.

Sheppard, F. (1855, 1866). Theconstitutional text-book. Philadelphia.

Sullivan W. (1831). The political classbook. Boston.

Taylor, C. B. (1831). A universal historyof the United States to the presenttime. New York.

Watson, H. C. (1853). History of theUnited States of America, from thediscovery to the present time.Philadelphia.

Willard, E. (1854). Abridged history ofthe United States. New York.

Williams, G. S. (1872). The constitutionof the United States. For the use ofschools and academies (4th new andenlarged ed.). Cambridge, MA.

Wilson, M. (1847). Juvenile Americanhistory for primary schools. NewYork.

Woodburn, J. A., & Moran, T. F.(1906). American history andgovernment: A text-book on thehistory and civil government of theUnited States. New York.

Young, A. W. (1835 through 1900).Introduction to the science ofgovernment. Warsaw, NY.

Young, A. W. (1845). First lessons incivil government (8th ed.). Auburn.

THE VIDEO IN THE CLASSROOM: AGATHA CHRISTIE'S"EVIL UNDER THE SUN" AND THE TEACHING OF

NARRATOLOGY THROUGH FILM

byMichael Kokonis

Educational technology has madetremendous strides in introducing the newaudiovisual and electronic media in theteaching of any subject, especiallylanguage teaching. Since the 1980's manyinstitutions have adopted the use of videoover traditional film technology because itis less costly and more user friendly. It isnatural to expect that there are manytechnology-prone teachers who makeample use of the new technologies in theteaching of literature as well. Howeverthere is little documentation of specificmethods of video use in the literatureclassroom. The aim of this paper is tosuggest some ways in which the versatilefacilities of video can be put to effectiveuse in teaching literature as well as cinemacourses at a college or university level,with the intent to promote audio-visualliteracy. The method proposed for videoapplications to the teaching of literature,especially fiction, presupposes anapproach to narrative through the tenets ofnarratology, the discipline that examinestexts of narrative fiction as narratives,irrespective of their mode of manifestation(whether verbal, visual, or other).

Methods and Aims of TeachingLiterature on Video

There has been considerable researchdone on the practical applications of video,which has enjoyed wide use in all fields of.education in thousands of institutions allover the world. However, most of theresearch has been concentrated on video asan aid to support language teaching.' Thesoftware video material employed variesfrom documentaries, advertisements,news, and general entertainment, includingfilm narratives. But even when filmnarratives arc used, the aim is either toimprove speaking and writing language

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skills, or, in extended curricula, whereliterature and the arts are integrated inlanguage courses, films shown on videoare meant to help students appreciateliterature to improve writing andcomposition.2

A s far as literature coursesthemselves are concerned, there have beenonly a few articles or books exploringmethods for using commercial films onVCRs to study themes, formal elements ofliterature, literary terms, and the aestheticdecisions behind film adaptations ofliterary works, as for example in themanner described by R. H. Fehlman(1987), in "Quoting Films in EnglishClass." A practical method is suggestedby Rodney D. Keller (1985) in "Moviesand Literary Elements," a paper presentedat the International Reading AssociationConference, in Idaho: The writerproposes showing short, ten-minute movieclips to motivate students to read literatureand explore elements of fiction such asplot, character, setting, symbol, irony, andtheme.

In other cases, movies are shown forcomparative purposes, e.g., betweenliterature and cinema, in coursesconcentrating on problems of adaptation.Thierry Lancien's (1988) "Litterature etcinema: de la page a l' ecran" (Literatureand Film: From Page to Screen) is a casein point, since the article looks at thcprocess of making a novel into film byfocusing on comparisons of composition,characters, and language. Similarly, SucHeibling (1985) in "The Dollmaker: ACross-Media Approach," uses the noveland television adaptation of HarrietArnow's "The Dollmaker" to teachproblems of translating literature into film.Problems of adaptation from a literary to

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film narrative pose no obstacle todeveloping a teaching methodology for thepractical analysis of narratives providedthat they are explained to the students earlyin the course.

Far more interesting, however, is anapproach of examining a literary topic inan interdisciplinary manner, that is, byplacing it in the wider context of art.Dorothy M. Jehle (1990) in "MedievalRomances: Perceval to Monty Python,"traces the appearance of medieval themes,motifs and characters in works of modernpoetry, fiction and films. Also interestingis the notion of drawing on the tenets of aparticular theory from one discipline andapplying these tenets to another: Forexample, the application of literary theoryto film theory. Lynn Kear (1988) in"Teaching Film Studies: The ViewerResponse Approach," examines howLouise Rosenblatt's reader responsetheory can be applied to film study in theclassroom. In the view of reader responsetheorists, although there are differencesbetween film and literature as media, theprocesses that one uses to make sense ofliterature and film are similar.

Narrative as a TeachingSubject on Video

Thc approach to be followed herewill also account for the similaritiesbetween reader and viewer response, but itwill be couched within the widerperspective of narratology, which takescare of the more complex relationshipsbetween author and text as well as readerand text. Narratology is the discipline thatexamines texts of fiction primarily asnarratives, irrespective of the mode of theirdiscursive manifestation, that is, verbal,visual, or audiovisual. The terms author,reader, and text are employed in the broadsense of the words, meaning bothfilmmaker and novelist, film viewer andnovel reader, and novels and filmsrespectively. According to narratologists,thc same story, conceived as the content ofnarrative message, can be transmitted in anumber of ways, for example in the formof a novel, a comic-strip, a series of


paintings, a film, a television miniseries, aballet, a play, and so on. The expressioncodes pertaining to the nature of differentmedia may affect the mode of narrationand the formal organization of the narrativeup to an extent, but basically the story-content remains the same because it obeysthe inherent narrative codes shared by allmedia. In this case, having taken intoconsideration the difference between theverbal narrative discourse of the novel andthe audiovisual mode of narrativepresentation *in film, I will attempt toexplore their commonly shared codes ofnarrative form and structure. Highlyabstract notions, such as narrativestructure, focalization, retrospective, andreiterative narrative strategies, etc., will beeasily comprehensible because they will bepresented visually through film excerptson video, each video clip illustrating anabstract idea.

A narrative then, in the form of afilm adapted from a novel, can be anexcellent case study for explaining andillustrating aspects of the theory ofnarrative fiction. In the last two years Ihave been using Guy Hamilton's "EvilUnder the Sun," a detective story film,based on Agatha Christie's classic of thesame title, for this purpose in myIntroduction to Fiction course. It is acourse addressed to freshmen with the aimto introduce them to basic elements of thetheory of narrative fiction. The reasonwhy a detective story is chosen from allpossible genres, is because the detectivestory is an archetypal form for allnarrative, as it will be demonstrated later.But first a few words on the nature ofnarrative seem to be in order here.

Narratologists posit three terms forthe textual analysis of narratives: Story,Text, and its Narration. Story andNarration are conceived in abstract terms,while Text is the only concrete entityavailable to the reader. Text is what weactually experience, while reading orviewing. "In it [the text], the events donot necessarily appear in chronologicalorder, the characteristics of the participantsare dispersed throughout, and all the items

6

Video in the Classroom 161

of narrative content are filtered throughsome prism or perspective (focalizer)"(Rimmon-Kenan, 1983, p. 3).Reconstructing the narrated events in theirnatural chronological order occurs at thestage of analysis, after reading the text,and it is an exercise in abstraction. This isso because the reader reconstructs thenarrative experience in his or her mind.Also, the act of narrating and the role ofthe narrator are abstract concepts; narratorsand narratees are theoretical constructsemployed to distinguish them from the realauthor or reader. The notions narratorsand narratees are deciphered by readingindexical signs of their presence scatteredthrough out the narrative. Thus, from whatis inscribed in the text, we are able toappreciate authofial voice and attitude bothtowards the narrated events as well astoward the reader. By employing a filmnarrative as a case study, we takeadvantage of the concreteness andimmediacy of cinematic image, as well asthe versatility of video use, to render theabove mentioned theoretical abstractnotions more tangible and understandable.

In practice, the method of videoapplication to the teaching of coretheoretical issues is the following: A singlesession is devoted to the viewing of theentire film without any interruptions, so asnot to spoil the pleasure of the firstreading. Then in the next session, ananalysis of the film's structure isattempted, introducing certain aspects oftheory, such as plot structure and design,narrative strategies and modes ofnarration, the role of the narrator, andtextual relationships. Specially selectedexcerpts from the film text are shown toillustrate abstract theoretical concepts intheir complex interrelationships.

Analyzing the Film Text

The Nature of the Text and TextualRelationships

A good starting point is the complexrelation between text and reader, which iscentral to the theory of narrative fiction.Rimmon-Kenan (1983) notes that this

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relationship derives from the paradoxicalnature of the text itself:

There is one end every tcxt mustachieve: it must make certain that itwill be read; its very existence, as itwere, depends on it. Interestingly,the text is caught here in a doublebind. On the one hand, in order tobe read it must make itselfunderstood, it must enhanceintelligibility by anchoring itself incodes, frames, Gestalten familiar tothe reader. But if the text isunderstood too quickly, it wouldthereby come to an untimely end.So, on the other hand, it is in thetext's interest to slow down theprocess of comprehension by thereader so as to ensure its ownsurvival. To this end, it willintroduce unfamiliar elements, itwill multiply difficulties of one kindor another, or simply delay thepresentation of expected, interestingitems. (p. 122)

Of course authors are well aware ofthe nature of the text, which progresses byemploying delaying devices. They are alsoaware of the reader's propensity to speedup reading in order to discover the secretof the narrative--all narratives do have asecret, as a rule.3 Therefore, during theactual act of writing, the author calculatesin advance the effect, of his specialtechniques to generate suspense andpromote pleasure in the reader. The secretof the narrative is well kept until itsrevelation time, the text does not yield itsmeaning too easily and therefore does notcome to an untimely end. In a sense, thisantagonistic relationship between authorand reader constitutes the game of fiction,with the text being a kind of sharedcommon territory, a play field where theirimaginations engage in a competitivestruggle.4

The detective story by naturc is thekind of narrative that best illustrates thisnotion of fictional game, since the secret ofthe narrative becomes literally the secret

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that the process of detection aims touncover. A detective story "purports tonarrate the course of an investigation, butthe 'open' story of the investigationgradually unravels the 'hidden' story ofthe crime. In other words, the initial crimeon wh:ch the tale of detection is predicatedis an end as well as a beginning. Itconcludes the 'hidden' story of the eventsleading up to itself at the same time itinitiates the story of the process ofdetection" (Porter, 1981, p. 29). Since thecrime in detective fiction becomes thetangible goal in the competitive strugglebetween author and reader, the game offiction in detective stories has a moreantagonistic character than in other genres.

"Evil Under the Sun" is a goodexample. It is a typical Agatha Christiestory telling the sudden and unexpectedmurder of a former theatre actress, ArlenaMarshall, on the beach of a resort islandon the Adriatic. Having interrogated allthe guests at the hotel and finding an alibifor each one of them, Hercule Poirot isnevertheless successful in eventuallyunravelling the identity of the murderer.In Guy Hamilton's film version of thestory this process of investigation isgraphically and vividly dramatized.

The film respects the ingenuity of thestructure, so characteristic of the AgathaChristie story, although there are someminor plot alterations. The balancebetween ratiocination and mystification, soartfully created by Agatha Christie in thenovel, is also maintained in the film,though the expressive means employed aredifferent. After the standard expositorysequence introducing the detective, thesetting, and the characters, and anadditional sequence of complication,stating the possible motives of practicallyall the characters who would want tomurder Arlena, there follows the scene ofthe crime and clues. As usual in formulaicstructures of this kind the story of thecrime remains secret. The viewer is notgiven a chance to witness the actualmurder, only the discovery of themurdered body. This will initiate theprocess of investigation that will maintain


the viewer's interest undiminished until theend. Most of the narrative is taken up bythe process of investigation. No matterhow hard we, as viewers, try to speed upahead of the narration and discover theculprit, that is, the murderer, we fail.

As a matter of fact, Poirot gives us aclue too many. This can be shown onvideo through the dialogue scene involvingDaphne Castle, the hotel proprietor, SirHorace Blatt, a business tycoon who hascommissioned Poirot to find his lostdiamond, and Hercule Poirot himself.When Poirot tells them that he is going toreveal the identity of the murderer afterbreakfast, both Daphne and Sir Horace aresurprised and thrilled:

"You mean you know?" they askhim eagerly. "Well, give us a few clues."And then Poirot gives them a whole list:"All right, I wish you to consider verycarefully: a bathing cap, a bath, a bottlethrown to the sea, a wrist watch, thediamond, the noon-day gun, the breath ofthe sea, and the height of the cliff. Fromthat you should be able to solve ityourselves."

But due to the fact that we areoverwhelmed by the multitude of clues andthe fact that they are given to us verbally,therefore, in abstract form, we canintensify the challenge of the mystery bymaking use of the versatility of ourteaching aid; we can carefully edit theparticular shots scattered in the body of thenarrative and assemble them together in avisual presentation. Thus we can have theconcrete details of all the incriminatingclues in a clip: A shot of the bathing capthat Linda is reminded to wear shows whatthe actual object looks like and, moreover,places it in the particular context of thestory. Similarly, some shots of the bathtaken by Christine to wash off the suntanlotion from her body establish it as aspecific event in the context of eliminatingincriminating evidence. The same can besaid about the bottle of sun tan lotion shethrows over the cliff. Thus, all of theseclues acquire an air of particularconcreteness and specificity: Linda's wrist

16

V ideo in the Classroom

watch as Christine sets it 20 minutesearlier, the false diamond as it drops fromArlena's hand in the grotto, the noon-daygun going off, Arlena's perfume calledBreath of the Sea, and the height of thecliff from which Christine allegedly wavedto Linda. By showing all these detailsvisually, we can make the puzzle of thecrime even more vivid and challenging.

In spite of the fact that Daphne andHorace, who act as surrogates for theviewer here, are given so many clues, theystill manage to find nothing. This isbecause, the author has planted variousclues and gives us many hints, that insteadof helping, confuse us more and retard theresolution process. According to RolandBarthes (1974), some of these clues aresnares, otherwise called red herrings,because they offer outright falseinformation. Others are half truths, partialanswers, suspended answers, and so on.5Again, we can depend on the flexibility ofvideo editing capacity to isolate some ofthese instances and render them moreconcrete visnally: In most of these caseswe can not help noticing the inquisitiveprobing of the camera through steadypans, tilts and zoom-ins, that guide ourattention to inexplicable pieces of actionand behavior in some of the characters.For example, why is Christine peeringfrom the balcony of Linda's room at Lindagoing up the steps? Then what is Mr.Gardner looking at so intensely whenfollowing Christine and Linda with hiseyes? And whose hand is it behind atree's branches revealing the two womenreceding in the garden? What is it off thefield of view that causes Daphne'ssurprised expression? What does the half-eaten carcass of a dead rabbit, consumedby worms, have to do with the story inquestion? These narrative incidents haveabsolutely nothing to do with the storyoffering the viewer clues (red herrings)that mislead the viewer and impede theprogress of the narrative towardresolution.

Further, in a slow zoom-in we arepresented a view of the hotel, and as the

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camera zeroes in on Kenneth's room wesee his troubled or puzzled face throughthe curtains looking over the bay. The nextshot is that of Arlena sunning herself at thebeach alone, though we fail to see theconnection. There are so many cluesscattered throughout the sequence whichconfuse the issue and make matters morecomplicated, leading us astray. A visualpresentation of these clues in this mannermakes them more telling than a simpleverbal description.

Backward Construction of Plot

The role of the detective in tales ofratiocination or detection parallels the roleof the reader in encountering a narrative.Like the ideal reader, "the detective," asPorter (1981) remarks, "encounters effectswithout apparent causes, events in ajumbled chronological order, significantclues hidden among the insignificant. Andhis role is to reestablish sequence andcausality" (p. 30). Peter Ustinov'sincarnation of the notorious Hercule Poirottype is impeccable. As in the novel, thecharacter of the idiosyncratic andwhimsical Belgian super-detective, withthe beady eyes and the curly moustache, isfaithfully represented in the film. He ispatterned after the traditional image of theartist-hero, initiated by Poe, with colossalratiocinative powers and a keen eye fordetails, no matter how trivial orinsignificant. In the film's narration, thecamera identifies with Poirot's point ofview most of the time, thus making thedetective a surrogate for the viewer. Andyet, despite the fact that we experiencealmost all events exactly as Poirotperceives them, we are surprised to findout that, as viewers, the solution to thecrime escapes our intellect. On thecontrary, Poirot, after some mysteriouscalculations and considerable reflection,announces he has discovered the identityof the murderer and is ready to explainhow the victim was murdered. But wcwill return to the question of focalizationor point-of-view immediately after weconsider the plot of the narrative and themanner of its construction.

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Detective fiction is characterized by apeculiar structure in which the plot is ofprimary importance. As mentioned above,the detective story actually consists of twostories, the one embedded in the other.One, the story of the crime, is known onlyto the criminal and the author. Both havestrong reasons to keep it secret. The otheris the story of investigation, the story weread. Detective fiction, then, is anarchetypal genre exemplifying adisplacement of chronological time. AsPorter points out, "detective fiction ispreoccupied with the closing of the logico-temporal gap that separates the present ofthe discovery of crime from the past thatprepared it" (p. 29). Paradoxically, it is agenre that moves forward in order to moveback. The primacy of the plot in detectivefiction is clear since so much in the genredepends on the intricacies of the plot. Thispoint was stressed by Edgar Allan Poe, theinventor of the detective tale, in his theoryof artistic composition: "Nothing is moreclear than that every plot must beelaborated by its dénouement beforeanything is attempted with the pea. It isonly with the denouement constantly inview that we can give the plot theindispensable air of consequence, orcausation, by making the incidents, andespecially the tone at all points, tend to thedevelopment of the intention" (Davidson,1956, p. 453). We can demonstrate thatthe backward construction of narrative, inconformity to Poe's theory of composi-tion, is standard practice in det xtivefiction and neither Agatha Christie's novelnor Guy Hamilton's movie is anexception.

Having the climactic moment of theunmasking of the murderer and the finalexplanations of the denouementat theendas the starting point, we can retrace,the various stages of plot development bymoving backwards. Here i s adiagrammatic account of the film's plotmoving backwards:

Thc ultimate moment of revelationof the crimc: The actual scene of themurder followed by minor explanations inthe denouement. The criminals arc


eventually handed to the authorities.

Hercule Poirot explaining hisbrilliant theory of how the murder wascommitted. Unmasking of the murderers(Patrick Redfern, the actual culprit, andChristine Redfern, his accomplice).

Poirot announces he has come tothe solution of the crime and he is going toreveal everything after breakfast.

Poirot makes some timemeasurements with his stop-watch, testinga hypothesis of which we have no idea.

T h e investigation itself:Practically all the hotel guests are ques-tioned and all prove to have a "cast-ironalibi." Note that action is shown from thepoint of view of the suspect, denoting adifferent version of the story in each case.

The moment of the crime,preceded by some clues. The actualmurder is not shown, just the discovery ofthe victim's body. Poirot is asked toinvestigate.

Complication: Setting the possiblemotives for each character. Accompaniedby foreshadowing of the impending crime.

Exposition: Introduction of thedetective, the characters and the possiblerelationships between them, and thesetting. Heightening expectations in theviewer.

As we move backwards, the author'sstrategy in constructing the narrativebecomes obvious. The climactic momentof revelation is what the author hasconstantly in mind, and every part of thenarrative is constructed step by step, inorder to move the plot toward the ultimatemoment of resolution. But at the sametime, these passages that add to themovement towards closure also delay thefinal moment of resolution, simplybecause they take time to process. The plotin detective stories is not important initself, but for the effects it has on thereader's expectations. Through the

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Video in the Classroom

intricacies of plot, the author creates a"composition that plays with the reader'ssensibilities, arousing morbid curiosity,and having toyed with it for an appropriatelength of time, by satisfying it in a totallyunexpected way" (Porter, 1991, p. 27).The more the desired resolution is keptsuspended, the more the reader's appetiteis heightened and interest in the story ismaintained undiminished.

Coming to the practical task ofpresenting the backward construction ofthe plot in the classroom, there are twopossibilities depending on the timeavailable. If time is limited, we can makeuse of the still function capacity of thevideo equipment to isolate the pertinentimages from each section of the plot andpresent them as freeze frames. Theirduration can be timed to coincide with thetime it will take the instructor to describeverbally each stage of the plot. Thistechnique presupposes that our videoequipment will have a perfectly clear imageat the still mode. If there is more timeavailable, we may choose to select shortone- or two-minute clips from eachscction, present them piece-by-piece,stopping the action for the appropriatecommentary in each case. Thus thebackward construction of the plot will bemore vividly and adequately presented.

The superiority of video over otherteaching aids, such as still photographs,slides, drawings, or diagrams on OHP,becomes apparent. With video clips wecan present pieces of action intact,preserving their continuity, revealingnarrative events in motion After all cinemais the art of moving pictures, constructedin terms of time and space, two aspectsthat can be amply and fully presentedsolely through the use of video.

Aspects of Narration

This capacity of the mediumbecomes more evident in explainingaspects of narration, for examplefocalization and multiple points of view,flashback, retrospective narration, and therole of the narratingagent. In film theory,

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the notion of the narrating agent is quiteproblematic. Entering the long debateabout the status of the narrator in cinemawould be beyond the scope of this paperand would only confuse the issue. Sufficeit to say that we have to theorize theexistence of a narrating agent in film, whoundertakes the telling of the narrative. Asfar as film narrating techniques areconcerned, the standard mode of filmdiscourse is a combination of objective andsubjective point of view shots, especiallywhen the director's objective is to enhanceaudience participation in the film eventsnarrated.

In this film, we might say thatobjective point of view shots predominate,but there are several cases throughout thenarrative, that the camera adopts Poirot'spoint of view, rendering him the focalizerand facilitating identification with theviewer. For example, early in the story,when Poirot is enjoying his favorite icccream in a hotel lounge, he is made privyto something interesting. As he glancesidly opposite him, he notices a handsomeman, who is later proven to be none otherthan Patrick Redfern, sending his wife onan errant in order to be alone with amysterious lady. From Poirot's point ofview only her hand is seen, adorned by agold bracelet, caressing Patrick's face.Along with Poirot, we infer that Patrickhas an illicit affair with another woman.Later, at Daphne Castle's hotel lounge,right on the first night when all the guestsgather for drinks, Poirot notices that thesame golden bracelet, shown now onclose-up, belongs to Arlena Marshall. Atthis point, a camera shot adopting Poirot'spoint of view, stresses the fact that thedetective makes a discovery. Moreover,the next shot takes us from Poirot's beadyeyes to a close-up of Patrick's face, so thatthe association of the illicit relationshipbetween Patrick and Arlena is made clearboth to Poirot and the viewer.

Focalization shifts occur mostly intwo long sequences: (a) Whcn Poirotinterrogates the suspects and (b) when hcpresents his own theory of how thcmurder was committed. In the first case,

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we have a visual account of the events asseen from the point of view of eachsuspect in his or her version of the story.Thus we end up having multiplestorytellers (narrators) and multiple agentsof perception (focalizers), through whosepoints of view we get different approachesto the search for truth. These little pocketsof narrative content become instances ofwhat narratologists call analepses, or asmore commonly known, flashbacks.6Video is the appropriate means to showthese time displacements in the narrativeevoked by flashbacks. For example, thesame narrative material presented from adifferent point of view gives a totallydifferent version of the story: The visualpresentation of Christine's action leavingGull Cove to return to the hotel for a gameof tennis agrees with the account she givesverbally during her interrogation byPoirot. A slightly different visualpresentation of the same events is givenduring Linda's narration of the story.Finally, a totally different presentationoccurs later when Poirot gives his ownaccount of what actually happened. Thedifferences can be immediately registeredand be more easily appreciated whenshown by video clips.

When the same piece of narrative(given through these flashbacks, each by adifferent focalizer) is told more than once,we have the phenomenon designated bynarratologists as reiterative narrative. Inother words, the narration shifts back to aposterior point of narrated time and retellsthe same event. This may be spoken byanother agent, who temporarily is investedwith the role of a narrator, and can eitherbe witnessed through his or her eyes, orseen through the eyes of someone else. Itis a very complicated concept to explainverbally, therefore, by actually presentingit on video, we manage to make it moreeasily comprehensible. Instances ofliterative narrative are many: Thediscovery of Arlena's body, for instance,is shown in the film's diegesis for the firsttimc, when Patrick accompanied by Mrs.Gardner, who serves as a witness, findsher dead on the beach. Both the


focalization and the narration are objective,that is, from the point of view of a thirdparty, the film's narrating agent. Later,however, when Poirot develops his theoryand refers to this episode, the same sceneis presented, this time shot from differentangles to designate the point of view ofMrs. Gardner. Now, the view of Arlena'sbody lying in the sun as experienced fromMrs. Gardner's point of view in the boat istotally different. Mrs. Gardner was notclose enough to distinguish whether thiswas actually Arlena's body, orChristine's, who, according to Poirot, wasposing as Arlena in order to establish analibi for her husband, Patrick, the realmurderer. By actually presenting thespatio-temporal dimensions of the narratedevents, the argument made verbally byPoirot in the hotel lounge acquires adistinct visual concreteness and lucidity.

Additionally, the instructor has alsothe chance to illustrate visually the abstractconcepts of retrospective (flashback) andreiterative (repetitive) narrative modes, aswell as the theoretical notions of narrator,narratee, and narration, which are standardterms in narratology. The best examplesto illustrate these ideas can be found in theclimactic sequence where Poirot revealsthe identity of the criminals. All the guestsare kindly asked to gather in the loungeand comfortably seat themselves so thatPoirot can start telling the real story of themurder of Arlena Marshall. The scenetherefore is set in time present with Poirotnarrating the events of the story, thusassuming the role of the narrator, and theguests, listening to the story, assuming therole of narratees. However, as the eventsof the story of the crime prescnted byPoirot belong to the past, the diegesis inthe present time is interrupted by a seriesof visual passages, depicting events intime past, while Poirot continuesdelivering his theory in voice over. Inother words, the visuals presenting eventsin the past support the aural argument ofPoirot, acting as narrator, in thc present.For example, when Poirot startsdeveloping his theory, he begins by sayingthat all thc suspects seemed to have analibi, but actually one of them was lying:

1 3


"It was you,"--he pauses momentarily,then turns suddenly to confront Christine,"Madamme Redfern!" Several insert shotsof various guests in the lounge are addedhere to register the snrprise on their faces.Then a shot of Christine follows defendingherself while on the audio band we havethe following dialogue: Christine: "Me,but I didn't lie to you, I swear it," Poirot:"Oh yes you did Madamme. en Iasked you at what time you left Gull Coveyesterday, you said it was 12 o'clock.You knew this you said, because--thescene is interrupted here with a visualaccount of this action set in the past,showing Christine leaving Gull Cove andwalking among the trees in the pathleading to Ladder Bay, where the crimewas committed. Meanwhile, Poirot'snarration continues in voiceover: "Youheard that awful gun go off" (sound ofcannon heard in voiceover too), "whenyou were staying on top of the cliff"--shotof Christine on top of a cliff--"waving atLinda who was swimming in the waterbelow." End of flashback, the narrationreturns to time present and the camerafocuses on Poirot as he resumes hisargument: "But Mr. Brewster was in thebay at the same time, it is very curious thatyou did not mention him. ...And yet hemade no mention of you standing over thecliff. Why not?" Poirot now looming overChristine:. "The answer is very simple."Cut to the empty cliff: "You were notthere!" This scene in which visualpresentation shifts freely from the lounge(time present) to events in the past (inflashbacks) is an illustration of the conceptof retrospective narration.

Besides, in order to support hisargument, Poirot will refer himself toevents that had happened prior to the timeof the crime, which was establishedbetween 11:30 and 12:30 of the secondday on the island. For instance, whenChristine denies that she descended theladder at Ladder Bay, where Arlena wassunning herself--as Poirot insists, shebrings up the point of her suffering fromvertigo. She would not have been able toclimb down the ladder, she says, becauseshe was afraid of heights. The flashback

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showing Ladder Bay ends with a cut to thelounge, with Christine speaking: "But Icouldn't have climbed down the ladder, Isuffer from vertigo! You know that." Cutto Poirot: "I only know that because youtook good care to stage an incidentshowing me that you suffer from vertigo.Immediately the narration repeats the samescene shown quite early in the narrativewhere Christine had leaned againstPoirot's shoulder, having a stroke ofacrophobia at the edge of the terrace. Thisis an instance of reiterative narrative whenthe narration returns to repeat the samescene in a different context. DuringPoirot's narration of the story of the crimethere are several such cases of repetitive orreiterative passages.

Conclusions

Video can be an excellent means toteach aspects of narrative theory. Throughthe presentation of elements of narratologyit was pointed out that certain ideas aremore abstract, just because they aretheoretical, ideas pertaining to Story andNarration. But due to the capacity ofvideo to make elusive and abstract ideasaccessible and concrete, the difficult taskof teaching literary concepts becomeseasier and pleasurable. Moreover, even inthe case of dealing with the rather concreteitems of the Text, such as any of theparticular details describing characters,events, and setting, video is equallyhelpful in rendering them more concreteand specific. These conclusions are drawnfrom practical experience in teachingelements of narratology during the last fiveyears. There has been a distinct differencein student comprehension of literary andtheoretical concepts between the first threeyears, when no video was used in thiscourse, and the last two years, when filmwas introduced as a teaching aid.Although no formal attempt was made tomeasure the degree of the students'comprehension of the literary conceptstaught in the course, personal observationof class discussions and evaluation ofexamination papers revealed that thcstudents did in fact benefit from thesesimultaneous explorations in literary and

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cinematic concepts through the use ofvideo.

Footnotes

I A typical sample. of this kind ofresearch in the U. K. is indicated by sucharticle titles as: Video and EnglishLanguage Teaching in Britain, pp. 1-17;The Potential and Limitations of Video,pp. 17-29; 101 Ways to Use Video, pp.43-57; Video Applications in EnglishLanguage Teaching, pp. 69-83. In JohnMcGovern (Ed.), (1983), VideoApplications in English LanguageTeaching, ELT Documents Series,Pergamon Press in Association with TheBritish Council.

2 For example, Baird R. Shuman &Denny Wolfe (1990), Teaching EnglishThrough the Arts: Theory and Researchinto Practice. The National Council ofTeachers of English, Urbana IL. As statedin the Abstract, this book discussesteaching English through the arts...andintends "to help students make stimulatingconnections between English and some ofthe arts they know best--popular music,film, photography, design, drawing andpainting, and drama. Following a briefdiscussion of the theoretical and research-based support for their ideas, the bookpresents 15 activities that focus onlanguage, nine that focus on literature, andfive that focus on writing."

3 Pierre Macherey (1978) observesthat the movement of the novel is double:"the mystery must be concealed before it isrevealed. Until that crisis the secret mustpress upon the mind or the heart of thehero, and the entire elaboration of thenarrative consists in the description and theorganization of this delay" (p. 29).

4 May or Game theory has beenevoked by a number of critics to explainthe playful and game-like character offiction. See Peter Hutchinson (1983),Games Authors Play, Methucn; R.Detweiler (1976), "Games and Play inModem American Fiction," Contemporary


Literature, 17, 1, pp. 44-62; E. Bruss(1977), The Game of Literature and SomeLiterary Games, New Literary History, 9,pp. 153-72; for an overview of Play andGame Theory in relation to narrative and adefinition of fictional game, see M.Kokonis (1991), Metafictional Games:The Play Element in Cinema and theNovel, Ph.D. Dissertation, AristotleUniversity.

5 In his book SIZ, Barthes(1974/1970) notes five types of clues, ofdifferent degrees of significance andrelativity to the story, planted in variousparts of the narrative to enhance theenigma or mystery of the crime. They arepart of the hermeneutic code of thenarrative and their function is to suspendthe advance towards resolution anddeliberately mislead and puzzle the reader(pp. 75-76).

6 Gerard Genette (1980) employsspecific terms for the categories ofnarrative, such as the flashback or theflash forward: analepsis and prolepsis.They are inherent codes of narrative dis-course and apply to all narratives (p. 40).Also, for the notions of retrospective andrepetitive modes in a narrative see thechapters on Order, Duration, andFrequency (pp. 33-160).

References

Barthes, R. (1974). SIZ. (R. Miller,Trans.) New York: Hill & Wang.(Original work published 1970).

Brabourne, J., & Goodwin, R.(Producers), & Hamilton, G.(Director). (1982). Evil Under theSun. [Film].

Bruss, E. (1977). The game of literatureand some literary games. New LiteraryHistory, 9, 153-72.

Davidson, E. H. (Ed.). (1956). Selectedwritings of Edgar Allan Poe. Boston,MA: Houghton Mifflin.

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Detweiler, R. (1976). Games and play inmodern American fiction. Con-temporary Literature, 17(1), 44-62.

Fehlman, R. H. (1987). Quoting films inEnglish class. English Journal, 76(5),8487.

Genette, G. (1980). Narrative discourse.Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.(Original work published 1972).

Heibling, S. (1985). The Doll aker: Across-media approach. xercise-

xchan e, 31(1), 8-13.

Hutchinson, P. (1983). Ga es authorslay. London: Methuen.

Jehle, D. M. (January 1991). Medievalromances: Perceval to Monty Python.Florida: ERIC, Resources inEducation.

Kear, L. (October 1988). Teaching filmstudies: The viewer responseapproach. Georgia: ERIC, Resourcesin Education.

Keller, R. D. (1985, October). Moviesand literary elements. Paper presentedat the annual meeting of the IdahoCouncil of the International ReadingAssociation, Rexbourg, ID.

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Kokonis, M. (1991). Metafictionalgames: The play element in cinema andthe novel. Unpublished doctoraldissertation, Aristotle University,Thessaloniki, Greece.

Lancien, T. (1988). Litterature et cinema:de la page a I' ecran (Literature andfilm: From page to screen). Francais-dans-le Monde, 218, 63-66.

Macherey, P. (1978). A theory of literaryproduction. (Geoffrey Wall, Trans.)London: Routledge & Keagan.(Original work published 1966).

McGovern, J. (Ed.). (1983). Vi eoa lications in n lish Ian ua eteachin . ELT Documents Series.London: Pergamon Press (inassociation with The British Council).

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Porter, D. (1981). The pursuit of crime:Art and ideology in detective fiction.New Haven: Yale University Press.

Rimmon-Kenan, S. (1983). Narrativefiction: Contemporary poetics.London: Methuen.

Shuman, B. R., & Wolfe, D. (1990).Teaching English through the arts:Theory and research into practice.Urbana, IL: The National Council ofTeachers of English.

A RHETORICAL APPROACH TO NON-DISCURSIVEMESSAGES

IN INFORMATION CAMPAIGNS

byKathleen Reid

Public information campaigns haveinformed and mobilized the Americanpublic for more than two centuries. Earlyefforts were developed primarily bystrong, independent individuals whopersuaded their followers to particularactions, and by the nineteenth century,these individuals and their followers haddeveloped significant strategies, includinggrass-roots organizing, legislativetestimony, use of mass communication,and confrontation. Priority 'topics at thattime centered upon reform, such as theabolition movement, women's suffrage,and temperance campaigns. Thepopularity of contemporary Americanpublic information campaigns hascontinued to thrive throughout thiscentury, but with a dominant shift towardthe role of the mass media in theinformation dissemination process. Mostrecently, publictommunication campaignshave sought to inform, persuade, ormotivate large audiences, usually fornoncommercial benefits, with a specifiedtime frame, by organized communicationefforts that involve extensive use of themass media complemented byinterpersonal communication (Rogers &Storey, 1987).

As this suggests, public informationcampaigns serve a primary role incontemporary American society to promotemore active citizen involvement in varyingdimensions of society. Specifically, whenthe U.S. government seeks to influence itscitizens, it uses the mass media to developsystematic social change. As such,information campaigns become forms "ofsocial intervention prompted by adetermination that some situationrepresents a social problem meriting socialaction" (Salmon, 1989, p. 20). Today,these campaigns address such diverse

issues as health, traffic safety,environmental concerns, and crimeprevention.

Dissemination of pertinent campaigninformation is most often through publicservice advertisements (PSAs).Sponsorship of most PSAs emanate fromnot-for-profit or governmentalorganizations. They receive gratisplacement in both the broadcast and printmedia. Because of this free mediaplacement, most do not receive the samestatus in placement as do regular paidadvertisements or commercials. In fact,more appear only as space or time permitwith a recently growing number ofexceptions (ABC, 1986; Hanneman,Mc Ewen, & Coyne, 1973). O'Keefe andReid (1990) found that the public is fairlyattentive to PSAs, especially those overtelevision and, for the most part, theaudience have favorable reactions to them.

Much of the developments of theserecent campaign efforts have been throughthe support and direction of social science.The primary contributions of the socialscientists have been in grounding thecampaigns in theory, as well as inplanning, conducting, and evaluating theseeffirts (Paisley, 1989). As this suggests,much of the evaluation effort of publiccampaigns has been upon audienceresponse; however, as works such as thatof Grunig and Grunig (1990) and Salmon(1989) indicate, even the strongest socialscience efforts regarding campaignstrategies and development remain at bestpart art, part science. In light of this, arecent move in evaluations of thecampaigns has been to recognize a needfor a careful examination not only of theaudience, but also the content of both theverbal and visual messages found within

Information Campaigns

information campaigns.

In this paper, the Mc Gruff "Take aBite Out of Crime" public informationcampaign will be examined to providestudents and practitioners who developsuch campaigns with a methodology forassessing the content of the visualmessages they develop for their varyingpublics. Secondly, this paper seeks todemonstrate what meaning and patternscan be derived from this specificcampaign. As Dondis (1974)acknowledges, viewers attempt to organizevisual materials. They seek to establishvisual patterns that result inintersubjectivity between the creator andreceiver of the message. The strength ofthe organization of the visual elements willdetermine the clarity of the messages.

A Rhetorical Perspective

One otentially useful ers ective foranalyzing the meaning and patterns behinda form of visual communication is derivedfrom rhetoric. Historically, rhetoric hasbeen confined to the study of discursivecommunication, but, recently, rhetoricalcriticism has been expanded to includenon-discursive elements. These non-discursive forms of communication aredeemed parallel to discourse in that theyengage our attention, transmit information,and evoke responses from the audience inways similar to discourse. Here the non-discursive is defined as communicationthrough visual forms such as videography,film, photography, and painting.

That such human activity is withinthe purview of rhetorical criticism wassuggested by the Committee on theAdvancement and Refinement ofRhetorical Criticism (Sharf, 1979), whichreported that the rhetorical critic "studieshis subject in terms of its suasory potentialor persuasive effect. So idcntified,rhetorical criticism may be applied to anyhuman act, process, product, or artifact"(Sharf 1979, p. 21). Karlyn KohrsCampbell (1974) cchocd this sentiment byasserting that "if criticism is to fulfill itsfunction, the rhetorical critic must

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proclaim: Nothing that is humansymbolization is alien to me" (p. 14).

Using the simplest definition, Fossand Radich (1980) indicate that visualcommunication is within the scope ofrhetoric because it is a "consciousproduction to evoke a response" (p. 47).Burke (1964) adds credence to this viewby noting that when visual communicationcaptures our attention, we are as drawnand involved in the communicativerelationship as that which "prevailsbetween a pitchman and a prospectivecustomer" (p. 106).

This perspective that parallels thediscursive and non-discursive is one thathistorically can be found with the study ofvisual arts. Through the years, scholarssuch as Egbert (1944) in studies ofaesthetics and art history have emphasizedthat visual communication must beunderstood in rhetorical terms. Gombrich(1960) takes this a step further by notingthat good articulation is essential for goodcommunication no matter the form of therhetorical process: "All humancommunication is through symbols,through the medium of a language [heincludes the visual arts in his notion oflanguage] and the more articulate thatlanguage the greater the chance for themessage to get through" (p. 385).

These and other theorists hold thatvisual communicators use their techniquesas a medium of rhetoric for expressingideas and experience just as verbal rhetoricfunctions to express the experiences of thespeaker (e.g., Arnheim, 1971; Kleinbauer,1971).

Further evidence for the treatment ofvisual forms as parallel to verbal oncs canbe found in schools such as the PragueStructuralists that reinforce thephenomenological position that both verbaland visual rhetoric function as socialartifacts in the communication process.This work examines how ihe relationshipbetween creator of an artifact and thcinterpreter function to form society. Thiswork, especially that of Lotman (1976)

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and Mukarovsky (1977), presents bothverbal and visual communication as part ofthe communication process that constitutesour entire social system (Bailey, Matejka,& Steiner, 1980; Lotman 1976; Lucid,1944; Morawsky, 1974; Mukarovsky,1977).

Brief Summary of McGruffCampaign

The McGruff "Take a Bite Out ofCrime" campaign was conceived in 1979.It has been active with new PSAsdeveloped for each of its fifteen phases.Each phase emphasized specific aspects ofcrime and violence prevention for varyingconstituencies of the American public.From its inception, the overall campaignestablished three purposes: (a) To educatethe public, (b) to convince citizens thatthey can help reduce crime, and (c) to offerclear advice to take direct action for crimeprevention. These purposes were basedon the assumption and belief that crimeprevention can increase substantially thequality of life for everyone. Furthermore,the basic premise of the campaign stressedthat if crime prevention were to work, itmust originate within communities and besparked and supported by educational andgovernmental systems.

As a Tesult of this philosophy, thecrime prevention campaign was centeredaround the cartoon figure, McGruff, thedetective dog who "takes a bite out ofcrime." McGruff functioned as a teacherwho did not solve crime but taught peoplehow to help themselves. Most often, hewas perceived to be totally trustworthy,never intimidating. He created intenseloyalty and believability, especially amongchildren. As a result of audience targetingand consistent dissemination, thecampaign has been deemed highlysuccessful. In the process, McGruff, thecentral figurc of most of the PSAs, hasbecome one of thc most recognized andtrusted public symbols of the 1980s.

The high recognition of the McGrufffigure raises the question of what kinds ofimages and themes are presented in the

PSAs to make the Crime Dog soapparently symbolic and identifiable. Anexamination of the content of the PSAs,both verbal and visual, will document thethemes, messages, and appeals that havebeen conveyed by the campaign since itsinception. This analysis will reveal thecontent that audiences have been exposedto, and how the PSAs establish for theaudience a common viewpoint or worldview that accounts for the role of theindividual and community in the fightagainst crime. The extent that identificationand common world view are establishedbetween the cartoon character and theaudience determines the success of thesymbolic functions of McGruff.

Methodology

The formal term for the method usedhere is cluster analysis (Burke, 1954,1957). This is a qualitative methodinvolving a structural analysis of thediscursive and non-discursive elements ofthe PSAs. Discursive elementsincorporate such elements as layoutdesign, sound effects, tone of voice, andvisual elements. Visual elements includedesign components such as light, color,form, and setting.

Cluster a-alysis notes that one key tosystematizing le varying elements in thisPSAs lies in a examination of whatelements are presented and juxtaposcdagainst one another. This requires anexamination of the basic structure of eachand what kind of meaning is developed bythe viewer. These varying elements areassessed simultaneously. To establishmeaning, cluster analysis examines thestructure of the PSAs to determine whatelements are associated with what otherelements. Cluster analysis asks, "Whatfollows what?" and is concerned with theexamination of elements that are linkedtogether by the producers of these PSAs.Cluster analysis establishes thc key ideasfound in the PSAs and indicatcs the basic,clearly defined symbols along with theconnotative meanings of these symbols asthey are established within theannouncements themselves.

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Cluster analysis consists of threesteps. The first is the selection of keyterms, or the important element used in thePSA. The key terms are selected becauseof their high frequency and/or highintensity of use. Frequency refers to howoften the term is repeated, and intensityrefers to how significant the term appearsto be in the announcement. Key terms inthese PSAs refer to the words and to thedesign elements, such as color, form,value, line, and music. The second step isto identify what clusters around, or whatideas are associated with, each key termeach time it appears in a PSA. This is adescription of what elements are adjacenlto or in close radius to each key term. Thethird step is the interpretation of theclusters. In this step, each cluster isanalyzed to determine what messages areincluded in the PSA. The interpretationsof each clustei then are examined as awhole to determine an overallinterpretation of the PSA or group ofPSAs being examined.

Mc Gruff Campaign Analysis

Since Mc Gruff's inception in 1980,PSAs have been developed that focus onvarying themes. Three typical onesinclude (a) home security/neighborhoodwatch, (b) crime prevention for a safercommunity, and (c) children's drug abuseprevention. Each theme area includes aspecific grouping of PSAs which will bediscussed in turn below.

"Home Security/NeighborhoodWatch." Clusters and Interpretation

The home security/neighborhoodwatch PSAs were distributed in 1980-81as the first of the McGruff series. Thesemessages appeared on television andradio, and in print in newspapers andmagazines, and on billboards, transitcards, and posters. The messages wereaimed at adults. The purpose of the adswas to introduce and to encourage theAmerican population to assumeresponsibility for protecting their homes,and to join with neighbors in doing so.There primary clusters are revealed in

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these ads: real-life settings and situations,clear action, and McGruff the Crime Dog.

Real-Life Settings andSituations. The real-life settings containvisuals that emphasize the ordinary aspectsof the individual's life. The rooms orneighborhood streets that are shown arepleasant and orderly. Even the ordinarymoving van used by the criminals in the"Gilstraps" (1981) ad implies how anordinary setting can unsuspectinglycontain elements of crime. In the first"Stop a Crime" (1980) announcements,the darkness of the traditional sitting roomin the home of an average middle-classcitizen, is turned, literally as well assymbolically, to light with the arrival ofMcGruff the Crime Dog. In "Mimi Marth"(1981), suspicious actions occur in aneveryday street and are halted by a typicalelderly woman who has been trained tocall the police when she observesunsavory behavior.

Action. Crime-prevention action,such as this simple act presented in the"Mimi Marth" (1981) PSA, is a kcyelement in the home security/neighborhoodwatch series. The characteristics thatcluster around the actions in these publicannouncements tend to be primarily basic,everyday activities, which can be followedby any individual'. The print ad version of"Mimi Marth" (1981) emphasizes this. It isa portrait of an average-looking elderlywoman phoning for help, a simple actpreventing a major crime. The "Gilstraps"call the police in the televised PSA; again,a simple action to save their neighbor'shome from being robbed. The printversion of this ad does not so clearlyindicate this. Only a small boy in themiddle-ground of the photographintervenes in the burglary. He seems toosmall to assume this responsibility alone.In contrast, simple use of the telephone inthe video version empowers thc family sothat they are not acting alone but with abroader support system.

As these examples suggest, nospecial courage, skill, or feat is required toperform the actions advocated in this series

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of ads. These are not spectacular behaviorsbut are simple actions contained ineveryday life, such as turning on lights,locking doors, using the telephone. And itis ordinary people who are performingthese routine tasks.

Mc Gruff. The items and ideas thatcluster around Mc Gruff the Crime Doginclude his dissemination of informationand community concern, along with histrench coat and security. Also included arehis presentation of positive, simpledirections and his emphasis uponindividual responsibility for the preventionof crime. This cartoon figure is thedetective who "takes a bite out of crime," abrief, but highly descriptive summary ofthe agenda for this campaign. His cleardirectives present him as a teacher, not somuch as a trench-coated sleuth anddetective who is out to solve a specificcrime. In both the print and video ads,Mc Gruff's trench-coated image makes hima trusted investigator with solutions toproblems about crime. His gentle featuresand his gravelly voice make him anauthority to be trusted and believed; he isnot intimidating, visually or verbally.

The clusters that appear in these adsstress the significance of individual actionin everyday circumstances and settings.This suggests that the individual can play apowerful role in the prevention of crime inhis or her life, home, and community.Strength to the individual is impartedthrough his or her actions which are basedupon the recommendations of the crime-prevention expert, Mc Gruff.

"Crime Prevention for a SaferCommunity." Clusters andInterpretation

The Crime Prevention for a SaferCommunity PSAs were distributedthroughout the ten years of the Mc Gruffcampaign, and constitute the mostpervasive of the campaign themes. Theyappeared in print as early as 1981 and firstappeared on television and radio in 1982.New messages carrying this theme wereintroduced each year from 1986 to 1991.

The purpose was to teach individuals toprotect not just their homes, but innocentindividuals when away from their homes.They also advocated keeping streets free ofcrime, protection at the work sites,prevention of vandaligm and arson. All dfthese stressed the role of crime preventionin varying dimensions of community life.The PSAs were aimed predominantly atthe adult audience.

Like the previous theme, the primaryclusters of these ads were the settings,clear action, and McGruff the Crime Dog.In addition, these ads emphasized varyingtypes of criminals and the citizens,characterized by both empowerment andvulnerability.

Setting. Once again, many of thesettings of the PSAs are ordinary everydayelements. For example, the "FredMcGillicudy" print ad shows an easychair, dog, pipe, mounted fish, rug,slippers, and newspaper. These householditems are ordinary elements of everydaylife in America, and they represent thesafety and security of the traditional home.These are transferred visually to theexternal environment by the placement ofthese items literally on the street with streetlight and "No Parking" sign. The visualstatement is that the street is as safe andsecure as one's home. The result is asense of order and control over both theinternal and external environments.Similarly, the print ad for "The PhillyStory" depicts a common garden plantwaiting to be planted, an ordinary plantand an ordinary task. It reflects thcsimplicity of simple control over life.Simple plant, simple action combats theconfusion and darkness of crime whichresults in a better community.

The settings for a number of PSAs inthis category were night: "John Petross"(1982-83), "Most Criminals Prefer to Stayout of the Limelight" (1986), "He'sMoving to Your Neighborhood" (1989),and "Fred McGillicudy" (1989). Eachindicates the traditional symbol ofdarkness as depicting evil in our society.With the darkness clusters concepts of

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helplessness and powerlessness, and, withthe light, clusters concepts ofempowerment to overcome the evil forcesas seen in the "John Petross" (1982-83)televised message.

Action. Action here includes powerthrough seeing and recognizing. "How toCatch a Thief" (1981) teaches individualresponsibility by training the averagecitizen to learn to look for and identify athief. This print ad in its simplepresentation reflects the simplicity of justseeing the suspicious, criminal activity andthen reporting it to the police. A sccondprint ad also emphasizes power throughthe act of recognition. You can gainpower through your act of recognition.Having knowledge is empowering.Whether it is recognizing that arsonists arepotential killers or recognizing a thief, asin the print ad "How to Catch a Thief,"you gain control by the act of recognizingthem for what they are--"an arsonist is notjust an arsonist but potential killer" (1981print ad).

While these print ads were direct andinformative, other print ads emphases inthe visual presentations were on thecriminal's action, not that of the citizen.As a result, the visual's action in the printads was fear created by the drama andaction of the criminal while the televisionvideo stressed the action of the citizen.For example in the John Petross print ad,the crook was shown beating down thedoor. In the television version, the act ofbeating down the door was followed byJohn Petross' response and action ofestablishing a Neighborhood Watchprogram. In just two years, this actionwas said to have caused crime to drop55% and property values to double in thatcommunity. Yet the print ad did not stressthis in its visuals. It only painted a pictureof the negative action of the burglar. Onlyfear created the drama in the print ad,while in thc televised version, action anddrama camc from John Petross' behaviorin response to the violence.

This emphasis on the negative andfear is repeated in the 1989 print ad, "He's

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Moving to Your Neighborhood."Emphasis is on the criminal action, not onthe action of the citizen. In the print ad,the photo catches the drama of a criminalfrozen in the action of staking out anelderly woman who is walking alone.Sitting in his automobile, he appears incontrol of the situation as he sits, waitingto pounce. The same problem appears inthe "To Fight Crime in Philly" PSApresented in 1989. In the televisedversion, the action is transformation inpeople's lives as pride in theirneighborhood returns and as they reclaimthe physical space in their neighborhood.

What had once been vacant lots,broken windows, and abandonedautomobiles, now have been transformedinto gardens and well-lit, clean spaces.The print version emphasized the action ofgardening with a modest plant waiting tobe planted. The soil and a gardening toolseem to wait to be moved by the viewer ofthe ad. This print ad emphasizes a livingplant growing in good soil, symbolic of aliving human being, thriving in a safecommunity. This contrasts with theprevious print ads which emphasized thecriminal action and the vulnerability of theelderly citizen.

McGruff. The clusters around theMcGruff figure contain the elements of amentor like those in the "HomeSecurity/Neighborhood Watch" seriesdescribed earlier. Clusters around theconcept of credibility were added in thistheme. One of the clusters establishingcredibility is McGruff in the role ofcelebrity, portrayed in the "Cavett" (1986-87) PSA. McGruff gains celebrity statusand significance by association with themedia figure Dick Cavett. Credibility isestablished not only through thisassociation, but by mimicking theinterview format, which is used torecognize important contributors to ourculture. McGruff gains added credibilitythrough longevity in the anniversarycelebrations of the Crime Dog and his rolein crime prevention of the last decade("Anniversary: Working Together: Thisis Your Life, 1990 televised PSA, etc.).

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Criminals. Thc early ads definedthe criminal specifically, such as in 1981thieves and arsonists were listed. Theideas clustering around these print adswere criminals who are weasels, sneaky,and potential killers. According to the1986 "Most Criminals Prefer to Stay outof the Limelight" print ad, the wordsclustering around the criminals are shadycharacters who like the dark. The resultsare "feelings of helplessness andresentment" ("To Fight Crime in Phi Ily,"1989).

Citizens. The descriptions ofcitizens found in this series ofannouncements fall into two categories: (a)empowered, highly effective combatantsof crime, and (b) vulnerable potentialvictims. The ratio of PSAs thatempowered the individual versus depictinghuman vulnerability is seven to five. Atpoints, this presented mixed messages,especially in the print ads. While thetelevised ads have the potential todemonstrate both characteristics, i.e., avulnerable victim transformed toempowered combatant ("John Petross,"1982-83), the print ads depict one or theother. "How to Catch a Thief" (1981) and"Don't Let the Arsonist Get Away WithMurder" (1981) both empower theindividual with knowledge. "Tucson Tip-Off" (1990) gives the individuals' namesand describes them as "sensitive, highlysophisticated surveillance equipment,"implying that these people are highlyeffective in the fight against crime.

In contrast, others of the PSAsstressed the vulnerability of being human.The 1989 "Most Criminals Prefer to Stayout of the Limelight" print ad depicts theneighborhood as not a safe place andindicates that the elderly woman walkingalone is vulnerable with no protection. Asshc is watched by the thief in hisautomobile, the elderly woman'svulnerability clearly supports the headlinethat: "He's moving to your neighborhoodbecause of all its advantages:unsupervised children, idle teenagers, theelderly alone, broken street lights, brokenwi ndows" (1989).


Vulnerability also shown in the 1988"Want to Cut Down Crime? Mind yourown Business" print ad. Here theindividuals are not faceless statistics orcasualties of crime, but real people withreal signatures, photographs, andcompany logos on their employeeidentification cards. These are not isolatedindividuals, but real people who are part ofa collective whole and who play a vital rolein the function of the organization. In thisPSA, the employee identification cards areordinary, everyday items that stand forreal-life, vulnerable human beings.

Vulnerability is also found in the1988 print ad to prevent vandalism. "Alldressed up with no place to go" describesthe couple set to attend their senior prom.Their formal dress contrasts with thebroken windows and graffiti of the stoneschool building in the background. Thebroken windows and lost dreams of thecouple symbolize the brokenness andvulnerability of human existence. Internalvulnerability js depicted not only in brokendreams, but also in human existence. Forexample, failure to lock the car makes theindividual vulnerable to car theft throughhis or her own neglect ("You're ProbablyWondering Why Your Car Was Stolen,"1989 print ad).

"Children's Drug AbusePrevention" Clusters andInterpretation

The children's drug abuse preventionPSAs were distributed in 1987-89. Fourcategories of PSAs relating to this themeappeared on television and radio and inprint. All four were aimed primarily atchildren, with two of the four also gearedfor parents. The primary purpose of theannouncements was to persuade childrento say "no" to drugs and to alert parents tothe potential danger their children may bein because of drug use and relatedviolence. The key elements of thesemessages were the setting, action, andMcGruff.

Setting. The settings in thesePSAs are in two categories. The "Real

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Situations" (1989, televised) series ofannouncements use real-life settings andsituations to teach children to say no todrugs. Most of these locations were in aschool setting, outside the classroom,suggesting that drug use is a real problemfaced daily by children. The print ads inthis series are non-threatening. Thesettings are simple: worried parents ("1out of 2 Teens in American Has TakenDrugs," 1988) and telephone, writing pad,and binoculars ("Everything You Need toClose Down a Crackhouse," 1989).Clustered around these elements areinformation about crime prevention anddrug abuse that is simple to read andunderstand.

Other settings in this series were notreal-life settings or situations. Forexample, in the print ad cartoon figures ofchildren holding the Mc Gruff mask("Saying No Isn't Tough," 1988) are USWinstead of a photograph of real children.The "Winners Are Losers" ("Memphis,"1987) televised spots juxtaposes an indooritem, a piano, in an outdoor setting of anopen field. Children and adults follow thesound of the music, reenacting the imageof folklore of the Pied Piper. The"Masks" (1988) spot continues this themeas the children cluster around the pianolistening to Mc Gruff. The fantasy worldcan continue as the children hide behindtheir Mc Gruff masks. The setting of"Regina" (1988) completes the move fromreal-life settings and situations. Here theset is composed of changing abstractimages and a female singer dressed in acontemporary, exaggerated style.

Action. In the midst of routineactions and settings, school-aged childrenare interspersed with opportunities for thechildren to use drugs. Each settingpresents the child with enough fortitude to"Just say no" to drugs. The action is theact of saying "no" and walking away fromthe situation. Thc everyday routinessuggested how easy it was for students toparticipatc in drug use, andsimultaneously, how simple statementsconstitute action to effectively prevent drugabuse. The action in the "Winners Are

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Losers" (1987) ad is the emotive responseto the music. In the "Masks" (1988), thechildren's action is again following theemotive music, but also, by hiding behindthe fantasy world of masks, the childrenmay be able to carry out the action of "JustSaying No to Drugs." However, in the"Regina" (1988) PSA, the action shiftsfrom Mc Gruff's plea to "Just Say No toDrugs" to the singer's exaggerated style,which stimulates the emotive experience ofMTV for a younger audience.

Mc Gruff. In this series of ads,Mc Gruff has decreased in visual andverbal prominence in some of the printversions. For example, in the "1 Out of 2Teens in America Has Taken Drugs"(1988) PSA, he has been relegated to aless significant position on the page and toa much smaller logo. In the others, he hasmaintained his traditional role of teacher.The primary difference now is that theadvice is much less specific. "Just say no"is a generic phrase that is much morenebulous and less easy to apply thansimple acts, such as locking doors orturning on lights. Mc Gruff seems to becloser to a light-hearted friend andmusician. How well he functions as amentor regarding crime prevention isdifficult to assess.

Overall, this segment of the Mc Gruffcampaign begins to move away fromeveryday items and routine actions. Whileit is simple to "say no," an apparently cleardirective, the problem is in the ambiguityof the individual situations that a childfaces. Thc situation may be as ambiguousas a cocked gun; it may or may not go off,just as a child may or may not have theability in that moment to say no. Overall,these messages move toward a fantasyworld of emotional and experientialsettings.

Overall Interpretation of PrimaryClusters in PSAs

Overall, the PSAs arc visuallyuncluttered and straightforward. Theverbal messages are presented in a conciseconversational tone. A recurring idea

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throughout many of the announcements isa stamp of ownership--your door, yourhouse, your child, your community. Thisownership establishes the individual'sidentity and membership within the localcommunity. This identity within thecommunity is combined with personalaction and responsibility to create a centralfocus revealed through the primary themesof the major clusters--the settings,characters, and actions.

Setting. For the most part, theclusters surrounding the settings presentthe lifestyles with which traditionalAmerican families can identify. Thefurnishings are comfortable and thedecorations familiar. This familiarity alsocreates a stamp of ownership. Thelighting used in many of the settingsswitches from darkness to light. Thisparallels visually the transition that canoccur in communities as individuals followthe prescribed crime prevention behaviorsso that their neighborhoods are dominatedby light and goodness, not darkness andcrime. The light within the settings andthe stamp of ownership, establishing theindividual's or community's "territory"(e.g., "Mimi Marth," 1981), combinedwith the concepts of prevention so that theoverall settings are not those of fear, butthose which remind individuals of theircontrol and power of the environment.

Characters. The characterspresented in all the PSAs are definedclearly and consistently: The perpetratorsof crime who will destroy the viewer's or'stener's home, family, or community;

the mentor who is the detective-dogMc Gruff; and the potential hero, theaverage ,:itizen who is at risk. Theperpetrators of crime are not alwaysshown in the PSAs, but they are alwaysalluded to. Whet shown in PSAs like the"Gil straps" (198 ), they are portrayed asnormal workt.r r.toving furniture. In the"John Petross Neighborhood Watch" PSA(1982), they are portrayed in a moreviolent fashion. Thc violence is kept brief,and the focus quickly shifts to thecooperative action of members of thecommunity as they organize themselves to


monitor their neighborhood. For the mostpart, the criminals are presented asopportunists--"all crime needs is achance." They are looking for an easyway to invade the individual's home orattack a member of his or her family. Forthe most part, they are persons who likethe dark--"lights make burglars nervous."They are persons who prefer uninhabited,Lonely places and avoid communities andhomes that look "lived in."

The major character of most of thePSAs is Mc Gruff, the Crime Dog.Wearing a detecdve's garb, this mainfigure embodies two major concepts. Thefirst reflects the common understanding ofa dog as a person's "best friend" and"protector." He is fearless, courageous,and loyal. The dog's trench coat remindsthe viewer of detectives who move fromthe world of light to the shadowy world ofcrime seckng good for the community ashe removes Lae potential for crime. Evenwith such a Lii.:sion, Mc Gruff is alwaysportrayed as being human. For example,in the "Stop a Crime" PSA (1980),Mc Gruff's penchant for sweets andconcern for gaining weight--"Fudgebrownies! And me on a diet"--place acommon personal concern against abroader, more threatening social concernof crime. The result is a sense ofidentification between viewer andMc Gruff.

The detective dog's roles are clearlydefined as those of teacher and advisor,and Mc Gruff is the one who consistentlyprovides important information about stepsfor protection behaviors. Mc Gruff isportrayed as a wise person who knows theways of the world and who also advisesthe audience in a gently chiding manner.This authority figure has the characteristicsof an all-important mentor--one whoknows the answers, understands bothsides, combats evil, and cares for thosewho he guides.

The third group generally portrayedin the PSAs is the potential heroes. Theseare the people who have within them thepower to prevent crime. The potential

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heroes are portrayed as average citizenswho are sometimes forgetful, "It's a funnything. A lot of people do that. . .theyforget." The citizens live, for the mostpart, in communities where they can trust,or learn to trust, their neighbors and canhave a common concern for clearing theirneighborhoods of crime. This is enactedthrough active neighborhood cooperation,not just passive acceptance of crime as theaccepted standard within the community.

In the PSAs, these citizens have thepotential to act against crime if they believein and follow the simple steps advocatedby McGruff. As they prevent crime intheir own neighborhoods and lives, theycan become heroes. This goal, to "take abite out of crime," is a noble one thatreflects the individuals' struggles to maketheir own communities better places tolive. The overall portrayal within thePSAs is that of a dominate mentor whoprovides sage advice for individuals. As aresult, they have the potential to controlwhat happens and improve the level ofsafety and security in their communities.

Action. The clusters within thePSAs advocate four important categoriesof action: (a) increased awareness ofcrime prevention techniques; (b) changesin attitudes regarding crime prevention,personal involvement in and personalresponsibility for crime prevention; (c)specific behaviors that can be implementedto prevent crime; and (d) creation ofstronger community ties to create healthier,crime-free neighborhoods.

The recommendations regardingthese categories of action are simple,logical, easily remember, andaccomplished. For the most part, they arefrom an offensive position, except for thedefensive behaviors portrayed in PSAslike "Mimi Marth" (1981) and "JohnPetross" (1982-83). The underlyingassumption is that if citizens will followthe advised actions, they will gain controlover their environments by preventingcrimes of convenience.

Because of the clarity of information

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and instructions, the four categories ofactions work together to motivate citizensto pursue knowledge of crime preventionand enact them in their communities.Primarily they function to raise awarenessof potential danger, the first category ofaction. They assert that by being aware ofpotential crime, the individuals can beginto make changes that impact their society.Through specific actions, they can maketheir families, homes, neighborhoods lesssusceptible to violence. Secondly, thesekinds of assumptions about the influenceof the individual encourage more positiveattitudes toward the ability of citizens to bepersonally involved in the prevention ofcrime. This position strengthensindividuals internally and empowers themto act with confidence and hope.

The third action entails specificbehaviors. A few of these simple, yeteffective actions, include "lock yourdoors," "turn lights on and off," and"don't use drugs." All behaviors presentedin the PSAs are clear and concise. Inaddition, each PSA specifically encouragesinformation-seeking action: "make it yourjob to learn about crime prevention. . ."

and "write to. . .[address given]."

These three actions culminate incommunity emphasis, the fourth category.The announcements help create strongercommunity ties to protect the home andfamily. These may be addressedindirectly, as in the "Real Situations"(1989) PSA, or directly, as in "JohnPetross, Neighborhood Watch" (1932-83). The community involvement may besimple, such as asking a neighbor to "keepan eye on your house" ("Stop a Crime,"1980), or more complex, such asrenovating old buildings and cleaningvacant lots ("McGruff Files, 1990).

The visual rhetoric of thc PSAscreates a world view that is simple andbasic. The announcements show a rationalapproach for organized actions in order toslow down the creeping prevalence ofcrime within neighborhoods. Thisenhances self-responsibihty, a commontheme in the idealism of America.

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Furthermore, the PSAs address a commonhuman desire to succeed. Success can beachieved by following the advice providedin the announcements. Theserecommended activities empower theindividual so that the average citizen can bethe hero who successfully acts in his orher own territory, removing crime andreplacing it with a safe haven for familyand friends.

The ideology of the Mc Gruff PSAsshape the audience, but how members ofthe audience selectively appropriate whatthey most want from the PSAs, i.e., howthe audience assumes the PSAs andinterprets them, is more important. In thissense, the announcements becomeimportant resources of the populace. Themost significant contribution of the PSAsis that through them the audience canreinterpret its history and reflect its ownsocial relationships. What becomesimportant is how the individual interpretshis or her role in the community andinterprets the causes and methods ofelimination of crime.

Simultaneously, creators of PSAsmust always recognize that mass mediaads serve not one audience, but several.These varying constituencies areconstantly adapting the mediated messagesto their specialized needs based upon theindividuals' interpretations of their owncommunity histories and relationships.This will be reflected in how eachcommunity enacts the recommendedactions of the PSAs and assimilates theCrime Prevention programs to meet itsspecific needs. Any changes, along withthe individuals' interpretations of theirroles in and histories of their communities,will provide recommendations for changesin future crime-prevention campaigns.

Intertwined with the recognition ofthe different constituencies is theunderstanding that the audience is an activeparticipant in the mass communicationprocess. The Mc Gruff ads assume that theaudience is not passive; rathcr theyadvocate personal activities andresponsibilities. The PSAs push the


audience beyond the realm of simplyparticipating in the media process. Instead,the audience is encouraged to performspecific behaviors within localneighborhoods. This shifts the relationshipbetween the sponsor and the audiencefrom a potentially paternalistic one (i.e.,one in which media experts and lawenforcement agencies care for acommunity) to one that is more fraternal(i.e., one in which community effort isshared by media experts, law enforcementagencies, and local citizens).

Conclusion

Overall, the McGruff "Take a BiteOut of Crime" PSAs appear as messagesto have communicated with their audiencesin a fresh and Memorable way. The PSAshave met the first primary goal ofproviding content to potentially increasethe awareness of crime prevention amongaudience members. For example, the "RealSituations" (1989) allowed the audience tobecome aware of impending dangers tochildren. PSAs like the introductoryMcGruff announcement in 1980 provideda basis for reinforcing existing behaviors,such as locking doors and turning onlights. Motivation among viewers couldbe encouraged by such PSAs as "JohnPetross" (1982-83). Here a member of thccommunity actively fought against crime,as he adapted and implemented aNeighborhood Watch program to meet hislocal community needs.

Specific aspects of the campaign thatwould seem to aid in raising awareness,reinforcing existing behaviors, anddeveloping motivation among viewersrelied on two important elements: (a)emphasis on the individual and his or hercommunity and (b) audience identificationwith McGruff. The PSAs throughout allfifteen phases of the campaign consistentlyhave emphasized the importance of thcindividual by giving many of the messagespersonal tones such as You can helpprevent crime. Your door, your house,your child, and your communityestablished the viewer's sense of identitywith and ownership of their homes and

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local communities. In the process, theviewers can gain a sense of identity withthe creators of the crime preventionmessages. This identity can help them feelthat "We--all levels of our society--are allin this together." Additionally, the PSAshave demonstrated an appreciation of theindividual's concerns, fears, and problemsregarding crime and crime prevention.Throughout most of the campaign, thePSAs recognized viewers as competentindividuals who wished to assumeresponsibility for changing theirneighborhoods.

In keeping with the concern fordeveloping crime prevention throughcommunity efforts, the Mc Gruff campaignhas been based on the premise that as localneighborhoods build stronger ties, a newsense of community will emerge. In theprocess, it is intended that individuals willfeel they have some control over theirlives, as well as begin to care--about eachother, about the neighborhood, about theirschools, and other institutions. Thecampaign reinforces that this sense ofcaring can serve as one of the best answersto crime, suggesting that the solutions arewithin the community and that by workingtogether, individuals in the community canmake a difference.

The second important element hasbeen Mc Gruff. The Crime Dog was thecentral figure in the situational PSAs, andhis personality created an important ethosthat was essential to the success of theannouncements. Over the years, he hasbeen described as "believable, credible,trusted," and he has been established as a"role model" with whom audiencemembers could identify. He lighted theheavy, emotional topic of crime and crimeprevention. Hc reassured, encouraged,and supported individuals andcommunities. He was interesting andhumorous, but at the same time alwaysserious. But most of all, Mc Gruff wasalways informative. Throughout, McGruffportrayed a sense of confidence as heoffered positive, simple information thatpeople could easily remember and stepsthat they could readily enact.

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In summary, this analysis providesinsight in the development of the campaignby outlining the varying visual and verbalrhetoric found within the PSAs and howthey reinforce or detract from the overallgoals for the McGruff effort. Specifically,the interpretation reveals how the PSAsmay create public awareness; encouragepublic commitment to preventing crime

d drug abuse, and building safe-_ommunities; and motivate citizens to takepositive actions to strengthen social bondsand increase public pride in theircommunity. The manifest content of theMcGruff campaign aims to focus publicattention on the vital issues of crimeprevention and mobilize the public to dealwith those issues. Most of all, theseannouncements appeal to what is mosthuman in all of us, the desire to take careof our own. This suggests that thesePSAs and their ensuing world views maybe serving a ritual purpose as much aninformative one for the audience.

References

ABC. (1986a). Alcohol and drug-relatedpublic service announcements. NewYork: Social Research Unit, ABC.

Arnheim, R. (1971). Art and visualperception. Berkeley, CA: Universityof California.

Bailey, R. W., Matejka, L., & Steiner, P.([19781 1980). The sign: Semioticsaround the world (reprint). AnnArbor: Slavic Publications.

Burke, K. (1954). Fact, inference, andproof in the analysis of literarysymbolism. In L. Bryson (Ed.),Symbols and values: An initial study(pp. 283-306). New York: Harper &Brothers.

Burke, K. (1957). Philosophy of literaryform (rev. ed.). New York: Vintage.

Burke, K. (1964) On form. HudsonReview, 17, 106.

Campbell, K. K. (1974). Criticism:

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Ephemeral and enduring. SpeechTeacher, 23, 14.

Dondis, D. (1974). A primer of visualliteracy. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Egbert, D. D. (1944). Foreign influencesin American art. In D. F. Bowers(Ed.), Foreign influences in AmericanLife: Essays and critical bibliographies(pp. 99-126). Princeton, NJ: PrincetonUniversity Press.

Foss, S. K., & Radich, A. J. (1980).The aesthetic response tononrepresentational art: A suggestedmodel. Review of Research in VisualArts Education, 12, 40-49.

Gombrich, E. H. (1960). Art andillusion: A study in the psychology ofpictorial representation. New York:Pantheon.

Grunig, L. A., & Grunig, J. E. (Eds.).(1990). Public relations researchannual (Vol. 2). Hillsdale, NJ:Erlbaum.

Hanneman, G. H., McEwen, W., &Coyne, S. (1973). Public serviceadvertising on television. Journal ofBroadcasting, 17, 387-404.

Kleinbauer, W. E. (1971). Modernperspectives in western art history.New York: Holt, Rinehart, &Winston.

Lotman, Y. (1976). Analysis of thepoetic text. D. B. Johnson, (Ed.).Ann Arbor: Ardis.

Lucid, D. P. (Ed.). (1977). Sovietsemiotics. Baltimore, MD: JohnHopkins University Press.

Verbo-Visual Li teracy

Morawsky, S. (1974). Inquiries into thefundamentals of aesthetics.Cambridge, MA: MassachusettsInstitute of Technology.

Mukarovsky, J. (1977). The word andverbal art. J. Burbank & P. Steiner(Eds.). New Haven: Yale UniversityPress.

O'Keefe, G. J. (1986). The "McGruff"national media campaign: Its publicimpact and future implications. In D.Rosenbaum (Ed.), Community crimeprevention: Does it work? BeverlyHills, CA: Sage.

O'Keefe, G. J., & Reid, K. (1990). Theuses and effects of service advertising.In J. Grunig & L. Grunig (Eds.),Public Relations Research Annual,Vol. 2 (pp. 67-91). Hillsdale, NJ:Erlbaum.

Paisley, W. (1989). Publiccommunication campaigns: TheAmerican experience. In R. E. Rice &C. K. Atkin (Eds.), Publiccommunication campaigns (2nd. ed.),(pp. 15-38). Newbury Park, CA:Sage.

Rogers, E. M., & Storey, D. (1987).Communication campaigns. In C.Berger & S. Chaffee (Eds.),Handbook of communication science(pp. 817-846). Newbury Park, CA:Sage.

Salmon, C. T. (1989). Informationcampaigns: Managing the process ofsocial change. Newbury Park, CA:Sage.

Sharf, B. F. (1979). Rhetorical analysis ofnonpublic discourse. CommunicationQuarterly, 21, 21-30.

IMAGE MANIPULATION: THEN AND NOW

byRonald E.

Image Manipulation Then and Nowexamines the role of image trustworthinessin our 20th century society. The argumentis a simple one: Photographic imagery,both still and motion, has always lied(Goldsmith, 1991). The question in theage of digital cameras is whether the liescan be detected. That is a difference--lyingwith a trace, and lying without a trace. ArtCurator William M. Ivins wrote "The 19thcentury began by believing that what wasreasonable was true, and it would end upby believing that what it saw photographof was true" (Zelle & Sutton, 1991). Atthe close of the 20th century that beliefneeds to be challenged.

The foundations of science, law,history, and anthropology are entwinedwith the "truth" of photography. As ispointed out in a number of scholarlyworks (Barnouw, 1981; Jaubert, 1989;Mast, 1984; Rosenblum, 1984), this is amisplaced trust. The images ofphotography were manipulated almostfrom the moment of their discovery. Theearly technology of photography simplycould not accommodate the dark tones ofthe land and the bright tones of the sky inthe same shot. This was solved in thedarkroom by stripping two differentphotographs together. Sometimes theclouds or other details of the scene werepainted in on the print (Zelle & Sutton,1991). Also, what began as an attempt toremove specks of dust, gelatin flakes,broken glass with paintbrush and paintsoon gave way to erasing wrinkles,blemishes, and ultimately unpopularpeople from historic photographs (Jaubert,1989).

In thc hands of such photographersas Oscar G. Rejlander and Henry PeachRobinson, totally fabricated images wcreproduced involving as many as twentynegatives (Zelle & Sutton, 1991). Thistrend in photograph:c art has continued to

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Sutton

the present day in the works of such artistsas Jerry Uelsmann, Cindy Sherman, andNic Nicosea. The blending together in thestudio and darkroom of images not foundin actual scenes from life has been aregular feature of modern photography inboth art and advertising.

Despite the weight of authenticityplaced on them ("if it's a photograph, itmust be true"), it is quite clear fromobserving the historical record that thephotographic record has been manipulatedby those behind the camera or in thedarkroom. Alain Jaubert (1989), in thisbook "Making People Disappear: AnAmazing Chronicle of PhotographicDeception," underscores how thismanipulation of photographs for politicalpropaganda reached its apex in the 20thcentury. In this excellent study Jaubertcategorizes the favorite techniques of thephoto manipulators:

Retouching

Using a brush and/or paint to removean imperfection in the print and/ornegative.

Blocking

Painting out figures or details fromthe actual site of the photograph often toidealize a figure or change a historicalcontext.

Cutouts/Collage/Montage

Cutting out a figure from thebackground and placing it in a new settingor with a new group. Non-matchingshadows often give this technique away.

Recentering

Cropping or framing a picture in re-photography or printing to exclude

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unwanted figures or information at thesides and edges.

Effacement

Slicing a figure or area out of thecenter of a picture, then joining the edges,and retouching to smooth the seam or fillin the blank. (Sometimes the blank is leftto warn those who might challenge theregime in power.) Difficult to do withoutleaving traces seen by the trained eye(Jaubert, 1989; Zelle & Sutton, 1991).

This ca:«4e includes only thosetechniques that are used on an alreadyexisting histoi ic photograph. It does notdeal with the question of distortion that isbuilt into the photographic choices used increating the photo in the first place. Theseinclude choices of:

subject, costume, make-up,

film stock,

lens: wide angle, normal,telephoto,

angle: high, low,

aperture/light,

shutter speed and shapes anddepth of field,

type of shot, long, medium,close up,

framing of the subject.

Many persons have a quite limitedunderstanding of how these factors haveshaped the historical photographic recordsince the medium's invention in 1939.

Motion Pictures

Similarly, since 1895, projectedmotion pictures have shared with stillphotography the burden of appearing to bean accurate record of actual events.However, they share all the above-listed


choices with their forerunner, stillphotography. Perhaps they are even moreillusionary for they evoke the sensation ofwatching motion, when in actuality theyare merely the projection of successive stillimages. These occur rapidly enough sothat, thanks to the phenomenon ofpersistence of vision, the image of onepicture blends with the next at a rate ofsome 24 frames a second to render aconvincing illusion of motion.

From the beginning of motionpictures, special effects have also beenpresent to reshape the reality that wewatch. People appear and disappear bystopping and starting the camera; wholetowns and distant vistas are added to filmvia matte painting on glass; miniaturesmade to scale, coupled with authenticmechanicals, fool us into thinking thatthings are happening on screen that areimpossible, from "King Kong" to"Jurassic Park" (Fielding, 1965).

In the area of narrative fiction filmsthis is hardly a problem since fewquestions of historicity are involved;however, when we turn to thedocumentary film form, or educationalfilm, we come upon similar or paralleldevices that are used to portray historicevents. Many fiction film techniques suchas reenactment to achieve matching action,directing, scripting, actors, etc., were usedin the documentary field up to roughly1960, discarded for a decade or so, andnow have found their way back into postmodern documentary production(Barnouw, 1981).

Traceable Fakery

Most of what has been discussed tothis point can be identified by a trained andvisually literate eye and mind. Books onthe cinema (Cheshire, 1979; Giannetti,1987; Mast, 1984; Monaco, 1981) aboundwith information about how illusions arecreated in fiction film. The documentaryfield has also been revealed to the worldthrough scholarly work as well (Barnouw,1993; Barsam, 1993; Ellis, 1989).

Image Manipulation185

Even this quick overview (Zelle &Sutton, 1991) illustrates that even thoughthe public may follow Oliver WendellHolmes in viewing photography as a"mirror with a memory" the public needsnow to know that the mirror was alwayscracked, the memory was faulty, selective,and manipulated, a construct of whomeverwas holding the 'mirror.' The publicneeds to know this about the past, for thepresent and future will demand even moreskepticism when it comes to trusting thephotographic image.

Computerized Imagery

With the advent of the computer andits related technologies the world ofphotography has been revolutionized.Whether reworking existing images,creating new ones on program command,or capturing fresh images through a newbreed of electronic cameras, there is littlequestion that images have become evenmore untrustworthy than ever.

This is all done through digitization.This is a process in which the photographis scanned by machine and broken downinto tiny picture elements called pixels.Each pixel is analyzed for information.(shape, rolor, brightness, etc.) andassigned a numerical code. Then thecomputer can make a number of changesbefore storing the final image on amagnetic disk:

retouch spots and scratches,

brighten or change color,

add new elements to the picture;move or eliminate existingmaterial,

extend backgrounds to fit pageformat, fill in new holes causedby removals,

draw in shadows to make acommon light source,

turn images in perspective or cast

them in three dimensions (Zelle& Sutton, 1991).

This started as a very high endoperation costing thousands of dollars andinvolving such names as Scitex, Hell, andCrosfield. Now, it can all be done ondesk top personal computers, especiallyPhotoshop by Macintosh.

The values to the entertainment,advertising, and mass communicationindustries are immeasurable in terms ofefficiency, economy, and effect. Clearlythere is much that is beneficial in thisrevolution that is still creating morewonders for us to absorb each year.

But clearly there are dangers here aswell. Some of these serious concernswere addressed at a seminar sponsored byThe Annenberg Washington Program inCommunications Policy Studies ofNorthwestern University, held December10, 1991 in Washington, D.C. Don E.Tomlinson (1993) has created a significantmonograph entitled "Computer Manipula-tion and Creation of Images and Sounds:Assessing the Impact" based on thisseminar.

I quote at length from the ExecutiveSummary of the seminar and monographbecause of the clear note of alarm it soundsand the probing questions it raises.

Technological change in masscommunication is occurring sorapidly it is impossible to staycompletely abreast of even the mostsignificant changes, much less theirmeanir g and possible ramifications.Some of the changes may seemevolutionary. Others, however, arerevolutionary, such as the switchfrom analog to digital technology.With the coming of the computer, thechange simply was inevitable.

This transition has two major andinterrelated facets. One has to dowith the means of communication.The other, and perhaps moreimportant, has to do with the content

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186

of what is to be communicatedbecause digital technology makespossible the easy, quick, andundetectable manipulation of imagesand sounds

The potential effect on journalism isprofound. How will our liveschange when we can no longer trustthe images and sounds provided tous by the news media? How willour lives change when governmentand politicians and historians canmanipulate the images and soundswe see and hear?. . .

The potential legal ramifications arealso immense. Given the degree ofdigital visual and aural manipulationthat could occur, especially in thenews media, there are implications ofthe First Amendment. Copyrightlaw as we know it today could proveto be wholly inadequate as a meansof protecting ownership interests inimages and sounds. Tort lawimplications arise in relation to libel,false light privacy invasion, productdisparagement, and right ofpublicity, among others. There willbe considerable contract-lawimplications. Will images andsounds continue to be admissibleevidence once the product ofrecorded communication exists onlyin the digital domain?. . .

(Tomlinson, 1993)

The changes that Tomlinson outlinesare noteworthy and serious--an agenda foreducators of all types. However, what Ihave tried to point out, in the earlier pagesof this paper (and in earlier publicationsdone with my colleague Ann Zelle) is thatwe should help people see that their faithin the simple veracity or trustworthiness ofimage communication has always beenmisplaced. In the terms of present dayanalytical scholarship especially related tomedia literacy, it is important to assist allpersons to understand that media imagesare constructs. They are created for avariety of reasons, one of which, in oursociety, is to make money for their


creators. Truthfulness and reliability mayenter into the equation but at a lowerpriority than many laypersons wouldrealize.

The task of the visual educator is tohelp leainers see these aspects, to helpthem to become visually literate. Beingskeptical about how images are created andfor what reasons they have beenconstructed should be a fundamental tenetof all modern curriculums in all fields, inall professions.

Some may quarrel with the termskepticism. That may not seem to be anappropriate element in helping the youngunderstand their world. Should we makeyoung children skeptics from the start?Can cynicism be far behind? I am afraid,for the time being, my answer is avigorous yes and the sooner the better.Distinguished media scholar, RaymondFielding (1987), who attended theAnnenberg Seminar, puts the issue thisway writing in "Newsfilm as a ScholarlyResource: Opportunities and Hazards:"

The problem of editorial distortionand misrepresentation is one withwhich we have had to deal for manyyears. However, a far more seriousproblem faces us in ourtechnologically elegant future.Computer hardware and softwarenow exists for the unlimitedmodification and digital retouchingof still and moving picturephotographs and in a manner whichis undetectaule.

It is the undetectable part that ischilling. This is related to the digitalwizardry of the computer. In analogcopying and modifying the copy printexhibits a generational loss from theoriginal. In digital transfer no such loss isdetectable. Here is the way Tomlinson(1993) describes it:

In digital videotape editing, there isabsolutely no loss of quality fromgeneration to generation because thesource signal is not being transferred

I .1 t),

Image Manipulation 187

to the resulting videotape, as is thecase with the analog technology. Theresulting videotape, through thedigital process, receives binarycomputer information; it is amathematical recreation, not atransference. And since it is purely amathematical process, the sourceimage can be altered fundamentallyand undetectably before and/orduring the reproduction. (p. 10-11)

What this means is that there is nooriginal negative/print/tape against whichto compare the altered version.

The possibilities for mischief,historical, political, legal, and cultural, arelegion. Suddenly, a long hiddenphotograph showing Lee Harvey Oswaldmeeting with Fidel Castro could become apart of the historical record, lendingcredence, if not proof, to that particularlyconspiracy theory about the Kennedyassassination. Here is Tomlinson's (1993)well-chose scenario:

The 1981 footage of the Reaganassassination attempt, for example,might be amended as follows:

1. a few representative framesamended by the removal of theother individuals from in front ofthe President when he was shot;

2. additions ir those frames toshow what an unobstructed viewof Reagan getting shot mighthave looked liked; and

3. the computer then filling in whatthe remaining frames would looklike given the human amendingalready done.

Once any such amendings werecompleted, the human editor wouldcommand the computer to review,refine, and reform any frames thatdid not look photographically real.The entire process would take only afew minutes. (pp. 12-13)

1 9 4

Sounds Also Can Lie

It is clear that sound reality is inevery bit as much danger of modificationand invention as image reality. The samedigital techniques can be used to alter, orsample or clip sound. While some sectionsof our society may care little when thisremains a battle between record companiesover digitally sampling rap stars, the factthat the President of the United States, orYasser Arafat, and Yitzhak Rabin could bemade to say something with their ownvoice which they actually never said isquite disturbing at this delicate point in theMiddle East peace process.

Reaction to Manipulation

Moving to the area of application andimplication it is interesting andencouraging to note the shock with whichnews of digitilization of photographs ismet when exposed to the public:

TV Guide's gaffe in placingOprah Winfrey's head on AnnMargaret's body (Zelle & Sutton,1991).

T he National Geographic'srearrangement of the pyramidsfor its February 1982 cover(Becker, 1991; Tomlinson,1993; Zelle & Sutton, 1991).

The Time 1988 special issue onthe 150th anniversary ofphotography that pledged itwould never digitally manipulatea photograph, yet contained adigitally manipulated image ofMary Decker on its cover andinside page (Tomlinson, 1993).

In both his writing and personallecture and interview, freelance-hotographer and journalism professorCony Kelly indicates that the profession isbeing hard-pressed to control the easymanipulation of images. When is itinnocent--taking out the offending antennathat seems to spring from Mary Decker's


body, and when is it catastrophic--albeitamusing--when a picture of a swimmingpool was digitalized back to blue from redbecause the computer folks did not know itwas to accompany a story in the OrangeCounty Register about vandals dumpingred dye in a local pool? (Becker, 1991;Kelly, 1992).

Photojournalism at Risk

Many fee! that photo journalisticintegrity and credibility may be at stake(Tomlinson, 1993).

If photographic reality were definedby a consumer of photojournalism,the definition might be: the imagespresented accurately represent theobject of the photography asrecorded and subsequentlydisseminated by mass communica-tors. Because photographic reality inphotojournalism translates tocredibility, it is an essentialingredient of any mainstreamAmerican journalistic enterprise.

Many scholars, including Tomlinson(1993), feel that photo-journalisticcredibility will be seriously challenged ifnot completely undermined by the newdigital revolution.

One of the devices that may hastenthis decay is the electronic camera.

Electronic Cameras

Sony announced the Mavica in 1981.A working prototype was demonstratedand Mr. Murita of Sony stated that thisdevice would revolutionize photography(alwards, 1993; Becker, 1991).

Canon joined the field and developedits video still camera by 1986. It presentlymarkets this equipment actively (an ad forthe system was contained in the UnitedAirlines Flight Magazine I read on the wayto the Visual Literacy Symposium inDelphi, Greece [Hemispheres, June1993]), (Edwards, 1993).

Sony now has the ProMavica whichstands for Magnetic Video Camera. Thisuses analog images not convertedimmediately to digital. This camera listsfor $9,000 (Edwards, 1993).

Kodak's DCS 100 and 200 digitalimaging camera uses a computer chip.Here is a consumer oriented blurb fromByte magazine (1993):

The Kodak DCS 200ci shares alineage with Kodak's originalelectronic camera, but someimportant advances distinguish it.Its price comes in at under $10,000,yet it provides the same resolutionand quality as its $25,000 stablematein a smaller, consumer-orientedpackage. Pictures are stored on aninternal hard drive and downloadeddirectly to a PC or a Mac. Operatingcosts are virtually eliminated:There's no film to buy and no needfor a high-quality scanner. Resultsare almost instantaneous, and in anecology-conscious world, there's nofilm or chemical wastes to worryabout.

An article by Howard Eglowstein(1993) in this same edition of Byte givesan extensive test comparison of the SonyMVC 7000 and the above-mentionedKodak DCS 200ci. They are bothevaluated as quick, efficient cameras thattake instantly reviewable pictures withoutfilm but with lower resolution than film.

Tony Kelly (1993) explained thatthey do not work well for full page glossymagazine work: "You can go up to threecolumn width but blowing them upbeyond that is a problem as to sharpness,resolution, and picture quality."

A final entry in this field is the LeafDigital Studio Camera. This is a cameraback which attaches to conventional studiocameras such as Hasselblad, Sinar,Cambo, and Mamiya Rx-67 and fecds thcimages into a Mac computer. Developedand connected to Scitex, Leaf is centered

3,r;

Image Manipulation 189

in the Boston area (Leaf, 1993;Schlowsky, 1992).

This system is used primarily instudio work with advertising and I suspectcauses little problems due to the lowcredibility rating of ad photographyhistorically.

Conclusions

What I have tried to argue is thatimage manipulation is not something new.It has been present since the birth of bothstill and motion photography. The elementthat is tricky is the without a trace and theease of accomplishment factors, both ofwhich I have tried to highlight in mypresentation.

There is little question that there is aneed for broad, candid, and simpleinformation sharing, for education of themost basic kind. There is also a need formore rigorous professional standards.Kelly (1991) speaks of this in the June1991 edition of Editor and Publisher whenhe quotes one of the protocols developedat the Poynter Seminar on JournalisticEthics:

Manipulation of (documentary andnews) photographs, which alters thecontent or context, is unacceptable.Electronic or manual methods shouldbe used only to assure the highestreproduction quality of thephotograph. Photo illustrations areconceptual images and should be(easily) distinguishable fromdocumentary photography.

Karin Becker's (1991) study of thepages of News Photographer, the officialmonthly publication of the National PressPhotographers' Association, reflects thesame concerns that the credibility of thepress photograph be salvaged throughapplied professional standards andguidelines. However, many feel thissimply will not work in a profession that,unlike Law and Medicine, is not aprofession with recognizable standards forcntry and ouster.

196

What is really needed is education ofthe consumer in visual literacy and medialiteracy. Ray Fielding suggests some ofthose in the media might help with thisvast educational task (Tomlinson, 1993):

. . .they should make some excitingprograms about the new technologyitself so as to bring the audience intothe process; thereby making the.audience aware of the problems ofthe information communicator and ofthe historical communicator: In thisway it is the audience who would inthe end decide what will be donewith this exciting new technologythat has been made available to us(Tomlinson, 1993, p. 57).

We can use the media to teach aboutthe media. We can use the media or let themedia use us. One of the tasks for thc21st century in the area of Visual Literacyis to teach people about ImageManipulation: Then and Now.

References

Barnouw, E. (1981). The magician andthe cinema. New York: OxfordUniversity Press.

Barnouw, E. (1993). Documentary: Ahistory of the non-fiction film. NewYork: Oxford University Press.

Barsam, R. (1993). Non-fiction film: Acritical history (r v . ed.).Bloomington, IN: Indiana UniversityPress.

Becker, K. E. (1991) To control ourimage: Photojournalists and newtechnology. Media, Culture, andSociety. London, Newbury Park, &New Delhi.

Byte. (1993, January). 18(1).

Cheshire, D. (1979). The book of moviephotography. New York: Alfred A.Knopf.

Davis, D. (1985, June 3). Seeing isn't

190

believing. Newsweek, 68-70.

Edwards, E. (1993, July). Sony Office.Telephone interview.

Ellis, .J. (1989). The documentary idea.Newark, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Eglowstein, H. (1993, January).Photography by the numbers. Byte,18(1), 241-244.

Fielding, R. (1987). Newsfilm as ascholarly resource: Opportunities andhazards. lamhist, 7(1), 53.

Fielding, R. (1965). The techniques ofspecial effects cinematography. NewYork: Hastings.

Giannetti, L. (1987). Understandingmovies (4th ed.). Newark, NJ:Prentice Hall.

Goldsmith, A. (1991). Photos alwayslied. Popular Photography, 98, 68-75.

Jaubert, A. (1989). Making peopledisappear (English ed.). Washington,DC: Pergaman-Brassey.

Kelly, T. (1993). Technology, interest areforcing newspapers to be image-conscious. Chicago Journalist, 3(1) 1,4, & 5.


Kelly, T. (1992, November).Manipulating reality: From caveimages to digital voodoo. Lecturegiven at The American University,Washington, DC.

Kelly, T. (1993, June 6). Telephoneinterview.

Kelly, T. (1991, June 8). Manipulatingreality. Editor and Publisher, 16-17.

Mast, G. (1984). A world of history ofphotography. New York: AlbevillePress.

Schlowsky, L. (1992, November).Digital vision: The birth of a filmlessphotography studio. Photo ElectronicImaging.

Tomlinson, D. E. (1993). Computermanipulation and creation of imagesand sounds: Assessing the impact.The Annenberg Washington Programin Communications Policy Studies ofNorthwestern University,Washington, DC.

Zelle, A., & Sutton, R. (1991). Imagemanipulation: The Zelig phenomenon.Journal of Visual Literacy, I 1(1), 10-37.

IN-SCHOOL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM AS A MEDIUM FORMEDIA EDUCATION

Yasuo

Review

In Japan, economists were interestedin the instructional use of in-schoolcommunication systems (building-widePA system and CATV) after World WarII. They began to discuss the educationalvirtues of it. Consequently, there has beena steady development in the number ofhardware in schools. In spite of thistendency, however, it is difficult toevaluate the success and the extent of theiruse in the educational purposes, thoughsome pioneering schools launched theinstructional utilization of these systems intheir everyday practice.

Even so, we need to review thewhole picture of the use of in-schoolcommunication system to figure out thefuture development of media education inthis country. That is because in-schoolcommunication systems are quite usefulwhen we intend to promote mediaeducation in schools. It is a goodopportunity for children to learn howvarious media work in society byproducing and disseminating their ownprograms for other classes within theschool.

That is why this study was done.The problems and methods used are asfollows:

byTakakuwa

I. What is the significance of in-school communication system according tosome theoretical literature?

2. How is the accommodation withthe hardware in schools achieved,considered from the Ministry's survey?

3. What is the present situation ofthe practices in elementary schools, byobservation of a questionnaire survey?

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Educational Significance of In-School Communication System--Pedagogical View

After the Second World War,Japanese education turned to stressing onchildren's autonomous study, for whichthe observations, study trips, experiments,surveys, and other activities in and out ofcampus were highly recommended asteaching methods. Using in-schoolcommunication systems was also amongthem.

On the other hand, using in-schoolcommunication had its roots in schoolbroadcast since before WW2 in the senseof using receivers in the classrooms.People thought, however, that theimportant nature of using in-schoolbroadcast was a new way of autonomousand active study for children.

The importance of in-schoolcommunication system as an opportunityfor children's autonomous and activestudy can be found in the followingpoints, they said:

1.. They need to find the topic theywant to present to the audience.

2. They have to collect and organizethe materials for the program.

3. They must decide thepresentation format most suitable to thecontcnt.

Secondly, administration of the in-school communication system by childrenthemselves can be seen as an effective wayof developing their ability in cooperationand sociability. Main points are asfollows:

192

I. During production anddissemination of programs, they have totake part in collecting materials, writingscenarios, various technical allotments andannouncements in order to pursue theirtask cooperatively toward success.

2. In-school communicationactivities will be enriched by cooperationwith local community and other schools.

Finally, in-school communicationsystem can be seen as mass media within aschool. It is possible for children toconsider this as a chance to learn whatmass media is. Therefore, this is a placefor media education, because participationin production and dissemination makeschildren change their standpoint fromlistening-receiving to sending-creating.This shift of standpoint causes effectivelearning of media.

1. Children can learn vividlythrough their own experiences how massmedia works and how the informationconveyed by mass media is formed byexpressive and creative activity, andacquire the ability to perceive informationaccurately.

2. T h c interchangeability ofstandpoints from receiving to creating andvice versa, and the close relationshipbetween the two gives them the chance tooften discuss media and information witheach other. This, again makes kidscreators and active receivers at the sametime.

As a matter of fact, the concept of in-school communication system as one ofthe opportunities for media education isnot yet widely understood. Even thosewho are practicing in this way tend todevelop only the technical ability inchildren. The only example of using in-school communication system for mediaeducation is thc practice at SeijoElementary School in Tokyo which haskept its tradition since the late 1940s.

Growth of In-School Communica-tion System in Elementary Schools


The supporting apparatus for in-school communication system has grownin number since the end of WW2. At thebeginning, the Allied Forces put specialeffort on preparing schools with radioreceivers to making use of schoolbroadcast for their purpose of retraining ofJapanese teachers.

According to the survey administeredby the Ministry of Education, Science, andCulture since 1972 (1972, 1977, 1980,and every three years thereafter), building-wide PA systems were already installed inalmost every school as early as 1980,while CCTV has also grown very rapidly.(See Table 1.)

Table 1. Diffusion of Rate of Apparatusin Elementary Schools

PASystem

CTR CCTV VCR Vcameta

72 93.9% 54.2% 10.5% 16.7% 12.9%77 97.6 92.2 22.6 24.9 6.580 98.13 97.40 31.49 53.70 26.7783 98.32 98.74 43.60 80.08 58.4486 97.81 98.51 52.32 91.14 73.2189 98.24 97.49 59.22 96.11 80.6792 98.59 97.47 63.04 96.93 92.87

PA System: Building-wide PA systemCTR: Cassette tape-recorderV camera: Video camera (Color), * including

B&W

Moreover, tape recorders, VCRs,and video cameras have been growing innumber, too. Video cameras, for example,experiencing upgrading in capability andmodel changes, reached to more than 90%in about 1990. It is easily seen thatJapanese schools are well-equipped withenough hardware for making use of in-school communication system.

Present Situation of Using In-School Communication System: ASurvey

We administered a questionnaire inJanuary 1993 to disclose the presentsituation of using in-schoolcommunication system in elementaryschools in Japan. The results are shown

19!)

In-School Communication

in Table 2.

Almost all schools are equipped withaudio and visual receiving apparatus. In-school communication practice is donethrough these systems mostly duringrecess between class periods. Programsconsist of announcement and direction,music, signals, and other types mainlyproposed by teachers. However, some bychildren are also included.

In most schools local productions areseen, half of them produced by thebroadcast committee of the children'sbody. There are teacher's and children'sgroups for production and dissemination.In case of the children, the group is a partof the pupils government.

Efforts are placed on making in-school communication system attractive topupils by familiar programming,programming for specific grades astargets, introducing attractive formats ofpresentation such as quizzes andinterviews, and producing programs basedupon questionnaires and requests.

Table

193

Concerned teachers feel the problemsof in-school communication. They include"mannerism makes kids dull towards it,""teachers suffer from difficulty in sparingtheir time to guiding children's activities"and "need for better apparatus." Oneteacher, however, stressed on thenecessity of considering how it would bepossible to develop children's appreciationability through using in-schoolcommunication system effectively.

Conclusion

There exists a way of thinking wherein-school communication system isconsidered as one of the media educationopportunities since its beginning in theearly postwar period, while quite a fewschools have kept their progress ever sincein spite of the quantitative development ofapparatus. It is wident that somedifficulties exist h pursuing practicescreatively even at present. Nevertheless wecan find some teachers, struggling towardsmaking better use of the system for mediaeducation, who are aware of theimportance of it in the present social andeducational circumstances.

2. Results of Questionnaire

% of in-school communication system use 100(nc20)% of audio receiving system use 100

% of visual receivineystem use 95Contents of the Pro rams no=74announcements and direction 17.6story telling 16.2music 13.5news of the season 10.8repeat of school broadcast programs 10.8signals and signs 5.4news topics 2.7community report 2.7drama ..2.7teacher's speech 1.4presentation of research results 1.4opinion presentation 1.4

others 5.4Sources of the Programs (no=34)broadcast programslocal production

14.755.9

prcwams on sale 29.4

BEST COPY AVAILABLE200


Disseminatin Time no=20recess (before class, intermission, & after school) 95.0class hours 5.0Purpose of Dissemination (no=31)enrichment of instruction 32.3opportunity of extracurricular activities 25.8channel of infonnation offerings 41.9

Ways to Attract Pupils to In-School Communicationpick up familiar topicsprogramming by request and questionnairespecification of audiencepromoting children's activitiesvariety of programs (quiz and interview)guiding mechanics operationutilizing school eventsProblems & Difficult in In-School Communicationmannerism makes kids dull toward itteachers cannot afford time for guiding childrenguiding children to develop appreciation ability by production ofprogramstminiig of teachers for leadersconsideration of suitable environment for autonomousmanagement by childrenneed for new equipment for better activities

, ,,,,:, (J i BEST COPY AVAILABLE

A HYPERMEDIA COMPUTER-AIDED PARASITOLOGYTUTORING SYSTEM

byGeorgios Theodoropoulos and Vassili Loumos

Introduction

The teaching of parasitology is abasic course to all life sciences curriculaand to date no computer-assisted tutoringsystem has been developed for thispurpose. By using Knowledge Pro®, anobject oriented software development tool,a hypermedia tutoring system for teachingparasitology to college students wasdeveloped.

Generally, a tutoring system containsa domain expert, a student model, apedagogical expert, and the user interface.In this project, particular emphasis wasgiven to the user interface design and theexpert knowledge representation.

The system allows access to theeducational material through hypermediaand indexing at the pace of the student.The hypermedia access is facilitatedthrough key words defined as hyper textand objects in pictures defined as hyperareas. The indexing access is based on alist of parameters which refers to variouscharacteristics of the parasites, e.g.,taxonomy, host, organ, etc. In addition,this indexing access can be used for testingthe student's level of understanding. Theadvantages of this system are its userfriendliness, graphical interface, and itsability to incorporate new educationalmaterial in the area of parasitology.

Computer assisted instruction is arecent development in the area of softwareengineering and refers to systems that cantutor humans. Their widespread use isdue to their advantages which are:individualized and self-adjusted level ofmaterial, remedial or accelerated process,immediate feedback with explanations,consistency of teaching, updated material,

20 -2

no location restriction, and variety ofpresentations (Van Horn, 1991).

Various interactive computer-assistedtutoring systems have been developed inthe area of veterinary medicine (Angarano,1992; Eljack, 1992; Lalier & Beauchemin,1992; Kazacos, Roesel, & Harrington,1992). The operation of these systems isbased on hypermedia technologies, whilethe man machine communication isfacilitated by a graphical user interface.

Hypermedia is an environment forhandling text and graphic informationenabling the user to switch betweenvarious topics in a non linear fashion byfollowing the paths defined by relatedideas (Bielawski & Lewand, 1991). Agraphical user interface (GUI) makesextended use of metaphors in a visualdisplay in order to communicate graphicalinformation (Laurel, 1990).

The teaching of parasitology is abasic course to all life sciences curriculabut up to now no computer-assistedtutoring system has been developed forthis purpose except a limited application ofHypercard® for teaching parasite lifecycles (Wharton, 1990).

By using Knowledge Pro®, anobject oriented software development tool,a hypermedia tutoring system for teachingparasitology to college students wasdeveloped. This object oriented systemcan be u cd by the student not only as aself-learning or auto-evaluation medi um,but also as a reference tool by applyingBoolean search on indexed data. Booleansearch is based on Boolean algebra(Lidsay & Norman, 1977), where keywords are used to establish a filter forsearch in text data.

196

Description of the Program

The program was developed byusing Knowledge Pro®, an object orientedsoftware development tool and wasdcsigned to meet four objectives:Knowledge incorporation, tutoring,indexing of key words for Boolean search,and random generation of quiz questionswith instant scoring.

Knowledge Incorporation

Educational material in the form oftext is incorporated in the system as ASCIIfiles. This material is divided in parts,chapters, sub-chapters, and so on down tothe level of the parasite which is referred tohere as the knowledge set. Eachknowledge set includes information on agiven parasite arranged as a list ofparameters describing variouscharacteristics of the parasite, e.g., hosts,life cycle, pathogenesis, etc. The divisionof the educational material follows thetaxonomic classification of the parasites,e.g., phylum, subphylum. class, etc.(Kassai, Corder del Campillo, Euzeby,Gaafar, Hiepe, & Himonas, 1988).Therefore the knowledge of the systemconsists of sets each of which has thesame construction (parameters) regardlessof the parasite. The knowledge sets arerelated with each other and theserelationships correspond to the taxonomicclassification of the parasites making aninverse knowledge tree (Figure 1). This

CHARACTERISTIC 1

CHARACTERISTIC 2

CHARACTERISTIC n


arrangement allows the infiniteincorporation of new educational materialby fitting the new knowledge sets in theexisting knowledge tree.

Educational material in the form ofimages is incorporated in the system ascompressed files created by a scanner(Hewlett Packard ScanJet IIc) using AldusPhoto-Styler®. Image files are stored inBMP format (Rosenfeld & Kak, 1982) inorder to be device independen:, that is theirpresentation will not be affected by thetype of the monitor. These files andrelevant text are linked to specific words inthe text defined as hyper words.Activation of a hyper word leads to thepresentation of the image and/or text linkedto it.

The educational material in the formof text and/or images with their relationallinkages serve as the domain of thesystem.

The Tutoring System

The tutoring system is addressed tostudents at the college level and contains asophisticated graphical user interfacewhich allows the student/user to access theeducational material in four differentinteractive modes.

The first mode is the Course Mode,where the student/user requests from theprogram to present the material in the

!PARASITES!

roilfothall-r

!PARASITE 1! !PARASITE 21 1 rtext/image

text/image

textlimage

Figure 1. Inverse Knowledge Tree

Computer-Aided Tutoring System

hierarchical series of lectures given in theclass during the semester.

The second mode is the ReviewMode, where the student/user requestsfrom the program to present a specificchapter from the whole material.

The third mode is the ReferenceMode, where the student/user uses keywords for Boolean searches in the entirematerial in order to locate specificinformation on a desired subject.

The fourth mode is the Self-Evaluation Mode, where the student/userrequests from the program a quiz on oneor more chapters in order to test his/herlevel of understanding of the material.

The above described tutoring systemserves as the pedagogical expert.

Indexing of Key Words

Indexing of key words isaccomplished by using a programdeveloped for this purpose which firstalphabetizes all the words of the entire textmaterial and then filters out commonwords (Figure 2). This process leads tothe creation of an indexed key worddatabase. This database is then used forBoolean searches in the text materialallowing the use of the system as areference tool.

Quiz Generation

Quizzes are generated randomly byusing a multiple-choice question andanswer database. This feat isaccomplished by using a programdeveloped for this purpose whichrandomly selects a set of questions fromthe database every time the student-userwishes to evaluate him/her self. Thestudent-user can select the quiz at the endof one or more chapters. For each quiz, atcmporary database is created in order tokeep the student's responses. Scoring ofthe quiz is executed automatically by theprogram at the end of each session. Also,the program can present the questions with

2 0 4

197

the correct answers.

The quizzes along with the tutoringsystem supplement each other andimplement the student model.

IMPORT TEXT I

IALPHABETTZEITEXT WORDS4.4

SEND NEXTWORD FOR

TESTING

ALLWORDSTESTED

NO

ADD WORD TOCOMMON WORDS

FILE

Figure 2. Key word/common wordidentification and indexing

Sample Run

The program starts by presenting thestudent-user with a window containing aseries of action buttons activating thcvarious interactive modes described above.For each mode selected, a series of follow-up windows are presented and lead thestudent-user through the educationalmaterial (Figure 3). At any point of thcprogram, the student-user can switch toany other interactive mode.

Conclusions

The easy accessibility and the newdevelopments in hardware and software

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Figure 3. Series

technologies make computers increasinglyuseful for various applications in the fieldof parasitology like image analysis(Kucera & Reznicky, 1991; Schall, 1989;Slomianny, 1990; Theodoropoulos &Theis, 1989, 1990), simulations (Barnes& Dodson, 1990; Mount, Haile, Davey, &Cookscy, 1991; Parry, Barratt, Jones,McKee, & Murray, 1992; Plaisier, vanOort, Remme, & Habbcma, 1991),

of follow-up windows

parasite identification (Theodoropoulos1988, 1989; Theodoropoulos & Loumos,1991, 1992), or tutoring (Wharton, 1990).

Generally, a tutoring system containsa domain expert, a student model, apedagogical expert, and the user interface(Brown & Sleeman, 1982; Kearsley,1987; Wegner, 1987). These conceptswere used to develop an innovative

205BEST COPY AVAILABLE

Computer-Aided Tutoring System

computer-aided parasitology tutoringsystem.

The present program is based onhypermedia and object orientedtechnologies and serves as a parasitologytutoring system for college level students.The scope of this program covers allaspects of parasitology like hosts, lifecycle, pathogenesis, etc. The educationalmaterial is presented through asophisticated GUI in the form of textand/or images. The main advantage of thissystem is that it allows the student tointeract with the computer-tutor in his/herown pace for self-learning and auto-evaluation.

The innovation of this system is itsreliance on object oriented structuresbetween knowledge sets allowinginteractive learning for the student-usersand unlimited capacity for new knowledgeincorporation.

Another innovation of this system isits ability to present the material in variousways. The system can present series oflectures or specific topics for review. Inaddition, the system can be used as areference tool by presenting key words oras a self-evaluation tool by generatingquizzes with auto-scoring capacity.

A limitation of this program is itsinability to support extended queries(SQL) due to its reliance on the built-infacility of Knowledge Pro®.

A future improvement of thisprogram can be its integration with amultimedia relational database for parasiteidentification (Theodoropoulos &Loumos, 1992) to serve as acomprehensive expert parasitologysystem.

Hardware Requirements

The use of the program requires theavailability of an IBM or compatiblepersonal computer (80386, 2 Mbytes ofRAM, VGA monitor and above) underMS-Windows 3-10.

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References

Angarano, D. W. (1992, June). Use ofcomputer assisted lessons to teachdermatology. Twelfth VeterinaryMedical Education Symposium, IowaState University, Ames, IA.

Barnes, E., H., & Dodson, R. J. (1990).Population dynamics ofTrichostrongylus colubri formis insheep: Computer model to simulategrazing systems and the evolution ofanthelminthic resistance. InternationalJournal for Parasitology, 20, 823-831.

Bielawski, L., & Lewand, R. (1991).Intelligent system design. New YorlcWiley.

Brown, J. S., & Sleeman, D. (1982).Intelligent tutoring systems. NewYork: Academic Press.

Eljack, A. H. (1992, June). Theruminant stomach. A hypermediacomputer-based instructional programusing hyper-card-environment.Twelfth Veterinary Medical EducationSymposium, Iowa State University,Ames, IA.

Kassai, T., Corder del Campillo, M.,Euzeby, J., Gaafar, S., Hiepe, T., &Himonas, C. A. (1 9 8 8).Standardized nomenclature of animalparasitic diseases (SNOAPAD).Veterinary Parasitology, 29, 299-326.

Kazacos, E. A., Roesel, 0. F., &Harrington, D. D. (1992, June). Useof interactive videodisk programs inteaching pathology. TwelfthVeterinary Medical EducationSymposium, Iowa State University,Ames, IA.

Kearsley, G. ( 1 98 7 ). Artificialintelligence and instruction:Applications and methods. Reading,MA: Addison-Wesley.

Kucera, J., & Reznicky, M. (1991).Differentiation of species of Eirneria

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from the fowl using a computerizedimage-analysis system. Fo liaParasitologica, 38, 107-113.

Lalier, R., & Beauchemin, R. (1992,June). Multimedia for teachingmicrobiology. "Hyperlaboratoire etHypermicrobiologie" TwelfthVeterinary Medical EducationSymposium, Iowa State University,Ames, IA.

Laurel, B. (1990). The art of humancomputer interface. Reading, MA:Addison-Wesley.

Lidsay, P., & Norman, D. A. (1977).Human information processing. NewYork: Academic Press.

Mount, G. A., Haile, D. G., Davey, R.B., & Cooksey, L. M. (1991).Computer simulation of Boophiluscattle tick (Acari: Ixodidae) populationdynamics. Journal of MedicalEntomology, 28, 223-240.

Parry, S., Barratt, M. E., Jones, S.,McKee, S., & Murray, J. D. (1992).Modelling coccidial infection inchickens: Emphasis on vaccination byin-feed delivery of oocysts. Journal ofTheoretical Biology, 157, 407-425.

Plaisier, A. P., van Oort marssen, G. J.,Remme, J., & Habbema, J. D.(1991). The reproductive lifespan ofOncocerca volvulus in West Africansavanna. Acta Tropica, 48, 271-284.

Rosenfeld, A., & Kak, A. (1982).Digital picture processing. AcademicPress.

Theodoropoulos, G. (1988). Computerdiagnosis of gastrointestinal helminthsof domestic and experimental animals.Computer Methods and Programs inBiomedicine, 26, 133-136.


Theodoropoulos, G. (1989). Computer-assisted diagnosis of gastrointestinalhelminths of domestic andexperimental animals. ComputerMethods and Programs inBiomedicine, 30, 261-264.

Theodoropoulos, G., & Loumos, V.(1991). A compiled computerprogram for assisting the diagnosis ofgastrointestinal helminths of humansand animals. Computer Methods andPrograms in Biomedicine, 36, 237-238.

Theodoropoulos, G., & Loumos, V.(1992, November). A multimediarelational database system for parasiteidentification. Accepted forpublication in Computer Methods andPrograms in Biomedicine.

Theodoropoulos, G., & Theis, J. H.(1989). Decrease of acid phosphataseactivity in murine peritonealmacrophages infected with Leishmaniadonovani. International Journal forParasitology, 19, 813-816.

Schall, J. J. (1989). The sex ratio ofPlasmodium gametocytes.Parasitology, 98, 343-350.

Slomianny, C. (1990). Three-dimensionalreconstruction of the feeding processof the malaria parasite. Blood Cells,16, 369-370.

Van Horne, R. (1991). Advancedtechnology in education.Brooks/Cole.

Wegner, E. (1987). Artificial intelligenceand tutoring systems. Los Altos, CA:Morgan Kaufmann.

Wharton, D. A. (1990). The use ofcomputer-aided learning for teachingparasite life cycles. InternationalJournal for Parasitology, 20, 709-712.

THREE-DIMENSIONAL MEDIA TECHNOLOGIES:POTENTIALS FOR STUDY IN VISUAL LITERACY

byHal Thwaites

Abstract

The three dimensional representation ofrecuuy has suffered from chronicmisconceptions over the years. Presently,there is a wealth of renewed research in 3Dbeing undertaken on a global scale. Thispaper presents a brief overview of three-dimensional media technologies (3Dmt)such as holography, 3D film, 3Dvideo/TV, virtual realities, and computerimaging. Future issues and concernsconclude the discussion.

Introduction

Our fascination with attempts tocreate the third dimension is nothing new,extending from the time of earlystereoscopes, into the realm of virtualrealities. The notion of 3D has alwaysgiven reference to more realness, ashuman perception functions in a 3D mode.Today we seek to heighten our mediatedexperiences with continued efforts towardperfecting spatial imaging systems. 3D isthe buzz-word of the 1990's even thoughnot all of the '3D' is factually stereoscopicin nature. 3D computer graphics aboundon television. 3D modeling is applied inmany technical and scientific fields, 3Dconcepts are used in spatial environmentdesign, while 3D medical imaging presentsa more real look inside the body. Theconcept of 3D has even been extended toencompass the theory of human memory(Pribram, 1991). 3D as a mode of humanthinking, is indeed becoming ubiquitous.

Current media

In this last decade of the twentiethcentury, new media are evolving from ajoint metamorphosis resulting from themerging of computing, communications,and imaging technologies, exemplified by

Figure 1.

Figure 1. Convergence of Media

It is at the intersections that manynew forms of media are developing. Thismerging is shaking things up (Leebaert,1991). Many of the new 3D mediatechnologies are the direct result of thesenew interactions. The computer is now anintegral part of both the creation and'display of stereoscopic images and spatialsound, which was unheard of on thepresent scale and sophistication, a decadeearlier.

Impediments to which we haveresigned ourselves are being smoothed,and altogether new products and media arebecoming possible. The way to figure outwhat needs to be done is throughexploring the human sensory and cognitivesystem and the ways that humans mostnaturally interact (Brand, 1987).

Three-dimensional mediatechnologies (3Dmt) have alwayspresented a challenge to researchers intheir acceptance and widespreadapplication as mass media. Throughouttheir evolution they have been applied insituations where we seek to create a moreaccurate representation of: reality, whereby3D adds critical information to actualimages; meta-reality, where 3Dtechnologies make visible phenomena orexperiences which arc beyond what we

202

can naturally perceive; and more recentlyin virtualreality, involving the creation oftotally artificial environments which mightnot physically exist or exist only in ourimaginations.

Computer Imaging

Computer graphics (CG) areparticularly well suited to the creation of3D images due to the high resolution andprogrammable nature of the currentdisplays. There are several proprietary 3DCG systems available in both the UnitedStates and Japan. Alternating frametechnology is most often employed topresent the vibwer with the appropriate(right and left eye), stereoscopic imageswhich are then viewed with LC (LiquidCrystal) shutter glasses, such as thesystems made by Tektronix and theStereographics Corporation (Robinson,1990). A flat panel back-lit LC display,using a lenticular screen forautostereoscopic (glassless) viewing, hasbeen developed by DimensionTechnologies Inc. of New York. Thissystem is full-colour, and can be interfacedwith common PCs (Eichenlaub &Martens, 1990). Applications of 3D in theCG field include the following: satellitemapping and cartography, CAD, medicaldisplays of CT and MRI images, scientificvisualization, weather analysis, interactivemodeling, simulation and the military(Lipton, 1988).

Computer graphics have also beenused in film making, where the images arescreened via conventional polarizedprojection techniques, after the initialcreation of left-right views in a digitalform. An example of the commercialapplication of 3D computer graphics is theaward winning stereoscopic, animatedshort film entitled "Knickknack"(Alspektor, 1989), produced by Pixar ofSan Rafael, California.

Even more important for theadvancement of 3D computer animationwas the overwhelming success of the new70mm. lmax format computer generatedSOLIDOTM 3D film, "Echoes of the Sun,"


which was co-produced by the ImaxCorporation of Canada and Fujitsu ofJapan for the Osaka, EXPO'90 exhibition.

Thirty-one thousand high resolutioncomputer images (right-eye and left-eyeviews) were created using Fujitsu'ssupercomputers over the period of twenty-one months, in order to produce the tenminutes of stereoscopic CG framesincorporated in the twenty minute Imaxfilm. Echoes was the world's first IMAXSOLIDOTM full color 3D wrap-aroundmotion picture which is projected on aspherical screen, totally eliminating thecut-off effect of the frame. The film showshow the process of photosynthesisconverts the sun's energy into the energystored in plants and then how this energyis used by humans for motion of muscles.This film also played to capacity audiencesat EXPO'92 in Seville, Spain (Naimark,1992), and is on permanent exhibit at theFuturoscope Complex in La Villette,France in addition to a new SOLIDOTMtheatre recently built outside Tokyo,Japan.

Television and Video

Significant research has beenundertaken in both conventional NTSCtelevision and video display technologyand in specialized applications (Smith,1989). Japanese researchers are workingtowards 3D TV systems which mayultimately find way into our homes.Toshiba has marketed a consumer 3-DCamcorder, using LC shutter glasses and aconventional NTSC television monitor.The system provides an acceptable 3DTVimage, (with some flicker due to the lowframe rate), for certain consumerentertainment applications. Other NTSCvideo systems which operate at a higherframe rate, to eliminate the image flicker,have been applied in the medical andscientific fields.

Research into autostereoscopic orglassless 3DTV is being carried out on aninternational scale (Hamasaki, 1990)including work at the Institute of IndustrialScience at the University of Tokyo, using

4 0

Three-Dimensional Media

the Braun tube technology and at theHeinrich-Hertz Institute in Berlin usingprojection methods. NHK television inJapan has made important steps towardautostereoscopic TV with the exhibition ofa 70-inch LC display at the recent NHKScience and Technical Research Labs 1993Open House in Tokyo. The keytechnologies supporting this stereoscopicdisplay are 3D HDTV cameras, 1-11YINlaser videodisc players, high performanceHDTV liquid crystal (LCD) videoprojectors with resolution totaling ninemillion pixels, and a large size lenticularscreen, for glassless viewing. This 3DHi-Vision display system has widespreadapplication in the fields of home 3DHDTV, art museums, entertainment,medicine, education, robotics, and virtualenvironment systems.

The HDTV'90 Colloquium inOttawa, Canada, was the site for the NorthAmerican premiere of the NHKstereoscopic Hi-Vision 3DTV system.This system uses a conventional polarizedprojection technique. The viewer wearshigh quality polarizing glasses to view aprojected image on a screen up to twohundred diagonal inches in size (Yuyama,1991). The images are extremely stable,flicker-free, bright and of high resolution,providing an excellent viewing experiencefor the audience, with none of the sideeffects which were the typical complaintsof older 3D video projection technologies.Current programs range from recorded arttreasures, travel scenes, underwatersequences, medical images to completeworks of fiction for entertainment.

The rock group, The Rolling Stonesused the PullTimelm 3D technique (basedon the Pulfrich effect, viewable with orwithout the special glasses), designed byGerald Marks of New York City, to create3D effects for three of the songs in their1990 Steel Wheels concert video whichwas broadcast widely on cable musicchannels throughout North America.Altogether these developments represent aconcerted effort to bring three dimensionaltelevision to the largest possible audience,since TV is the most pervasive mass

210

203

medium of the late 20th century. Fordetails and characteristics of the current 3Dtelevision systems, refer to Figure 2.

Holography

Spatial imaging using the medium ofholography has had widespreadrecognition with the proliferation ofholograms in our daily lives. However itstill remains much of a mystery to thegeneral public. As a result of the workcarried out at the MIT Media Lab, underthe direction of Dr. Stephen Benton,holograms have progressed to encompassfull color, large scale size, and totallysynthetic generation via the computer.

Recent advances have been made inreal-time computer generated holography.Although the images are small, they arebright, have high resolution and exhibit allof the depth cues found in holography(Hilaire, Benton, et al., 1990). These arethe first steps towards what could be calledholographic video. We are still many yearsaway from having floating 3D imagesbeamed into our homes. Currentapplications of holographic imaginginclude large format displays, full colourholograms, motion stereograms, medicalimages from MRI data, satellite surveydata, and many others, ranging fromentertainment to advertising.

The human impact of holography liesin the fact that the image is perceptuallyattached to the viewer's eyes. It demandsa high level of involvement and interactionsince the virtual information space exists inthe mind of the viewer (Malik & Thwaites,1990). This medium has a radicallydifferent means of communication from3D media presented on a flat surface.Here the existence of the screen or frameeffect is removed and the absence ofspatial cues (except those presented withinthe holographed object) cause the strongestinformation impact on the viewer.Holography is governed more by the lawsof scenography (the spatial organizationand orchestration of an event or medium),(Polieri, 1971), within the realization ofthe full 28 axis of a Necker Cube (sec


4.

These Dllmenellonag Tegovilallon SySg Srfit

System KeyPrinciple -Tech.

EyeglassType

ViewableWithout

DeliverySystem

Comments

SpatialTechnology

Color-discriminatoryanaglyphic

Red/greenanaglyphic

No TVbroadcast,videocassette

Color not alwaysnatural, imageslose sharpness

NuoptixColor-discriminatoryanaglyphic withPu arch Effect

Dark purple/pale greenlenses

Yes TV broadcast.videocassette

Needs motion withinimage for 3D effect.Halo around imagesseen without glasses.

Pull Time 3-0 Pulfnch Effect Clear/Darklenses

Yes TV broadcast.videocassette

Needs motion withinimage for 30 effect.

3-0 TV(Toshiba, etc.)

Polarized planediscnminatory

Polanzed &synchronizedLCD

No TV broadcast.videocassette,videodisc

Good colors.excellent spatialeffects, marred bydimness & flicker

Vision Il Parallax & timediscnminatory.autostereoscopic

None Yes TV broadcast,videocassette,videodisc, film

Very good texture.depth enhancement,full color.

Braun Tubs(Hamasaki Lab)

AutostereoscopicLenticular sheet

None Yes Closed circuit,real-time

Bright images.presently onlymonochromatic

3D Projection(Heinnch-Hertz Inst.)

AutostereoscopcLenticular screen,projection

None Yes Closed circuit.real-time

Bright. wide-anglemotion parallax,monochromatic

30 Plasma(Flat Panel)

(NHK)

AutostereoscopicLenticular screenplasma display

None Yes Closed circuit Glassless. flat panemonochromatic

70" 3D HDTV(NHK & Sanyo)

AutostereosoopicLCD, projectionlenticular screen

Noce Yes TV broadcast,videocassette,videodisc

No glasses,large screen,full color,hi-resolution

180"3D Hi-Vision

(NI-1K)

High Definitionpolarized,video Projection

2 channel.polarizedplanediscnminatory

INC TV broadcast.videocassette,videodisc

High-definitionbright, wide-screendigital sound

Figure 2. Overview of

Figure 3). Since the viewer is not rigidlyseated in a precise position, and is able tomove through the holographic space,many of the spatial cues laboriouslycreated on a 2D flat screen are notnecessary, since the viewer nowexperiences them in a spatial, hodologicfashion.

Film/Cinema

Three dimensional film technologyhas been in use for over one hundredyears, extending from the first screening at

3D television systems

the Paris International Exhibition of 1890.After experiencing two brief periods of a3D film boom, the first in 1953 and thesecond in 1982, we find that today's 3Dmovies are far from conventional mediaexperiences. Widespread public exposureto high-quality 3D films can be found inthe Disney theme parks with films such as"Magic Journeys" and "Captain EO," andat many other special venues and all recentinternational expositions.

Science North, outside of SudburyOntario, opened a 3-D 70mm film and

Three-Dimensional MediaTechnologies

laser adventure entitled "Shooting Star" inthe summer of 1990. This filmincorporates special in-theatre laser effectswhich arc synchronized with the 3-D filmscenes to create a totally unique viewingexperience. The theatre is speciallyconstructed to maximize the audio-visualexperience for the audience. The story iswritten around an ancient Indian legendwhich blends the high-tech 3-D imageryinto a mystical and involving tale.

The Imax Corporation of Canada hasbeen the world leader in ultra-large screen,3D productions using IMAX 3D and thenew SOLIDO 3D system, which uses thedomed screen (Naimark, 1992). Thesefilms are evidence of the meta-realityaspect of 3D. Todays' 3D film experiencetakes us far beyond the reality of ourphysical world, to totally new experiencesthrough the use of the third dimension.There are currently four new 3D IMAXfilms in production. It is certain that 3Dfilm technology in its many forms willcontinue to be a prominent form of massentertainment well into the next century.

NECKER CUBE

III. Diagonals int.noriterior

II. Orthogonal.

IV. Diagonals( 2-"1Interior

Figure 3. Necker Cube

Virtual Reality/Simulation

By the end of the 1980s virtualreality was understood to be a surrogate ormetaphysical environment created bycommunications and computing systems(Wright, 1990). Interactivity incommunication media began to rise in

2 I

205

importance allowing virtual realities tobecome the 3D environment of theuser/audience through which they canperform their own acts of creativeexperience.

Current systems being used for thecreation of virtual realities consist of: awide-angle stereoscopic display unit(LCD), glove-like devices for multipledegrees-of-freedom tactile input, speechrecognition technology, gesture trackingdevices, 3D auditory display and speech-synthesis technology, computer graphicand video image generation equipment.When combined w magnetic head andlimb position tracking technology, thehead-coupled display presents visual andauditory imagery that appears tocompletely surround the user in 3-space(Fisher, 1990).

Even at this early stage, virtualrealities are touching the realm of the veryprivate mindspace of the user, renderingthe VR medium a welcome change fromthe information overload of today's masscommunication media. Computertechnologies, combined with thedevelopment of sophisticated softwareprograms and expert systems, gave earlyattempts to create virtual realities theinsatiable breadth and depth of the humanmind's fantasy. Now it is possible torealize 3D virtual realities outside thehuman brain as a non-separable andinclusive world that is entered and crossedat the pace of the user, being co-created bythem.

A Biocybernetic Viewpointon 3D Media

Our research at the 3Dmt Center inMontreal has centered on a systemicapproach to 3-D media, from abiocybernetic viewpoint. The field ofbiocybernetics is concerned with how thehuman sensory system respords to andprocesses information, and the resultingimpact it has on us. Our main focus hasbeen with the individual, either observingor creating the three dimensional mediaprogram. This is an area of an information

206

process or information chain. By the terminformation, I mean an energetic changewith a catalytic characteristic, whichproduces an impact on the viewer(Thwaites & Malik, 1987). Theinformation chain in its simplest scheme,has three parts as described in Figure 4.

Information Transmission RespondingSource --"'" Conditions Receiver/s

3DTV. filmbantam. VR

room. cinema individual.theater. exhibit group. audiences

Figure 4.Information Chain Scheme

Each part of the 3D media event (theprogram itself, the room and means bywhich it is perceived, and the person(s)perceiving it), can contain parts of the finalinformation. If any part of the informationchain is altered, the information itself ischanged. The incoming information actsas a catalyst to other mental processeswhich occur due to the processing andstorage of information in the viewer'sbrain and can thus affect the overallimpact. As 3D media become moresophisticated and interactive, respect forthe information chain and informationdesign of the software/hardware interfaceswill be of utmost importance to theirsuccess (Malik & Thwaites, 1990). Theincreased time and budgetary constraintsthat are often placed on 3D media projectsleave little room for costly experiments andwasted resources. Protocols andmethodologies for information design areincluded in the publication listed by theauthor (Thwaites & Malik, 1987).

3Dmt Outlook

From a research standpoint, theauthor can identify the following concernsfor the future: a) The implementation of 3Dtechnologies and production practices inthe media of film, television, computers,virtual realities, sound, and dataspace(numerical imaging of space forresearchers working predominantly withnumbers); b) research into spatial impact:history, basics, biomctry andbiocybernetics, c) measurement of 3Dspace in thc human mind; d) the


application of information designmethodologies to three dimensional mediaproduction practices; and e) thedevelopment of common standards andmethodologies for future internationalexchange of R&D in three dimensionalmedia technologies.

The implications for the study ofvisual literacy are to make the transitionfrom conventional 2D visual images, intothe realm of stereoscopic, true spatialimaging applications, whereby 3-space isreal and not merely represented or impliedthrough traditional techniques.

There is a substantial differencebetween technological, psychophysio-logical and semantic (content related)factors which are responsible for thecreation of 3D media technologies,artpieces or programs, and the factorswhich are responsible for the creation of a3D media response (information impact) inthe viewer. What sometimes amounts to asmall, or negligible cue from the point ofview of the author (for example thecinematographer, holographer), may bethe paramount reason which causes a high,low, or even non-existent 3D informationimpact for the people, the receivers, whoare perceiving it. Therefore, the scale andimportance of the 3D cues from theviewpoint of the artist, producer, orviewer, and the technological requirementsof each 3D medium, may result in adifferent hierarchy entirely. Thisnecessitates an information designapproach when employing 3Dtechnologies in the production of mediaartworks.

An entirely new generation ofvisually literate users/receivers isbeginning to emerge. The more widelyspread 3D media technologies become, themore exposure the general public will haveto them (refer to Figure 5). Only throughthe exploration of the information impactof true spatial imaging, can we, asconcerned visual media researchers, beable to develop strategies to educate futuremedia professionals.

2 1 3

Three-Dimensional MediaTechnologies 207

eto Med lik Agog 110Mellane

T CCommunicationBroadcasting

PackagedPrograms

Presentations &E xhibitions

VisualDatabases

Digital DataProcessing

RMass & Specific

AudiencesMass Audience Mass & Specific

Audience/UsersSpecific & Public

UsersSpecialized Users

Is

,

Home-Theater

Sports Events

Still Pictures

ComputerGraphics

Video Games

Videodiscs

ElectronicCinema

Movies

Multi-vision

Flight Simulation

Virtual Realities

Public Displays

Education

EnvironmentalImages

Advertising

Gallery&

MuseumCollections

Catalogues

InternationalTreasures

CAD/CAM

Architecture

Auto Design

Satellitedata imaging

Medical Imaging

Figure 5: Potential and current applications of 3D media technologies(IS=Information Source, TC=Transmission Conditions, R=Receiver)

Conclusion

As 3D media become more pervasivein society, and the fixed perceptualstereotypes of the general public weaken,the role of the 3D information designerwill become one of increasing importanceas we shift toward the media of the nextdecade. Perhaps in the distant future,someone will look back on the history ofthe twentieth century and find, like thefourteenth, that it marked a greattransition. We now sit on the cuspbetween the old and new media. Maybe itushers in a period of a 3D mediarenaissance.

Acknowledgments

The author would like to express histhanks to Dr. NiKOS Metallinos, Chair ofthe IVLA'93 for his kind invitation toparticipate in this Symposium. I alsoexpress my thanks to all researchers inthree-dimensional media for theircontributions to the advancement of thisrapidly developing field. For furtherinformation on companies or systems orfor updates to information in this paper,please contact the author.

214

References

Alspektor, R. (1989, October).RenderMan. Breathes life intomodeling. Microcad News, 14-18.

Brand, S. (1987). The media lab. NewYork: Viking Press.

Eichenlaub, J., & Martens, A. (1990,May). Stereo display without glasses.Advanced Imaging.

Fisher, S. S. (1990). Virtualenvironments, personal simulation andtelepresence. In H. Thwaites (Ed),Three dimensional media technology.Montreal, Canada: 3Dmt Center.

Gainsborough, J. (1990, July). Letterfrom Japan. Image Technology, 244-249.

Hamasaki, J. (1990). 3D imaging andtelevision, state of the art in Japan.Journal of 3D Images, 4(4).

Hilaire, P., Benton, S., et al. (1990).Electronic display system forcomputational holography. SP1E,1212(20).

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Leebaert, D. (1991). Media 2001: Thefuture of computing andcommunications. Cambridge, MA:MIT Press.

Lipton, L. (1988, March). Displays gaindepth. Computer Graphics World.

Malik, M., & Thwaites, H. (1990). Abiocybernetic view of spatialinformation impact. In H. Thwaites(Ed), Three dimensional mediatechnology (pp. 75-88). Montreal,Canada: 3Dmt Research Center.

Naimark, M. (1992). Expo'92 Seville.Presence, 1(3), 364-369. Cambridge,MA: MIT Press.

Polieri, J. (1971). Scénographie,sémiographie. Paris: Denoel/Gonthier.

Pribram, K. H. (1991). Brain &perception: Holonomy and structure in


figural processing. Hillsdale, NJ:Lawrence Erlbaum.

Robinson, P. (1990, June). Stereo 3D.Computer Graphics World, 68-74.

Smith, C. W. (1989, Junc). The presentstatus of 3-D processes. ImageTechnology, 224-227.

Thwaites, H., & Malik, M. (1987).Biocyberne tic communicationresearch. Montreal, Canada:Concordia University Printing.

Wright, K. (1990). The road to the globalvillage. Scientific American, 262(3),83-94.

Yuyama, I. (1991). 3-D HDTV.Proceedings of the international joinssession of ITEC'91 and 3Dmt research(pp. 627-630). Tokyo & Montreal:ITE and 3Dmt.

;.1 r4 .h. J

/ I irk i... .s-/R .1 ri:d ii:s'xi) ivi;A' ISTIt' I 'r- 71.R TS

THE ROLE OF INTERPRETATION IN COMMUNICATIONTHEORY

byJames A. Anderson

In American baseball, there are therepositions on the crucial issue of umpiringballs and strikes:

"I call them as they are.""I call them as I see them.""They aren't anything until I call them."

Scholars working the fields ofcommunication theory and research havevariously ignored or problematized therelationship between sign and meaning. Itis, of course, the fundamental relationshipupon which all such theory and researchfindings must rest. As with mostfundamental notions it remainscharacteristically unsettled (Sheriff, 1989).Philosophers of science are generallyharsh in their appraisal of an earlyresolution. W. V. 0. Quine (1953) arguesthat we can hardly know "what we aretalking about" and Roth (1987) declaresthat there is no proof of meaning.Nonetheless both write, a performancewhich offers at least tacit agreement thatsomething can both be said and read.

Sign and Meaning

This paper is an attempt to break intothe relationship between sign andmeaning, not with any intent at aresolution, but to catalogue the differentpositions taken and to investigate the workthat gets done from these positions. It isPeirce's notion of the triadic nature of thesign which begins our difficulty. Peircesees the semiotic nature of the sign beingfilled by its (a) material trace (the physicalwork, symbol, icon, etc.), (b) semioticobject, and (c) the relationship and itsrecognition between the trace and itsobject.

Questions are raised as to the mannerin which material facts produce a

signifying potential, the character of thesemiotic object and the nature of therelationship that mediates sign andsignifies as well as the possibility and itsextent of our control over that relationship.These questions are raised at both pointsof focus within communication, the realmof symbol production or the move fromthe cognitive interior to the semiotic exportand the realm of symbol interpretation orthe move from the exterior sign to someconscious or performative understanding.

In the realm of production, thequestions are generally these: What is theunformed resource, for example, of thewords on this page? Who is the meaningmaker? What is the site of the work ofencoding? What are the resources ofmeaning making? How are thoseresources made available to the meaningmaker? What is the necessity of intent?What is the formulation of an intent tomean? What is the recognition of theresources to accomplish that intent? Howis its satisfaction accomplished (encoded insign choice)? And where is its realization?

In the realm of interpretation, thequestions might begin with: How is thesign recognized as a sign? What are thestructural/genetic/learned/idiopathic com-ponents in that recognition and subsequentinterpretation? Who is the meaningmaker? What is the site of interpretation?What role does production intentionalityplay in sign recognition and sense making?What is the character and moment ofsemiosis? How are the resources ofsemiosis engaged? What is the nature ofthe product of scmiosis? What is theconclusion of the interpretive event ortask?

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212

Communities of Answers

There are, of course, extensiveliteratures on nearly everyone of thesequestions, and we will do no more thantouch the surface of each. One way tobegin this analysis is to describe the centralpoints along the range of positions fromwhich answers have been developed.These centroids (if you will) can be plottedacross the degree of determinacy in signcharacter, encoding, decoding, andinterpretation. (Comparisons of this sortcan be found in Outhwaite, 1987;Teichman, 1988; and Terwee, 1990,among many others.)

On the Far Right: NaiveEmpiricism and Brute Sense Data

We might begin at the mostdeterminant position, one that has beendubbed the "brute sense data" orphysicalist position. This position echoesthe naive empiricism of Bacon, Locke, andHume in that phenomenal world is a set ofnatural signs which represents a set of trueconditions (Teichman [1988] provides afair review of this argument). In thisposition, the character of the sign iswholly reputable and is responsible forencoding, decoding, and interpretation.Language and other constructed signs canbe literally true. Something can be meantand encoded without error given an act ofnature or the proper level of competence.Semiosis is the "natural" decodingoperation of thc sentient instrument whichis a trustworthy observer of the sign andits encoded meaning. Interpretation is anelaborated understanding of the sign in itssetting and the purposes we have for it. Itis directed by right reasoning.

We can recognize this physicalistposition from the close of the sixteenthcentury, and clearly see it as a fundamentalargument of empirical science yet today. Ithas resisted efforts to tear it down but itserosion has been in earnest since thepartitioning of the mind by Freud and Jungand the partitioning of reality by Americanpragmatists and continental scholars.Nonetheless, behaviorism was and


remains the obvious restatement of theprimacy of the stimulus. Many studies incommunication, particularly effects andliteracy studies, reflect the behavioristtradition 2..nd are conducted "as if the brutesense d:tta position were true" while theauthors would probably demur that "ofcourse it's not."

The "as if" portion of that claim isupheld by any study which (a) holds thatcontent has a definitive meaning, (b) treatscontent as the delivery system of thatmeaning, (c) declares content to be theagent of some consequence in an audience,and (d) treats the audience as a reactant.Such studies have adopted an "as if"stance on the physicalist's site. Theresearcher first asserts both an ontologicaland praxeological claim by declaringcontent to be something--violent,pornographic, scary, informative,persuasive--to someone else. Thesubsequent behavior of the someone elseis attributed to the content exposure.Examples of these "as if" studies wouldinclude the classic Berkowitz (e.g., 1963)and Bandura and respective colleagues(1961, 1963) studies as well very recentones by Phillips (1983), Rosenthal(1986), Wilson (1991), and Zillmann andBryant (1982).

Breaking the Connection:The Introduction of Perception

By the close of the nineteenthcentury, the general belief in theunmediated character of sense data gaveway to the recognition that humanunderstanding required a perceptualprocess to intervene between sensation andcognition. Continuous sensory data had tobe perceptually organized for us toexperience the world's phenomena.Encoding was no longer wholly dependenton the character of the sign and there wasslippage between encoding and decoding,so that the sign and its interpretation wereno longer one. Perceptions were (andgenerally are) nonetheless considered to beauthoritative representations of actualphenomena although error and bias canoccur.

2 "A.

Communication Theory 213

There arose a large class of studieswhich examine the perceptual processthewhole Gestalt school, for example. Thesestudies hold perception to be an orderly,reliable process with predictable failures(any of the bent line perceptual tricks) andproblem areas. (As an aside it should benoted that any declared failure has to bejudged against a more privilegedperception. A line, therefore, is straight tothe ruler but bent to the eye and the choiceof which one is true is conventionAlymade.)

Perception has also been used toindicate a subjective response. Studies ofthis sort have titles like "Perceived frightvalues of horror films by 8 year olds" or"Perceived attributions of genderdifferentiated characters by adult males"(for an actual example see David [1992]).The implied argument is that there areeither real fright values/attributions (e.g.,the classic "knife in the hand" study) orthat there is no objective basis for claimingparticular fright values or attributions, andconsequently the ones expressed by therespondent groups is a characteristic oftheir taxonomy (for an example, see Frost& Stauffer, 1987).

The subjective is further developedin studies which use "relevance triggers."These studies (e.g., Inyengar, 1979)attribute differences in outcomes to deviceswhich serve to position the respondent(usually by reminding them of somedoctrinal stance).

Both are arguments that one's visionof reality is marked by socialconditioning', but at the same time,because the researcher can determining thereal or the objective such markings can beresisted by the well trained. That thisgood training can be extended to others isone of the principal tenets of mediaeducation (Anderson, 1980). It is seen intraining efforts to produce the skills thatresult in the right perception of deceptiveor otherwise inappropriate media fare.

Perceptual processes are also theunderlying support for interventions in

2

which one message (and resultantunderstandings) is to form the basis of theperception of some subsequentpresentation (see Donohue, Henke, &Meyer, 1983). Such studies are extensionsof the forewarned is forearmed principle.For example, children who had theopportunity to handle real earthwormsprior to their exposure to a film clip whichdepicted a giant earthworm monster hadreduced fear responses (Weiss, et al., inpress). The prior exposure was seen asdirecting the effect of the film.

The precept that perception is arequirement of human understanding hasgeneral acceptance among the scientificcommunity. Its application, however,varies widely.

In the majority of effects studies, itsoperation is either ignored or considered tobe a constant across all respondents. Thistransparent perceptual process iseffectively a return to brute sense data.When perception appears in effectsstudies, it is often used as a marker ofrespondent typification by class, gender,race, education, and the like (e.g., Zemach& Cohen, 1986). These typifications arcaccomplished by differentiated responsesto material which in itself is consideredperceptually neutral across these categoriesof influence. The operation of perception,then, is considered a constant across type.

In some studies, the issue ofperceptual error or bias is inserted (e.g.,Vidmar & Rokeach, 1974). Perceptualbias must necessarily imply somealternative non-biased position from whichit can be viewed. Usually this position isthat of common sense (held by theresearcher).

Relevance triggers and interventionstudies offer a more complex applicationarguing that perception can be shaped atthe moment of reception of the focalmessage. The step beyond these studies isthe argument that perception must beshaped (and is, therefore, in each andevery case somehow shaped) at anymoment of perception. Nonetheless, the

214

potential of that step shows perception tobe the social science equivalent to thedeconstructionist subjectivity--therelevance trigger as interpellation.

Perception puts the character of themessage at the point of reception in play.Beyond the rules of competent production,the perceptionist has little to say about themessage as encoded. In most perceptualanalyses, that encoding is fully justified byauthorial intent (it is a different communitywhich introduces polysemy).

The legacy of naive empiricism isclearly seen in the loose and friendly wayin which perception offers its presence toresearch. It imposes no requirement tooaccount for its operation, but one can use itif desired. Researchers are free both tohold to perceptual processes and topresume that they have no effect, thattreatment messages can change perceptionsbut research protocols will not, that othersare subjective but researchers are not, thatthe untrained are biased and the trained aretrue. A more difficult presence wouldrequire, at the least, researchers toabandon any claim of what a message isprior to its interpretation by a targetaudience and would compel the analysis ofthat interpretation in any study of effect.

Perception remains, at this writing, atheoretical device to solve anomalies whichhave arisen in testing the central empiricalclaim of a generally unmediatedengagement of phenomena, material, andsemiotic. There is little evidence as tomaterial operation. As Bolles (1990, p.xi) notes, "Not only do we not know howperception works but we haven't a clue asto how it might work." Its character intheory and method is firmly in our ownhands.

Creating the Semiotic Object

In most perception studies, we arelooking at the perception of something.Theres is a material, factual object with areality independent of the perception perse. This is the independent character ofthe signified. For example, Pettersson


(1988) speaks of a "figure" whichbecomes the number 13 when placed in asequence of numbers and the letter B whenplaced in a sequence of letters. It,however, pre-exists as a figure before it isperceived as a letter or a number.

The theoretical break betweenmaterial and semiotic objects comes withthe claim that the figure's existence as afigure is also a perception. Indeed, allobjects are the product of the sign. Thematerial facts of their existence are thebounded persistences of reflection,refraction, absorption, and the like. Thoseboundaried persistences become what canbe known when they are coalesced into asemiotic object. (A relationship ofpersistences becomes a chair only in thepresence of a mind, although therelationship continues even in the mind'sabsence.)

This move changes the phenomenalworld from a world of material objects to apolysemic world of material semioticpotentials. In this latter world, there arematerial foundations for what is seen, butwhat is seen is always the product of themind (Gibson [1966] and Sacks [1993]call this the creation of a perceptual self).

While images of Berkelcyism andtrees falling in the forest may dance in ourheads, there are positions in thisphenomenological constructionism whichwork in the same way as the physicalist'sbrute sense data. One need only to posituniversal rules governing the relationshipbetween material potentials and resultantsemiotic objects to return us to thebeginning. We start to move toward thewonderland of Lewis Carroll when werelease the semiotic object from theuniversal sentience (or at. least universalhuman sentience) of Peirce and Husserland (a) cultural processes enter in theequation, so that the same materialfoundations are used to produce culturallydifferent semiotic objects (culturallydifferent boundaries of color is the usualexample); (b) the semiotic object is greaterthan the material foundation can warrant(pictures might be an example); (c) the


material foundation is itself a set of humanpractices which must be understoodsemiotically (the idea of justice).

We move closer to the Red Queenwhen by defining the semiotic object as theset of socially determined understandingsin play for some material foundation (whatCrapanzano, 1992 calls "centering") insome cultural era or, more radically insome community of understanding. Byputting what is signified in play, we affirmthe social construction of reality and openthe door to different ways of thinkingacross generations and communities. Theresult is that collectives of the sameostensible language group use the samematerial resources of semiosis to achievein their well-practiced and naturalizedmethods different worlds of everyday life(Morely's [1980, 1986] work in castebased understandings of soap operas agood example). The sign remains reliable(within limits of perception ) within acommunity but not across communities.The question remains as to the size, scope,quality, and character of reality definingcollectives. Were one finds an answer inthis liberation of the jointly-held mind tocreate the reality of its understanding is thedefining point of theoretic andmethodological ontology.

Whatever one's ontological position,the constructionists ferrying of objectivityfrom the phenomenal world into the realmof collectively governed cognition changesa number of fundamental tenets (a gooddevelopment of these is in Seung [1982]):Reality is no longer universal and isdeterminate only within communityboundaries (even if the boundariesencompass us all). The individual is nolonger the measure; the collective standsin that place. We no longer perceive apreexisting object but create a perceptionout of possibilities. The adjudication oferror is no longer from a standardindependent of the researcher. In sum, thetrustworthiness of the sign as well as itsability to drive an interpretation arereduced to collective boundaries, andencoding and decoding are volatilepractices as they migrate across those

221

boundaries.

The Final Deconstruction:Attacking the Character of the Sign

Remembering that the Peircean signis composed of a material trace (natural orcomposed), the object for which it standsand the acknowledged relationshipketween the two (Noth, 1992), our work..0 this point has been to consider themanner in which the material trace isrecognized in perceptual processes and themethods of social construction by whichthe semiotic object is formed. Throughoutthose two analyses, once the material traceis grasped in perception, its object(however achieved) is presented in areliable relationship. I have called thistrustworthiness of the sign. I believe itreasonably represents, along withperception and social construction, asignificant boundary among differenttheoretical communities. We are about tocross that boundary.

Our philosophic guides are the likesof Schleiermacher, Dilthey, Kierkegaard,Husserl, Heidigger, Gadamer, and ofcourse Derrida, but we also gain directionfrom American pragmatists, socialinteractionists, and interpretivesociologists. In crossing the boundary weabandon any transcendent relationshipbetween sign and meaning. Instead wefocus our efforts on understanding how asign is always in the process of becomingmeaningful, always in the process ofcreating the relationship between what canbe recognized as the possibility ofunderstanding and what can beunderstood.

From Derrida, ("Speech andPhenomena," 1972) to Barthes ("Pleasureof the Text," 1975) Eco ("Semiotics andthe Philosophy of Language," 1984) toCaputo ("Radical Hermeneutics," 1987)the hermeneutic position--this position ofthe other side--argues that signs are thecontingent means of managing the flux ofthe present. Signs rather than beingreferential are encyclopedic. They reachout in every direction in an infinite

216

potential which can bc but partially realizedin any instance. Signs are the command tomake meaning in a collectivelyrecognizable, local performance of sensemaking.

What something means, therefore, isanswerable only in the present, only at thesite of considerable efforts which providefor its construction and must be answeredanew at the next asking. That answer willhave to take into account the tensionbetween collective efforts to sustainmeaning (through persistent andoverlapping performances) and thenecessity of its local and partial expressionby some agent2 of that collective. Theserequirements in no way deny that retinasrespond to light energy in predictableways, that brains reliably recognize thestimuli of their perceptions, and that mindsarc shaped by culture and the practices ofsocialization. They simply claim thatretinas, brains, and minds are not enoughto understand meaning. One must alsounderstand action for it is in action thatmeaning may become.

Now before we all drift out of sight,the methodological consequences for thistheoretical stance are (a) to establish theframework of on-going effort whichpermits mcaning construction as the targetfor our methods; (b) to nominate methodswhich reveal on-site the material practicesof that effort; and (c) to recognize that thefacts revealed arc themselves the productof some othcr framework. Using collectiveresources, thc agent meaning makerachieves some local understanding. Thatlocal understanding can be repeatedelsewhere and by others but that repetitionis its Own work.

Hermeneuticists have divided alongtwo lines: One, following thephenomenological trail, has held to theprimacy of language in constitutingconsciousness. The other, moreexistentialist, has held to action as thcmeans by which thc self appears. Thistheoretical division has shown itself in thcpractice of scholarship by the appearanceof textual based critical analysis (Carey,


1989; Huck, 1993; Grossberg, 1984) andperformance based interpretive ethno-graphy (Anderson & Goodall, in press;Anderson & Meyer, 1988; Goodall, 1991;Rose, 1990).

When scholars abandon thetrustworthiness of the sign, they are facedwith the continuous study of the methodsof the production of collective resources,of one's access to them, of the subjectivityof agency, of the authority of action, andof the voice of its extension. All the whilethey are called to realize that they are theauthors of this knowledge and subject tothe same analysis. As in "Fatal Attraction"nothing is finally submerged, but, knife inhand, rises again and again.

An aside: To put a fine point to it:For the latter day hermeneut, were HerbZettl to make a claim about the meaning ofvisual vectors, he would be making aclaim of what ought to be rather than whatit is. His writing and scholarly life wouldgo about the work of making it so (even tospeak from the mountains of Delphi).Claims of meaning are the unending workof claims to authority.

An Overview of Positions

We have looked at four more or lessseparate positions from which to composeanswers which might address thequestions posed at the start of thisdiscussion. They are the physicalist,perceptionist, constructionist, andhermeneuticist arguments. The physicalistview is one of an organic machine reliablyresponding to independent empiricalphenomena which drive isomorphicrepresentations of consciousness.Language is a genetically based system ofrepresentation of phenomena and pre-existing categories and the extensions ofboth.

The perceptionist can occupy a broadregion, at one end very close to thephysicalist, noting only certaindiscrepancies in the reception andinterpretation of sensory information, atthe other, speculating on perceptual

000(.0:4


realities only loosely connected tosensation. Language remains a geneticallybased system of representation ofphenomena and preexisting categories butcan be enlivened (or corrupted) as well byperceptual variation.

The constructionist draws theconclusion which the perceptionist resists:I f perception intervenes betweenunderstanding and the phenomenal world,then we must be active participants in co-constructing the world we believe in.Language has physical foundations andformal structures, but its system ofrepresentation is a practical humanachievement--a given in which we all enterand contribute.

The hermeneuticist takes the stepbeyond metaphysics and puts it all in playas the struggle for meaning is the work ofeveryday life. The placement of meaningis the successful expression of power.Language is physical, structural, andrepresentational but its meaningfulness isnot in genetics, structures, orrepresentations (any combination of signscan be made meaningful) but in its materialpresence in action.

A Collection of Answers

Tables 1 and 2 present our initialquestions concerning the relationshipbetween sign and meaning in reals of signproduction and interpretation respectively.

The Tables provide short references to thequestions and rather cryptic answerswhich allow us to see the points ofdifference but do grave injustice to even amarginal articulation of these complexissues. This injustice is somewhatrectified in the sections that follow whichenlarge the answers provided.

The Realm of Symbolic Production

Unformed Resources

The major contrast is between thephysicalist/perceptionist pair and theconstructionist/hermeneutist pair overwhat's prior to the semiotic. For both thephysicalist and the perceptionist, thesemiotically unformed resource ofunderstanding is a verifying phenomenalworld which can be engaged in anobjective fashion. Signs have meaningsindependent of their creation. Theshadings between the two deal with thedegree of mediation involved in theengagement of this objective reality.

For both the constructionist andhermeneutist there is nothing prior tosemiotics in understanding (see Wertsch's1985 overview of Vygotsky and Bakhtin).What we know of the phenomenal world,we know semiotically. Meaning is acultural production. The differencesbetween this pair have to do with thesecurity of meanings. For the hermeneutmeaning is never secure but always open

Questions: Physicalist Perceptionist Constructionist Hentoneutist

Prior Resource Empirical Reality Perceived Reality SemioticAnIdavements

CollectiveAchievements

Meaning bliker,

AutomonousRktinnality

Perceiving Subject Situated Subject Acting Subject

Encoding Site.

Individual Individual IdeologicalCollective

Agent inCollective

Intent Required Revdred UtilizedNot Retuind

Part of theAction

Resources Genetic Geneticend Cultural

KUZMAAccomplishments

As Availablein Action

IntentAccomplished

Proper Encoding PerceptuallyEncoded

RhetoricallyEncoded

Coherent Action

,

Intent Realized Proper Decoding PerceptuallyDecoded

Rhetorically_Decoded

Local Utility

Table I. In the Realm of Production

218

to innovation, opposition, and resistance.

Meaning Maker

Answers to this question show asteady decomposition of the monadicself. From the universal representor tothe nominated, contingently actingsubject, the meaning maker becomesmore and more collectivized and requiresmorc and more description to understandthat instrument of sense-making. Forexample, while it is true that a personwrote these words, the question remainsas to whether he was actingautonomously or as a cultural agent or asa tool of collection action.

Encoding Site

Again our pairs split, this time overthe primacy of the individual and thecollective. The right hand holds encodingto bc the creative act of the intendingindividual. The left holds that theencoder is a clerk of the collective whoseinvention is wholly derivative.

The Questions of Intent

The rolc of intcnt for the physicalistand perceptionist in symbolic productionis to establish the motive for production

Table 2. In the Realm


and the "right meaning" for the text aswell as the basis for judgment concerningthe proper encoding and decoding. Thisposition requires a belief that intent isprior to the text and extractable from thetext (for an extended discussion of thenecessity of intent, see Avramides,[1989]).

Intent need serve no validatingpurpose in domains of the constructionistand hermeneutist. For the encoder, intentmay well arise after the symbolic producthas been formed and may subsequentlybe revealed in the on-going action. Forthe decoder, intent is a device used toadvance a particular claim of meaning orto execute some interpretive performance.In both cases, intent is an invention not adeterminant.

The Realm of Interpretation

Sign Recognition

In the first two categories signrecognition is a function of the incominginformation. The concept of an adequatestimulus is one which excites the sensorynerve. It is that excitation which isrecognized and its object sourcereproduced or perceived.

of Interpretation

Questions: Physicalist Perceptionist Constructionist Herm eneutistSignRecognition

AdequateStimulus

AdequateStimulus

DifferenceBoundaries

DifftreaceBoundaries

13411.Interpretation

Hut villa Hord raid. Soft-ware combos

PracticalAccomplishmentsSituatedOvidect

ActionalAccomplishmentsActingSubject

Meaning Maker Sensory System PerceivingSubject

Site ofInterpretation

haildwa, SocializedIndividual

IdeologicalCollective

SocWAction

Semiosis SensoryEngagement

PerceivedStimulus

IdeologicalEngagement

ActionEngagement

SemiosisEngaged

LintinalStimulus

Cogni.tionInitiate&

CollectivelyManaged

As Initiatedin Action

AuthorialIntent

DirectsInterpretation

DirectsInterpretation

Point ofComparison

As Requiredby Action

SemioticProduct

IsomorphicRe pre senlation

Perceive&Representelion

PositionedRepresentntion

ContigentInterpretttion

InterpretationConclusion

Moment ofSensntion

CognitiveRecognition.

Enactmentof Subjectivity

EniXtmentof Acting Subject

4


In the latter two categories theincoming information has to bepunctuated to be recognized.Objectification is first step ofinterpretation, provided for and driven bycollective resources.

Sign Interpretation

Sign interpretation shows adecomposition similar to that of themeaning maker. We move from theuniversal electro-chemical operations ofneurons (which is the singular definitionof literal meaning) to an increasingdifferentiation and collective implicationof the interpretive performance as a localand partial product of the acting agent.

Meaning Maker

As in the production realm, thephysicalist is clearly separate from therest on this question as that positionworks for system rather than subjectanswers. The remaining positions willnecessarily construct a respondingsubject, self-contained for theperceptionist, collectively invoked for theconstructionist, and implicated in socialaction for the hermeneutist.

Site of Interpretation

An inside/outside split characterizesthe difference between the right and leftpairs. For the first, interpretation"happens" in the individual in sensory orcognitive processes. For the second pair,interpretation is collective achievementprior to the individual whose role isevocation or enactment.

Semiosis

Semiosis--that moment of semioticunderstandingoccurs for the physicalistat the moment of neural response, for theperceptionist at the formation of aperception, for the constructionist at themoment the sign is ideologicallypositioned, and for the henneneutist at themoment of becoming in action. Our firstpair offers a "behind the eyes" definition

2213

which is strongly dependent on theindividual as the acting unit. Our secondsees semiosis as a collective process inwhich the individual participates butcannot achieve on its own.

Semiosis Engaged

The physicalist defines semiosisengagement as the moment a gate passingstimulus is presented. That is insufficientfor the perceptionist, as cognitivestructures (variously called values,attitudes, schemata) must be brought intoplay. Therefore it is the implication ofthese structures which signals theengagement (and for some the terms) ofsemiosis. Both of those definitions arefar to interior for many constructionistsand certainly hermeneutists who want toemphasis the "out front," materialpractices of the collective requirementsand directives of what we can come tounderstand.

Authorial Intent

True decoding in the physicalist andperceptionist camp must follow therequirements of authorial intent be itnatural or human. Decodings accountingfor intent in the remaining two are simplevariants of the possible with no particularveridical standing.

Semiotic Product

We divide our pairs on the issue ofrepresentation versus interpretation. (Aninteresting discussion of representationmeaning can be found in Gillet, 1992.)Nei the r constructionists norhermenuetists may innocently claimrepresentation. There is, for neither,nothing independent of the semiotic torepresent. A sign is the interpretation ofanother sign. Any representation, then,is a practical accomplishment of semioticmaneuvering.

Physicalists gave up the little ofrepresentation they were going to withKant's priors and perceptionists generallyhold that there is always an independent

220

factual (albeit sometimes trivial)expression available to reconcileperceptual differences.

The Conclusion of Interpretation

Interpretation concludes at adefinable moment for the first pair. Thismoment is defined as that of sensationand of cognition respectively. Thedefinitive character of the moment is asignificant division for at its conclusionthe interpretation passes from consequentto antecedent. As an antecedent it is themotive for subsequent behavior. It is thistheoretical moment upon which the wholeeffect literature hangs.

There is no such moment for mostor the remaining theorists. Interpretationis an emerging process not an instant. Itsactivity certainly subsides but need neverend. Interpretations are not theindependent cause of some subsequentaction rather they are accommodatedwithin the larger performances ofideology or everyday life. (Under thisrubric, one does not stop at a traffic lightbecause it is red, but because one isdriving).

A Subsidence

A n exploration of theorizingcommunities runs a number of risks notthe least of which is the fundamental liethat there are necessarily centers to beexplored. I recognize my ownesscntializing moves here, nonetheless,interpretation stands as a significant issueacross which substantial divisions can betraced. We as a community of scholars(and as an Association) do stand dividedin practical ways which affect our abilityto normalize our scholarship. Perhapsthat is a happy conclusion.

Footnotes

'And sometimes more darkly byracial characteristics. See Anderson,(1992).


2The word agent is used in bothsenses of the term: Agent as aparticipating cause in its Own right andagent as a representative, here ofcollective interests.

References

Anderson, J. A. (1980). The theoreticallineages of critical viewing curricula.Journal of Communication, 30, 64-71.

Anderson, J. A. (1992). On the ethicsof research in a socially constructedreality. Journal of Broadcasting andElectronicMedia, 36, 353-357.

Anderson, J. A., & Goodall, H. L., Jr.(in press). Probing the bodyethnographic: From an anatomy ofinquiry to a poetics of expression.Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Anderson, J. A., & Meyer, T. P.(1988). Mediated communication: Asocial action perspective. NewburyPark, CA: Sage.

Avramides, A. (1989). Meaning and themind. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Bandura, A., Ross, D., & Ross, S. A.(1961). Transmission of aggressionthrough imitation of aggressivemodels. Journal of Abnormal andSocial Psychology, 63, 575-582.

Bandura, A., Ross, D., & Ross, S. A.(1963). Imitation of film mediatedaggressive models. Journal ofAbnormal and Social Psychology,66, 3-11.

Barthes, R. (1975). Pleasure of the text(R. Miller, Trans.). New York: Hill& Wang.

Berkowitz, L, & Rawlings, E. (1963).Effects of film violence on inhibitionsagainst subsequent aggression.Journal of Abnormal and SocialPsychology, 66, 405-412.

2,C


Bolles, E. B. (1991). A second way ofknowing. New York: Prentice HallPress.

Carey, J. W. (1989). Comtnunication asculture: Essays on media and society.Boston, MA: Unwin Hyman.

Caputo, J. D. (1987). Radkalhermeneutics. Bloomington, IN:Indiana University Press.

Crapanzano, V. (1992). Hermes'dilemma and Hamlet's desire.Cambridge, MA: Harvard UniversityPress.

David, P. (1992). Accuracy of visualperception of quantitative graphics.Journalism Quarterly, 69, 273-292.

Derrida, J. (1972). Speech andphenomena (D. Allison, Trans.).Evanston, IL: NorthwesternUniversity Press.

Donohue, T. R., Henke, L. L., &Meyer, T. P. (1983). Learningabout television commercials: Theimpact of instructional units onchildren's perceptions of motive andintent. Journal of Broadcasting, 27,251-261.

Eco, U. (1984). Semiotics and thephilosophy of language.Bloomington, IN: Indiana UniversityPress.

Frost, R., & Stauffer, J. (1987). Theeffects of social class, gender, andpersonality on physiologicalresponses to filmed violence. Journalof Communication, 32, 29-45.

Gibson, J. J. (1966). The sensesconsidered as perceptual systems.Boston, MA: Houghton-Mifflin.

Gillet, G. (1992). Representation,meaning, and thought. Oxford:Clarendon Press.

Goodall, H. L. Jr. (1991). Living in the

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Grossberg, L. (1984). Strategies ofMarxist cultural interpretation.Critical Studies in MassCommunication, 1, 392-421.

Huck, K. (1993). The arsenal on fire:The reader in the riot, 1943. CriticalStudies in Mass Communication, 10,23-48.

Inyengar, S. (1979). Television newsand issue salience: A reexaminationof the agenda setting hypothesis.Journal of Communication, 31, 395-416.

Morley, D. (1980). The nationwideaudience: Structure and decoding.London, England: British FilmInstitute.

Morley, D. (1986). Family television:Cultural power and domestic leisure.London, England: Comedia.

Noth, W. (1990). Handbook ofSemiotics. Bloomington, IN:Indiana University Press.

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Pettersson, R. (1988). Visuals forinformation. Stockholm, Sweden:Esselte Forlag.

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Quine, W. V. 0. (1953). From a logicalpoint of view: Nine logico-philosophical essays. Cambridge,MA: Harvard University Press.

Rose, D. (1990). Living theethnographic life. Newbury Park,CA: Sage.

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Terwee, S. J. S. (1990). Hermeneuticsin psychology and psychoanalysis.Berlin: Springer-Verlag.

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Weiss, A. J., Imrich, D. J., & Wilson,B. J. (in press). Prior exposure tocreatures from a horror film: Live vs.photographic representations.Human Communication Research.

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Wilson, B. (1991). Children's reactionto dreams conveyed in mass mediaprogramming. CommunicationResearch, 18, 283-305.

Zemach, T., & Cohen, A. (1986).Perception of gender equality ontelevision and social reality. Journalof Broadcasting and ElectronicMedia, 30, 345-358.

Zillmann, D., & Bryant, J. (1982).Pornography, sexual callousness, andthe trivialization of rape. Journal ofCommunication, 32, 1021.

2, -

THE ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

byPenelope Calliabetsou

This paper deals with certainfundamental questions which I will try toanswer briefly.

In a United Europe, the teaching ofmultiform foreign languages in amulticultural United Europe can notdistinguish between instruction of cultureand instruction of speech, which is themost authentic form of its expression aswell as the best vehicle of study research,contact, and proximity.

According to anthropologists, cultureincludes the total expression of a people'sways of living, its social hermitagetransmitted to individuals through theprocess of socialization, and kinds ofbehavior, habits, and characteristics whichcompose the uniqueness of specificpeople.

In this paper, the terms intercultureand intercultural are used to refer to thegroup of European culture instead of aparticular national culture.

By the term interculturalapproach inforeign language instruction I simply meanthe comparative study of cultural elementsbetween native language and one or moreforeign languages.

1 . What objects of study (groups,issues, etc.) should be included in foreignlanguage intercultural instruction whichmodern Educational Technology is calledto support?

The variety of available programscan become a trap for researchersthroughout Europe: I believe that weshould set a list of priorities on issueswhich may become educational objectivesin European countries. Issues rekied tosocialization, which are suitable forcomparative studies, should be given ahigher priority. As an example, consider

ways of living, habits, everyday life,tradition, etc.

2. Which research reports oreducational productions are suitable forcomparative studies in the classroom andcould be implemented through acollaboration of various agencies fromdifferent European countries?

Consider, for instance, foreignlanguages departments of universities,pedagogical institutes, technologicalinstitutes, educational radio-television, andothers.

3., 9 01.

As further examples, I mention:

Electronic banks of interculturalelements that serve the needs offoreign languages instructors.

Prod uction of interculturaldossiers with printed andaudiovisual material focussed onissues such as: the workingmother in Greece, France,England, etc.

Movie adaptations of literarytexts.

Audio-visual expositionsdesigned to encourage contactwith different countries.

3. Which production of comparativestudies could be realized through collectiveprocesses among different classes offoreign languages students in differentEuropean countries?

Studies and research conductedby groups of students from threeor more countries of basicstereotypes which oftendisorientate students from

224

cultural reality. Videotapes arequite suitable for production andeducational processing of suchdata.

Round-table television and radioprograms which include foreignstudents and focus on a varietyof issues, such as: How do youfeel about foreign wordsborrowed by your nativelanguage? Are they elements ofthreat or enrichment?

Various publications and journalswhich could be issued byfraternity classes i n differentEuropean countries.

And, finally, newspapers issuedby students with a Europeanoutlook under such titles asEurope is Yours, Good MorningYouth of Europe, etc.

4. What kind of new educationalsupport material would be required toimplement interculture in conjunction withtraditional books: Books on civilization,various elements incorporated in textbooks, ctc. We could indicate, forinstance, the following:

Linguistic and social behaviorgrammar accompanied byvideotapes and audiotapes. Forexample: What wishes areexchanged in Greece, England,and Italy on the occasion of abirthday celebration.

Video dictionaries on culturalconcepts of basic, everydayvocabularies of foreignlanguages.

European intercultural videocollections: Present Yourself, inall European Languages, Say it,in all Mediterranean Languages,Greet, in all EuropeanLanguages, etc.


5. Which networks of moderntechnology best transmit and instructEuropean interculture?

Computers

As it is known, there exist data basesallowing students to become acquaintedwith other countries and peoples. Thesedata bases are usually accompanied bymaterial bases that can be used ineducational activities promotingjudgmental analysis and data processing.

Such activities include games,questionnaires, etc. Let me mention, here,some productions: Countries of theWorld, European History Series,Revolutions, Correct Behavior, TheFrench Way.

Peripheral Audiovisual Means

They include a relatively new type ofeducational technology that offers newprospects to language and cultureinstruction. I am referring to VideoInteractive. This is an electronic systemcombining videodisc, computer, and anew type of memory.

Video interactive application inschools of different European countrieshas greatly contributed to the studentsfamiliarization with foreign cultures. Inmany countries, students themselves havestarted producing videodiscs to assist inforeign language and culture instruction.An example of this is Videodisque Siville,a production by British students who arelearning French through a lecture onFrench Commerce.

An Electronic mail or telematics, isanother peripheral audiovisual networkthat secures authentic interculturalcommunication between classes ofdifferent countries.

Electronic mail has existed forseveral years in many countries. Forexample, British and German networks areconnected to DIALCOM, an internationalelectronic mail network. In addition, the

Educational Technology 225

French network MINITEL has extendedits communication network into schools inGreat Britain and France. As it is known,the authenticity of the message alwaysstimulates students' interest, enhancesimagination, activates productivity, andpromotes dreams for the exploration ofnew situations.

The European Council promotes theintroduction of Educational Technology inthe teaching of foreign languages andculture. It further encourages andsupports co-production of multimediaprograms to assist instruction of Europeanlanguages. Such programs are positivesteps towards the direction of mutualunderstanding and respect of the Europeanand national cultural mosaics.

The Important Role of Mass Media

The con ti nuous technologicalchanges in mass media have broughtcontinuous renewal in the pedagogical andmethodological approaches to languageand culture instruction. Knowledgestorage devices, like tape recorders andespecially magnetoscopes, allow for a realrevolution in the area of language andculture instruction. Magnetoscopes allowimage freezing, selective storage ofeducational material (instead of just theprojection of images), and is furthercapable of replacing us when and wherewe want it (at home, school, etc.), throughsimple programming.

The robotization--if you allow me touse this expression--enables instructorsand students to use television materialaccording to their educational objectivesand needs. They can choose between livetransmission and transmission of storedmaterials. An instructor alone or with hisstudents can now choose multiformauthentic educational material by using notonly the traditional foreign languages bookbut television as well. In this context,television plays a double role: It is atransmitter and a producer of educationalmaterial.

At this point I would like to add that

23

this passepartout educational materialovercomes the differences between astudent in Athens and one on a smallforgotten island, and promotes free access(democratization) of knowledge.

In several European countries, massmedia follow a production track which willquickly lead to the establishment of asecond, parallel school of foreignlanguages and cultures. At this point I willrefer to certain specific television stationswhich have already taken such initiatives:The first international French televisionstation, TV5 Europe, broadcasts programsin 23 countries. A large number of theseprograms, which are being used to instructfrench language and culture in variouscountries, are particularly addressed toyouth.

The French television station FR3broadcasts Eurojournal every morning(8:00 am to 9:00 am) and consists of 15minute programs in English, German,Spanish, and Italian. Subtitles are used,and students c?1 review the text of theprogram in their MINITEL screen vianetwork EURIDICO. Teachers use suchbroadcasts to teach foreign languages orcomparative cultural studies, depending onthe program content.

Television station SEPT broadcastsmultilingual European programs which arcEuropean co-productions. Finally, thereare a British and a German televisionstation offering such services.

Based on these still growinginitiatives we could expect seeing in thenear future a multilingual and interculturaltrend which might create a newrelationship among school and television.Why not? There is one issue I ampersonally in favor of: Mass Media andtravel throughout Europe withoutboundaries will create new opportunities inforeign language learning.

Educational Satellite Olympus

Olympus is the first Europeaneducational satellite of long-distance

226

multilingual education. It started operatingexperimentally in 1989.

All countries participating in thisproject broadcast their educational andcultural programs. Therefore, the risk ofmonolingual and cultural monologue inEurope can be avoided.

Within the framework of theEuropean educational policy, the idea andapplication of long-distance educationalprograms will be a must from now on forevery developed country.

In audio-visual European landscape,where national television stations in certaincountries broadcast quite a few educationalprograms, it is reasonable to conclude thatthc future of Educational Televisionbelongs to educational satellite television.

Educational Radio-Television

Educational radio-television stationsin several European countries broadcastforeign language lessons either locally ornationally.

The variety of types of technology asI have tried to briefly describe above,through speech and image authenticity canpromote national and European objectives


of intercultural communication within theclassroom and various European classes.

The road to European interculture isexciting but long, and difficult. It is thisroad our youth will walk through. Ourgreat responsibility and duty is to createthe appropriate conditions which willallow them to live together in a peacefulEurope and in an environment ofcontinuous intercultural dialogue.

References

Bowers, C. A. (1988). The culturaldimensions of educational computing.New York: Teachers College Press.

Calliabetsou, P. (1992). Linguistiqueappliquee a la didactique du FLE: Versune etude critique des methodes et destheories d'apprentissage connexes.Athens, Greece: University of Athens.

Charadeau, P. (1990). L'interculturelentre mythe et realité. In LFMHachette, Paris.

Cullingford, C. (1984). Children andtelevision. New York: St. Martin'sPress.

Le Francais dans le Monde no special.(1989). Nouvelle TechnologiesHachette Paris.

9 2

USING VISUAL MEDIA TECHNOLOGIES TO INVESTIGATECOGNITIVE REPRESENTATION OF TECHNICAL DIAGRAMS

byRichard Lowe

This paper describes a selection ofways that visual media technologies havebeen used to support various aspects ofresearch into the way technical diagramsare represented in people's minds. Itspurpose is to demonstrate how suchtechnologies can address some of thedifficulties inherent in conducting researchin this area. The research programme forwhich the techniques described here weredevised has the broad goal ofunderstanding how learners deal withinstructional diagrams.

While illustrations in general can beincluded in instructional materials for arange of different purposes (Levie &Lentz, 1982), a central role of diagrams ofthe type used in technical domains is toexplain some aspect of the subject matter(Levin, Anglin & Carney, 1987; Lowe,1993). To date, much investigation ofexpository illustrations such as diagramshas focussed upon their instructionaloutcomes, rather than upon the processesby which these outcomes are generated.However, the rise of informationprocessing approaches to the study ofthinking and learning in recent years hashighlighted the need to understand mentalprocesses in trying to improveinstructional outcomes. With this has comean increasing interest in the mentalprocesses involved in the comprehensionof pictorial materials such as diagrams(e.g. Winn, 1991). Fundamental to thesemental processes is the way in which theinformation upon which they operate isrepresented in our minds. Consequently,before we can fully understand howdiagrams are processed, we need to knowabout the mental representation that peopledevelop for the graphic elements which arethe fabric of those diagrams.Unfortunately, a person's mentalrepresentation of a diagram is not directly

2 33

accessible to us for the purposes of study(unlike the outcomes of a diagram-basedinstructional task) and so i tscharacterization presents a considerableresearch challenge. As a result, themethodologies involved in such diagramresearch of necessity rely on indirectapproaches that aim to provide fine-grained data from which inferences can bemade about mental representation. Thisrequires that these approaches are not onlyrobust and powerful, but also that they areappropriate to use with pictorial material.

A fundamental consideration indesigning research methodologies for thisarea arises from the nature of the materialsto be investigated. Diagrams and similarexplanatory visual materials typically areused because they are considered bettersuited to the presentation of the subjectmatter than verbal formats (written orspoken text). It now seems clear thataspects of the information structure ofdiagrams can provide them with cognitiveprocessing advantages over text (Glenberg& Langston, 1992; Larkin & Simon,1987; Winn & Li, 1989). However, thegreat majority of research into the waypeople mentally represent informationinvolves the use of verbal materials andverbally-oriented methodologies. Therehas been considerable development in thecollection of detailed verbal data in recentyears and approaches to analysis such asthose discussed by Ericsson and Simon(1984) are well established. However, thedirect adoption of such methodologies forthe investigation of the way people dealwith visual materials would require visual-to-verbal translations, so compromisingtheir intrinsic visual character. In othcrwords, collecting verbal data about theprocessing of visual material (for example,think-aloud protocols generated by asubject performing a diagram processing

228

task) would be of dubious value On itsOwn (although it may be a valuable sourceof supplementary data). What is requiredinstead are approaches that properlyacknowledge the yisual nature of thesematerials and deal with them without theneed for any translation. So for aninvestigation of the way people deal withdiagrams, it is not sufficient to confine thevisual aspect of the procedure to thestimulus materials. It is important that theoutputs that subjects produce should alsobc visual as should any interveningmanipulations of the materials theyperform. The need to use a consistentlyvisual approach across the various aspectsof investigation guided the development ofthc methodologies described in this paper.This development was informed by theapproaches used by. researchers in theinvestigation of cognitive aspects ofvarious visually-oriented domains such aschess (Chase & Simon, 1973),architectural drawings (Akin, 1986), andelectronic circuit diagrams (Egan &Schwartz, 1979).

Before dealing with specific aspectsof the methodologies that have beendeveloped for thc current researchprogram, some general considerationsregarding this type of research will bediscussed. For a methodology to be usefulfor finc-grained investigation of the waypeople interact with diagrams, it needs tobe able to:

I. Display the diagrammaticmaterial effectively to the researchsubjects,

2. Provide appropriate ways for thesubject to interact with the diagram,

3. Capturc detailed informationabout subject-diagram interactions,

4. Characterize these subject-diagram interactions with appropriatemeasures,

5. Permit generated data to beanalyzed in a meaningful way,


6. Deal with static and dynamiccomponents of the investigation.

As will be illustrated below, asuitable combination of the capacities ofvideo and computer technology canaddress these types of needs in a variety ofways. In addition, the capacity of thesetechnologies for dealing with dynamic datagives them a distinct advantage over moreconventional (static) approaches to thereporting of results from this type ofinvestigation.

Diagrams and Subjects

All the methodologies described herewere applied to the study of how weathermap diagrams are mental:y represented.However, it should be noted that weathermaps were used purely as illustrativeexamples of the type of diagramcommonly used for instructional purposes(there was no interest in the investigationof weather maps per se). A discussion ofthe advantages of using weather maps forthis purpose appears elsewhere (Lowe,1990). In principle, the methodologies areapplicable to a variety of diagram typesfrom a wide range of technical disciplines.The two groups of subjects whoparticipated in this research wereindividuals with either a high or a lowlevel of expertise in the domain ofmeteorology, specifically professionalmeteorologists and non-meteorologists.Because it involved comparison of twogroups with greatly differing levels ofdomain expertise, this research approachcan loosely be described as fitting withinthe "expert-novice" paradigm (Chi,Glaser, & Farr, 1988). However, becausethe meteorologists were competentpractitioners rather than acknowledgedexpert performers in their domain, theexpert-novice characterization should betreated with some caution.

Data Collection

In thc following sections, the use oftwo general types visual mediatechnologies (computers and video) for theinvestigation of the mental representation

Visual Media Technologies 229

of diagrams will be discussed. Althoughthese approaches were specificallydeveloped for use with very abstractdiagrams of a technical nature, there is noreason in principle why they could not beadapted for various other types ofgraphically-simple pictorial materials thatare used as instructional illustrations.

Computer Technology

The computer-based methodologydescribed here is an adaption andextension of an earlier manual techniquethat has been reported in detail elsewhere(Lowe, 1989). In general terms, themethodology was used to investigate asubject's mental representation for weathermap diagrams by monitoring the way thesubject explored an unfamiliar example ofsuch a diagram which was initially hiddenfrom view. This monitoring relied on thediagram having been segmented so that thesubject's exploration across individualregions could be followed. Asuperimposed 6 x 5 grid divided theweather map into 30 square pieces (thediagram consisted of a map outline and itsmeteorological markings). When a subjectbegan the experimental task, the displaywas completely covered with squares thatwere blank except for the map outline(i.e., no meteorological markings).During the task, the subject graduallyrevealed parts of the display by removingthe covering squares from the display oneat a time. This allowed determination ofthe order in which the selected regions ofthe display were inspected. However acondition of the task was that the subjectwas permitted to expose a total of only onethird of the whole display (10 of the gridsquares) and told that from this limitedamount of information, she/he would laterbe required to complete the display.

In the computer implementation ofthis technique, the experimental taskinvolved the subject interacting with ascreen depicting a blank weather map ofAustralia and divided into 30 squares by agrid as described above (thelnap and gridwere drawn in black on a whitebackground). The subject was prompted

through the required interactions byappropriate instructions provided in a sidebar on the screen. To reveal what wasunder a particular square, the subjectmoved the computer's mouse pointer ontothat square and clicked once, upon whichthe square turned black to signal that it hadbeen selected. The subject was then able toeither confirm the selection with a secondclick on the blackened square, or select adifferent square by clicking on it instead.The second (confirmatory) click on asquare caused the hidden meteorologicalmarkings on that part of the weather mapto be revealed. For any square exposed inthis way the background was changedfrom white to grey so that the subjectcould easily tell that it had already beenrevealed (this was necessary since not allof square segments comprising the mapactually contained weather map markings).As this revelation process continued, theinstruction side bar gave the subjectupdated information about how many ofthe quota of 10 squares remained availablefor selection. Once all 10 of the allowedsquares had been revealed, the subject'smap showing the exposed meteorologicalmarkings was printed off. The subject thenattempted to complete the whole weathermap by drawing in any furthermeteorological markings that were thoughtto exist in the remaining 20 grid squares.

Because the interactions justdescribed are somewhat involved, eachsubject was trained in the necessaryoperational processes before moving on tothe experimental task. The sequence ofpresentation was as follows. After anintroduction to basic processes such asmoving and clicking the mouse, thesubject was given preliminary training inthe technique of revealing information byclicking on squares. This was done usinga simple four-square grid (Figure 1).

Next, these skills were appli(xl to agraphic display of a familiar scene (asimple house and its surroundings)following the same procedures that wouldbe required for performing theexperimental task with the weather map.The subject began with a bare outline of

2 3 5

230

the house divided by a grid of 30 squares(Figure 2) then by using the proceduredescribed above for the experimental task,clicked On 10 squares in sequence to revealone third of the house's details (windows,doors, etc.).

For this practice task, the subject'sresponse was not printed off forcompletion. After this practice, the subjectcarried out the experimental (weather map)task with weather map. During theexperimental task, the computer programrecorded the identity of the squares chosenand the sequence in which they wereselected. Finally, a screen dump of thesubject's partly completed map (showingthe 10 revealed squares) was printed offfor thc subject to complete (Figure 3).

This computer version of the originalmanual method was developed inHypercard so that it was able to run oneven low-end black and white Macintoshcomputers, thus making it suitable for usein a wider range of situations. Althoughsome aspects of the methodology (such asthe training segment) were altered to makethc technique less dependent on theexperimenter, the course of theexperimental task remained fundamentallyunaltered. The computer-based version hasa number of benefits over the originalprocedure such as the automatic collectionof data regarding which squares werechosen by a subject and their order ofselection. It also has the potential to beused for displays other than weather mapsas will now be explained. In the weathermap version described above, the mapoutline constitutes one level of information(provided for the subject) and the set ofmarkings that depict meteorologicalinformation constitutes another (to beprovided by the subject). However, sincethe computer program is essentially a shellinto which a particular display is fitted, themethod could easily be adapted forinvestigating thc way subjects search otherdiagrams that can be characterized in termsof two levels of information. For example,in the arca of bioloo, subjects could bepresented with an outline of an unfamiliaranimal's body and thc way they searched


for hidden details of the animal's digestivesystem studied. Similarly, in the area ofelectronics, subjects could search forinformation about the components presentin a hidden section of a circuit diagram.

Video Technology

The methodology described here wasdeveloped to obtain finer details about themental representation of weather mapdiagrams than could be obtained from thetechnique described above. In addition, itsbasic approach to data collection wasfundamentally different, thus providing theopportunity for triangulation. A videorecorder was used to capture the sequenceof actions performed by subjects incarrying out tasks involving a previouslyunseen Australian weather map. A majorpart of the process involved subjectsdrawing a copy of the map'smeteorological markings onto a blankmap. However, the weather map theywere to copy was not continuously visible.Instead, subjects could only view thestimulus map while they were pressing abutton with their drawing hand. Thismeant that they could either take a look atthe stimulus map or draw markings ontothe blank map but not continuously viewand draw at the same time. Hence,subjects were forced to alternate viewingand drawing in a succession of discreteactions. An indicator light was switchedon when the viewing button was pressedand remained illuminated for the durationof each viewing period (i.e., as long as theviewing button was depressed).

The subject carried out theexperimental tasks at a speciallyconstructed table that had a glass windowinserted into its top with a mirror setbeneath the window at an angle of 45degrees. A video recorder aimed at themirror allowed each subject's drawingbehavior to be recorded from belowwithout obstruction (the response sheetcontaining the blank map was made fromtracing paper so that the subject's drawingwas visible from below). The viewingindicator light was positioned so that itcould be included in the area being

'Th

Visual Media Technologies

recorded by the video and the camera wasfitted with a counter that marked eachframe with elapsed time. Thus in additiontc.-, recording the subject's drawing of eachmeteorological marking, the length of eachviewing period was automatically recordedon videotape. As well as drawing a copyof the weather map, subjects later drewwhat they could recall of the map'smarkings. Video records of this processwere also made to enable comparison ofthe intake of diagram information (duringcopying) with its output (during recall).

Data Analysis

Two main types of data are collectedby the techniques that have beendescribed. The first are process data witchcome from the actions subjects performduring an .nvestigation as they workthrough a task. Of particular interest hereare the temporal order in which themeteorological markings are processed,the location of those markings, and thedurations of various stages that comprisethe processing. The second type areproduct data such as the outcomes(drawings) of copying, recalling, orcompleting a weather map.

Analyzing each type of data presentsits own challenges, some of whichconcern practicalities such as how to carryout particular measurements while othersconcern more fundamental theoreticalissues involving the choice, treatment, andinterpretation of those measurements.Some examples of the way process andproduct data were handled during analysiswill now be presented.

Process Data

A number of assumptions were madehere. First, it was assumed that thetemporal order in which the meteorologicalmarkings were processed was in somerespects influenced by the nature of themental representation of the weather mapinformation. This assumption parallels thatmade by Taylor and Tversky (1992) inthcir investigation of the mentalorganizations of environments. As these

237

231

A

%otite kow its gone blackto show you clicked on it.

Now click it a second time.

Figure 1.Grid used for training subjects in procedure forselecting squares (black indicates square 'A' hasbeen clicked once; a further click would revealwhat was under this square).

WIN10 to

go.

Clickon a

PPMto

selectit.

111Figure 2.

Practice task graphic showing outline within 30square grid. Note instructions to subject in sidecolumn.

IleffillifffliotoMAE rg

..,, go.

Click

MI IS ifiliFtMap selte.ct

ItropMCE

Figure 3.Screen dump showing markings on a subject's 10selected squares. Subject would next attempt tocomplete the map' markings.

231 Media Technologies

authors have observed, one of the researchdifficulties in using drawings as data ishow to score them. Taylor and Tverskyused the order in which elements of a mapare drawn as an index of organization onthe assumption that the clustering of itemsin a recall sequence occurs because thoseitems are closely related in some way. Inthc video-based weather mapinvestigations referred to in the presentpaper, this type of clustering assumptionwas made about the sequences producedduring the copying of items as well asduring their recall. In the computer-basedinvestigation mentioned earlier,assumptions about clustering were madefrom the order in which the 10 squareswere selected for revelation. Depending onthe particular task a subject wasperforming, the structure of thesesequences may provide an indication ofmatters such as the effects of establishedhabits of perceiving and drawing, theextent of visual impact (in perceptualterms) of different types of markings, thetendency of subjects to group thc markingsbecause of similarities in their visuospatialcharacteristics, the ease with whichmarkings of different types wereprocessed or the relative meteorologicalimportance attached to different markings.

The second assumption was that therelative durations of particular aspects ofprocessing (such as thc lengths of viewingperiods) were of significance. In thecurrent context, this assumption concernsonly the video-based inv2stigationdescribed above. On most,--occasionsduring the copying task, subjects viewedthc stimulus diagram using a series ofrelatively short glimpses. After eachglimpse, a subject typically drew one ormore marks. However, at various stagesduring thc process of copying the stimulusdiagram, the subject would spend a muchlonger time gazing at the diagram beforechanging to drawing. These longerviewing periods were interpreted asindicating the start of a ncw phase ofprocessing in which the subject's attentionshifted to a different group (or chunk) ofgraphic elements within the stimulusdiagram. This interpretation permitted each

subject's processing sequence to be usedto identify subsets within the complete setof graphic elements comprising thediagram. By examining the constitution ofthese subsets, inferences could be madeabout inter-element relations that might beinvolved in the subject's mentalrepresentation of the diagram as a whole.For example, it appeared that the non-meteorologists structured the mentalrepresentation of information in thediagram on the basis of relations involvingthe visuospatial characteristics of themarkings themselves whereas themeteorologists' structuring was basedupon relations that reflected themeteorological significance of thesemarkings.

A major disadvantage of the processaspect of the video-based investigationwas the time consuming and labour-intensive nature of the data transcriptionrequired. The raw data consisted of avideotape record of each subject's viewinga:id drawing behavior in which eachvideotape frame was marked with the timeelapsed since the start of the task. Inaddition, the videotape of the copying taskalso contained records of the periodsduring which the viewing indicator lightwas switched on and switched off.Transcription of the videotape involvedlocating precise frames at which (a) theviewing indicator light was switched on orwas switched off and (b) the subject'spencil just began to draw a mark or justfinished drawing that mark. The elapsedtime for each of these frames wastransferred manually to build up a tablethat set out each subject's viewing anddrawing behavior. In addition, each of themarks drawn on the map was labelled withits position in the overall drawingsequence. In contrast to the video-basedinvestigation, the computer-basedinvestigation described earlierautomatically collected process data aboutthe identity of the 10 squares that a subjcctrevealed and the order in which they wereselected. These data required no pre-treatment after collection and were readyfor immediate transfer to a statisticalanalysis program. However, the


computer-based approach did not offer thesame opportunities for collecting the subtletypes of data that can be captured by theuse of video. Clearly an integration of thecapacity of video technology to collectdetailed visual data and the automatic datacollection capacity of computer technologywould be the ideal combination.

Product Data

Map markings drawn by subjectsand the larger graphic structures formed bythe conjunction of drawn and existingmarkings can be characterized by variousmeasures. These measures allow a rangeof comparisons to be made including thosebetween (a) the markings on the stimulusmaterials and those produced in thesubjects' responses, (b) different classesof subject (such as experts and novices)and (c) products generated at4ifferentstages of an investigation (such as copiedand recalled markings). Measures ofposition, size, shape, and orientation areuseful to characterize the properties ofindividual markings both in terms of theirbasis visuospatial properties and in termsof the meteorological significznce of thosemarkings. For example, the sizes andrelative positions of markings in of a set ofconcentric closed isobars that togetherconstitute a cyclone not only show thephysical extent of that feature, they alsoindicate its likely severity. As well asmaking measurements of each marking onits own, it is important to characterizelarger composite structures made up oftwo or more markings which constitutemeteorologically significant assemblies.

A fundamental matter to be resolvedin developing an analysis procedure is thedefinition of what constitutes a discreteentity for the purpose of analysis. In caseswhere a marking consisted of a singlegraphic stroke or a set of physicallyconnected strokes, this generally did notconstitute a problem sincc it was usuallyquite clear that a single entity wasintended. However, for other markingssuch as a cold front symbol, physicallyconnected but geometrically distinctmarkings were considered as separate

entities because pilot studies showed thatthese different components were drawn bysubjects as a number of separatesubgroups (in the case of a cold front, aline plus a group of triangular barbs).

Once individual graphic entities havebeen defined, the next problem is inmaking measurements of the position,size, shape, and orientation of each entity.Recent developments in image analysiscomputer software have greatly simplifiedthis measurement task. These programsprocess an image that has been convertedto digital form and then use variousalgorithms to characterize properties of theimage. In the case of the weather mapdiagrams used for the research referred tohere, the image was captured by means ofa flatbed scanner to form a disc file (in aformat such as PICT). Some preliminarytreatment using image enhancementsoftware was usually necessary to clean upthe scanned image and to prepare it foranalysis. For example, regions boundedby particular sets of lines might be filledwith "paint" to isolate them so that theimage analysis program can later identifythem as distinct features to be measured(each such region is typically described asa "blob"). Once the prepared image isloaded into the analysis program, the usercan then specify the desired measurementsand select the blobs of interest. Simplemeasures of distance (such as length orperimeter) and area are made by countingpixels which are then converted into morefamiliar units. The position of a blob isbased upon its center of gravity while avariety of measures such as symmetry,roundness, and the ratio of the axes of thebest fitting ellipse help to characterize itsshape. For orientation, a measure of theinclination of the longest axis of the bestfitting ellipse can be used. Data from thesemeasurements arc readily transferred tostatistics packages for further processing.

Reporting Results

A combination of thc capacities ofcomputer and video technologies hasenabled thc findings obtained from thetypes of investigations described above to

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234 Media Technologies

bc displayed in a manner that is moreappropriate than conventional methods.This is particularly well demonstrated inthe case of results obtained from analysisof the process data where the nature of thesubjects' performance over time was ofspecial interest. For example, a computeranimation program was used to producedynamic summaries of essentialdifferences in how those in themeteorologist and non-meteorologistsubject groups built up the meteorologicalmarkings as they copied a weather map.These summaries collapsed the individualmarking sequences produced by subjectswithin these tWo groups into an overallsequence for each group as a whole. Inaddition, thc animation greatly compressedthc time scale so that the broad temporalpatterns present in the sequence becamemuch more apparent. Once prepared, theanimated sequence for each of the subjectgroups was transferred to videotape foreasy presentation and distribution. Thisanimated form of the results capturesprocess aspects of the subjects'performance far more faithfully than ispossible in a static figure of the typetypically used to report the findings of aninvestigation. Further, complex results ofthc type generated in this investigationappear to bc considerably more accessibleif presented in an animated format than ifpresented in a more conventional manner.

Conclusion

This paper has dealt with severalillustrative examples of how video andcomputer technology can be used tosupport basic research into thc waydiagrams arc represented in people'sminds. Thc approaches that have beendeveloped can address a variety ofchallenges that face the researcher in thisfield, ranging from those of presenting theinitial stimulus material to subjects throughto reporting thc research findings in anappropriate manner. In common with otherresearch methodologies, in order to makcuse of these approaches effective,sufficient attcntion must be given totheoretically significant aspects of datacollection, analysis, and interpretation.

The strength of video technology is that itprovides for the capture of highly detailedvisual data. However, it also presentsproblems with the time-consuming natureof some aspects of transcribing thegenerated data into a form suitable forstatistical analysis. In contrast, computertechnology can directly monitor someaspects of a subject's performance andsave the generated data in files that aresuitable for analysis by a statisticalpackage without further processing.Unfortunately, it is not currently capableof directly providing (for reasonable costand effort) the type of facilities for dealingwith visual data that are available withvideo. However, the recent merging ofvideo and computer technologies with theadvent of digital video opens up excitingpossibilities for developing a whole rangeof new research tools that can be used toincrease our understanding of the waypeople deal with visual information.

References

Akin, 0. (1986). Psychology ofarchitecturaldesign. London: Pion.

Chase, W.G., & Simon, H. A. (1973).Perception in chess. CognitivePsychology, 4, 55-81.

Chi, M. T. H., Glaser, R., & Farr, M. J.(1988). The nature of expertise.Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Egan, D. E., & Schwartz, B. J. (1979).Chunking in recall of symbolicdrawings. Memory & Cognition, 7,149-158.

Ericsson, K. A., & Simon, H. A. (1984).Protocol analysis. Cambridge, MA:MIT Press.

Glenberg, A. M., & Langston, W. E.(1992). Comprehension of illustratedtext: Pictures help to build mentalmodels. Journal of Memory andLanguage, 31, 129-151.

Larkin, J. H., & Simon, H. A. (1987).Why a diagram is (sometimes) worth

K", U


ten thousand words. CognitiveScience, 11, 65-99.

Levie, W. H., & Lentz, R. (1982).Effects of text illustrations: A reviewo f research. EducationalCommunication and TechnologyJournal, 30, 195-232.

Levin, J. R., Anglin, G. J., & Carney, R.N. (1987). On empirically validatingfunctions of pictures in prose. In D.M. Willows, & H.A. Houghton(Eds.), The psychology of illustration:Vol. 1. Basic research. New York:Springer-Verlag.

Lowe, R. K. (1989). Search strategiesand inference in the exploration ofscientific diagrams. EducationalPsychology, 9(1), 27-44.

Lowe, R. K. (1990). Diagraminformation and its organization in

memory: Explaining the role of skilland experience. Research in ScienceEducation, 20, 191-199.

Lowe, R. K. (1993). Succes.sfulinstructional diagrams. London:Kogan Page.

Taylor, H. A., & Tversky, B. (1992).Descriptions and depictions ofenvironments. Memory & Cognition,20(5), 483-496.

Winn, W. (1991). Learning from mapsand diagrams. Educational P.sychologyReview, 3, 211-247.

Winn, W. D., & Li, T-Z. (1989, April).Do diagrams permit more rapid andaccurate problem solving than text?Paper presented at the annual meetingof the American Educational ResearchAssociation, San Francisco, CA.

PRIVACY IN THE COMPUTER AGE: PERCEPTIONS ANDREALITIES

byBarbara Moans

One aspect of visual literacy iscomputer literacy. As more and morepeople become computer-literate, issues ofprivacy are being raised more often.These issues involve individual rights,national concerns, and internationalcooperation. This paper begins with theidentification of major privacy issues at theindividual, national, and internationallevels. The issues identified in the firstpart of thc paper provide the basis for thesecond part of the paper, which is a reportof a survey in which subjects were askedto indicate whether they felt the issue wassignificant in general, and the extent towhich they personally felt affected by theissue. The paper concludes with adiscussion of results arid implications forfurther sriidy.

Almost everyone in contemporarysociety has somc contact with informationtechnology. From computers that generateutility bills and digital switching deviceson long distance telephone calls to sensorson traffic lights that control traffic flow,computers are occupying a central role inour lives. In addition, ample evidenceexists that information technology willcontinue to expand in the years ahead.

Theoretical Perspective

Several researchers have identifiedareas in which information technology willcontinue to have an impact on everydaylive. Williams (1984), for instancc,identifies the following: the growth of the"information business;" transportation;governance and politics; health care; work;leisure; education; and nationaldevelopment and world order. In hisanalysis, Bell (1973) focuses on thechanging character of work in theinformation economy. Citing the shiftfrom an industrial-based to a service-based

economy, he notes the central role ofcomputers and information. Toff ler(1981) also places the computer at thecenter of his vision of "electroniccottages," the workplace of the twenty-first century. Dutton, Blum ler, andKraemer (1986) identify the "wired city"to describe ways in which households andbusinesses in urban areas will benefit fromthe increasing use of informationtechnology. Thus, regardless of thespecific application of technology,consensus has been reached on theincreasing impact of informationtechnology in all areas of life.

Computer literacy is also animportant area within the general topic ofvisual literacy. Compaine (1988) linksthese two areas when he notes that skills ininformation technology will be required inorder to function in society. He alsoargues that this form of literacy willsupplement rather than supplant otherdefinitions of literacy. He furthercompares traditional definitions of literacy,in which he includes devices such as theprinting press and the steam engine, withchanges in the way in which people thinkabout conceptualizing and processinginformation as a result ef informationtechnology. In other words, to becomputer-literate, one must be a computeruser, but not a computer programmer.

Education is one area in which thegrowth of information technology has hada great impact. From preschoolers whoare introduced to computers, to researchuniversities with the availability ofsupercomputing, computers are beingintegrated into education more and more.Estes and Williams (1988) cite fourreasons for this. First is thc demand fromparents, school boards, and citizens forcomputer instruction in the classroom.

Computer Age 237

Secondly, decreasing costs for personalcomputers have resulted in greaternumbers of p.c.s. ben purchased byeducational institutions. Thirdly is theease of interactivity of this technology withother forms, including printers,videodiscs, videotapes, etc. Finally, theinstructional process itself can beimproved through individualizedinstructions, which has become morefeasible with the growth of informationtechnology. In short, computers are beingused by more students at all levels. Formany students facing the workplace of thetwenty-first century, familiarity withinformation technology will be a necessityin order to compete in the global market.

These information technologies,however, do not exist in a vacuum. Theyare being developed and integrated withinexisting political, economic, and socialconcerns and issues (Gillespie & Robins,1989). One of the most commonly-citedareas of concern is privacy. Although therole of privacy in the computer age ingeneral has been widely-studied, specificprivacy issues or threats to privacy arecontinually being raised. Mendes (1988)guides readers through a myriad ofdefinitions of privacy, ranging fromconstitutional, common-law, and statutorydefinitions, to five major types of privacyconcerns. She modifies Westin's 1967definition of privacy to arrive at thefollowing definition: "a condition inwhich individuals, groups, or institutionscan determine for themselves, when, how,and to what extent private informationabout them is communicated to others." Inaccepting this definition for privacy, thisauthor believes that such conditions can beeither real (occurring in the external world)or perceptual (people believe them to bereal, even without external verification).Definitions of privacy that include bothreal and perceptual dimensions is notwithout foundation. In 1984, a studyconducted by Louis Harris and associates(1983) found that people in the UnitedStates not only believed that thecentralization of information from manysources is possible with computers, but itis also a threat to personal privacy. In a

243

more recent study, Gandy (1989) warnsabout the increasing use of automatedmethods of surveillance devices aspotential sources of threats to theindividual. Although Gandy is mostconcerned about privacy at the individuallevel, concerns occur at the national andinternational levels as well.

At the individual level, questionscontinue to be raised about the safeguardsto the individual's right of privacy in atechnological age. Recognizing that manyWestern governments have acknowledgedand established rights to privacy in theirpolitical and/or judicial systems, theseresearchers cite the protection of privacy asa fundamental issues. While agreementseems to exist on the need for dataacquisition, privacy concerns generally areraised on rights to access to the data once ithas been gathered (Schirmacher, 1986).Such concerns range from information indata banks, which might be used bybusiness or government, to informationwhich a "hacker" might discover on anindividual's personal computer.

At the national level, privacy issuesare most closely related to the issues ofsecurity. Different nations in the worldcommunity have taken differentapproaches to these questions. In theUnited States, for instance, many earlytechnological advances have beendeveloped for strategic/military purposes,or matters of national security or nationaldefense. At these initial stages, fundinghas come primarily or exclusively from thcfederal government. As the technologicalinnovation expands beyond its defense-related applications, subsequentdevelopment shifts from government tobusiness and industry. On the other hand,the governments of several Europeannations have taken a more central role ininformation technology development.Although policies and practices vary, ingeneral, the role of government ininformation technology has been moredirect in Europe (Monfils & Monfils,1991). In Japan, too, direct governmentalinvolvement has been clear and significant.

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At the international level, issues ofprivacy become even more complex. Theyinclude not only the validity of informationbeing transmitted across internationalboundaries, but also its ownership.Concerns have also been raised as to therights, responsibilities, and protectionsthat people have in trans-border data flow.For instance, do law enforcement agenciesin One country have the right to shareinformation with their counterparts in othercountries, or does this violate theindividual's right to privacy? Whataccountability exists with the way in whichthc receiving agency uses this information?Does the individual have a right to benotified? What about issues that are in thecommon interest, such as sharinginformation about possible terrorist groupsor organizations? These issues are farfrom being settled (Monfils & Monfils,1991).

Thus, a synthesis of research has ledto the identification of privacy concerns atthe individual, national, and internationallevels. These concerns relate to rights toprivacY, protection from access byunauthorized persons or agencies, nationaldefense, and international laws andcooperation. To what extent theseconcerns are actually being perceived byindividuals is the focus of this researchstudy.

Method

As computers arc introduced moreand more into education, students becomethc beneficiaries of these technologicaladvances. As students become moreexperienced users of informationtechnology, they should understand thelimits of technology in regard to privacy.This study was done in order to provideanswers to the following researchquestions:

I . Are university students usingcomputers on a regular basis?

2. If so, what concerns regardingprivacy do university students have?


3. Do relationships exist betweenthe amount of technology use and level ofconcern of privacy at the individual,national, and/or international levels?

4. Is the perception that computersare likely to invade, or have alreadyinvaded, personal privacy related toconcerns over specific types of privacyissues--i.e., individual, national, andinternational concerns?

To an5wer these questions, a surveywas distributed to 145 university studentsin the Midwest in the U.S. In order tomake th sample more broadlyrepresentaave, questionnaires weredistributed to students at all levels in theiruniversity studies, ranging from freshmento graduate students, and to students inday and evening classes. Moreover, theywere distributed to students on twodifferent university campuses, oneprimarily a resident campus and one inwhich more than half of the students donot live on campus. Data collected fromthese surveys was analyzed using Release4.1 of SPSS (Statistical Package from theSocial Sciences). In this questionnaire,students were asked to indicate how oftenthey used several forms of informationtechnology, ranging from programming aVCR to using a personal computer. Thesequestions formed the basis of a "Uses"subscale. They were also asked to indicateif they owned a personal computer or hadtaken a course with hands-on computertraining. They were then asked to indicatehow much of a concern they felt oninvasion of privacy by computers ingeneral, and on twenty specific privacy-related issucs. Responses were based on ascale from "not likely at all to happen" to"has already occurred." These questionsbecame the "Concerns" subscale.Demographic information on gender, age,major, and year in college was alsogathered. Alpha coefficients werecomputed for the entire instrument and forthe Uses and Concerns subscales of thequestionnaire, with scores of .67, .78,and .93, respectively.

2 4

Results of this survey confirmed that

Computer Age 239

most university students use computertechnology regularly, i.e., at least once amonth. Forty-one per cent said theyplayed computer games regularly, whileeighty-three per cent said they used apersonal computer for purposes other thanplaying games at least once a month.Forty-seven per cent said they used themainframe university computer regularly,and thirty-six percent regularly used amainframe computer at work. Fortypercent of those surveyed said they owneda p.c., and one-half said they'd taken orwere taking a computer course with hands-on training. Thus, in this study, moststudents use personal computer on aregular basis.

Students were than asked to indicateto what extent they felt concerned aboutcertain issues related to privacy.Questions were asked relating to concernsat the individual, national, andinternational levels. Specific applicationsincluded banking, telephone services,grades, insurance, employment screening,law enforcement, and airline reservations.

For concerns at the individual level,the question receiving the highest numberof responses as being very likely tohappen or has already happened was thequestion of access by law enforcementagencies (87%), followed by insurancecompanies (71%), access to academicrecords (52%), driving records (51%),and access to credit card numbers byunauthorized persons (50%). Studentsshowed the least level of concern that acomputer hacker could learn things aboutthem (7%).

Three questions were used to assesslevel of concern in regard to privacy on anational level--the government, the InternalRevenue Service, and national securityagencies. Respondents split fairly evenlyon both sides of these three questions,with 27 per cent expressing little or noconcern about the government's havingexcessive information on them, 23 percent expressing little or no concern aboutthe IRS, and 30 percent expressing similarsentiments about national security

245

agencies. On the other side, 47 percentsaid it was likely to happen or has alreadyhappened that the government has excessinformation on them, 5 2 percentresponded similarly about the IRS, and 46percent said national security agencieseither have or were likely to haveexcessive information.

Respondents were also asked toindicate how likely it was to happen thatinternational governments ar d internationallaw enforcement agencies can learninformation about them throughinformation technology. Responsesranged from 30 percent as not at all likelyor unlikely to happen to 36 percent whoviewed this as likely to happen or alreadyhappening in reference to internationalgovernments. When asked aboutinternational law enforcement agencies, 29percent said it was not at all likely orunlikely, while 48 percent said it was verylikely or had already happened. Thus,students expressed concerns on issuesrelated to privacy at the individual,national, and international level, with someissues at the individual level beingperceived as more likely to happen thanothers.

Pearson product-momcnt correlationcoefficients were computed to assessrelationships between amount oftechnology use and concern over privacyissues. This was assessed in two ways:by individual uses of computers and by acombined category called general use. Thegeneral use category was determined bycombining four types of computer use--game-playing, p.c. use, or mainframe usc,either at the university or at work.Statistically significant relationships werefound in many categories.

For instance, a significant directrelationship was found between those whoregularly play computer games and theconcern over access by law enforcementagencies (r = .165; p = .05). Asignificant inverse relationship occurredbetween those who regularly use apersonal computer for purposes othcr thangame-playing and concern over access by

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law enforcement agencies (r = -.265; p= .0 I). Similar concerns were seenamong those who regularly use amainframe at work (r = -.207; p =.05). Non game-playing regular users ofpersonal computers were also found tohave a significant inverse relationshipwith the concern over access to highschool or university grades (r = -.218;p = .0 1), while work-related mainframeuse inversely correlated with concernsover records in data banks (r = -.235; p= .0 1). The same inverse relationshipwas seen between those who regularly usea mainframe at the university and concernover records in data banks (r = -.189; p= .05) and the concern of unauthorizedchanging of scores on computer games (r= -.17 0; p = .0 5). Directrelationships were established between thecombined category of general computeruse and concerns over access by lawenforcement agencies (r = .1951; p =.0 5) and records kept in data banks (r =.1932; p = .05). An inverserelationship was detected among generaluses and concerns that others could learntelephone calling card numbers (r =-.1817; p = .05). On the other hand,no statistically significant correlationswere found between ownership of apersonal computer and privacy concerns.Inverse relationships were foundbctwccn taking a class with hands-oncomputer training and the following twoconcerns: law enforcement agencies (r =-.182; p = .05) and computer hackers(r = -.168; p = .05). Directcorrelations were found between levels ofcomputer anxiety and the followingconcerns: unauthorized access to drivingrecords (r = .234; p = .01);unauthorized access to grades (r = .237;p = .05); unauthorized access to bankrecords (r = .201; p = .05);unauthorized access to credit card numbers(r = .190; p = . 0 5); insurancecompanies (r = .253; p = .05);unauthorized withdrawal of funds frombank accounts (r = .207; p = .05);international governments (r = .196; p= .05); and international law enforcementagencies (r = .235; p = .05).


Thc fourth research question waswhether relationships existed betweenperceptions of invasion of privacy bycomputer technology and specific privacyconcerns. Pearson correlations werecomputed between responses to the item,"My personal privacy is invaded bycomputer technology," and each of thetwenty specific concerns. Statisticallysignificant direct correlations were foundfor all twenty applications.

Results are as follows:

concern over. access to driving records (r= .398; p = .01); unauthorized accessto grades (r = .343; p = .01);unauthorized access to bank records (r =.341; p = .01); unauthorized access totelephone calling card number (r = .303;p = .0 1); unauthorized access to creditcard number (r = .246; p = .01);insurance companies (r = .326; p =.0 1); prospective employers (r = .331;p = .05); law enforcement agencies (r =.213; p = .05); computer hackers (r =.269; p = .0 1); computer's keepingtrack of who and when phone calls aremade (r = .194; p = .0 1); records kepton computer data banks (r = .406; p =.0 1); unauthorized alteration of scores oncomputer games (r = .190; p = .05);unknown people know a lot about mebecause of computer data banks (r =.338; p = .0 5); unauthorizedwithdrawal of funds from bank account (r= .323; p = .01); the Government (r =.278; p = .01); The Internal RevenueService (r = .274; p = .01); nationalsecurity agencies (r = .290; p = .0 1);international governments (r = .261; p= .0 1); international law enforcementagencies (r = .272; p = .01); andairlines (r = .370; p = .01).

Discussion

This study revealed severalsignificant aspects. First, universitystudents in this study were shown to behigh users of computer technology,whether for relaxation, school, or work.Secondly, students expressed concernsabout privacy issues at all levels,

Computer Age 241

individual, national, and international.While hands-on computer training maylower concerns about computer hackersand computers that keep track of phonecalls, as level of computer anxietyincreases, so, too, do concerns overdriving records, grades, banking records,insurance, international governments andinternational law enforcement agencies.However, the most revealing aspect of thisstudy was the extent to which generalperceptions of invasion of personalprivacy by computer technology have asignificant, direct relationship toindividual, national, and internationalconcerns.

This study, however, is limited bycertain factors. University students in thisstudy regularly use computers to a greaterextent than in several other studies, whichsuggest that many university students donot regularly use computers. Similarly,reported levels of computer anxiety in thisstudy were less than other studies, someof which suggest that up to one-third ofuniversity students may be computer-phobic (DeLoughry, 1993). In addition,this study used self-reports of anxietylevel, rather than applying other forms ofmeasurement. Thus, the generalization ofresults from this study may be limited.

The relationships between computerliteracy and ethics have yet to be fullydocumented. This study confirmsresearch that significant relationships doexist between computer use and concernsover privacy issues. It is a topic that bearsnot only watching, but also assessing, asinformation technology continues toexpand into the everyday life.

References

Bell, D. (1973). The coming of post-industrial society: A venture in socialforecasting. New York: Basic Books.

Compaine, B. M. (1988). Informationtechnology and cultural change:Toward a new literacy. In B. M.Compaine (Ed.), Issues in new

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information technology. Norwood:Ablex.

DeLoughry, T. J. (1993, April 28). 2researchers say lechnophobia' mayafflict millions of students. Chronicleof Higher Education, 39(34).

Dutton, W., Blumler, J., & Kraemer, K.L. (1986). Wired cities; Shaping thefuture of communication. Boston,MA: Hall.

Estes, N., & Williams, V. (1988).Computers in Texas schools: Keyissues for education in the informationage. In F. Williams (Ed.), Measuringthe inforrnation society. NewburyPark: Sage.

Feigenbaum, E. A., & McCorduck, P.(1983). The fifth generation: Artificialintelligence and Japan's computerchallenge to the world. Reading:Addison-Wesley.

Gandy, 0. H. Jr. (1989). Thesurveillance society: Informationtechnology and bureaucratic socialcontrol. Journal of Communication,39(3), 61-76.

Gillespie, A., & Robins, K. (1989).Geographical inequalities: The spatialbias of the new communicationstechnologies. Journal ofCommunication, 39(3), 7-18.

Harris, L., & Associates. (1983,December). The road after 1984: Theimpact of technology on society.Study conducted for the Southern NewEngland Telephone for presentation atthe Eighth Annual SmithsonianSymposium.

Mendes, M. W. (1988). Privacy andcomputer-based information systems.In B. M. Compaine (Ed.), Issues innew information technology.

Monfils, B. S., & Monfils, L. D. (1991,July). You, me, and the government:Issues in software technology transfer.


Paper presented to the World Toff ler, A. (1981). The third wave.Communication Association Biennial London: Pan.Conference, Helsinki, Finland.

Williams, F. (1984). T he newSchirmacher, W. (1986). Privacy as an communications. Belmont, CA:

ethical problem in the computer Wadsworth.society. In C. Mitchan & A. Huning(Eds.), Philosophy and technology II.Dordrecht: D. Reidel.

COMPREHENSIBILITY

byRune Pettersson

Some people are continuously in theprocess of creating documents such asPMs, messages, instructions, reports,descriptions, and course literature. Someof these documents are meant only fordistribution within limited groups, whileothers will be spread to many differentreaders both inside and outside thecompany. However, because any author'sintended message may be interpreted indifferent ways by different readers,problems arise. In some cases, readers donot understand the documentation at all.

It is difficult to create easilyunderstood information. On the otherhand, it is simple enough to require ease ofcomprehension. But what is actuallyimplied when we say that a message iscomprehensible?.

To someone working withinformation, it is not sufficient that amessage be produced and transmitted, asin radio and television, nor is it sufficientthat a message be produced, transmitted,and received by an audience. The act ofcommunicating is not complete until ourmessage has been both received andunderstood by the audience. In otherwords, our messages must always be

comprehensible, otherwise they will haveno effect.

Communication

Communication takes place when asender wants to convey one or moremessages to one or more receivers. Thesender transfers the messages to thereceivers with the help of different media.A medium and its contents (the message)constitute a representation.

In this report, I shall focus onformulating the message. As the readerwill see, the discussion ofco m pre hen si bi 1 i ty i s fundamentallyapplicable to all media.

On occasi on, unfortunately,communication does not seem to function.This may depend on insufficientinformation, but it may also be because wehave difficulty reaching each other. Byway of example, the following title is citedas a warning in "The Technical Writer'sHandbook" by Matt Young (1989):"Conditional symbolic modified single-digit arithmetic using optical content-addressable memory logic elements:Conditional symbolic modified signed-digit arithmetic operators" (p. 206).

Representation

Message

Communication. A representation is a medium with a specific message. The sendertransfers his message to the receiver with the help of a medium.

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144

Esoteric and impenetrable jargon likethis can be perceived as incoinprehensibleby the uninitiated. Since readers who donot know the code are left out, its useposes the risk of "one-way only"communication, and has no value outsideof initiated circles. We find it unsettlingwhen experts speak down to us; it puts usinto a defensive frame of mind, and mayeven cause us to become obstinate.Interaction analysts describe this as a"You're OK, I'm not OK" reaction.However, what we should be striving foris a "You're OK, I'm OK" situation.

When a document is to be read andunderstood by several people, there isample reason to expend effort on achievinga good quality of information. When thisis achieved, we can discern theinformation's esthetic, informative,pedagogical, and technical qualities, andsometimes even its entertainment value.Good information quality can be definedas thc degree of congruity between thesender's and the receiver's subjectiveperceptions of the information, as well asof the reality that the informationrepresents. By investing resources inimproving the quality of information, wecan achieve better product and projectquality, while at the same time makinglarge cost savings.

It seems as though arcane, abstrusetexts have become a global problem intechnical and scientific documentation.Kirkman (1992) opens the first chapter ofhis book "Good Style" with the followingtwo paragraphs:

It is surely axiomatic that the aim oftechnical writing is to transmitinformation accurately, quickly andeconomically from one person toanother. Then why do so manyscientists and engineers make theirwriting so heavily unreadable?Obviously, their subject matter issometimes complex and conceptuallydifficult; but frequently thc'unreadability' stems from the use ofa style that makes the reader's taskmuch heavier than it need be. (p. 2)


Good documentation implies verygood comprehensibility and low cost, aswell as ready accessibility when it isneeded--and only then, in fact. Poorcomprehensibility causes the receiver'sconfidence in the sender to diminish, andheightens the risk of unsound decisionsbeing made. Many good suggestions maybe rejected because those whose job it is todetermine their practical merit simply donot understand what the suggestions callfor.

Comprehending means under-standing the immediate or fundamentalmeaning of something. A message iscomprehensible if it can be graspedwithout difficulty. Whether a message--for example, a technical report--can beunderstood or not is dependent on manydifferent factors, of which some relate tothe sender, others relate to the message orrepresentation, and still others relate to thereceiver (see the picture on the next page).

Speaking and writing are language-related activities performed by the sender.These activities are influenced by thesender's earlier observations, as well as byhis terminology and the language he uses.Besides being active, the sender is incharge of encoding the message, i.e., itsproduction and distribution.

Listening and reading are language-related activities performed by the receiver.As is the case with the sender, thereceiver's activities are influenced by hisearlier observations, as well as by histerminology and the language he uses.Besides being relatively passive, thereceiver is in charge of acception anddecoding the message.

The picture on the following pageshows a model of comprehensibility with agraphic verbo-visual message as anexample. This model is also applicable tooral communication and communicationvia audio-visual media.

The readability, legibility, andreading value of the graphic message areof decisive importance to the rec ver's

Comprehensibility 245

ability to understand it. (Audibility,distinctness, and listening value are ofsimilar importance to th:. ,Inderstanding oforal texts.) Moreover, these factors--besides being influenced by the writingprocess--are all prerequisites for the

reading process.

Therefore, we shall attempt here toshow the relation of readability, legibility,and reading value, as well as credibilityand esthetics, to the message rather than to

Earlierexperiences

Sender'swritingprocess

Linguisticquality

Production anddistribution

Credibility

Reading Reada-value bility

Message Esthetics

Legibility

Messagereceived

Terminology

Receiver'sreadingprocess

earlierexperiences

Comprehensibility. Our ability to understand a verbo-visual message (for example, atechnical report) is dependent upon its readability, its legibility, and its reading value.Comprehensibility is influenced by the message's credibility and esthetics, by the sender'swriting process and the receiver's reading process.

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the sender or the receiver. By proceedingfrom the writing process (i.e., theterminology of the message, as well as itscredibility and linguistic value), we shalltry to analyze how we can achieve greatercomprehensibility.

It is clear that we must help thosewho work wi th documentation,information, and training to become betterwriters themselves, a goal that will alsorequire the help of professional technicalinstructors, translators, graphics expertsand designers. By developing explicitterminology, we can make things easierfor writers as well as for their readers.

Experiences

Texts and pictures may be either easyor difficult to interpret. The degree towhich they are one or the other can dependon several different factors. If, forexample, a reader lacks the backgroundknowledge in a given field that is requiredin order for him to interpret a text, thenthere is no chance that he will understandit, no matter how diligently the writers,instructors, graphics experts, anddesigners exert themselves. The same willbc truc if the reader's command of thelanguage used is poor.

Everyone learns to read words, butwe must learn to read pictures (Pettersson,1989) as well. Therefore, pictoriallanguage must be adapted to the viewer'scapacity for interpreting it.Communication can be said to functionsuccessfully between the picture-makerand the viewer if the viewer understands,to the fullest extent, what the picture-maker wants the picture to say, and if themessage conveyed is unambiguous.

Gunnarsson (1982) discussesspecific reader characteristics from theperspective of the schemata theory, whichis based on the premise that wc store ourimpressions of our surroundings in theform of schemata. The thcory postulatesthat we have different partial impressions,such as general knowledge about differenttypes of text, as well as different whole


impressions of reality. Our deeperunderstanding of a text is influenced by theschemata that we bring to the fore whenwe read.

A few brief glances at a picture areenough for us to recognize it again amongother pictures. Shopping in a departmentstore, for example, we are passivelyconscious, i.e., we know, that there are agreat many advertisements in the form ofpictures and text--and usually backgroundmusic as well--all around us, even thoughit all fuses into something our sensesperceive as noise. It is plausible that weprocess most of these stimuli at asuperficial level: We see and hear, but wedo not look or listen. To examine thismore closely, let us imagine five cognitivemental levels arranged like the steps of astaircase (Pettersson, 1989):

creatingtext, pictures,music

analysing text,pictures, music

reading text and pictures,listening to music

looking at text and pictures,hearing music

being aware of the presence of text,pictures, music.

Looking at a picture expends moremental energy and demands a highercognitive level than merely seeing that apicture is there. Similarly, listening tomusic requires more concentration thanhearing background music. Theseimpressions, on being received, areconveyed from the sensory memory to theshort-term or working memory. Some ofthe information proceeds on through thefiltering system and becomes consciouslyperceptible to the receiver. However, aftera short while, most of this informationdisappears.

(.71

..) 2


When we study, we take an activepart in the contents of the material. Weread texts, we listen to music, we readpictures. This consciously perceivedinformation is processed, sorted, andstored in certain parts of our long-termmemory. In the case of a picture, we mayneed to focus on different portions of it anumber of times (so-called eye fixations)to be able to describe it later on.

Conscious analysis of verbalmessages requires even greaterexpenditure of mental energy and demandsa still higher cognitive level. Mostdemanding of all are the creative processesthat make it possible to create texts, music,and pictures. Authors, composers, andartists all bear witness to the mental strainthat can be a part of the creative process.The cognitive model with its five levels, asshown above, presupposes a dynamicmental process in which we changecognitive levels both consciously andunconsciously.

Our sensory organs react to changesin our surroundings. Normally, we canperceive changes (in spatial properties, forexample) that are greater than about twopercent. On the other hand, we adaptourselves to slow, gradual changes, sothat we barely notice them at all. Ournormal condition, therefore, is a state ofmental repose that affords us the capacityf o r sudden, rapid activity.Correspondingly, we cannot keepourselves at the highest cognitive levels formore than a limited time; the effort wouldrequire too much energy and wouldprobably induce some kind of mentalcramp. Like a pike lurking among reeds,or a cat spying outside a mouse's hole, weknow what our surroundings look like. Ifsomething happens to change somefamiliar element in our milieu, we can reactswiftly and decisively, impelled by a rushof mental and physical energy. Sometimesthings turn out fine: The pike gets hisminnow, the cat gets her field mouse, andwc find the information we are lookingfor. But things can turn into a muddle,too: The predators fail to capture theirprey, and we end up wasting time and

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energy trying to make sense out ofuninteresting information.

Because they influence us in anemotional way, pictures have an enormousimpact. Children, for example, can beeasily frightened by violent action ontelevision, but they are not upset byreading about violent action in a book.This is in part because what we see seemsmore tangible to us than what we read, butit is also because reading a text requires ahigher cognitive level than viewing apicture does. Several researchers, amongthem TrOger (1963) and Noble (1975),have demonstrated that very small childrenare incapable of taking an active part in thecontent, or understanding the context, ofmaterial shown on a television screen.Most parents with toddlers have made thesame observation.

There are no fixed or distinct bordersbetween the five levels of our cognitivemodel. Depending on cultural, social, andintellectual factors, there may be greatdifferences between various persons'ways of conforming to the model. Thentoo, mood, health, surroundings, and anumber of other circumstances can causeone and the same individual to react verydifferently at different times. However,what the model reveals is that there is infact a great difference between theconcepts of seeing--looking--reading andhearing--listening.

Actively taking part in a linguisticmessage that consists of text, sound orpictures, either together or separately,always implies the exertion of effort, i.e.,work. Reading or listening taxes ourfaculties; sooner or later we become tired.Furthermore, material that is poorlyconstructed and/or presented strikes us asdull, and not only causes our interest in thesubject to wane, but leaves us exhausted.

This applies irrespective of whether amessage is meant to impart information,instruction, or entertainment. It alsoapplies irrespective of the medium ofconveyance, except insofar as differentmedia have entirely different capacities for

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conveying a message from a sender to areceiver.

Stromquist (1991) points out that weall have proficiency in, and insight into,the labours of writing. We all know howwriting is done. We know that the writingprocess consists of more than simplycommitting words to paper; indeed, itpresupposes long-term memory andfamiliarity with the things that have to dowith writing. In other words, writing is anextensive, time-consuming, dynamic,gradual, cognitive, and strenuousbusiness.

The Writing Process

The section Writing Advice containsconcrete instructions, i.e., rules of thumb,on how to write so that your text will beunderstandable.

The physical act of writing downone's thoughts with the help of a pen or akeyboard does not usually require a greatdeal of time. It generally takes longer tothink what the tcxt should consist of thanto formulate it. Thus, the writing processencompasses much more than merelywriting, and it is relatively independent ofthc language used. We work more or lessthe same way when we write English aswhen we write Swedish or any otherlanguage.

Before we begin writing, we need toidentify the subject and define the purposeof thc message. This always requiresanalysis of the target group or receiver.Receiver analysis might contain evaluationof the receiver's basic understanding of thesubject, his trade knowledge, experiences,skills, comprehensive capacity, attitudes,prejudices, motivation, linguisticcompetence, social background andvocation, as well as his agc and the groupshe belongs to or identifies with. Becauseall of these factors influence how thereceiver takes in and understands amessage, they arc decisive to how we shallformulate thc text.

To begin with, we shall need to


gather and sort our material, as well asplan and outline our presentation. We needto choose the type-face, graphical form,and medium. It may be possible to usefixed writing patterns and establishedmodels.

When we have formulated the text,we shall need to process it and adapt it, sothat it will suit our target group. We mayhave to rewrite the text as many as tentimes before it is right. Although it may betrue that even the most complicated textscan be presented in a comprehensibleform, all writers need practice, practice,and still more practice. Liljestrand andArwidson (1979) assert the following:

Complicated texts are often defendedon the grounds that their subjectmatter is complicated. In reality,however, the more difficult thesubject is, the more one must attemptto express it in a comprehensibleway. It is surely more reasonable toexpect that someone who is writingfor several people expend effort onthe writing of his text, than that thevarious receivers be obliged, each onhis own, to expend effortinterpreting it! (p. 15)

Also Stromquist (1991)) maintainsthat everyone must practice writing tobecome good at it. Writing is a skill thatwe can learn. She says the following (intranslation): "It is only by writing oneselfthat one can fully understand thecomplicated writing process; it is only bywriting oneself that one discovers wherethe problem lies" (p. 35).

Texts may need to be augmented bythe addition of pictures, for example,photographs or schematic diagrams. I

often begin the work of writing by makinga comprehensive picture, which sometimesdevelops into a short suite of picturesbefore I begin work on the text. Bergquist(1991) gives textbook authors five terse,vigorous instructions in the form ofcommandments (in translation):


The first commandment: Don'twrite! Even if the author's firstimpulse is to start writing atonce, it is essential to startwriting at once, it is essential tobegin with an outline.

The second commandment: Usepictures! Get a picture toillustrate each section; wait withyour text.

The third commandment: Writecaptions for each picture! Eachpicture should have a relevanttext, which may even have aheading.

The fourth commandment: Talkto your editor! Together, thewriter and the editor can expanda factual outline into a detailedoutline for each layout. Theoutline contains room for bothtext and pictures.

The fifth commandment: Writein a structured manner! The textshould complement the pictures.Therefore, write in the spacebetween the pictures. The editorprovides the author with exactdata about the number of strokeseach line of text may fill.

The actual process of designing andcreating integrated verbo-visualinformation is called infography. Whentext, picture, and graphic form areintegrated into a fully delimited, structuresurface (a functioning whole), the result isa graphical information entity, usuallyknown as information graphics, that canbe interwoven with texts and pictures in ainformation layout.

Quality of Language

There are several differentsubheadings under the general headingquality of language, among them,phonology, morphology, syntax, style,pragmatics, and infology.

Phonology is the study ofphonemes, i.e., the smallestunits of semantic differentiationfound in spoken language, andcombinations of these units. Thesmallest written unit that fills asem a n ti cally differentiatingfunction is called a grapheme.

Morphology, the study of formor structure, deals with howwords are formed and inflected.

Syntax is the study of the rulesfor combining words intogrammatical phrases, clauses,sentences, and paragraphs.

Style is the way of expressingthought in writing or speaking byselecting and arranging wordsfor clarity, effectiveness, andease of reading.

Pragmatics is, in linguistics, thestudy of the causal and otherrelations between words andhow we connect words toexpress ourselves correctly.

Infology is the study of howverbo-visual information ispresented and read.

The way in which good quality oflanguage is defined is, to some extent,dependent upon the purpose of the text.Technical writers, for example, are moreconsciously concentrated on getting resultsthan other writers. Because technicallanguage must be capable of effectivelyconveying as much information aspossible to a certain group of readers, it ischaracterized in its ideal form by brevity,clarity, and precision (see the section onTechnology).

According to Melin (1992),comprehensibility in a text is largelydependent upon perspective, abstraction,context, complexity, and redundancy. Asit is, these qualities are themselves difficultto describe; small wonder, then, that the

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comprehensibility of text defiesassessment.

In an experiment, Kirkman (1992)allowed a group of people to rate sixdifferent versions of four technical andscientific texts. In terms of content, thetexts were equal to each other, but theyvaried in their style of language. All told,somc three thousand people took part inthe experiment. In the case of all fourtexts, the test group rated the versions thatwere written in an active, direct, andpersonal style as being the most easy toread and understand. Contrarily, theversions written in a passive, indirect, andneutral style, with complicated sentencestructure, were judged by the test group asbeing the most difficult to read andunderstand.

To describe the properties of text, thelinguist works with advanced textanalysis. However, it ivelatively easy todescribe a text's readability by using areadability index, a character index, and anominal quotient.

The premises on which thereadability and character indexes are basedis that long words and sentences make atext difficult to read. The readability indexis the sum of two calculations: thepercentage proportion of long words(consisting of--depending on the languagein question--the number of !etters orsyllables in a given word), and the averagenumber of words per sentence. Thereadability index, while usuallycorresponding rather well both to people'ssubjective experience of a text's readabilityand to their results in comprehension tests,has received strong criticism becausevaried sentence length actually contributesto case of reading.

The character index can be looked onas a visualization of the readability index.Each sentence is analyzed and noted on achart depicting a systcm of coordinates, inwhich the y axis represents the number oflong words and the x axis the numbcr ofwords per second. Thus, by graphicallyproviding more than a single mean, the


character index offers more thoroughinformation about a text than thereadability index does.

The nominal quotient gives the totalnumber of nouns, prepositions, andparticiples divided by the total number ofpronouns, verbs, and adverbs. A goodinformation text has a quotient of slightlymore than 1.0. Text with a lower nominalquotient seems chatty, whereas text with ahigher nominal quotient is cumbersome.

Research into readability has beendirected towards finding the characteristicsthat make texts easy or difficult tounderstand. Gunnarsson (1982) pointsout that the psychological equivalent toreadability is merely superficialunderstanding. Therefore, she prefers touse comprehensibility as the term forcharacteristics that are related to deeper,specific text understanding. Gunnarsson'stheory of comprehensibility is based partlyon the correlation between the level ofunderstanding and the level of the text, andpartly on the premise that what is readinfluences the reading process.

It is also possible to calculate thereadability of pictures (Pettersson, 1989)by using the picture-readability index,which takes into account a picture'sfunctional properties and expresses howeasy or difficult the picture is to read. Apicture that we are unable to understandcannot communicate any factualinformation. The easier it is to read apicture, the better it can conveyinformation.

In the USA, there is an increasingincidence of lawsuits being broughtagainst manufacturers. These suits claimdamages as a result of accidents occurringor products breaking because of poorquality in the language of instructionmanuals (Helyar, 1992). The courts aredemanding that technical manuals,brochures, information sheets, labels, etc.,be written in comprehensible language,and that descriptions and instructions bereadable and legible. Everywhere,plaintiffs' counsels are searching

25G


frenetically for sections of text and parts ofpictures that might be interpreted inconflicting ways. If a manufacturer'stechnical documentation is difficult tounderstand, he can lose a lawsuit.

The Message

The message is the link between thesender and the receiver. The senderdesigns the message and sends it off. Thereceiver receives it, and tries to understandit.

Teleman (1991) points out that thesystems of rules that govern spoken andwritten language are similar in many ways.Originally, writing was a way of depictingspeech, but the two coded systems laterwent their separate ways. The mosttangible feature of the rules for writtenlanguage is their standardization. In mostwestern countries, the written language iscomprehensible throughout the countryand does not reflect differences in dialect.

An essential difference between thespoken arid the written message is the timeavailable for transmitting them. Theproduction of speech must take place in thehere and now; the speaker and his listenercommunicate in real time. On the otherhand, the writer and his reader can take allthe time they need.

In the written message, legibility,readability, and reading value are vitallyimportant to the message'scomprehensibility.

Legibility

The graphical message's legibility isdetermined by the technical design of thetext and the picture, i.e., their clarity.Legibility can be measured ratherobjectively, and its quality is assessablewhether we understand its content or not.As far as the text is concerned, we shouldavoid unusual type-face, as well as type-face that is too small or too large.

We read each word in a text as apicture, not letter by letter. In a book it

2 5 7

might be sufficient to set the type betweennine and twelve points, although on a .display screen, the text should be at leastthree to five times as large. The text on aposter meant to be read from somedistance may need to be ten times greaterin size.

Legibility in the written word iscomparable to audibility in the spokenword.

Readability

The readability of the messageinvolves the reader's ability to understandits text and pictures (compare the earliersection on the readability and characterindexes and the nominal quotient).Readability is determined by the contentand its presentation, and depends upon thedegree to which it is adapted to thereceiver's capacity to understand it. Thewriter and the picture-maker need to takeinto account the reader's knowledge,interests, and needs in order to compile,sort, and structure the material. This isalso true with regard to the formulation oftexts and pictures.

Readability in the written word iscomparable to distinctness in the spokenword.

Reading value

The message's reading value is thereceiver's subjective evaluation of thecontent of the text and pictures. What isinteresting to one person can be deemeddull by another. We must therefore adapttext as well as pictures to be palatable toany given target group.

Reading value in the written word iscomparable to listening value in the spokenword.

Pictures

When producing informativematerial, the sender always has a reasonfor adapting his message so that thereceiver understands it. Pettersson (1989)

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reports on a number of experiments inwhich altogether 4,350 people describedhow they interpreted thc contents ofdifferent pictures. The experiments clearlyshowed that:

How a picture is understood is arelative thing. Different peopleunderstand and describe the samepicture in different ways.

Even simple pictures need plaincaptions in order for the contentsand presentation to beconveyable in verbal form.

Pictures of abstract subjects areunderstood in considerably morevaried ways than pictures withconcrete subjects.

Abstract subjects are described inconcrete terms.

Thc same intended theme orsubject can be expressed throughmany different pictures.

Texts and pictures are completelydifferent languages thatcomplement each other.

The possibilities for combiningtexts and pictures are virtuallyunlimited.

There is not likely to be just onebut several equally good optionsavailabl e for achievingsatisfactory communication.

Pictures that will be used forinformation purposes shouldalways be given captions thatconfirm the interpretation that ismast relevant in the context.

The interplay between text,picture, and graphic form needsto be studied thoroughly beforeoptimal combinations can befound.


We are able to differentiatebetween immediate and analyticalunderstanding of pictures.

We create a pre-understanding ofhow a picture should beinterpreted based on the contextin which the picture is shown.

Media

As a rule, the content of films andtelevision programs is presented in apreordained fashion, which tends toencourage relative passivity in viewers.The same is true of prepared oralpresentations.

The reader of a book digests textualand pictorial information at his own pace.If the information presented in the bookhas a structured surface, i.e., one in whichthe information is integrated into a singlecontext, the reader can focus his attentionrelatively freely. The experience is akin tothe way we take in information in real-lifesituations.

Interactive video programs make itpossible to combine sound and movingpictures; thus, they can arouseconsiderable activity and commitment inthe user. Because an interactive videoprogram can stimulate the user to performat a high cognitive level, it has the potentialto function well, both as a conveyor ofinformation and as a teaching aid.

Credibility and Esthetics

For a message to be effective, itneeds not only to be credible but to meritcredibility as well. First, its content mustbe correct and the quality of its text andpictures beyond reproach. Convincingarguments, proper references, and relevantexamples are other requirements, as ispresentation of the message in concreteasopposed to abstract--terms. Credi bi I i tycan also be influenced with the help oftypography and layout.

The National Swedish Psychological0 :7 s',)

c


Defence Planning Committee has carriedout comprehensive studies of variousmedia's credibility (Arvidson, 1981;Tornqvist, 1974). Receivers ofinformation evaluate credibility accordingto how they perceive thestraightforwardness, the factual content,and the comprehensibility of the message.

Thus far in these tests, ether mediahave always won the greatest credibility.At the end of the 60s, television wasconsidered superior in credibility, althoughby the beginning of the 70s, radio wasconsidered most credible. During the 80s,radio and television were felt to be equal incredibility; fully 80% of those questionedwere in accord with this. However, itdoes not seem as though people in Swedentrust the information found in newspapers.In the autumn of 1981, slightly more than10% judged the morning papers to be mostcredible, while only 1-2% made thatassessment of the evening papers'information.

It is primarily the younger generationwho have the most faith in television. Theolder we are, the more credible we find themorning papers. Furthermore, trust in themorning papers is greater the higher ourlevel of education is.

Material with a (sufficiently) pleasingesthetic form has greater potential forconveying a particular message than doesunaesthetic material (Pettersson, 1989).The sender's choice of graphical form willgenerate either positive or negativeexpectations in the receiver, while thechoice of typography and layout can oftengive the reader a pre-understanding of themessage's content.

In other words, it is important that avisual message exhibit good legibility, or,it it is a spoken message, distinctness. Themessage may be esthetically pleasing, butits content is more important than its form.

Terminology

Therc arc as many different varietiesof shop-talk, i.e., trade jargon, as there are

vocational fields. In technical reports, forexample, one finds far more detail anduncommon wording than in the languageat large.

Terminology, the study of terms,encompasses terms, concepts, idioms,definitions, references, conceptualsystems, and semantics. A term is a wordor expression for a particular conceptfound in a given field of work, in which ithas a specific and carefully determinedmeaning. A concept is an idea ofsomething formed by mentally combiningall its characteristics or particulars. Anidiom is a fixed expression whosemeaning is not discernible from thedefinitions of the individual words ofwhich the expression is made up. Adefinition is a description of a conceptrendered in words. A referent is an object,abstract or concrete, for which a name ordesignation stands. A conceptual system,or a conceptual hierarchy, is a systematicdescription of the relations between thevarious concepts in a particular area ofthought. Semantics is the study of themeaning of verbal expressions and theimplications of combinations of words.

The subjects lexicology andlexicography also belong to this area.Lexicology is the science that deals withthe structure of vocabulary. Lexicographyis both the study of how dictionaries arecompiled and the actual process ofcompiling and writing them.

The Reading Process

Both the reading and the listeningprocesses require decoding of symbols,pre-understanding of words, phrases, andpictures, and, finally, comprehension ofthe content of the information.Furthermore, as we mentioned before, thelegibility, readability, and reading valur ifthe written message influence the readingprocess. In the case of the spokenmessage, th,' message's audibility,distinctness, and listening value influencethe hearing process.

5 9

As far as the receiver of the message

254

is concerned, the following are some ofthe factors that greatly influence his intakeof information:

Earlier experiences andobservations.

Perception.

Learning.

Memory.

The reading objective.

The reading procedure.

Pre-understanding.

Memory

Reading texts and pictures, andactively listening, are dependent on ourshort-term memory, as is all mentalactivity. Only a certain limited amount ofinformation can be contained in the short-term memory at any time. Newinformation crowds out information that isolder than about a second, and the olderinformation easily disappears if we are notprepared to store it in ouy long-termmcmory. If we repeat the information afew times, wc increase our chances ofremembering it. Long, complex words in

tcxt arc not immediately apparent to us,Our short-term memory becomesoverloaded with long chains of words thatcannot be directly put into a meaningfulcontext.

The Reason for Taking in theInformation

Gunnarsson (1982) discusses fivedifferent categories of reading objectives.What differentiates them is the kind ofstored knowledge that must be invoked inorder for understanding to take place. Ofcourse these categories are not sharplydelimited, but overlap.

In memorization of the textualsurface, the objective is to create

Verbo-Visual literacy

a visual memory of the text'ssurface.

In registration of the text'scontent as such, the objective isto understand the writtenmessage's structural andconventional importance.

In comprehension of the sender'sdescription of reality, theobjective is to understand whatthe sender means by the text.

In integration of the text intoone's perception of one's ownsurroundings, the objective is tointegrate the text into one's ownearlier experiences andobservations.

In direct, action-related compre-hension, the objective is to knowhow one should behave indifferent situations, based onwhat the text says.

The first objective involves readingin order to recognize each word andmemorize the text surface, while thesecond requires us to read and understandthe words in the text. With objectivesthree to five, reading is directed towardsindividual sentences, parts, and the wholeof the text, and other proficiencies andideas are brought to bear on the material.Objective three, for example, obliges thereader to interpret the text in terms of thesender's situation. Objectives four andfive require that he interpret the text interms of his own surroundings and worldview.

Moijer (1987) states that we read indifferent ways depending on what purposeour reading serves. We read intensively,every word and line, when our purposedemands it. We skim if we only wish toquickly get some idea of the material. Weread to orient ourselves if we want toknow where in a text some particularinformation i found. We read to informourselves when we need certain limited

260


information. In each of these cases, weleave out anything that does not directlysatisfy the purpose of our reading.

Different reading objectives(Gunnarsson, 1982) or purposes (Moijer,1987) attached to reading give rise,therefore, to different reading purposes.These purposes differ in terms of the levelof text on which the reader focuses, and interms of how the material is processed.

The Reading Procedure

According to Gunnarsson (1982),the reading procedure is of greatimportance to the reader's capacity forunderstanding a text. In normal reading,we direct our attention towards how weshall interpret the meaning of a sentence.Studying the syntax becomes subordinateto orienting our thoughts amid thesemantic and pragmatic relations that formthe text's warp and woof. When we readlong continuous texts, we process separatesentences with an eye to their integrationinto the material's entirety. This takesplace gradually, with the text that we havealready read providing the framework.Text comprehension is a constructiveprocess, in which the reader builds up hisperception of the whole by integrating thetext with his own experiences.

Pre-Understanding

An important step in the readingprocess is pre-understanding (Pettersson,1989). As I mentioned before, thegraphical form of a text createsexpectations in the reader regarding itscontent. We expect certain types ofdocuments to look a particular way;contrarily, when we see a document of acertain type we expect a particular type oftext and pictures to accompany it. Thus, itis in the light of these expectations that weactivate the cognitive processes needed tointerpret the message.

The reader develops his ownmethods for predicting what a text will bcabout. Introductions, abstracts, tables ofcontents, summaries, illustrations, and

tables all have important functions to fill.

Television producers are usuallygood at showing what their programs areabout. In countries with a great manytelevision channels, it has been noted thatviewers switch rapidly between differentchannels until they find program thatawakes their interest. Sometimes a viewerwill make up his mind within the space ofa couple of seconds (Matsushita, 1988).

Language that is rich in similes andmetaphors makes it easier for the reader topaint his own inner pictures. A wellconstructed text with clear, distinctarrangement and lucid paragraphdisposition, organized under wellformulated headings and captions, affordsthe best reading experience.

Costs

When a great many people arcrequired to read and understandinformation during working hours, thecost incurred is great. It can be expensiveto produce information, but it costs evenmore to store, find, and use it. The greaternumber of individuals who must partakeof certain information, the greater the costwill be. The cost of reading is determinedby the type of documents that will be read,as well as by the groups that will readthem. Thus, presenting information in asuitable way offers great.opportunities forsaving money. In the handbook called"Plain Talk from the Cabinet Office," thatis provided for use by members of thatbody, Ehrenberg-Sundin (1982) states thatjudicious planning of texts can savemillions. She writes as follows (intranslation):

61

It is expensive to read texts! Thecost of reading is often many timesgreater than the cost of writing andprinting the material. Besides, ifreaders do not understand the text, orif they interpret it incorrectly, itbecomes VERY expensive! Thisproblem can be solved by planningtext better. It should have a purposeand the selection of its content must

156

agree with that purpose. Thus, wccan avoid the greatest readingexpenses. If we help the readerfurther by writing comprehensiblelanguage and giving the text asensible presentation as well as anarrangement that is logical to him,we shall have saved still more timeand money.

The cost of reading andunderstanding text is in most cases manytimes greater than the cost of producing it.Ehrenberg-Sundin (1982) offers anestimate:

For a report that has cost SEK80,(X)0 to print and just as much towritc (four months' salary for acommittee secretary), the cost ofreading it will be SEK 1,600,000 if1,000 persons spend eight workinghours each (at SEK 200 per hour) toread and understand it.The greater the number of peoplewho are meant to read a text, thegreater the incentive is to expendextra effort on making it easy toread!

In private companies, thc cost perhour is usually reckoned at SEK 400 ormore, instead of SEK 200. (Since 1982these costs have increased considerablydue to inflation; however, the rationsrcmain the same.) Thus, in industry,savings in this area can be still greater thanthey might be in the public sector.

Mc lin (1986), and others refer to acost estimate that was carricd out at thcSwedish TelecommunicationsAdministration (Televerket). The total costof a 20-page technical report was estimatedin SEK per page as follows:

Writing 5.60Printing 1.40Storage 25.00Reading 225.00

In otherthc repmt wasthe other costs

words, thc cost of readingmany times greater than allput together. The author's


work on thc text represented only twopercent of the total cost.

Writing Advice

Against the background of theprevious discussions (regardingcomprehensibility, communication,experiences, the writing process, qualityof language, message clarity, credibilityand esthetics, terminology, the readingprocess, and costs), it is possible to givesome concrete advice, or rules of thumb,on good writing strategy as the key togood comprehensibility. These rules ofthumb, besides being written so that anywriter can easily follow them, are dividedinto the following sections: Analysis,preparation, writing, using pictures, anddoing the final touching-up. In someplaces, references to relevant literature aregiven, if you want to penetrate the materialmore deeply.

Analysis

Investigate who will read yourtext.

What characteristics do thereaders have?

What is the purpose of yourmessage? Do you want toinform, give instructions, orinfluence your readers?

Are thc readers positively ornegatively disposed to yourmessage? What are theirexpectations?

How will you convey yourmessage to the readers? Whatmedium or media will you use?

What financial conditions orlimitations apply to your work?

What external factors caninfluence how the readers willinterpret your message?

2


Preparation

When you create a message,always proceed from what youyourself know about the readers.What is the readers' level ofknowledge?

Draw up a preliminary plan foryour writing. Allot sufficienttime for it.

Gather material, for example, byreading, interviewing people,making observations, andperforming experiments.

Colleca the pictorial material (seeUsing Pictures below).

Sort out the material that will beincluded with your text. Proceedfrom what you know about thercaders' potential forunderstanding it. Focus on themost important aspects.

Structure your material. Make anoutline of your subject; it canlater be refined and given moredetail. A technical report shouldhave a title, a table of contents,an abstract or summary, anintroduction, description, ananalysis, a conclusion (includingyour own viewpoints), and a listof sources or references. Avoidfootnotes and appendices, asthey are seldom read.

There are different types ofoutlines, for example, narrativeand logical outlines. Do notswitch between different types inthe same document.

Write an interesting title and, ifyou like, a subtitle.

Choose a graphical form thatsuits the material. It will makethings easier for the readers ifinformation of the same kind is

262

presented in a similar way. Awell-thought-out graphical formcontributes to the readers'understanding.

Writing text

General

Let your writing be simple, clear,and concise. Express yourself inspecific rather than unspecificterms.

Use a style that is natural foryou. Avoid both colloquiallanguage and excessively formalconstructions.

Analyze, argue, describe,compare, refer, makeassociations, spin a tale, allaccording to what you think isneeded.

Try not to insinuate subjectivevalues into your text. If is is yourown opinion you are expressing,make this plain.

Avoid writing in a style that is tolaconic or sterile, but don't allowyourself to become chatty.Sentences that are too dense,i.e., sentences in which toomany ideas are concentrated, willmake your text tedious reading.

Use aids, such as dictionariesand encyclopedias. For a guideto English writing, see theEconomist (1991) "Style Guide,""Good Style" by Kirkman(1992), and "The Elements ofStyle" by Strunk and White(1979).

Words

Avoid long, polysyllabic,complicated words.

Avoid buzz-words, slang, and

25g

expert jargon.

Use defined, establishedterminology. If you are obligedto use abbreviations, define themin full the first time they appearin text.

Sentences

Try to have your sentences sayone thing at a time, don't cramthem with ideas. In general, tryto vary the length of yoursentences to increase readingcase, but avoid sentences that aretoo short or too long.

Avoid complicated word orderand subordinated clauses. Beparticularly careful in yourplacement of modifiers. Avoidthc passive voice ("The Bprocess is affected by A"); writeactive sentences ("A affects the Bprocess"). Use verbs instead ofnouns and gerunds.

Paragraphs

Let every paragraph encompass asingle unit of content. Avoidlong, convoluted paragraphs thatmeander in all directions.

Link sentences and paragraphswith conjunctions and/or adverbs(and, nevertheless, moreover,because, but, however,therefore, although, because,since, or even, thus), makingsure at the same time that thethings linked together bear alogical relation to each other. Inthe sentence "the project wasterminated duc to calculatedproject costs and more profitableusc of re3ources, the phraseterminated duc to" implies thatwhatever is to follow will havehad a negative effect On theproject's progress. However,"calculated project costs" and


"more profitable use ofresources," besides being neutralrather than negative in effect,have no logical relation to eachother, nor do they tell why theproject was terminated. Thesentence should read: "Theproject was terminated due inpart to project costs beingcalculated as excessive, and inpart to the necessity of puttingresources to more profitableuse."

The Entire Piece

There should be a red threadrunning through the text. Try tofind a unifying principle. Clearlyshow what it is that you want toexpress.

If the subject is on a high planeof abstraction, use concreteexamples that illustrate theprinciples.

Use similes and metaphors. Theymake it possible for readers topaint an inner picture.

If the text shows a high degree ofspecification and examines agreat many separate details, youshould summarize every nowand then, and draw conclusions.

Sometimes you may find itnecessary to write yourforeword, introduction, andsummary after the body of thepiece is written.

Using

List your references clearly.

Pictures

Use pictures to make it easy forthe reader to understand yourmessage.

Any pictures you use should beclear and easily read. Pictures

0 0 f


should always have captions.

Pictures and text must interact toproduce a seamless unity.

Place texts and pictures thatbelong together as close to eachother as possible.

Do not change the content of apicture by using different formsof computer manipulation. Thispractice is often unlawful, andalways unethical.

Never try to pass off unauthenticpictures as being true depictionsof reality.

The source of any borrowedpictures should be identified.

For a guide to visual languagesee "Visuals for Information.Research and Practice"(Pettersson, 1989).

Doing the Touching-Up

Let your text rest for a week orso, then read it from the reader'spoint of view. Make thenecessary amendments.

Check that the finished textcorresponds to the text as youhad planned it.

Edit your text! Polish it. Trimaway any unnecessary bulk. Ironout inconsistencies. Simplify thelanguage. Clean up thepunctuation. Every sentenceshould be easy to read!

Check style and grammar.Discrepancies in grammar andstyle hinder the reader's progressand make the writer less crediblein his eyes.

Check spelling and worddivision at the end of lines. In

2

some cases, functions in yourword processing program canhelp you with this.

Check your references and otherformal aspects of your paper.

Refine the typography and layoutso that the headings, tables, andpictures are presented in a lucid,esthetically pleasing graphicalform. Make optimal use of thepossibilities that typographyoffers.

References

Arvidson, P. (1981). Tror vi pa varamassmedier? Psykologiskt forsvar.109. Beredskapsnämnden forpsykologiskt forsvar: Stockholm.

Bergquist, L. (1991). Rationelltforfattarskap. In S. Selander, L.Olsson, R. Pettersson & E. Romare(Eds.). Specialnummer: laromedel.E t t utbildningsmaterial ompedagogiska texter. Spov 14115, 17-18.

Ehrenberg-Sundin, B. (1982). Bättreplanerade texter sparar miljonerkroner. Klarsprik fraan SB,Spreikspalter i Klara Posten, 1982-1985.

Gunnarsson, B-L. (1982). Lagtextersbegriplighet. En sprdkfunktionellstudie av medbesteimmandelagen.Liber FOrlag: Stockholm.

Helyar, P. S. (1992). Products liability:Meeting legal standards for adequateinstructions. Journal of TechnicalWriting and Communication, 22(2),125-147.

Kirkman, .1. (1992). Good style.Writing for science and technology.London: E & FN Spon.

260

Liljestrand, B., & Arwidson, M. (1979).Skrivstrategi. Esselte Studi um:Stockholm.

Matsushita, K. (1988). A summaryversion of the comprehensive report onHi-OVIS PROJECT Jul '78 Mar.'86. Tokyo: New MediaDevelopment.

Melin, L., Melin, S., & Eriksson, D.(1986). Effektiv svenska for tekniker.Natur & Kultur: Stockholm.

Melin, L. (1992). Lein eller swirl. Ettkompendium om begriplighet i text.Stockhoms Universitet. Institutionenfor Nordiska sprfik.

MOijer, K. (1987). Skapa Skriva. Attvaa i spriiket. Stockholm: EsselteStudium.

Noble, G. (1975). Children in front ofthe small screen. Beverly Hills, CA:Sage.

Pettersson, R. (1989). Visuals forinformation: Research and practice.Englewood Cliffs, NJ: EducationalTechnology Publications.

Verbo- V i sual Literacy

Strunk, W., & White, E. B. (1979). Theelements of style. New York:Macmillan.

Stromquist, S. (1991). Skrivprocess ochskrivundervisning. In G. Malmgren &C. Sandqvist (Eds.), Skrivpedagogik(pp. 27-50). Studentlitteratur.

Teleman, U. (1991). Vad kan man narman kan skriva? In G. Malmgren &C. Sandqvist (Eds.), Skrivpedagogik.(pp. 11-26). Studentlitteratur.

The Economist. (1991). Style guide.London: The Economist Books.

Troger, W. (1963). Der Film und dieAntwort der Erziehung.Mfinchen/Basel: Reinhardt.

Tornqvist, K. (1974). FOrtroendet tillmassmedierna. E nopinionsundersokning i november-december 1973. Psykologiskt forsvar,63. BeredskapsnAmnden forpsykologiskt fOrsvar. Stockholm.

Young, M. (1989). The technical writer'shandbook. Mill Valley, CA:University Science Books.

6 6

C.A.I. AS A MEANS FOR EDUCATIONAL JUSTICE INPRIMARY SCHOOLS: A GREEK EXPERIENCE

byNicos Raptis

Inequalities in Education and theUse of Computers

Inequalities in the Capacity ofAccess to Computers

The social implications of the use ofmodern technology, and particularlycomputers, as a means of minimizing theinequalities in education is inadequatelyresearched ground (Langouet, 1982; Lee,1989).

Literature has always been moreconcerned with the established fact of theunequal distribution of computers(CE.R.I. 1986; Dubois & Schubert,1986).

According to Dubois and Schubert(1986), there are 1.3 times morecomputers in the prosperous areas in theUSA .than in the less prosperous areas.

Authors like Lepper (1986) hadwritten that thc inequalities we notice inthe capability of access to computerhardware as well as in the quality of thesoftware being used. may potentiallyhave an aggravating effect on the factorsalready generating inequalities ineducation and, thus, "make the rich richerand the poor poorer" (p. 14).

Other authors like Martin andHearne (1989) report these inequalitiesarc "to take advantage of the more giftedchildren" even regarding the duration oftime spent on school computers, whereavai !able.

Inequalities in the capacity of accessto computers can also be noticed betweendifferent countries.

Despite the lack of adequate data, it

26 7

seems that the computers used ineducation in the developing countries arenot only much fewer, but also thecapability of access to them is even moreunequal than in the developed countries(Abass, 1981; Bustamante, 1987;Marinho, 1987).

Criteria for the Determination ofDisadvantageous Target GroupsRegarding the Study of The Effectof Computer-Assisted Instruction(C.A.I.) on the Inequalities inEducation

Physical and EmotionalCriteria

In research carried out into theeffects of CAI on the inequalities ineducation, several peer groups have beenlooked into by the standard judgement ofphysical and emotional disadvantages.

In a meta-analysis of twenty-sixstudies dealing with the use of CAI onchildren with special needs, Schmidt,Weinstein, Niemic, & Walberg(1985/86), showed that the use of CAI is,in general, positively connected with theimprovement in school achievement ofchildren with special needs.

Social Criteria

Regarding the studies dealing withthe effects of CAI on children of differentsocial or educational backgrounds, thoseof Suppes and Morningstar (1972) andOsin (1981) showed that CAI mostlyfavours less privileged children.

Osin (1981) reports that, owing toCAI, children performance in Arithmeticimproved at rates ranging from 55% to193%.

161

The argument that CAI mostlyfavours children whose schoolachievements arc below standard, hasbeen buttressed also in the meta-analysisof Jamison, Suppcs, & Wells (1974),Kulik, Bangert, & Williams (1983),Bancert-Drowns, Kulik, & Kulik (1985)and in studies such as those of Burmesterand Lawson reported by Langouet (1982)and Charp (1977).

CAI and the Inequalities inEducation: The 'Optimistic' andthe 'Pessimistic' Scenarios

On the basis of the observations ofauthors such as Langouct (1982) andStonier (1981), we could makeup twoscenarios, an optimistic one and apessimisfic one, as far as the socialimplications of CAI are concerned.

The Optimistic Scenario

Stonier (1981) claims that:

As the state takes on furtherresponsibilities in education, and aseducation evolves into the numberone industry of post-industrialeconomies, all homes will beprovided with advanced electroniceducation/information systems.This will cause the gaps betweenvarious social groups to narrowsubstantially, perhaps disappear.(p. 854)

Reckoning that the trend towardcheaper, more powerful, and user-friendly computers will continue, Stonierconnects the invariable increasingpropagation of computers with anincreasing equalizing outcome ineducation (Figure 1).

The Pessimistic Scenario

In a study of his with which thceffects of educational technology oninequalities in education, as these appcarwhcn using different media is examined,Langouet (1982) reports: "We haveobserved that, on the one hand, weaker


groups did not do as well as the strongergroups and, on the other hand, the gapkept going wilder as the teacher processbecame more complicated" (p. 16).

a1

propagation of computers

Figure 1.

Here Langouet formulates aconnection between the complexity ofeducational process and the equalizingoutcome to teaching, making up apessimistic scenario regarding theequalizing effect of such methods as CAIon the inequalities in education.

The Question. The Hypotheses

The question we looked into duringthe academic year 1988/1989 waswhether CAI would lessen or augmentthe inequalities in education as theseappear among children of less privilegedbackgrounds. The hypothesesformulated were:

Hypothesis 1: CAI will improvethe school achievement of children of afavoured background (F).

Hypothesis 2: CAI will improvethe school achievement of children of afavoured background (f).

Hypothesis 3: CAI will improvethe performance of children of a lessprivileged background more than that ofthe children of a privileged background.

The Experiment

In order to substantiate any one of

266

Educational Justice in Primary Schools 263

the hypotheses, wc taught, by way ofexperiment, the lesson of "Researchingthe Natural World," which deals with thenatural sciences to 116 children going tothe fifth level of Greek primary school(aged from 9;6 to 10;6). The subjects ofthe experimental groups went to twodifferent public schools of Thessaloniki,one of which was in a privileged area (inthe center of the city), and the other onein a less privileged area (Ampelokipi).

The subjects had eight (8) CAIsessions throughout the academic year.In each session, one particular unit wastaught, the way it is determined by themost rigorous, obligatory nationalsyllabus which is found in the officialcoursebook.

The units taught by CAI werecarefully selected in order that: (a) Theywere almost equally allocated throughoutthe academic year, and (b) they were notthe easiest units in the syllabus.

In each school the subjects weredivided into two groups of 24 up to 34pupils. In each school the subjects of thefirst group had CAI sessions (Group A),while the subjects of the other group(Group B) were taught all the units in thetraditional "talk and chalk" way (TW).

Throughout the CAI session, whichlasted for 45 minutes, the subjects cameinto contact only with the computer andthe other members of their own CAI-user's sub-group (which consisted of 2up to 4 subjects). The subjects had noprevious experience of using a computerin class, and neither school was equippedwith computers before the experiment.

Thc computers used in theexperiment were Apple 11c, while theeducational software were speciallydeveloped for thc experiment, in theApplesoft Basic language. Thebehaviouristic-type programmes involveddata display, questions, simulations, andgames and made usc of pictures andanimation. The educational software

design of the behavioristic type wasselected for three reasons:

1. It satisfied the need for thesimple and very easy use of the computerby the subjects.

Indeed, the subjects only needed toperform nine simple and similar to eachother operations in order to make use ofthe software. The operations involved,for example, pressing any key (so that thesubject co, Ad see the next page in someprogram of data display), pressing keys/, 2, or 3, and then, possibly, the Returnkey (so that the subject could answer amultiple-choice question).

It is worth mentioning that thesubjects of the CAI groups only neededone 45 minute introductory session ofcomputer familiarization before theycould continue.

2. It satisfied the need for specifiedtime controlled CAI process, since eachunit had to be thoroughly taught within45 minutes.

3. It had been established that themajor control of CAI process by thecomputer which is typical of thebehavioristic type educational software,favours pupils of lower schoolachievement (Dépover, 1987; Lee, 1989).

The use of the Peters and Johnsonevaluation scale showed that theeducational software used in all eightsessions were academically equal.

The subject's achievement wasassessed by using five tests which weremade up to meet the requirements of theexperiment and referred to five chaptersof the coursebook (Thermal and LightPhenomena, Mechanical Phenomena,Electric and Magnetic Phenomena,Biological Phenomena-LivingOrganisms, Mechanical Phenomena inLiquids).

The t-test was used in ordcr to look

264

into the effect of CAI on the subjects'school achievement.

The Results

The results indicated that thesubjects at the less privileged (p) schoolprofited more by CAL The subjects'performances on the units they weretaught by CAI was 51.17% higher at thcp-school while at the privileged (P)school it remained the same (fell by0.77%).

Regarding the subjects at the schoolin the less-privileged area, Group B (whodid not have any CAI sessions) did betterthan Group A (who had CAI sessions),as far as the units taught in the traditionalway (TW) arc concerned. However,when it comes to the units which weretaught using CAI, it was Group A whodemonstrated better results. This conductis uniform in all five chapters (Figure 2).

654

2.6

6.30

3.7

* 23

0.7

chirtrs 104 0.110.3 2.0 2.1

OTV**xpressedIIICA.1 byl rats

0.50

Figure 2.

Likewise, we get correspondingresults when comparing the two groupswho had CAI sessions at both schools (Pand p). In the units taught under CAIconditions, thc Inequality Index, as it isexpressed by the rate of the t test, fallsdramatically and in a uniform way, inrelation to the rates it has in the unitstaught to both groups in the traditionalway (Figure 3).

Contrary to what seems to be thecase of the p-school, CAI does not seemto inlluence the subject's performance atthc privileged P-school.

+8+7

q +3u +2a +41

cid ersOTV *expressed.

by/ rats


6.31?

3.11" 3.6E41 4.0

0.9 1.1

Figure 3

At this school, the performance ofthe Group who had CAI sessions doesnot present significant differentiations, incomparison to that of the Group who didnot have CAI sessions, either in the unitstaught by computer, or in the units taughtin the traditional way. The onlyexception is the chapters Thermal andLight Phenomena and Electric andMagnetic Phenomena, where, as itseems, the use of CAI had a negativeeffect on the subjects' achievements(Figure 4).

+ 3

+2

+ 1a1 cho.

3.1

2.0

0.10.60

0.110.2iers 00

*

0.300.3OTV **Rresse1IICAI by t rues 1.1

Figure 4

Conclusion/Discussion

The results of the study indicate thatchildren of less favoured backgroundsprofit with by the standard CAI of naturalsciences more than those children offavoured backgrounds. This appears tobe a uniform result and it is notinfluenced by the content of the lessonwhich is taught with the aid of acomputer.

270

Educational Justice in Primary Schools 265

I n an attempt to interpret thesefindings, we believe that:

Children of less-favouredbackgrounds arc more easily motivatedinto taking up something new, which willprobably act as a spur to creative work.

A less prosperous/privileged areaattracts less experienced teachers, withlittle interest in their work; teachers whowill probably want to live and work thereon a less permanent basis; less efficientteachers who tend to avoid using anyteaching aids available (Plowden Report,1966). This situation renders even therelatively poor educational softwareparticularly effective in the less privilegedareas.

Naturally, much more researchneeds to be carried out:

Regarding the role of educationalsoftware design in the lessening oraugmentation of inequalities in education.

Regarding the effect of thecomputer propagation rates on theincrease or not of the interest that childrentake in computers:

Does the similarity of the computer"to the archetype and symbol of massculture" (CERI, 1986, p. 111) television,favour the development of children'sinterest in it or not?

Does the non-existence ofcomputers in the surrounding (school,home, recreation area) of many childrenin large areas of Greece and other semi-peripheral countries, favour or not thedevelopment of the children's interest inusing computers?

Could we regard the interest incomputers and the level of familiaritywith it as opposing or collaboratingelements?

The questions above are ofparticular importance in countries wherethe bleak situation of the economy does

2 7

not allow for investments in educationalsoftware, while, at the same time, thetransfer of software which is in theEnglish and French languages is hinderedbecause of lingual, educational, andpolitical reasons.

A lot more research still needs to becarried out before we acquire reliable dataon whether the use of computerspresented in this study is cost-effective inapplications such as the use of CAI insmall rural schools, or an increase in thenumber of pupils per class so that theneed for new school buildings isminimized and the afternoon and eveningshifts in certain schools are abolished.

Summary

After an overview of the literatureconcerning the effect of CAI oneducational inequalities, here wepresented a research that shows the>effectiveness of a low-cost, behaviorist-designed CAI as a means for educationaljustice in primary Greek education.

eferences

Abass, 0. (1981). Problems ofeducation and training in informaticsin some African countries. In R.Lewis, & D. Tagg (Eds.), Computersin education. Amsterdam: NorthHolland.

Bancert-Drowns, R. L., Kulik, J. A., &Kulik, C. L. (1985). Effectivenessof computer-based education insecondary schools. Journal ofComputer-Based Instruction, 12(3),59-68.

Bustamante, J. (1987). A realisticprogram of computer literacy for allMexican children. Microcomputerapplications in education and trainingfor developing countries. Westviewspecial studies in science, technology,and public policy, pp. 197-221.

CE. R.I . (1986). Les nouvellestechnologies de l'information. Un

266

de'fi pour reducation. 0.C.D.E.

Charp, S. (1977, October). A statementon behalf of computers in the learningsociety. Paper submitted to theCommittee on -Science andTechnology.

DCpover, C. (1987). L'ordinateur mediad'enseignetnent. Un cadreconceptuel. De Boeck-Wesmael s.a.,Editions Universitaires.

DuBois, P. A., & Schubert, J. G.(1986). Do your school policiesprovide equal access to computers?Are you sure? EducationalLeadership, 41-44.

Jamison, D., Suppes, P. & Wells, S.(1974). The effectiveness ofalternative instructional media: Asurvey. Review of EducationalResearch, 44, 1-61.

Kulik, J. A., Bangert, R. L., &Williams, 0. W. (1983). Effects ofcomputer-based teaching onsecondary school students. Journalqf Educational Psychology, 75(1),19-26.

Langouct, G. (1982). Technologie dereducation et democratisation derenseignement. PUF-Pedagogied'aujourd'hui.

Lec, W. W. (1989). Questions andanswers about computer-assistedinstruction for children with learningdisabilities. EducationalThchnology,XXIX(8), 29-31.

Lepper, M. R. (1985). Microcomputersin education: Motivational and socialissues. American Psychologists, 40,1-18.


Marinho, S. P. P. (1987). The use ofmicrocomputers in the training ofscience teachers. MicrocomputerApplications in Education andTraining for Developing countries.Westview special studies in science,technology, and public policy, pp.97-111.

Martin, B., & Hearne, J. D. (1989).Computer equity in education.EducationalTechnology, 9, 47-50.

Osin, L. (1981). Computer-assistedinstruction in arithmetic in Israelidisadvantaged elementary schools. InR. Lewis, & D. Tagg, (Eds.),Computers in education (pp. 469-475). Amsterdam: North Holland .

Publishing Company.

Plowden Report. (1967). Children andtheir primary schools, HMSO, Vol.1. London: Central AdvisoryCouncil for Education.

Schmidt, M., Weinstein, T., Niemic, R.,& Wal berg, H. J. (1985/86).Computer-assisted instruction withexceptional children. The Journal ofSpecial Education, 19(4), 493-501.

Stonier, T. (1981). Thc socialconsequences of computers ineducation. In R. Lewis, & D. Tagg(Eds.), Computers in education (p.854). Amsterdam: North Holland.

Suppes, P., & Morningstar M. (1972).Computer-assisted instruction inStanford, 1966-1968: Data, models,and evaluation of the arithmeticprogram.. New York: AmdemicPress.

r)!14)1 4

THE ROLE OF IMAGERY IN LEARNING BIOLOGY SCIENCETHROUGH TELEVISION

byOra Silverstein and Pillchas Tamir

Theoretical Background

The Information Age and the Roleof Pictorial Representation

Telecommunication is becoming amain source of stimuli, perception, andknowledge. It has been stated that visualcommunication is taking over verbalcommunication and that pictures havebecome the main method of transmittinginformation (Gombrich, 1972). It has alsobeen declared that television is the mainsource of knowledge in our civilization(Metal linos, 1985; Pettersson, 1989).Television enables viewers to perceiveliving creatures and natural phenomena inthc macro and microcosmos. Therefore, itis important in acquiring a knowledge ofthc natural sciences outside the scope ofthe school. Although there has beenprogress in research on learning throughtelevision, the learning of scientificconcepts from television has hardly beenstudied. Our research (Silverstein &Tamir, 1991) is concerned with thissubject and studies the perception ofsymbol systems that represent concepts inbiology. It compares two differenttelevision symbol systems: Sloryanimation and documentary, representingthe same biological concepts.

According to Howard (1987),Bruncr identifies certain stages in childdevelopment starting from visualexperiences and progressing to abstractthinking. The development starts from theenactive stage in which the child sees theworld by means of action. At the end ofthe first year hc/shc proceeds to the iconicstage, in which comprehension of thcworld is through pictures, and the childacquires a mental image of his concepts.From thc age of seven thc symbolic stage

beOls, in which the child sees the worldthrough fas representation by symbols.

Norman (1980) states thatenvironmental stimuli are the main sourceof human perception. He suggests amodel of the human cognitive systemwhich includes sensual perception,memory processes, motivation, thinking,emotions, and motor functioning. He callsthese complex cognitive processesinformation processing. Memoryprocesses are important in the complex ofcognition and modern theories explain theforming of memory, the ability ofrecognition, and the dynamics of theprocess of conceptualization. Experimentshave proved that memory recording beginswith sensual memory. The impressions ofsensations accumulated in the sensualmemory are called images. Images passinto the short term memory and laterbecome accumulated into the long termmemory. The representation of an objector creature, say a certain animal, plant, ormicroorganism, is a result of a sensory actcomprising the perception of sight, smell,voice, and its name (word). Therefore, thcstimulus data from our environment comcfrom objects and living things and alsofrom symbol systems. Gregory (1978)studied the recording of visualimpressions. According to him, the eyessupply the brain with informationtransformed into a code of nerve activity.Gregory's and others' research allow forthe existence of nervous centers in whichimpressions are recorded and stored in thebrain. The symbol systems perceived bythe senses are called codes. Sincetelevision experience involves the sensesof both sight and hearing, the impressionsof television are transferred to memory asimages.

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Learning, Conceptualization, andSymbol Systems

Today's literature, concerned withthe psychology of learning, points out thatintelligent learning is a formation ofconcept structures communicated andmanipulated by means of symbols.

According to Olson (1974), asymbol is any sign, event, or phenomenonthat can be used in a referential way andwhich can potentially be organized intosystems. Symbol systems are discussedin philosophy, cognitive psychology, andthe theory of art and semiotics. There aredifferent visual symbol systems. An iconis a picture similar to its object; paintedpictures or photographs are icons. Acartoon is a picture that gives informationabout the object, person, or situationrepresented in an exaggerated way. Thestill cartoon and animation that gives thesense of life and motion are symbolsystems that imitate their references usingexaggeration for emphasis in contrast toicons that resemble their references morerealistically. Icons are the type of picturesshown in a documentary movie.

From Vision Through Perception toConceptualization

In order to understand humancognition, it is best to consider twocomplementary sources. The first isperception as a neurobiological processconnected to the function of the centralnervous system, and the second is theinfluence of science and art on perception.The discussion of one of. these without theother will give an incomplete picture.There is no argument about the recentfindings (Gregory, 1978; etc.) fromncurophysiological studies about theanatomy and function of the eye, retina,optic nerve, and brain vision. However,thcrc is a controversy about thc influenceof both general and personal priorknowledge on perception and visualimagery which will be discussed here.


PerCeption and Imagery

Perception is explained as a processtaking place in two stages. The first stageis sensation. In the second stage thestimuli become meaningful and then theydevelop into units of knowledge.Wartopsky (1976) states that: "The worldperceived by the organism is a map or animage of its activities" (pp. 27-28). Heexplains that sight is not merely a result ofthe operation of the biological tool thatdeveloped by evolution--the human eye.

In his opinion the self creates a newdifferent world--that is, a cognitiveconstruction--and the representationscreated become models and theories inscience and pictures in at*. According tocognitive psychology, an image is a sketchof a sensation that is stored in the sensualmemory and as such it is a mentalrepresentation of anything no longeravailable to the senses. A visual image inthe brain is parallel to the optical image ofan object produced by an optical system,for example, the image produced by acamera. As images are pictures of reality,the act of imagining is the manipulation ofmental pictures as opposed to themanipulation of concrete objects.

Perceptionalism and Intentionalism

The perception of pictures is aresponse to basic forms according to thelaws of Gestalt theory; the basic unit ofunderstanding in visual think'ng is thepercept (Arnheim, 1974; Olson, 1974).How does the perception from picturesoccur? Perceptionalism and intentionalismsummarize the philosophical semiotic andpsychological schools of thought on thissubject.

Perceptionalism is an approach basedon Gombrich (1960) and Gregory (1978);they say that thc picture does not have itsown meaning but the viewer creates forhimself a unique meaning based on hisprior observations, experience, andexpectations.

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Science Thro%h Television 269

Intentionalism (Goodman, 1976) isbased on a semiotic approach which saysthat in any picture there is an inherentmeaning and the viewer is meant to revealit. The meaning of a picture is determinedby the artist, and as such it has its ownessence which does not depend on theindividual viewer.

In Goodman's (1976) opinion,presentation of symbols in science and thearts is based on convention and is thusvalid by a semiotic or social agreement.Goodman also distinguishes between arealistic representation and a representationthat has a dissimilarity to reality. Ourresearch deals with the perception ofbiological concepts in two symbolsystems, realistic--the documentary code--and non-realistic--the story animationcode. Plato, in his writings, demanded thata picture be similar to reality. In thecommunication systems that serve ustoday pictorial representations are eitherrealistic or they represent reality.

Gombrich (1972) who is of the sameopinion as Gregory, does not agree thatthere is an innocent eye. He explains thatthe perception in the brain of the imageproduced by the visual field is a functionof both the pictorial representation andother aspects such as history, culture, andpsychology. Most pictures do notrepresent simple objects but ideas that areconceptual schemata (abstractgeneralizations of an object or a group ofobjects) kept in people's brains. Theassumption of this approach, also agreedby Goodman and Wartofsky, is that visualthinking is done by cognitiverepresentation systems comprised of visualimages. The same process works forother representation systems likelinguistics and music. Reality andimagination relate to the way a persontends to represent the stimulus data tohimself in his schemata. Blich (1989)adds that there are two groups in eachaudience. The first one relees to thepictorial as if it were thc real world. Thcsecond group knows that thisrepresentation is not real. In our researchthis was evidenced by the differentiation

275

between the groups with regard toanimistic versus causal thinking. Thetheories of cognitive psychology aboutvisual thinking and the empirical results ofour research lead to the acceptance ofGombrich and Blich, and thus to therejection of the existence of an innocenteye. A famous example, the well knownpicture of Jestrow, is given.by Gombrich(1972):

What do you see in the picture? (arabbit or a duck?)

There are two images merged intoone and seeing the rabbit or duck dependson the viewer's ability to discern from thepicture one of the two images.

From Percept to Concept

According to cognitive psychologistHoward (1987), the structures that areused to build perception are existinaschema, images, and symbols. Theschema is a sketch that represents theoutstalding components of its reference.For e) ample:

Schema of a face:

Howard states that the schema isassociated with different stimuli and thatits action is like a filter, it enables only partof the information to pass through. Theimage it: more complicated than theschema. An image of a face is a detailedpicture of someone that we remember verywell. The symbol is an abstract way ofreferring to the particular image.

Howard (1987) asserts that reality isexperienced after it has been filteredthrough the categories or the concepts.

270

According to Howard a category is a classinto which stimuli are placed according 16some similarities and a concept is a mentalrepresentation of a category.

Every stimulus can be placed in oneof many different categories. A house canbe a place to live, obstacle, burden,investment, or home. Ausubel, Novak, &Hanesian (1978) had used the example ofa house to show that when someone refersto house he refers to his personalprojection of it. Personal experiencescause the idiosyncratic character of theconcept to be built. They claim thatexperience undergoes the procedures ofselectivity, abstraction, and schematizationto form the concept, and thus the conceptis not a direct representation of sense data.

The Ongoing Change of HumanPerception

McLuhan (1964) states thattelevision has components that areanalogous to comics and cartoons. In thecartoon there is an exaggeration of anaspect that causes dissimilarity to itsobject. Television images are unrefined,like those of the comics. In the threemedia, television, animated cartoons, andcomics the viewer participates in a fill-inand do-it-yourself activity. McLuhan usesthe concept television image and describesits characteristic as a raw image.According to McLuhan there has been afundamental change in human perceptionand cognition caused by thecommunication media and in his opinionthere is no one approach that fits thiscnormous change. There is still no unifiedtheory that explains this phenomenon.

The Main Goal

The main purpose of the researchwas: To study thc learning and natural-sciences by means of unguided viewing oftelevision.

Methods


Our study examined the learning ofbiology by means of unguided viewing ofthe medium of television using twodifferent codes. The perception of thebiological concepts in the two subjects:The Cell and Birth was represented in bothstory animation and documentary form. Inthe course of the study a content analysisof the dual-coded broadcasts was made.Broadcast content analysis was donebefore; Erdman (1991) did a formalanalysis of the format and message of theteaching film. However, in the broadcastcontent analysis, instead of a shot-by-shotanalysis of the visual and audio track thatwere used by Erdman, in our studybroadcast scripts and videos in French,English, and Hebrew were used atdifferent stages of the study. The scriptsthat were used provide a fulldocumentation of the verbal audio track.Analysis of the broadcasts, preparation ofthe tools, the launching of the study, andanalysis of the findings gave rise to agrowing familiarity with two visualsystems of symbols, each with its ownunique advantages.

The Story Animation Code consistsof strange and complex illustrations thatare unusual and novel. These are artisticsymbols representing the content ofbiological concepts that are usuallyrepresented in pictures or scientificsymbols.

The Documentary Code is made upof scientific symbolsmodels, schematicdrawings, and other drawings used in theteaching of science.

Figure 1 gives examples of a fewbiological concepts represented differentlyin the two codes. The verbal symbols inthe table represent the scientific concept inwords and the pictures represent the visualsymbol s.

Tables 1 and 2 show the distributionof concepts included in the broadcastswhich were investigated in the research.

Study of Broadcast Content The questions dealing with cells,organclls, and substances are used to test

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Science Through Television

Figure 1. Examples of Visual Representationsof a few Biological Concepts Examined in the Research.

271

THE VERBAL SYMBOLS , DOCUMENTARY CODE STORY ANIMATION CODE

Red blood corpuscles

Chromosomes

DNA segment

Viruses

GermsMt.

concepts, the perception of which is basedon the schemata, categories, and images ofthese subjects. The questions that dealwith the understanding of processes test ahigher cognitive level based on a conceptset that is basically visual. For example,images of DNA and chromosome structurehelp to understand the genetic code.

This paper focuses on learning ofbiological concepts. Table 2 presents thetests used for evaluation and thcir range of

277

scores.

Gain was calculated by post testminus pretest scores. Comparisonbetween the groups was done by F testsand T tests in dependent samples andindependent samples. The influence ofindependent variables was estimated andexpressed by effect sin. Frequencydistributions were calculate.d forbackground and attitudes.


Table 1. The Biological Concepts as Represented by Itemsin the Knowledge Test

SUBJECTS CONCEPTS TESTS & ITEMSTES T 1 TEST 2 TEST 3

SUBJECT THE CELL

Processes & concepts Nutrition, digestion 1 6The living cell 2,4 4 1,9Genetic code 7,8 11,12 8Cell proportions 10 3Breathing 8

Substances Oxygen 10 3,7Enzyme 9 1,4Protein 3 2,9,10Sugar 10

Fat 10

Cells Red blood corpuscles 3White blood corpuscles 5

Organells Chromosomes 8Cell nucleus 5 7Mitocondria 15 4Cell membrane 6

Difficult concepts Energy 1,5,7,81,6

Permeability 3,13,1,4

SUBJECT BIRTH

Processes & concepts The living cell 2,4 4Cell division 4Genetic code 7,8 11,12 5,7,9DNA duplication 8,11,12Cell mitosis 6,11Pregnancy 5Sex determination 9Birth 4,8 10

Cells, tissues, organs 2 4 13

Cell proportions 10 3Cells Ovum 3

Fertilized ovum 4Sperm cell 3Red blood corpuscles 3,5,7

Organells Chromosomes 8 4,6Substances Proteins 2 2,9,10

DNA 8Enzymes 1

Oxygen 10

".,1 .)

gl; 6 (,)

Science Through Television 273

Data Analysis

Table 2. Tests Used for Knowledge Gain Measurement

TestNo.

AbbreviatedName

Type of Test No.of Items

Evaluation of OpenQuestions

MaximumScore

1 STK Open questions 10 According to 6 categories 502 MCT Individual report 16 5 categories 803 ATQ--cell Multiple choice 9 correct answers 94 ATQ--birth Multiple choice 13 correct answers 13

Titles of the Tests--Key to Abbreviations

STKMCTATQATQ-cellATQ-birth

State of Knowledge TestMisconception TestAnthrepornorphic Teleologic QuestionnaireATQ subject: The CellATQ subject: Birth

Summary of Research Findings

This summary covers the findings ofboth qualitative and statistical analysis thatwere carried out. The results present apromising picture of the educationalpotential of television in out of schoolsituations.

I . Viewing television broadcastspresenting biological concepts resulted in asignificant improvement in the knowledge.

2. Gain was found in both codesexamined, namely the documentary codeand the story animation code.

3. T he students/subjects wereequally sympathetic to the two codesexamined.

4. The two student groups differedin knowledge gain and attitudes; amongthe technological students there wasgreater knowledge gain and even morepositive attitudes towards the storyanimation code.

5. Gain was accompanied bymisconceptions. There was a relativedecrease in causal explanations in favor ofanthropomorphism and teleologyfollowing the screening of the storyanimation in the topic of the living cell. Nosuch effect occurred in the subject Birth.On the other hand, regarding the subject

2 7 9

Birth, an increase was registered in thenumber of causal statements following thescreening of the story animation code.

Discussion

The process of visual cognition maybe seen as a set of stages in informationprocessing: visual object or symbol ->visual stimulus -> attention -> perception-> image -> memory -> visual thinking ->solution (formation of the concept) ->reaction. Preceding the solution stage,other cognitive processes from verbalsources merge and only then the reactionbegins. Attention depends on motivationwhich is based on prior knowledge andpersonal factors, as well as factorsarousing interest and curiosity that areembedded in the stimulus such as thenovelty of the stimulus or an inconsistencybetween the stimulus and its context.

The results of our study, namely theexhibiting of knowledge gain followingthe viewing of the story animation code,support the perception approach ofGombrich (1972) and Gregory (1978)which claims that perception of the visualfield does not depend merely on sight-related factors. In certain respects we seewhat we believe. Our research resultssubstantiate Gombrich's claim of the non-existence of an innocent eye. Even whenno visual similarity exists between thepictorial representation and reality, a series

274

of inferences can still be drawn from thepicture by using the information it containsabout itself.

The notion in our study of pictorialrepresentation regarding the biologicalterminology goes beyond sight itself andmust be attributed to the viewer's priorconceptual knowledge. Furthermore, thefindings of this study affirm McLuhan's(1964) claim that the television imageleaves room for filling-in by the viewer.Any television image is unprocessed andunrefined, like that in comic books(McLuhan, 1964). Since the broadcastingof the story animation is a kind of televisedcode of comics, the viewer needs to do adouble fill-in utilizing his priorknowledge.

This means that the story animationcode portrays biological concepts usingsymbols, and it appears that viewersperceive the visual message employingschemata and images that exist in theirmemory. Identification of the animatedshapes using the conceptual system is aproccss of translation of the codedtelevision message. The term decoding(rather than the more novel translating)bests describes this process ofidentification which is carried out,according to Blich (1989), by way of:

1. Projection of the viewer's priorknowledge on the visual message.

2. Filling-in of the picture beingviewed using prior knowledge andpreconception.

Schemata and pre-existent images areemployed in the decoding process for theidentification of visual symbols.

The notion of scientific symbols asvisual symbols was examined for the firsttime ever in this study. Two codes wereexamined: The documentary code inwhich biological concepts are presented asscientific symbols, and the story animationcode in which the same concepts arepresented and portrayed as artisticsymbols. Thc questions proposed in this


study examined knowledge gain andattitudes derived from the imagerypotential of the subject. The focus was onscientific symbols and the creation of theirscientific images. Schemata and imagesbased on conventional scientific symbolsare used in deciphering. According toHoward (1987), schemata serve as a filterand only part of the information is passedthrough them. Consider, for example, astudent who knows that the living cell isthe smallest living unit of structure andactivity that exists. His schema of thesingle cell appears to be like this:

Schemaof a Cell

The students see in the storyanimation broadcast what they believe, orrather know about the cell, and rely on theimage of the already existing concept. Theanimation code, it should be recalled,contains symbols that arouse curiosity, arestimulating and motivating, and encouragepositive attitudes. The informationpresented in the broadcast is filtered andaccumulates in the viewer's mind, andthere is educational value in bringing theconcept to the center of cognitive activity.This activity is important in securing andenriching the memory of the conceptualsystem of the visual images. A personviewing the story-animation code is forcedto draw a comparison between theconceptual image for the given conceptthat exists in his memory and the symbolsin the broadcast. This comparativeexamination appears helpful ininternalization of concepts. For example:

Rea Blood Corpuscles 111LIMPIMPAPaik

Science Through Television 275

Globin, Hemo, & Globus

As the viewer of the documentarycode adds to the treasury of visualsymbols related to this conceptual systemof the subject being viewed, his scienceimaging ability improves. While anindividual who uses exclusively verbalchannels of reading and hearing learnsonly certain facts about the circulatorysystem; someone who, on the other hand,views the same thing in a documentarybroadcast hears the terms verbally and seesthe scientific symbols. The viewer of thedocumentary code is provided with imagesfor the red and white blood corpuscles, theheart, and the blood vessels. The symbolsprojected on the screen will be recalled asschemata or images and comprise thevisual basis for the viewer's conceptualsystem of this subject. The theoreticalfoundations of these references are foundin the fields of the psychology of learningand semiotics. Nevertheless, they warrantfurther research with the intention offocusing on the scientific concept, how itis received by the senses, and how it isstored in the memory.

Recommendations

Given that we live in the era ofcommunication media, it is imperative thatwe give more thought to how technology;nfluences learning. The results of thisstudy support the conclusion that conceptsin the 3ciences may be learned by means ofunguiled television viewing. Thercccni.nendations of this study areintended for policy makers in televisionbroadcasting stations, writers, andproducers of programs for the sciencesand people involved in supervision,instruction, and research in the teaching ofthc sciences.

281

Broadcasting Policy andProduction of Science RelatedSubjects

The screening of a large and variednumber of television broadcasts in thesciences will encourage and intensify theacquisition of knowledge. Accordingly,the more television time alotted to thescreening of broadcasts in the sciences,especially popular programs thatincorporate scientific concepts, the morepositive will be the attitudes of the viewersregarding the sciences, and the greater willbe the knowledge gain about televisedconcepts among the viewing public.

Considering the immense popularityof the animated story code, it is highlyrecommended to continue producingtelevision series in this code. However,

nsideration should be given to thecont:`, interpretation of the symbol systemof the medium of television.

Improving Production ofBroadcasts in Sciences

Misconceptions, says Howard(1987), are the unavoidable results of thelearning process. This was confirmed byour research into the two codes. In orderto minimize, as much as possible, theformation of misconceptions resultingfrom the television viewing of broadcastsin biology and the sciences, specialattention should be given to sensibleproduction of these broadcasts. Since thismedium is auto-didactic, the televisionscreen itself can be used to guide theviewer in the direction of the desiredoutcome. It would be most advisable toimplant in the broadcast itself an exactexplanation of the concepts to be taught inboth picture and sound. By incorporatingsuch an explanation into the beginning of abroadcast, the explanation becomes thebasis for continued viewing of thebroadcast. Good broadcasts in thesciences targeted for viewing by childrenand teenagers do exist today, and theyemploy a mixture of several genres, inwhich discrete concepts are explained in anumber of codes. The result is that

276

documentary film, acting, and animationmerge and interact in the same broadcast.

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Silverstein, 0., & Tamir, P. (1991). InJ. Clark-Baca, D. G. Beauchamp, &R. A. Braden (Eds.), The perceptionof biological concepts through thestory animated movies. Selectedreadings from the 23rd annualconference of the InternationalVisualLiteracy Association, (pp. 127-139).Blacksburg, VA: The InternationalVisual Literacy Association

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