ED 288 987

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PUB DATEGRANTNOTEAVAILABLE FROM

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CE 048 003

Kalamas, David J.; Warmbrod, Catharine A.Linking with Employers. OPTIONS. ExpandingEducational Services for Adults.Ohio State Univ., Columbus. National Center forResearch in Vocational Education.Office of Vocational and Adult Education (ED),Washington, DC.87G008620030239p.; For related documents, see CE 048 001-008.National Center Publications, Box SP, National Centerfor Research in Vocational Education, 1960 KennyRoad, Columbus, OH 43210-1090 (Order No.SP500D--$39.95; complete OPTIONS set,SP500--$174.00).Guides - Classroom Use - Guides (For Teachers) (052)

MF01 Plus Postage. PC Not Available from EDRS.Adult Education; Adult Programs; Apprenticeships;Community Colleges; Cooperative Planning;*Cooperative Programs; Economic Development; JobSkills; Job Training; *Labor Education; *LinkingAgents; Postsecondary Education; *Retraining; *SchoolBusiness Relationship; Skill Development; TechnicalEducation; Technological Advancement; Two YearColleges; *Unions

IDENTIFIERS *Contract Training

ABSTRACTThis guide is intended to help two-year colleges

create viable linkages with business, industry, and labor and designand offer training programs for and in cooperation with business andlabor. The first part covers the following aspects of linkages:business and industry perspectives on linkages and cooperativeprogramming, organized labor perspectives (organized labor andAmerica's productivity, organized labor education and training,tuition aid programs as negotiated benefits for worker's education,the role of community colleges in labor education and trainingprograms), and two-year colleges and economic development (economicdevelopment, investment in human resources, perspectives from fiveleaders concerned with economic development, practical advice forcommunity colleges, suggested economic development activities, andneeds assessment for economic development). The second part examinesbecoming an effective linker (skills and correct attitudes forlinkers, self-assessment and self-development strategies), developinga linkage plan, and establishing linkages (administrative support,promotional materials, and linkage dos and don'ts). The third partpresents guidelines and strategies for providing customized training,apprenticeship programs, and cooperative education and for dealingwith barriers to linkages with business and industry and withorganized labor. (MN)

Linking With Employers

OPTIONSExpanding Educational Unice, for Adults

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2

TIE NATIONAL CENTER

FOR RESEARCH IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATIONTHE OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY

THE NATIONAL CENTER MISSION STATEMENT

The National Center for Research in Vocational Education's mission is to increase the abilityof diverse agencies. institutions, and organizations to solve educational problems relating toindividual career planning, preparation, and progression. The National ('enter fulfils itsmission by:

Generating knowledge through research

Developing educational programs and products

Evaluating individual program needs and outcomes

Providing information for national planning and policy

Installing educational programs and products

Operating information systems and services

Conducting leadership development and training programs

For further information contact:

Program Information OfficeNational Center for Research in Vocational EducationThe Ohio State University1960 Kenny RoadColumbus. Ohio 43210-1090

Telephone: (614) 486-3655 or (800) 848-4815Cable: CTVOCEDOSU/Columbus. OhioTelex: 8104821984

Copyright 6 1987. The National Center for Research in Vocational Education, The Ohio StateUniversity. All rights reserved.

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LINKING WITH EMPLOYERS

David J. Ka lamas

Catharine P. Warmbrod

The National Center for Research in Vocational EducationThe Ohio State University

1960 Kenny RoadColumbus, Ohio 48210

1987

Project Title:

Grant Number:

Project Number:

Act under WhichFunds Administered:

Source of Grant:

Grantee:

ActingExecutive Director:

Disclaimer:

DiscriminationProhibited:

FUNDING INFORMATION

National Center for Research in Vocational Education.Applied Research and Development

0008620030

051BH60001A

Carl D. Perkins Vocational Education Act.P.L. 98-524, 1984

Office of Vocational and Adult EducationU.S. Department of EducationWashington. D.C. 20202

The National Center for Research in Vocational EducationThe Ohio State UniversityColumbus, Ohio 43210-1090

Chester K. Hansen

This publication was prepared pursuant to a grant with the Officeof Vocational and Adult Education, U.S. Department of Education.Grantees undertaking such projects under government sponsorshipare encouraged to express freely their judgment in professional andtechnical matters. Points of view or opinions do not, _herefore,necessarily represent official U.S. Department of Educationposition or policy.

Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 states: "No person in theUnited States shall, on the grounds of race, color, or natior.al origin.be excluded from participation in. be denied the benefits of. or besubjected to discrimination under any program or activity receivingfederal financial assistance." Title IX of the Education Amend-ments of 1972 states: "No person in the United States shall, on thebasis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied thebenefits of. or be subjected to discrimination under any educationprogram or activity receiving federal financial assistance." There-fore, the National Center for Research in Vocational EducationProject, like every program or activity receiving financial assist-ance from the U.S. Department of Education, must be operated incompliance with these laws.

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5

1

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES, FIGURES, and EXHIBITS vii

FOREWORD ix

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY xi

INTRODUCTION I

PART 1AN INTRODUCTION TO LINKAGES

CHAPTER 1: BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY PERSPECTIVES 5

A CEO's View 5An Industrialist's View 8Summary 16

CHAPTER 2: ORGANIZED LABOR PERSPECTIVES 17

Organized Labor and America's Productivity 17

Organized Labor Education and Training 26Tuition Aid Programs: A Negotiated Benefit for Workers' Education 36The Community College Role in Labor Education and Training Programs 41Summary 43References 44

CHAPTER 3: THE TWO-YEAR COLLEGE AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT 47

Definition of Economic Development 47Investing in Human Resources 48Perspectives from Five Leaders Concerned with Economic Development 50Practical Advice for Community Coneges 55Suggested Economic Development Activities 60Needs Assessment for Economic Development 64Summary 65References 67

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PART IIBUILDING LINKER SKILLS

CHAPTER 4: THE EFFECTIVE LINKER 71

What the Effective Linker Should Know 71The Skills of the Effective Linker 77The "Right" Attitudes 80Self-Assessment and Self-Development Strategies 81Summary 83References 84

CHAPTER 5: DEVELOPING A LINKAGE PLAN 85

Planning Steps 85Summary 94References 96

CHAPTER 6: TECHNIQUES FOR ESTABLISHING LINKAGES 97

Administrative Support 97Promotional Materials 98Linkage Do's and Don'ts 113Summary 116References 117

PART IIITAKING ACTION

CHAPTER 7: PROVIDING CUSTOMIZED TRAINING 121

Defining Customized Training 121Meeting BIL Training Needs Effectively 123Planning Customized Training Programs 124Developing an Agreement or Contract 140Tips on Conducting a Needs Assessment 149Tips on Conducting an Occupational Analsysis 154Tips for Developing Instructional Materials 155Tips on Evaluating the Training Effort 156Summary 156References 162

CHAPTER 8: PROVIDING APPREN fICESHIP PROGRAMS 163

Definition of Apprenticeship Programs 163Action Guidelines 166Summary 176References 176

7iv

CHAPTER 9: PROVIDING COOPERATIVE EDUCATION 179

Key Terms 179Essential Elements 181Program Organization 186Summary 192References 193

CHAPTER 10: DEALING WITH BUSINESS AND INDUSTRIES'BARRIERS TO LINKAGE 197

Barriers and Solutions 197Critical Elements and Recommendations 215Summary 220Reference 220

CHAPTER II: DEALING WITH ORGANIZED LABOR'SBARRIERS TO LINKAGES 221

Barriers to Linkages 221Guidelines for More Effective Linkages 223Summary 225

SOURCE DOCUMENTS 227

v

LIST OF TABLES, FIGURES, AND EXHIBITSTable

1. STEPS IN PROVIDING CUSTOMIZED TRAINING PROGRAMS 1262. INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS 136

Figures

I. Types of informational services and programs requested by varioussectors of the small business community 63

2. Steps in providing customized training 1293. Project timeline 1304. Training and nontraining solutions to organizational problems 150

Exhibit

I. THE NOMINAL GROUP PROCESS 662. FEDERALLY FUNDED TRAINING PROGRAMS 883. TYPES OF COLLABORATION/SERVICE 924. EVALUATION QUESTIONS 955. TRAINING BROCHURE 1006. EXCERPT FROM BULLETIN 1027. PROMOTIONAL HANDOUT 1048. OHIO TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER BROCHURE 1079. PROMOTIONAL HANDOUTS 108

10. BROCHURE INTRODUCING THE SPECIAL SCHOOLS 1091 I. HANDOUT DESCRIBING THE VALUE OF THE SPECIAL SCHOOLS 1 1 1

12. START-UP TRAINING PROGRAM PLANNING ANDDEVELOPMENT GUIDE 125

13. ACTION PLAN WORKSHEET 12814. APPRAISAL FORMPROPOSED TRAINING SITE 133IS. TRAINING SITE SAFETY CHECKLIST 13416. TRAINING PLAN (PROPOSAL) 14117. TRAINING AGREEMENT FORM 14718. SOME DATA SOURCES TO DETERMINE CUSTOMIZED

TRAINING NEEDS 15119. BIL-GENERATED TRAINING PROPOSAL 15220. EVALUATION OPTIONS 15721. TRAINEE CHECKLIST FOR APPRAISING INDUSTRY

SERVICES PROGRAM 15822. OUTLINE FOR ASSESSING TRAINING PROGRAM 15923. SUPERVISOR SURVEY 16024. SAMPLE COOPERATIVE EDUCATION

STUDENT TRAINING AGREEMENT 182

vii

FOREWORD

Postsecondary education faces major challenges for the future if it is going toremain responsive to changes in the areas of demography, labor force, economy, and socie-tal expectations. If postsecondary education is to remain relevant, new programs to meetchanging technological needs must be developed; increased sensitivity to the changingage, sex, and ethnic composition of the student population must be demonstrated; moretraining designed for part-time participants and for disadvantaged groups must be of-fered; and increased cooperation between business and educational institutions must beachieved.

In order to provide postsecondary administrators, program planners, curriculumdevelopers, counselors, and instructors with up-to-date, reliable information, the Na-tional Center has developed a packaged set of materials entitled OPTIONS: ExpandingEducational Services for Adults. This package is the result of a major review and syn-thesis of the premiere appropriate materials available. Organized around three highlytargeted issues, the OPTIONS package contains an educator's guide. a videotape, threebooks, and three monographs.

The Educator's Guide orients administrators, instructors, and counselors toOPTIONSits background, philosophy, components, structure, and use. An accompanyingvideotape discusses the issues and forces impacting on educational institutions servingadults and motivates postsecondary personnel to work for program success.

This publication, Linking with Employers, provides a rationale for cooperativeefforts with business and industry. This book describes procedures for establishinglinkages and conducting programs such as co-op education, customized training, retrainingand upgrading, apprenticeship, resource sharing, and economic development.

Developing Curriculum in Response to Change prepares program staff to design andadapt curricula to conform to technological changes in the workplace and to meet thelearning needs of adults. This book discusses the six-stage process of curriculum devel-opment assessing needs, defining objectives, identifying resources, developing curricu-lum content, implementing the curriculum, and monitoring and evaluating implementation.

The three monographs enable counselors and instructors to establish and conductspecial services to meet the learning and career needs of adult populations. AdultCareer Guidance prepares counselors to provide intake, assessment, employability skilldevelopment, and career guidance to multicultural, handicapped, and older adults, as wellas dislocated workers and women reentering the work force. Entrepreneurship Educationprovides models for planning and implementing an entrepreneurship education program foradults. Literacy Enhancement for Adults provides models for planning and implementingadult literacy programs.

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Case Studies of Programs Serving Adults describes exemplary practices andprograms that have successfully improved or expanded educational services foradults. This book integrates the three major foci of linking with employers,developing curriculum in response to change, and providing special services foradults.

The National Center wishes to acknowledge the leadership provided to thiseffort by Dr. Robert E. Taylor, recently retired Executive Director. Appreciationalso is extended to the following individuals who served as a panel of experts inassisting staff in planning strategy, recommending document content, and criticallyreviewing drafts of the documents: Dr. Larry Hackney, Associate Dean of Counselingand Life Career Development, Macomb Community College; Dr. Ronald M. Hutkin, VicePresident of Academic Affairs, North Dakota State School of Science; Dr. H. JamesOwen, President, Tri-Cities State Technical Institute; and Dr. Roger Perry, VicePresident of Academic Affairs, Champlain College.

Special recognition is due to David J. Ka lamas and Catharine P. Warmbrod whoprepared this monograph. Recognition and appreciation are deserved by the follow-ing National Center Staff who p'.ayed major individual roles in the development ofthe OPTIONS package: Richard J. Miguel, Associate Director for Applied Researchand Development, and Catharine P. Warmbrod, Research Specialist 2 and ProjectDirector, for leadership and direction of the project; Judith A. Samuelson, Re-search Specialist 2; James 0. Belcher, Program Associate; Roxi A. Liming, ProgramAssistant; and David J. Ka lamas, Graduate Research Associate, for synthesizing anddeveloping the documents; and Monyeene Elliott, for her word processing expertiseand dedication to a major typing endeavor. Appreciation is extended to Judy Baloghand her staff for providing final editorial review of the documents.

Chester K. HansenActing Executive DirectorThe National Center for Research

in Vocational Education

x

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Today's community and technical colleges are facing both new and continuing chal-lenges in terms of training and educating the U.S. work force. The past has seen manychallenges met and a significant contribution made to the nation's economy--economicdevelopment activities are at an all-time high. But there are many new challenges- -challenges that must be met just as completely as the older ones if the United States isto retain its economic place in the world community. The growing concern about America'sindustrial productivity in relation to the rest of the world is directly reflective of anemergent and critical role for 2-year colleges. Two-year institutions must now activelywork to attract and retain industry and increase the scale and quality of education andtraining services to existing industry--they must now continually monitor the communitypulse and move to meet a growing number of new community needs.

In order to establish effective linkages, postsecondary institutions must thoroughlyunderstand business, industry, and labor managers' perspectives regarding the rolevocational-technical education plays in training and upgrading workers. Postsecondaryinstitutions must also understand the supportive role they play in the local economicdevelopment effort.

The effective linker needs to thoroughly understand the world of work and the lan-guage of business, industry, and labor. In addition, the effective linker must possessstrong organizational development, interpersonal, and management skills. The effectivelinker must develop a comprehensive plan of action and see that administrative andmarketing support is provided to the linking activities.

Linkage activities can take many forms. Customized training programs, apprentice-ship programs, and cooperative education programs are some examples of these. An educa-tional institution must pay attention to many different components in order to design,develop, and deliver quality programs that meet the needs of business, industry, andlabor.

This publication is designed to help 2-year institutions meet these new challenges-and create viable linkages with business, industry, and labor. These research-based,comprehensive materials will prove useful to administrators, faculty members, and mostespecially, those directly charged with developing and maintaining linkages with busi-ness, industry, and labor.

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12

Introduction

Linkage can be defined as a poolingof resources and a cooperative effort toachieve common goals. The outcomes ofeffective linkages with business, indus-try, and labor have been much discussedduring the last few years. The creationof new employment opportunities, sounderand more responsive educational institu-tions, and an improved economy are mostoften mentioned. Most administratorswould agree that these outcomes are goalsworthy of pursuit.

In order to reach these goals in themost expeditious fashion, those respon-sible for initiating and maintaininglinkages should have an understanding ofthe needs, interests, and expectations ofthose who manage the institutions thatare likely to engage in cooperative ac-tivities with vocational-technical educa-tion. An appreciation of the perspectivesof business, industry, and labor leadersis - Itical to effective cooperation.

Part I is designed to shed lighton those perspectives - -a preliminarystep for postsecondary and adult admin-istrators interested in creating viablelinkages. It should also help create anawareness of the many opportunitiesavailable) for cooperative activity andan understanding of the role of the 2-year college in economic development.Chapter 1 presents the views of two in-dividuals, responsible for the managementof large private enterprises, towardseducation and training in the U.S.--inrelation to the needs of business and

I

industry. Chapter 2 provides perspec-tives of J.,,anized labor in terms ofeducation and training, while chapter3 discusses the role of the 2-year insti-tution.

Long-term success in linkage devel-opment also requires effective planning,solid marketing strategies, superiororganization, and timely provision ofquality products and services. In short,it requires sound management of availableresources--whether they be people, money,materials, or time. Parts H and HIprovide detailed guidelines to help theprospective linker acquire the skills andknowledge necessary to provide sound man-agement of an institution's linkage ef-forts. These guidelines are based uponextensive research aimed at determiningthe attitudes of successful linkingagents and their institutions.

Part H describes the general skillsneeded by an individual chosen to fillthe role of linking agent. Chapter 4 out-lines what a linker should know about theeducational arena, the BIL arena, organ-izational development, interpersonal in-teraction, and the management of insti-tutional resources. It also provides anoverview of self-assessment and self-development strategies that will beuseful to anyone assigned to or contem-plating a linker role. Chapter 5 pro-vides explicit guidelines for developingand evaluating an institutional linkageplan. Chapter 6 provides a wealth of

l3

information related to specific tech-niques for establishing linkages. Spe-cial emphasis is placed upon the develop-ment of promotional materials.

Part III provides explicit actionguidelines for carrying through thelinkage plans of an institution. Themajor focus of this part is on customizedor contract training (chapter 7). Thisfocus reflects the growing concern of 2-year institutions about being able toeffectively provide the training andtraining-related products required anddesired by business, industry, and labor.

2

Chapters 8 and 9 contain guidelines fordeveloping and maintaining cooperativeeducation and apprenticeship prograrr':.Chapters 10 and 11 provide a summary ofthe many barriers to effective linkagesand possible solutions to many commonlinkage problems.

The material presented in this bookhas been excerpted and adapted from pre-viously published documents. Portionsof Parts I and II have also been signifi-cantly expanded and updated. Some por-tions were also rewritten, reflecting achange of audience and format.

14

Part IAn Introduction

to Linkages

A comprehensive understanding of theperspectives of those who manage businessand industrial enterprises is critical tothe establishment of effective linkagesthat, in turn, will result in viable eco-nomic development activities. This chapter

contains information from a collection ofmonographs and surveys that help provide anunderstanding of the perspectives of busi-ness and industry on education and train-ing.

A CEO's View

An understanding of the perspectivesof those employed in the industrial sectorcan be acquired by examining the views ofsingle individuals. A 1983 speech deliv-ered by Donald M. Frey, chairman and chiefexecutive of the Bell & Howell Company,at the National Center for Research inVocational Education provides insightsabout the American economy, job training,job retraining, and the role of vocationaleducation. He believes that, among thesteps necessary to enhance industrial pro-ductivity, significantly increased invest-ment in vocational education should beplaced at the top of our national agenda.

Mr. Frey also outlines what industrycan do to play a more active role in voca-

tional education. In a question and answersession he addresses a number of additionalissues including international competitionand job training, trainir, ''or high tech-nology jobs, and U.S. government economicpolicies.

The passage that follows is excerptedand adapted from the following document:

Frey, Donald N. The Economy, Pro-ductivity, and Training--A CEO'sView. Occasional Paper series no. 88.Columbus: The National Center forResearch in Vocational Education, TheOhio State University, 1983, pp. 1-6.

Some 800 years ago Maimonides, thesage of Cordoba, taught that there aredifferent levels of charity. The man ofgoodwill sees his fellow man in need andsimply gives him alms. This is one form ofcharity; according to Maimonides' teaching,

it is the lowest. The highest form ofcharity, he said, is to take that indigentman and teach him how to fish. When heknows how to fish, he can then feed himselfand his family and can also continue toearn his livelihood unaided.

NOTE: Please see Case Studies of Programs Serving Adults for examples of actualbusiness/industry linkage activities.

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Few, I expect, would quarrel with thiswisdom. But it is a peculiar irony of ourmodern civilization that at the same timethat we have discovered and unleashed themechanisms for creating an unprecedentedwealth of goods and services, we have madeit more difficult for some individuals toacquire the capability of earning a liveli-hood.

The simple skills and tools the fish-erman used in ancient times are no longeradequate; we rely today on more sophisti-cated equipment and scientific techniquesto bring in the catch. This means that toenter the labor market, the job seeker hasto be better trained and more knowledgeablethan ever before. And, given the realityof today's international economy, I thinkit is apparent to all of us that if we areto maintain our present standard of living!let alone raise it to a higher level), weal., going to be dependent on the continuousinfusion of scientific breakthroughs andproductivity-enhancing technology. Thismeans that just to hold on to their jobs,more and more workers are going to need toupgrade their skills periodically.

We must take a new and serious looktoday at how we in this country are teach-ing people "to fish." More exactly, weneed to assess very carefully what we areeducating people for, and how we are goingabout it. The way we deploy our resourcesto educate Americans will affect as neverbefore our productivity, our economy, andour quality of life.

There are, in my view, three types ofpost-high school education: liberal, pro-fessional, and vocational. Personal choicebased on individual need determines thecourse to be pursued. I hasten to say thatwh"e my corporate activities represent thelast type, the more academically narrowand strictly career orientation of voca-tional education w'll not serve all needs.It is one part of the triumvirate of edu-cation, and all parts are essential.

But we have a problem today. Laborstatistics make it clear; the system isunbalanced. There is a pressing need for

more vocational education--education thatwill lead directly to employment oppor-tunities. I think curriculum planners needto reevaluate the role of the liberal artsin our educational system. The study ofliterature and history has value, no doubt;but a well-rounded educational programtoday must not fail to include courses insuch job-related skills as computer sci-ence, laboratory techniques, electronics,and so on. I suspect that many of ourunemployed or underemployed collegegraduates are becoming painfully aware ofthis. A U.S. Bureau of Labor Statisticsreport predicts that as a result of theoversupply of college graduates with lib-eral arts concentrations, one of every fiveholders of such degrees may be forced totake a job that does not require a degree.

I have no doubt that as a society wemust hold high the objective of "educationfor the whole person," but if the "wholeperson" cannot get a job, it is prettyspecious to talk about enriching his or herlife.

In this regard, however, I must alsoaffirm from the start that the distinctionoften drawn between "training" and "edu-cation" is becoming increasingly blurred.We used to think of "training" in terms ofpreparation to perform relatively simplemechanical tasks such as assembly linewort , while "education" meant developing abroader intellectual aptitude for morecreative problem solving. But as we applythe latest technology to the productionprocess in all phases of industry, workerswill find they must have a solid groundingin a range of fundamental skills: not onlythe "three R's," but also such skills ascomputer literacy. Equally important, theywill have to bring to the job the tempera-ment to adapt to change, to accept periodicretraining, and to acquire the facility towork with a new generation of technology.Thus when I speak of vocational educationtoday, I am talking about career prepa-ration in a very broad sense.

We can no longer assume that theunemployed worker's job will automaticallybe restored with economic recovery. The

phenomenon of the "dislocated worker" whofaces a midlife career shift as a result ofa plant closing or technological change hasbecome increasingly common. It is not justa narrow sector of the working populationthat will have to deal with unemployment:growing numbers of workers already facecareer unemployment. This means that theirwhole career has become obsolete--not as aresult of economic cycles, but as a con-sequence of rapid and incessant change inthe structure and technological base ofwhat is now a global economy.

Total employment in the American steelindustry, for example, has been reduced by40 percent since the 1950s. Massive layoffrates in the automobile industry and inthose manufacturing centers whose fortunesrise and fall with Detroit's will be onlyslightly alleviated by an upturn in theeconomy. The pressure to modernize andimprove productivity makes the continuedretrenchment of employment in these indus-tries in the next 10 to 20 years virtuallycertain. We cannot limit our focus merelyto providing unemployed teenagers and youngadults with the skills to get jobs. Wealso have to face the challenge of reedu-cating the 40-year-old worker whose job haspermanently disappeared.

Retraining the "obsolete" worker is asubsector in vocational education that isnot being given sufficient attention. Fromthe passage of the Manpower Developmentand Training Act of 1962 to the beginningof the Reagan administration, more than$80 billion has been spent in government-supported training programs for jobless andlow-income individuals. Less than 1 per-cent of this total, though, has been ap-plied to the retraining of workers who havelost their jobs due to technologicalchange. Until a few years ago, suchlimited expenditures on retraining could bejustified to the extent that unemployedworkers could be expected to find their wayto new jobs. Unfortunately, this rationaleno longer applies to unemployed workers intoday's basic industries.

The need for some fresh approaches isobvious, but I would caution that we do not

7

yet know enough about the problem of unem-ployment to respond to it effectively.What are the unemployed steelworkers andauto workers doing today? What would theybe capable of doing if the right kinds oftraining programs were available? We hadbetter start getting some answers--fast.And until we do get some answers, I thinkwe should be sensible enough to avoidmassive federal or state outlays to dealwith the problem. And we should not be sofoolish as to pretend that training in suchareas as welding or machining will providepeople with marketable skills in the comingera of robots. As a start, I think indus-try, academia, and government must workclosely to develop a few carefully con-ceived pilot programs.

In this context, the suggestion thatunemployed residents in Ohio, Michigan,Illinois, and Indiana--our industrialheartland--simply move to the "Oil Patch"or the Southwest to find work is worthmentioning. This strikes me as a dismalnonsolution. Family and community tiesmake relocation painful. It is also prob-lematic, to say the least, that skills out-dated in one section of the country willcontinue to be viable elsewhere. The prob-lem of retraining will not go away.

Social and demographic alterationswill complicate the pattern of structuralunemployment. In the 1970s, changingsocial values and economic pressure tosupplement family income led unprecedentednumbers of women to enter the job market.This was also the period when the childrenof the "baby boom" years began to go towork. As a result, in the past decade thesize of the labor force has increased byover 25 percent. But for many of thesewomen, advancing beyond service jobs at thelow end of the pay scale will be impossiblewithout participation in formal trainingprograms.

The household with two working parentsis here to stay, and both economic neces-sity and individual motivation will encour-age increasing numbers of women to returnto school to improve their opportunity to

18

secure more challenging, higher salariedpositions.

Competition for jobs today is mostintense among unskilled and inexperiencedyouth. Fewer teenagers and young adultswill be entering the job market in the1980s, but the glut of young people seekingemployment today will be a glut of middle-aged workers in 10 to 20 years. Unless webegin now to prepare these young people forthe jobs of the future, we are likely tosuffer for years to come the burden of alarge population of chronically unemployedand underemployed--and all the economicand social problems attendant on that.

Where are the jobs of the future?Some say they are in the service indus-tries. Another phenomenon accompanying thepattern of structural unemployment in thepast decade has been the rapid expansion ofthe service sector of our economy while ourbasic manufacturing industries have lan-guished in an anemic condition.

Almost three quarters of all Americanworkers are now employed in what are some-what clumsily described as service jobs.These services now constitute two-thirds ofour gross returns for shareholders who mustbe an obligation for any corporation. But

unless we build a consensus in support ofthe proposition that the future strength ofthe American economy and the vitality ofour educational system are inextricablybound, both will experience a continuingspiral of deterioration.

Advances in knowledge are and willcontinue to be a critical source of wealthand income in the United States. ProfessorTheodore W. Schultz of the University ofChicago, a recent Nobel laureate, hascommented that "it does not detract fromthe economic fundamentals set forth by AdamSmith to point out that the wealth ofnations would come to be predominantly theacquired abilities of people--their educa-tion, experience, skills and health." Weas a nation must make the necessary invest-ment to improve these abilities.

We can continue, for the time being atleast, to pay unemployment and welfarebenefits. But these obviously are tempo-rary measures. We should not forget thebasic principle of philanthropy. Let usteach people how to fish. Industry andacademia must join together in a partner-ship in support of this principle. I lookforward to working with other businesspersons and educators in building thatpartnership.

An Industrialist's View

The views of Peter Elliman, vicepresident and general manager of LucasIndustries, Inc., provide an insightfullook at the relationship between vocationaleducation and the private sector. In hisspeech delivered at the National Center,Elliman discusses a wide range of topics- -from the economics of plant location tointernational competition and lessons wecan learn from the Japanese. His views oflifelong learning and the kinds of trainingthat vocational education should be pro-viding are particularly noteworthy. Healso offers sage advice in terms of what

vocational education can do to betterunderstand industry's needs and better usethe resources that industry can provide.

The passage that follows is excerptedand adapted from the following document:

Elliman, Peter J. Critical Issuesin Vocational Education: An Indus-trialist's View. Occasional Paperseries no. 95. Columbus: The Nation-al Center for Research in VocationalEducation, The Ohio State University,1983, pp. 1-8.

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Industrial and economic policy in theUnited States is affected by many inter-national forces and factors. Today, Amer-ica stands as a beacon to the entire indus-trialized world as the finest country inwhich to live, work, and locate a manufac-turing plant. It is the most advanced andindustrialized nation in the world, butAmerican industry is competing in a worldeconomy. It is no longer just South Caro-lina competing against Ohio for a particu-lar industrial plant, but rather Ohiocompeting against Korea, South Carolinaagainst India, or Michigan against Japan.

I am a vice president and generalmanager for Lucas Industries, headquarteredin Birmingham, England. Lucas is an inter-national conglomerate that owns or controls350 companies in 35 countries around theworld. We trade in every country in theworld except two--Albania and North Korea.My own particular responsibilities lie inNorth and South America where Lucas hassome 32 companies that manufacture goodsand products in the diesel, aerospace, andindustrial sectors. As an industrialist,my responsibility is to maximize my re-sources and to return a profit to my boardof directors and stockholders. Like mostU.S. managers, a large portion of my salaryis governed by the profitability of thecompanies for which I am responsible.

When Lucas evaluates a country for thepotential location of a new plant, itexamines such important elements as laborunions and labor costs, trade regulations,taxes, inflation, the strength of thecurrency over time, the availability andquality of technical schools and universi-ties, the skill and productivity levels ofthe work force, attitudes toward work, thestandard of living, the cultural environ-ment. The overall climate within a givencountry is the climate on which decisionsmust be based. We can influence certainfactors, such as the skill level and atti-tude of the work force that we employ,through training, quality circles, andother such innovations; but most factorsare so embedded in a country's economicpolicies that we must expect to operatewithin them to make a profit.

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For example, inflation in our Brazil-ian plant is running at about 110 percentannually (as of 1982), and this has becomethe most crucial factor to weigh in anydecision regarding that plant or others inBrazil. One of the tasks on which thecomptroller of the Brazilian operation isevaluated for is his ability to obtain an8 percent per month yield on the company'sinvestments.

The overall productivity of the workforce is a most important factor. Ameri-can's productivity rose at an averageannual rate of 3.6 percent from 1950 to1966, but since then its growth has con-tinued to slow from 2.3 percent between1966 and 1973 to less than 1 percent in1980. Today, the American media are con-cerned about reported annual productivitygains of 8 percent in Japan, compared to1 percent in the United States. The impli-cation is that the Japanese are eight timesbetter than Americans as workers. However,consider that in the same set of statisticsshowing annual gains, Vietnam improvedits productivity by 53 percent. Obviously,this does not mean that Vietnam is now53 times more productive than the UnitedStates. It simply means that from wherethe Vietnamese started, they have madesignificant progress, but no other compari-son is implied.

If you were to compare the overallcost of manufacturing a certain product invarious free world countries, you wouldfind that the most expensive country todayis West Germany. Let's say it will cost100 cents to produce a product in WestGermany--the top of the scale. As you comedown the scale, it will cost 92 cents tomanufacture that same product in France,88 cents in England, 87 cents in Japan, butonly 72 cents to make it in the UnitedStates. So today, even though the U.S.productivity gains are less from year toyear than in certain other countries, it isstill, on an overall basis, the cheapestfree world country in which to producegoods.

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Although as Americans it is importantto be proud of these facts, we must remem-ber that when Japanese workers increasetheir productivity growth by 8 percentannually and we increase ours by onlyI percent, they may be doing some thingsbetter than we are. Some countries haveeconomic advantages that American businessdoes not have. Some of the advantages arevoluntary; others are government aided.Japan, for instance, does not operatewithin the context of total free trade. Inthe past, they have limited our importsinto their country, while we have placed norestrictions on theirs.

Recently I had an industrialist fromIndia tell me that he had borrowed all themoney he wanted from the World Bank at6 percent and he asked me what Lucas wouldlike his company to manufacture for us.America contributes the majority of theentire World Bank's resources to developingcountries. This man's corporation hasaccess to our money to pay India's workers25 cents an hour to make whatever we wouldlike them to make. That is our competi-tion, and we must not ignore it.

The Japanese, though, have an indus-trial and economic system much closer toours than India's, and they are our numberone competitor in many areas. Americanscan learn many lessons from the Japanese.One example is their attitude toward workand the environment of trust existingbetween workers and employers in Japan,both of_ which strongly affect productivity.In Japan, both employers and employees worktogether in an environment of trust.Americans (and the English) tend to workin an environment of distrust. In fact,Americans seem to run most of their mutu-ally dependent systems (including relation-ships between industrialists and educators)in such an environment of distrust.

Lessons from Other Countries

Americans typically complain abouttheir country. In part, I am convincedthat the media in this country have createdthis less than positive attitude, and I

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would hope all of you have the opportunityto go overseas and visit other countries sothat you can be reminded of how fortunateyou really are. This kind of nationalisticself-criticism and critical attitude doesnot exist in France or Germany, and cer-tainly not in Japan.

An illustration of how the Japaneselive in an atmosphere of trust may behelpful. When I visited Japan, I was giventhe opportunity to tour a Japanese school.As I was being escorted through the build-ing, I noticed that an emergency exit signwas over one of the doors, one similar toours here in the United States. The actualemergency exit light, however, was a flash-light on a magnetic base. I asked my tourguide why they used such a light that wasnot permanently secured when surely theyknew it would be stolen. He had difficultyin understanding my statement. At the timeI was unaware that the incidence of theftin Japan is minuscule. To secure the lightto the wall with something more than amagnetic base was unnecessary.

To give you another example, when Itoured another facility in Japan, I noticedthat the workers had brought in pottedpliants and flowers and placed them through-out the manufacturing and loading dockareas. We, traditionally, do not allowthat in America because we would end uphaving a department in a unionized facilitybeing made responsible for watering flowerson company time. The Japanese workersbrought in the plants and cared for thembecause they enjoyed it.

We forbid our workers to do some ofthese more basic things because we operatewithin an atmosphere of distrust. Distrustis very costly. When I was employed as aplant manager for General Motors, I learnedabout the cost of distrust. When suppliersdelivered materials to our assembly plant,they were automatically stopped at the gateby security to determine whether they wereauthorized to enter. Once the drivers wereallowed on the plant grounds, they immedi-ately pulled their trucks up to a loadingdock and proceeded to wait for hours untilthe materials were unloaded. When plant

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workers finally unloaded the trucks, wewould always count the quantity of theshipment, check the quality, store it, andthen a week later deliver it to the assem-bly line. All these delays cost time andmoney.

In Japan I watched a delivery truckarrive at the Datsun plant where it wasstopped at the security gate and directedto a loading dock. A foreman immediatelyunloaded the materials and placed themright on the assembly line. I asked theJapanese foreman how he knew the supplierhad shipped the right quantity. He told mehe knew because he had asked them to shipthat many. I asked him how he knew thequality of the items was satisfactory. Hetold me it was because he was paying forthem. At many GM plants today, they haveeliminated inspectors on the loading docksand are beginning to trust their suppli-ers.

Another thing Americans can learn fromthe Japanese is to maximize the potentialof people. The goals of an industrialistand the goals of an educator are the same,namely, to maximize the potential ofpeople. The real role of educators is tohelp their pupils become all that they canbe. The potential of some students orworkers may not be more than to be a dish-washer, but we must help them to becomegood dishwashers. Others may have thecapacity to become doctors, engineers,astronauts, and bank presidents; similarlyit must be our goal to help them becomethose professionals to the best of theirability.

Business and industry need the maximumthat thei workers can give, and so theymust be careful to avoid stereotypingindividuals into traditional roles. Toooften, management's predetermined con-cept of a worker's potential can limit thatworker's real contribution. For many yearscorporate management sought the man, notthe woman, who held a 4-year engineeringdegree with honors. If a man barely gradu-ated from high school, then he remained ablue-collar worker, presumably incapable ofachieving within the corporate structure.

Today, we more fully appreciate thedifference between a vocational student roda college graduate. The college graduatedreams of ways to make money, whereas thevocational student actually makes money forthe company. The private sector values thevocational graduate far more than we everhave in the past, and we want to supportvocational education and get involved.1 nis is especially true when the questionof training costs is examined.

Every time my company loses an em-ployee and hires another, it costs thecompany $10,000. This figure representsthe estimated average industrial cost forworker turnover. Technicians cost $20,000,and managers cost between $60,000 and$70,000. Turnover is a significant cost toindustry. In Europe and Japan when youhire workers at age 18, they almost assur-edly will stay with you until they retire.In America, 60 percent of college studentsleave their first place of work within2 years. The turnover costs involved areastronomical.

We need to be concerned about thequality of vocational education, because80 percent or more of vocational educationstudents will work for companies like mine.In today's world of work, only about25 percent of the available jobs require acollege education. Yet the colleges anduniversities keep recruiting and graduatingpeople in fields that are already satu-rated. Interestingly, in the state ofSouth Carolina, one of the largest groupsattending technical colleges is collegegraduates who cannot find jobs. Highereducation serves an important role inAmerica's future; it makes an invaluablecontribution to the areas of basic researchand the professional fields. Withouthigher education our society would not benearly as technically advanced and cultur-ally alive. However, higher education isnot appropriate for everyone, and here inAmerica many students and parents have beendeceived into believing that they mustpossess a 4-year degree to maintain a goodstandard of living.

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Vocational Educationand the Private Sector

A question of credibility for voca-tional education in American still existstoday. Vocational schools do not have therespect of the public yet. Vocationalinstructors and others in vocational edu-cation are not as highly regarded as theteachers and professors who teach "realschool." But, fortunately, this is chang-ing.

A fundamental point professionaleducators need to understand is that to-day's industrial workers must never ceaselearning and growing. Regardless of whatindividuals have accomplished or learned upto a point in time, in 5 years their skillswill be obsolete and they will have to beretrained. Let me share some insightsabout education from an industrialist'sviewpoint. Last year I delivered a speechto a conference of educators, and duringthe discussions that followed, a schoolsuperintendent bemoaned the fact that hehas to deal with educating people for12 years. Then a university presidentcomplained about having to deal with edu-cating people for 4 years. My response tothose comments is that we industrialistshave to deal with their end products for48 years; every 5 years we have to teachthem a new skill. Furthermore, many ofthese people never really learned how tostudy effectively so that vie can retrainthem easily.

I am concerned about the issue ofteaching job-specific and even industry-specific skills in vocational education.Recently I spent some time in Atlantaobserving the displays at a vocational andtechnical training convention, and while Iwas there, a salesman tried to sell me alaser gun. Obviously, I was not interestedin purchasing a laser gun, but I was inter-ested in determining just where the marketfor a laser gun was in education. He toldme he was selling them to vocational educa-tors all over the country. As an industri-alist, I am pleased that vocational educa-tion is eager to meet industry's high-technology training needs, but training of

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thic type "annot be done effectively invocational schools. They have neither thefacilities nor the personnel to do itright, and furthermore, it is so special-ized that such attempts become counter-productive.

Vocational education in general shouldnot be offering training at the thresholdof technology because it cannot reallyafford to pay for it. Furthermore, themoney that the public school system investsin this new technology will be wasted,because the equipment will be out-of-datebefore students graduate. A vocationalschool cannot train students on a laser gunfor a job in my company unless that schoolcan continue to stay at the threshold oftechnology in the laser guns that my plantwill be purchasing. I would much preferthat the schools concentrate on teachingtheir students the basic, transferablevocational skills that they will need whenI teach them the applied technology Iutilize. The basics are the skills thatbusiness and industry can most capitalizeon in years to come.

Another issue concerning me is thatthe message about industry--what it is andthe principles it operates under--is notfiltering down through the school system.At Lucas Industries, we once hired a younglady who was 19 years of age and had beenrecently graduated from high school. Shehad been with us for 4 months when shequite sincerely relayed the followingobservation to me. "Mr. Elliman, youreally surprise me. I didn't know youworked in the summer; I always go to thebeach in the summer." What made this youngwoman think that people don't work in thesummer? Her SAT scores were between900 and 1000; she was a high school gradu-ate; and she did not even know that peoplein the labor market work year-round. Hererror is only one example of the kinds ofmisinformation that many new workershave.

Career guidance counselors need to bemore concerned about the type of servicesthey provide to students. In my state, forexample, out of 100 high school principals

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and counselors attending a recent confer-ence, only 2 had ever been in an industrialplant, yet plants are the major employersof their students. These are the peoplewho are advising tomorrow's youth about thework world, and they do not even understandits problems and needs.

Secondary and postsecondary standardsare also issues that demand attention inthe field of vocational education. InSouth Carolina's school system, graduatesfrom the secondary schools are not neces-sarily qualified to enter a postsecondarytechnical training institute. My questionis, Why aren't the technical institutes andthe high schools collaborating with eachother? Why are the high schools graduatingstudents who are not qualified to enter thenext level of training? If they are notqualified for this, then they certainlycannot be expected to go out into the worldof work and earn a living. Increasingly,the public is going to hold the educationalprofession accountable for its actions.

There are things that you, as educa-tors, and I, as an industrialist, can dotogether to alleviate some of the problems.This institution, the National Center forResearch in Vocational Education, is obvi-ously not going to convert the nationsingle-handedly. South Carolina may havethe best vocational education system in thecountry, but the National Center is notgoing to have much impact on South Carolinauntil industry and education work together.Educators, by themselves, do not have theclout to make the changes that are neces-sary to reindustrialize and retrain thepeople of this country.

Recommendations for Action

Let me try to make clear to you whatit is that I--as a representative of indus-try- -want from you. Your job as an educa-tor, whether you like it or not, is todevelop and sell an end product, namely, astudent. The student's first job uponleaving high school is to sell his or herskills to someone like me. You must trainyour students to acquire those marketable

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skills or I will not buy them. That is afact.

One of the problems you face, however,is that the private sector is unable totell precisely the occupational skills itwill need in 10, 20, or even 5 years. Amajor fundamental in operating our plantsis that we must be flexible in what wemarket; consequently, we do not know whatwe will be manufacturing in 1995. Further-more, with the rapid changes in technology,we do not know whether we will need lasertechnicians or robotics technicians orboth. Given that fact, I have some ideasof what you can do for me, always bearingin mind that whoever I hire will have to beretrained every 5 years or so.

One wa- to describe what I want is totell you what you would have to do if you,as individuals, wanted to work in my plant.First, you would have to apply for a job,and if you were accepted, you would gothrough 6 weeks of preemployment trainingon your own time, for which Lucas would notpay you. The training program would beoperated by the local technical college,with company trainers overseeing it. Atthe end of the training program, you wouldstill have no guarantee of being hired.You would have only been accepted into thecourse--not guaranteed a job. During those6 weeks, we would watch for people with theright attitude toward learning and workii n.As an example of what we teach, in ourtraining program you would become profi-cient in such basics as metrics, becauseteaching you about laser technology ispointless if you do not even understand themetric system.

Suppose that you got through the6 weeks of unpaid training. If I hiredyou, you would next be paid to go throughanother 3 months of training, but you wouldnot go to work in the main plant until Iconsidered you to be ready. My plant of450 people in South Carolina has 12 full-time instructors and a budget of $1 millionper year for training. We realize we haveto get the maximum out of every worker inthe plant, so we have to look for people

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who are trainable and who have a positiveattitude toward learning.

No real criteria exist, of course, forjust how good each worker must be, but allcompanies need people who are responsible.Our managers pass accountability and re-sponsibility down the line to the shopemployees. Let me give you an example ofhow important accepting responsibility isfor our workers. While touring my plantwith a visitor one day, we stopped to talkto one of my workers whom I'll call Mary.I asked her to explain her job to thevisitor and to tell him where she hadworked before she joined my company. Shetold him she had been a checkout clerk at asupermarket. Then I told the visitor thatthe equipment Mary was running was worthhalf a million dollars and that she hadbeen with my company for 2 years. I thenasked Mary if she had any problems thatday. She said, "As a matter of fact,Peter, I have a problem; I have a 3-microntaper." Three microns is about 30-millionths of an inch, and in our work, a3-micron taper is a serious problem. Iasked Mary if she could take care of it.She said she thought she could, and becausewe operate under a new style of management,I walked away and left it to her. Ofcourse, I would have been less than a goodmanager if I had not talked to the super-visor and had him check on Mary's problemlater in the day. Incidentally, I do notrecommend this new management style if youare prone to ulcers.

My real point, though, is that acompany with good training and good man-agement policies can take a checkout clerkwho used to make $3.25 an hour and, insideof 2 years, have her correcting a produc-tion problem of 30-millionths of an inch.But we need the educational system to turnout trainable graduates, and we need edu-cators to teach students about industriesand how they operate. This becomes verydifficult if educators never spend timewith the companies' representatives andnever come to understand industries'needs.

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Education also needs to developcourses that will teach people how tohandle, manage, or just work with otherpeople. People can get degrees in businessfrom most universities without ever takingone course in how to supervise and workwith people. You can go through just aboutany engineering school in the country tobecome a manager without taking any coursesin human relations. Graduates from voca-tional schools may become supervisors oreven managers, yet they get no training inworking with people either. If we studythe Japanese, Korean, and Indian companiesand listen to the theories about consensusmanagement and Theory Z, clearly the suc-cess of these companies is based on howthey get people to work together.

One of my greatest problems as anindustrialist is orienting college gradu-ates to my plant and teaching them how tomanage the workers who actually run theequipment and who are, for the most part,high school graduates. The first thing Itell college graduates is that they shouldnot make decisions. Yet, all their lives,up until that point, they have been train-ing to make decisions. The new style ofmanagement, however, dictates that thepeople who do the work and understand theproblems are the best qualified to make thedecisions; managers are responsible forfacilitating the decision making.

The most valuable resource my companyhas is its workers. They may be relativelyuneducated, at least academically, but Ican guarantee that the woman operating thatone-half million dollar machine knows farmore about it than any college graduateworking as a manager. The moment Mary'smanager, for example, interferes and tellsher how to do her job, she will know he iswrong. She will have to do what he says,but she will know he is wrong. That man-ager will cost the company a lot of moneyuntil he learns to let her do her job, orat least to listen to her solutions.Industry needs people who have been taughthow to manage and how to work with people,and that is something our educationalsystem must improve upon.

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i

In South Carolina, we are trying toaddress some of these problems. First, wehave initiated a program to give teachers,counselors, and principals the opportunityto visit our plants 1 day a week. There,we show them what we do and what kinds ofskills our workers need. In this program,teachers visit a certain number of plantsevery year. The teachers have given usproblems, though. They want to be reim-bursed for their time if the visit runslonger than the regular school day. Con-sequently, we have to finish each visit by2 p.m. to allow them travel time. Theschool principals like the idea behind theprogram but want somebody else to pay the$50 for the school buses to transportteachers, so we have to work on thosehurdles.

We are operating a technical scholarprogram in South Carolina that takes thebest 18-year-olds available who are notgoing to college and places them in aspecial cooperative industrial program. Wenow have 32 companies involved in thisprogram that offers technical schoolcourses in the morning and an opportunityto work in the afternoon. The 3-yearprogram is quite evolutionary because aconsortium of c panies collaborates onwhat students sho ld learn and what we willpay them fo le . This program was cre-ated when, all e co *lies realized theyhad a mutual pr blew -a shortage of workerswith critical s ills. We 'are very proud ofthe graduates of that program; they havegone on to become talented and committedworkers.

Another of industry's efforts involvescollecting extensive data on our workerswho are high school graduates to determinetheir opinions and experiences for up to5 years after their graduation. We hopethis will give us information that willhelp us improve our own training programs

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and management systems. But it should alsobe useful information to the schools whoturn out these graduates.

Quite a few high schools, vocationalschools, and technical colleges have advi-sory boards. Having them is a good idea,provided the schools make meaningful use ofthem. Too many times, advisory boards areineffective because they are not usedresponsibly. Educators have a high--veryhigh--responsibility to use industry peopleon such boards, and use them well. But donot expect an industrialist to go to avocational school and say "What can I dofor you today?" The responsibility lieswith educators, first. Teachers shouldtake enough interest in their end productto come to industry and request help. Mostindustrialists are willing, even eager, tocontribute time, energy, and resources.

Remember that American business andindustry are competing against business andindustry in the rest of the world. Thiscompetition is not a game; it means realjobs that affect real lives. Very few willever have the experience that I have had oflaying off 300 people because there was nowork. It is heartrending to see the des-peration on people's faces. It is puretorment to hear the report of a man who,6 months later, could not find a job andcommitted suicide.

The Indians, Koreans, Japanese, Brit-ish, and others are doing all they can tocreate and sustain every last job in theircountries. Unless we can learn to workcollectively on our most precious resource,our people, to help them achieve their bestand to make a contribution to our economy,we will lose the battle to create and keepjobs in America. Preparing students tobecome effective workers is not a game, andyou, the educator, are involved, whetheryou want to be or not.

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Summary

The thoughts of the two businessexecutives offered in this chapter revolvearound a number of key issues. Mr. Freypoints out that it is important that bothbusiness and industry and education take ahard look at how training and retrainingare a....lomplishedhow people are trained"to fish." He cites a need for more voca-tional education, coupled with fresh ap-proaches to education and training, as onemeans to improving national productivity.He also feels that there are many lessonsto be learned from our competitors in othercountries.

Mr. Elliman reminds us of the some-times forgotten fact that profit is themotive underlying all business activity.

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He also reminds us that productivity gener-ally leads to profit. And productivity isimproved by maximizing the potential ofpeople.

In relation to human resource develop-ment he notes that both public and privatesectors should make every attempt to im-prove the quality of vocational education,ard remain aware that in today's changingsociety lifelong learning must be the normfor all workers.

He also voices concerns about the job-specific skill training problem faced bymany vocational-technical schools and ques-tions the ability of vocational educationto pay for this kind of training.

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Chapter 2Organized Labor Perspectives

The union movement in the UnitedStates is a complex phenomenon with approx-imately 200 national and internationalunions and employee associations and about64,000 local unions, many providing edu-cation and training to their members. Itis a force that should be understood by

technical and community college personnelwho are concerned about developing effec-tive linkages with employers. The tl omonographs included in this chapter willhelp provide an understanding of the per-spectives of organized labor in terms ofeducation and training.

Organized Labor and America's Productivity

Organized labor is in a position toradically affect worker productivity inthis country by the policies and stancesthey adopt in relation to education andtraining practice. Kenneth Edwards, direc-tor of the Skill Improvement Department ofthe International Brotherhood of ElectricalWorkers, provides an insightful look at theperspective of organized labor in hispresentation.

Edwards offers some very interestingfacts about U.S. productivity, painting apicture quite different from that of manyeconomists and futurists. He also discuss-es the impact of technology and examinessome educational considerations. He goeson to provide a useful overview of trainingand retraining practices within industryand explains the role of organized labor in

these undertakings. His views on thecooperation between labor and vocationaleducation and on the desire of organizedlabor to be a viable partner in this rela-tionship help to explain how labor peoplereally feel. Also included is a synopsisof what organized labor is doing to createnew jobs.

The passage that follows is excerptedand adapted from the following document:

Edwards, Kenneth R. The Perspectiveof Organized Labor on Improving Amer-ica's Productivity. Occasional Paperseries no. 89. Columbus: The Nation-al Center for Research in VocationalEducation, The Ohio State University,1983, pp. 1-10.

One of the most frequently used oroverused terms on the American scene todayis "productivity." When we Americans

attempt to describe our relative positionin the world in terms of trade or inter-national exchange, or when we think about

NOTE: Please see Case Studies of Programs Serving Adults for examples of actualorganized labor linkage activities.

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our various economic enterprises or sec-tors, we tend to dwell on one term--pro-ductivity.

Doomsday prophets would have us be-lieve that we are not a productive nationand that the United Statt.s has reached thelimits of possible growth. They attributecertain economic declines to the law ofdiminishing returns. They point to anever-increasing population, diminishingnatural resources, continuing unemployment,polluted environments, and the lack ofproduction by our industrial sector.

Although at this time it may be truethat our manufacturing investment stock hasnot expanded as rapidly as our work force,and that this may have caused a decline inthe amount of capital invested per hour ofhuman labor, the United States is still themost productive country in the world(Marshall 1982). Our closest competitor interms of productivity is the Netherlands,which produces 92 percent of U.S. outputper hour, it is not Germany or Japan, whichproduce 89 percent and 68 percent respec-tively.

An Historical Perspective

One hundred years ago our total grossnational product (GNP) was approximately$9.2 billion or $190 per individual. In1979 our GNP was $2.5 trillion or $11,000per individual, which--if converted to 1879dollars--would be $400 billion, showing anincrease of about 43.5 times over the GNPof 100 years ago.

Over the last 100 years, we have hada ninefold increase in output per worker.In 1879 our production was running over$450 in goods per worker. In 1979, we wereproducing $24,000 per worker, which--ifconverted to 1879 dollars--would be approx-imately $4,000 per worker. Furthermore,over the last 10 years (1969-79) our outputper-paid hour worked has increased 12 per-cent.

We also have had a considerable changein our work force. One hundred years ago

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the typical American worker was self-employed. He was a male, a farmer, andhighly independent. Today the typicalAmerican worker is employed by somebodyelse, is an urban dweller, is as likely tobe a woman as a man, and for the most partis highly dependent on other people.

Contribution of OrganizedLabor to Productivity

Economist John Kendrick (Froehlich1981) suggests that whereas some peoplebelieve that labor's contribution to anincrease in productivity is no longersignificant, labor may be the only factorin the classical equation that contributedmore to productivity growth during the1968-78 period than it did from 1948 to1964. This point is amplified when weconsider that the cost of the labor forbuilding a new home has decreased from33 percent of the total cost in 1949 to17 percent in 1977 and has declined anadditional 1 percent from 1977 to 1980(National Association of Home Builders1981).

There is mounting evidence fromstudies by Allen (1979), Brown and Medoff(1978), Clark (1978), Connerton, Freeman,and Medoff (1979), and Frantz (1976) thatunionized workers are more productive thannonunionized workers and that unionizationincreases productivity in an establish-ment.

Le Masters (1975) suggests that unionestablishments offer higher wages andtherefore attract better workers. Riemer(1979) credits job security and trainingopportunities as factors that enable unionestablishments to attract high qualityworkers. Bok and Dunlop (1979) moreaccurately suggest that collective bargain-ing is the key to maintaining the caliberof workers.

Organized labor's existence is basedon its fundamental ability to protect itsown members and to respond to their socio-economic needs. Before the establishmentof labor unions in America, workers were

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treated more as beasts of burden than ashuman beings. While some authors wouldhave us believe that the American labormovement is syndicalist in nature, this issimply not true. Present-day labor unionsare content to lobby for higher wages fortheir members (based on gains in produc-tivity or employer profits), better workingconditions, and protection for the majorityof their members.

Many of the gains made by organizedlabor for its own members have benefitedall those who work and live in this coun-try. Free public education, Social Secu-rity, unemployment insurance, fair laborstandards, and legislation dealing withcivil rights, safety and health, equal pay,and employee retirement income are but afew of the achievements fcr which organizedlabor lobbied and that are now enjoyed byall citizens. Organized labor does notwant to transform the economic system,although its quest for social progress has,in the opinion of many, placed a burden onthis system.

There are many areas in which organ-ized labor may influence the factors ofproductivity. Labor-management cooper-ation, wage differentials, innovations,training and retraining programs, moti-vation, labor education, approval or dis-approval of new technologies, and collec-tive use of pension funds are but a fewof these ways. However, the amount ofinfluence greatly depends on each of the175 national or international unions, theirlocal unions or lodges, and their members.Each national or international union mayoffer varying approaches that are dictatedby their individual structures, goals andobjectives, their liberalism or conserva-tism, political influence, and profession-alism.

DeSchweinitz (1949) suggests that thelargest union gains leading to increasedproductivity have emerged from the crisisfor survival. Threats of plant shutdowns,a loss of jobs, wars, and strikes havehistorically led both labor and managementto seek ways to improve production. Al-though this may sound liko a simple pro-

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cess, history reveals that it has beencomplex, especially in cases where manage-ment has asserted its rights and labor hasretaliated.

Industrial Productivity

DeSchweinitz's judgment on produc-tivity is based on the manufacturing indus-try. In order to make specific statementsabout productivity in a particular indus-try, it is essential to understand not onlythe operation of that particular industrybut also the occupational groupings withinthat industry.

Industries and occupations that uti-lize large amounts of technology mayachieve gains in productivity through theinteraction of human skill, machines, andtechnology. On the other hand, significantadvances in productivity are difficult toachieve in industries and occupations thatare characterized by a very high degree ofpersonal services. Productivity ratios forthese industries and occupations are af-fected largely by the skills and efforts ofindividual workers and not by the inter-action of human, mechanical, and techno-logical capabilities.

Productivity and Employment

It should be noted that improvementsin productivity do not necessarily enhanceemployment opportunities. Between 1950 and1969, the manufacturing industry in eleUnited States increased its output by150 percent and its employment by 33 per-cent. Since 1969 there has been no in-crease in employment in the manufacturingindustry, yet output has increased by one-third.

Advances in technology not only en-hance our life-styles by increasing theamount of leisure time at our disposal, butthey can also adversely affect employmentrates in a ;Articular industry. As ma-chines become technologically inefficientand require replacement, labor requirementsfor operating them are correspondingly

30

affected, especially for low-skilled ormedium-skilled workers. As the new ma-chines take over more of the work load,those workers who are not displaced areforced to make the psychological adjustmentof getting used to working for a machine.Technological advances also affect produc-tivity indirectly by creating new healthhazards, by increasing stress and stress-related illnesses, and by altering workers'attitudes.

For 20 years Jeffrey Riemer (1979)studied the construction industry fromwithin as a craftsperson. He concludesthat despite modular construction tech-niques, advanced building design, andproduction 'iciency measures, segments ofthe construction industry are experiencingsevere production problems as a result of adecline in the quality of individual work.He attributes this decline to the fact thatcraftsworkers are being so coerced intomeeting production standards that thequality of individual work has begun tolose its importance, and pride in one'swork has become meaningless.

Educational Considerations

Donahue (1979) echoed Riemer's re-marks when he noted that one of the resultsof technological advancement has been amisallocation of the work force, resultingin morale problems in the workplace. Hecites an overeducated work force as apossible cause--with overeducation helpingfoster the work force's belief that theirskills are not being fully utilized.

Between 1970 and 1976, the proportionof American workers with 4 or more years ofcollege education increased by more than60 percent in clerical, sales, service, andblue-collar occupations--areas that havetraditionally employed very few collegegraduates. Before 1960 many employers ofthe apprenticeable trades thought they werefortunate to have an average apprenticeapplicant with 10 years of formal educa-tion. Today the national average forapprentices is slightly over 14 years offormal education.

Over the last 20 years, technologicaladvances have compelled workers to acquireadditional skills and often some additionaleducation in technical areas. Yet employ-ers are still looking for the basic skillsand education competencies that indicatethat an individual will perform well in theworkplace. Employers still want to hirepeople who can demonstrate basic verbal andmathematical skills and who are able tocommunicate clearly, to reason logically,to read with understanding, and to computeaccurately.

A high school diploma by itself doesnot indicate sufficient technical prepa-ration for most occupations, but neitherdoes an undergraduate degree. Certainprofessional occupations do require abaccalaureate degree, but these occupationsaccount for only 1 in every 19 jobs. How-ever an applicant for any of the remaining18 jobs will need technical training, workexperience, or training in a particularskill or group of skills.

The Impact of Technology

There are growing numbers of individu-als who feel that by the year 2000 the onlyentry-level jobs available will be in theservice industries, and even those jobswill be scarce. This will probably be thecase, if we assume that today's employmentstandards will still be operative then. Wehave already seen many entry-level jobsabolished or reduced in number over thepast 5 years. For example, the Bell Systememploys 68,500 fewer telephone operatorstoday than it did in 1960. Over the past35 years, employment in our nation's railsystems has declined by 65 percent, andalmost all entry-level jobs have becomeobsolete by virtue of new technology.Computers are now doing the work of wellover half a million clerks. Bank tellersare being replaced by machine tellers.Employment of compositors and typesetters,who account for 39 percent of the crafts-workers in the printing industry, is ex-pected to decline by 25 percent by 1985.

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In addition to computers, industrialrobots have also taken over many jobs.Robots are not only replacing entire assem-bly lines, but are also being used for diecasting, investment casting, forging,injection molding, material and partshandling, warehousing and storage, supplydelivery, interoffice delivery, tool han-dling, mixing liquids and paints, welding,stamping, painting machine operations, andloading and unloading operations.

If we continue to introduce devicessuch as computers, advanced communicationsde vices, digital systems, speech synthe-sizers, high-definition television, robot-ics, and optronics, without retrainingdisplaced workers or without giving thoughtto institutional restructuring, then weinvite both white- and blue-collar unem-ployment. At the same time we createpockets of occupations with skill short-ages.

Although many people predict thattechnological change will have an impact onall occupations, with the greatest impacton white-collar occupations, no one canaccurately foresee the total impact on theworkplace. Nor can anyone say with cer-tainty what types of jobs will be availableor what kinds of education and/or trainingthese jobs will require.

Because of these uncertainties, organ-ized labor at the international, national,and local levels has moved in severaldirections to deal with these changes.Labor's responses are described by Murphy(1981), who cites the following four cate-gories of contract provisions and techno-logical change clauses in collective bar-gaining agreements:

The introduction of technologicalchange

The changing nature of jobs result-ing from the new methods or machin-ery

The changes in the skills requiredof workers, and any resultingchanges in worker status

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The reduction in the work force,possibly as a consequence of techno-logical change

Since 10 percent of all technicalknowledge becomes obsolete each year, theeffective life span of technical traininggrows shorter and shorter. This trend mustbe promptly confronted through betteroccupational planning, including education,training, and retraining.

Toward a National Policy

If our nation is to reach the pointwhere our productivity keeps pace withtechnological developments, our educationaland training institutions must keep pacewith the new technology. Schools mustimpart the skills that will be an asset toa successful career, beginning in a disci-plined atmosphere with the skills at thelowest grade. Without a clearly articu-lated national policy, our schools willcontinue to lag behind workers' trainingneeds.

We need a national technologicalpolicy that addresses the likelihood of abroad range of radical social changes andchanges in our work force. This policyshould, at the very least, address thefollowing issues:

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The effects of technology on ourwork force

Ways to avoid or alleviate thesocial and economic problems ofunemployment

The most advantageous research di-rections to pursue

Statistical projections of new em-ployment opportunities

Compensation levels for those whosejobs are made obsolete by new tech-nology

Effective utilization of personnel

The effects of technology on theeducation, training, work, andleisure time of the average citizen

In reflecting on the declining rate ofproductivity growth, Congressman StanleyLundine believes that four areas must beaddressed if productivity is to improve:

Capital investment

Research and development

Regulatory reform

Human resource development

Of the latter, he says, "Human resourcedevelopment is the least understood factoraffecting productivity performance and inmy opinion in the long term, perhaps, themost crucial" (U.S. Congress 1981, p. 4).

Few statistics are available about ourhuman resources on a national level. We doknow that we currently have a labor sur-plus, but with the exception of wartime,the United States has experienced a laborsurplus as long as we have been collectinglabor statistics.

Reports of skill shortages and projec-tions of demands for skills in the workforce are often questionable. For example,Dale Church (1980), former deputy under-secretary of defense for acquisition poli-cy, testified before the House Armed Serv-ices Committee and noted that many U.S.machine shops cannot produce much of thehardware required for our defense systembecause they are unable to employ suffi-cient numbers of skilled tool and diemakers and machinists. He further notedthat more than half of our skilled tool anddie makers would retire by the end of the1980s. This problem is compounded by thefact that the industry is producing onlyabout 25 percent of the number of skilledjourneyman that are needed to replace thosewho are leaving.

On the other hand, Schultz (1980)offers a much different perspective of theshortage that Church reported. Schultz

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felt that no shortage existed, citing thefact that the majority of companies in themetal trades are very small, employing onlyabout 10 percent of the country's machin-ists. He was of the opinion that smallbusinessmen are notorious for their com-plaints about skilled labor shortages.

There are data to support both thaopinion of Church and that of Schultz. Ifwe apply basic economic principles to thediscussion, Schultz might appear to becloser to the truth, since we have not seensigns of a wage push for either machinistsor tool and die makers. Nor do we see anyattempt by industry to hoard individualswho possess critically needed skills.American companies have made little attemptto prevent these skilled workers fromleaving the industry or from being laidoff.

Training in Industry

Since similar observations may be madeof most industries, we may begin to wonderwhat our present national inventory ofhuman resources really is. If there areindustries in which certain kinds of work-ers are in short supply, we need to findout what the shortages are and how we arepreparing to meet time. Industry claims tobe spending $30-$60 billion annually fortraining. The Conference Board (Lusterman1977) states that three out of five com-panies are offering in-house trainingprograms to prepare employees for super-visory or managerial responsibilities, andthat nearly as many companies are offeringcourses in technical and functional skills.The Conference Board further reports that89 percent of the companies surveyed offertuition-aid programs.

On the other hand, Jensen (1977)reports that 97 percent of the plantssurveyed in his study indicated that theyhad a definite need for training. Theyreported that 89 percent of their presentstaff of maintenance craftsworkers neededadditional training. Of the new workersentering the maintenance field, 75 percentcould demonstrate no training whatsoever.

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These statistics led to the conclusion that80 percent of the co.npanies have shortagesof personnel trained in maintenance.

Herb Levine (Chamot and Baggett 1979)states that although a large percentage ofAmerican industry offers tuition-aid pro-grams, only 2-5 percent of eligible workersactually take advantage of such programs.Most union members either are unaware ofsuch programs or assume that the programsare designed for another category of work-ers because they have been given thatimpression by the company.

It is worth noting that most of thesetuition-aid plans are unilaterally con-trolled. Because of this, there is littlethat a union can do for a member who hasbeen denied participation in the program,since the plan is usually not subject tothe grievance procedure. Many unionsregard these tuition-aid programs as de-vices that primarily serve the employer asa source of windfall profits, rather thanas devices designed to benefit employeesand to enhance the company's productivity.

In some cases, the employees who dotake advantage of tuition-aid programs arethose who want to get out of the plant.They are often technicians who already havean educational background on which tobuild.

The American Federation of State,County, and Municipal Employees (AFSCME)in New York City has made excellent use ofnegotiated tuition-aid programs. They haveinsisted that tuition-aid funds be put attheir disposal, and, in turn, they havecontracted with institutions that are pro-viding upgrading training for their mem-bers.

Other industrial unions have begun togive serious consideration to negotiatingfor tuition-aid funds. The United AutoWorkers (UAW), for example, is negotiatingfor paid educational leave or time off thejob for education and training at theemployer's expense. New contract settle-ments, such as the new Ford Motor Companyagreement, call for the retraining of those

workers whose jobs would be affected by newtechnology.

Organized labor has had a tradition ofconcern for in-plant training. Unions feelthat a great deal of on-the-job training istraining by "osmosis," and the trend todayis for unions to attempt to gain morecontrol over this type of training.

In their effort to obtain training fortheir current and future membership, manyunions elected to tap into federal fundswhen such funds were more available than atpresent. They obtained funding under theNational Defense Act, the Area Redevelop-ment Act (ARA), the Manpower Developmentand Training Act (MDTA), the Compre-hensive Employment and Training Act(CETA), the Trade Adjustment AssistanceAct, or through special grants from one ofseveral federal agencies. In the past,these funds served as seed funds for ap-prenticeship endeavors and for short-duration upgrading programs. Smith (1981)indicates that very little is now beingdone by the federal government to retrainexperienced workers who have been displacedor who anticipate displacement. Smithfurther states, "It would be more effectivein promoting economic growth to retrainthese workers or other nondisadvantagedpersons than to focus on the disadvan-taged."

Under the apprenticeship system,unions play a major role in determining thenature and quality of training programs.Unions representing the building trades,the metal trades, and the maritime trades(and also a few industrial unions) havebeen negotiating apprenticeship trainingprograms since the turn of the century.Both the building trades and the maritimetrades have established their trainingprograms through trust funds, which haveserved as the model for the English grant-levy system and also for similar programsfound in South American countries.

There is always a need for educationand training programs. One of the mostpressing needs is to educate workers toappreciate the need for further education,

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3 4

imillii

train:J./I:, or retraining. Fein et al.(1981) sum up the matter by stating thatthe training function is to change atti-tudes. To accomplish such a change, it isnecessary to inspire in workers the desireto change. Workers may have to experiencea kind of psychological jolt, or whatMassey (1976) terms a "significant emo-tional event," in order for the change tooccur.

Some individuals' value systems havebeen molded in such a way that throughouttheir lives they tend to desire educationand training, which they see as beinginherently good, and to accept change as apart of life. For these workers a signifi-cant emotional event, such as a plantclosing, a reduction in force, or a firing,need not occur to prompt the workers toavail themselves of additional educationand training.

Although union members have beenexposed to all types of education andtraining programs, most established members(such as journeypersons) prefer short,no-frill courses that are timely and aretaught in a familiar environment. Someunions have attempted to use transactionalanalysis and sensitivity training todevelop interpersonal skills, but the mostsuccessful programs of this sort havebeen developed using role-playing tech-niques. Although programmed, modular,competency-based education and trainingmethods rank high in both knowledge acqui-sition and knowledge retention, such tech-niques have been found to be extremely weakin changing attitudes and developing inter-personal skills.

Unions and employers vary greatly intheir approach to the design of vestibuleand apprenticeship programs. Some unionshave cited excellent results using modular,competency-based techniques; others havehad extremely poor and somewhat negativeresults using such techniques. Chief prob-lem areas have included the failure todevelop interpersonal skills, reasoningability, or problem solving skills.

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Unions and employers often disagree onthe method to be used for developing pro-grams. Employers prefer narrow, special-ized development. Unions, on the otherhand, prefer broadly based programs thatdevelop a maximum of transferable skills.Unions also feel that broadly trainedmembers acquire a better base on which tolearn to adapt to change, and thereforerequire less retraining than those who havebeen subjected to narrow, specializedtraining.

Two areas that must be given consider-ation in designing programs are (1) theindividual's freedom to make decisions onthe job and (2) the effect of such deci-sions on the welfare and safety of thegeneral public. In the final analysis,program development depends on the abilityof individuals to cope by exercising inde-pendent judgment in situations that couldaffect the lives of others or on the oper-ation of highly technical and expensiveequipment.

Labor-VocationalEducation Cooperation

In the late 19th century, organizedlabor turned to trade schools in Chicago toeducate union members in certain vocationalskills. In an effort to prevent jobs fromgoing to alien workers, unions found itnecessary to tap into the existing systemof trade schools that were equipped toimpart the up-to-date skills needed bytheir members. Unfortunately, a very realrivalry has evolved between the vocationaleducation system and the apprenticeshipsystem in our country today. This rivalryis most noticeable in the service andindustrial trades, but actually exists inall the trades. It is not a peculiarlyAmerican phenomenon, but exists in mostWestern countries. It is characterized byan inverse relationship between thestrength of apprenticeship training andthat of vocational education. For example,Austria and Germany have very strong ap-

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prenticeship systems and ratht- weak voca-tional education programs. France andSweden, on the other hand, have strongvocational education programs and weakapprenticeship systems. Canada seems to bethe rare exception, where both systemscoexist in a rather efficient manner. Ourefforts in research and development invocational education should be expanded sothat each system can learn what it doesbest and then develop its strengths.

Certain fundamental questions need tobe studied in light of the question ofproductivity. We need to research how andwhy people learn, and how that learning canbe made more efficient. Students need tobe taught from an early age to learn effi-ciently, to develop self-confidence, and toaccept the value systems that will helpthem be productive as students and later asworkers. Competencies that are being uti-lized as criteria in today's schools shouldbe examined. Are the competencies adequatefor the wide ,range of skills demanded inthe workplace? Should there be more empha-sis on interpersonal skills for dealingwith employers and coworkers.

Additional research should be con-ducted on the ways in which vocationaleducation might be more successful inpromoting sex equity Organized labor hashad to examine the issue of sex equity inits own training programs, and has learnedthat despite efforts to promote affirmativeaction, many women are currently not inter-ested in pursuing work in certain nontra-ditional trades. Some women lack thededication needed to attain the journey-person level. Perhaps, with the cooper-ation of the vocational education system,certain biases can be erased by workingwith students at a younger age.

Research should also address theparticular needs of minority and inner-cityyoungsters in order to find ways to improveequal access to vocational education insti-tutions. Unless our national employmentstatistics can be improved by targeting ourefforts where they are most needed, our

national productivity statistics will notbe substantially altered.

In most cases, organized labor isready and willing to cooperate with voca-tional educators at the local level. Localunions are very knowledgeable about locallabor markets and about the skills andproficiencies that are most in demand. Atthe local level, union members are able toshare their perceptions of what makesskilled workers or skilled craftspersons.To a certain extent, local union officersand members are available to offer studentsvocational guidance and to participate incareer days; some are occasionally avail-able for instructing.

While local cooperation between voca-tional education and organized labor shoulddefinitely be encouraged, the changeseffected at the local level will not neces-sarily have an immediate impact on nationalstatistics. Productivity is a matter ofcomplex interrelationships among manyvariables, and changes must be broadlybased within American society.

Conclusion:.

Obviously, the question of how toboost our lagging national productivity istoo broad to answer in one paper. Ourproductivity problem can be treated strict-ly as an economic issue, as a sociologicalphenomenon, as a symptom of a psychologicalorientation toward work, or as an effect oftechnological advancement. It can beviewed as a variable in determining capitalinvestment. A decline in productivity caneven be regarded as a fictitious nationalmalaise, a disease that does not reallyinfect the American economy, although somewriters would diagnose us as having itanyway.

Certainly we could all produce more.But do we want to generate work for work'ssake? Do we want to produce more goods ifthere is no increase in demand for thosegoods? Do we want to produce more goods

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.36

without simultaneously making a dedicatedeffort to maintain or improve the qualityof the product? Will we, as employees,make an honest effort to become more pro-ductive when we know in advance that wewill not be directly rewarded for ourefforts?

Most Americans relate to the produc-tivity "problem" ultimately in terms oftheir own jobs or life circumstances. Tohave jobs, to be dedicated to performingwell in our jobs, and to pursue life,liberty, and happiness despite the fluctu-ations of the consumer price index--theseare all basic goals that are generally

shared by our citizens. Industry, labor,and education are all intrinsically con-nected to the way in which we can pursuethese goals. With a clearly articulatednational policy that takes technologicalchanges into account, the institutions ofindustry, labor, and education should bebetter able to meet the complex problemsthat appear to threaten the productivityof our system.

Americans have always enjoyed a chal-lenge. In the face of the rapidly changingsociety of the 1980s, we can hope that ournational ingenuity will continue to be oneof our most precious natural resources.

Organized Labor Education and Training

The passage that follows was excerptedand adapted from the following document:

MacKenzie, John R. Organized LaborEducation and Training Programs.Information Series no. 286. Columbus:The National Center for Research inVocational Education, The Ohio StateUniversity, 1984, pp. 11-41.

John R. MacKenzie (1984), associateprofessor of labor studies and director ofthe Labor Studies Center at the Universityof the District of Columbia, has beenactive in labor relations and many facetsof labor education. He provides an excel-lent picture of organized labor educationand training programs.

The first part of MacKenzie's discus-sion deals with labor education and train-ing in trade unions. He describes the roleof unions in providing apprenticeshiptraining and labor education and alsoexamines the workings of training trustfunds. The second part provides a descrip-tion of current tuition-aid programs and adiscussion of barriers to worker partici-pation as well as strategies to improveparticipation. The last part deals withthe role of community colleges in providinglabor education and training.

Before beginning MacKenzie's discus-sion, a few definitions are in order.

Trade union organizations have, through theyears, developed or engaged in the follow-ing four types of training programs:

Apprenticeship training is thetraining of skilled workers.

Labor education is the training oftrade union officers and members tocarry out their institutional andprofessional functions.

Vocational education is primarilyshorter skill-building programs totrain or upgrade workers in craftand other unions.

Sel f -improvement education mayinclude such areas as citizenshipeducation, high school equivalencyclasses, language or math skillimprovement, or cultural programs.

Of course, there is overlap betweenthe four general categories. Self-improvement training in math can be foundin vocational and apprenticeship programsand occasionally in labor education.Similarly, there are aspects of vocationaltraining in apprenticeship training andmore particularly in jouineyworkers'upgrading and training. Nonetheless, eachcategory is sufficiently distinct to de-scribe it as a separate group of programs.

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Apprenticeship Training on union and management projections offuture work for the particular craft.

Apprenticeship training today is asystem that develops skilled workersthrough a supervised and rationalizedprocess of on-the-job training and class-room instruction. The apprentice on-the-job training requirement may be up to2,000 hours per year of supervised work inwhich the apprentice works with journey-workers individually or in a small group.The on-the-job training is usually supple-mented by 144 hours of classroom training.The term of apprenticeship ranges from 1 to10 years depending on the craft or indus-try, although most trades average 3 to4 years. The training begins at a funda-mental level and becomes more difficult asthe apprentice progresses through theprogram.

Some well-known unions with the long-est histories of apprenticeship are inhighly organized industries such as theprinting trades, railroads, building andconstruction trades, machine tool, andglass-making. In many industries, the firmcontrols the apprenticeship training pro-gram and facilities, with the unions play-ing a more secondary role. Although ajoint apprenticeship committee, composed ofequal representation from the employer andthe union, administers apprenticeshiptraining in unionized industries, the unionfrequently exercises primary control overit. However, 85 percent of apprenticeshipprograms registered with the Department ofLabor are sponsored solely by employers,that is, there is no union participation.

Apprentice training in the unionizedtrades has historically been the trainingof the young--those individuals 18-26 yearsold. Age exceptions were made for veteransand for organized nonunion craftsworkerswho had some job experience but no formalapprentice training. However, most unions- -especially those in the area of manufac-turing--are lifting age restrictions.Training is open on a competitive basis toall who wish to apply who meet the craft'sbasic criteria and who are able to pass theobjective tests. In some years, the numberof apprentices selected is limited, based

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After apprentices have completed theirtraining, they are awarded journeyworkerscertificates that will be accepted as proofof their skill level throughout the UnitedStates, Canada, and much of the rest of theworld. In some crafts, such as plumbing,the apprentice must pass both a writtentest and skills demonstration prior tobeing accepted as a journeyworker. Theapprenticeship training helps ensure thatthere will be a skilled work force.

When the apprentice programs arecontrolled by industry, they are usuallyhandled by management. Large firms mayhave their own apprenticeship trainingprograms. Alternately, they may provide aneducational fringe benefit for their em-ployees that permits individuals to becomeskilled craftworkers on their own timethrough enrollment in a community collegeor private program. Sometimes unionsbecome involved in negotiating these edu-cation benefits. For instance, the UnitedAuto Workers (UAW) has negotiated withGeneral Motors Corporation a $500 per yearfringe benefit for UAW members enrolled ina certified craft program (Levine andHutton 1980). This type of cooperationbetween union and management upgrades theskills of the work force and results inimproved productivity. It also improvesthe financial positions and job possibili-ties of trained workers.

The federal government, through itsBureau of Apprenticeship and Training inthe U.S. Department of Labor, works withmanagement and labor to establish appren-ticeship training programs. The Bureau hasfield staff in various regions of thecountry to work with the apprenticeshiptraining programs and assist in establish-ing standards. The standards ensure thatonce apprentices complete their training,they can realistically expect to be ade-quately trained journeyworkers in the fieldof their choice. The standards are pub-lished by the U.S. Department of Labor.(For examples of national apprenticeship

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and training standards, see U.S. Departmentof Labor 1982a, 1982b, and 1982c.)

After the Revolutionary War, the wagesof skilled workers in the United Stateswere 75 to 100 percent higher than those ofunskilled workers (Pressen 1976). Todaythere is a similar range between the wagesof the skilled and those of the unskilled.During the training period, the startingsalary for apprentices is often less thanthey could make in an unskilled or semi-skilled occupation, but as the skill levelof the apprentice improves, so does thepay.

Like other forms of education andtraining, apprenticeship training is goingthrough a variety of change3. It is ex-panding into many fields such as medicaltechnology and computer-related occupa-tions. As science and technology expand,so does the knowledge required of theworker in the field. Occupational groupsthat have been considered semiskilled andwhose workers have traditionally beentrained through on-the-job training arefinding that job expansion now requiresmore formal and sophisticated training.Frequently, the training becomes so complexthat it requires an apprenticeship.

Training Trust Funds

Funding has always been a criticalissue in providing training to prepare thework force and update skills. There havenever been sufficient funds to do all thetraining that needs to be done. Thisfunding shortage will be even more apparentin the future, when more training than everwill be needed. Therefore, more attentionmust be focused on r'ternative ways ofobtaining funds for union-affiliated train-ing programs.

Through the collective bargainingprocess, labor and management have estab-lished different kinds of funds for educa-tion and training. The most prominenttypes today are tuition-aid funds andtraining trust funds. Because of theirimportance in supporting apprenticeship

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training, training trust funds are discuss-ed here. Tuition-aid funds are treated inanother section.

The joint training trust funds providesupport for educational programs designedfor specific industries. Such funds haveexisted at the local level for many years.The local training trust funds are usedlargely to support apprenticeship trainingand journeyworker upgrading programs.Also, labor and management have agreed toestablish national training trust funds insuch industries as sheet metal, plumbing,painting and decorating, insulation, andmasonry. Unlike what occurs in the case oftuition-aid funds, workers aggressivelypursue learning opportunities providedthrough national joint labor-managementtraining trust funds. No research can befound on why workers' behavior is differentin this case, but the following factors maycontribute to the high level of partici-pation in training trust fund programs:

The purpose for which the funds wereestablished

The learning opportunities madeavailable through the funds

The strong involvement of both laborand management in the operation ofthe funds

Purposes of TrainingTrust Funds

Most of the joint training trust funds(both local and national) are establishedthrough joint labor union and managementagreement to improve training, produc-tivity, and employment. The funds' activi-ties benefit both sides: Labor unionmembers increase the possibility of main-taining full-time employment, and employerscan successfully compete for a broaderrange of contracts because their workerspossess up-to-date knowledge and skills.

Money from the national training fundsis frequently used for such activities asconducting research, developing training

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and curriculum materials (e.g., apprenticeand journeyworker workbooks, instructors'guides, transparencies, films), and pro-viding training programs for apprenticecoordinators, union members, and jointapprenticeship committee instructors ofapprentices and journeyworkers. Theseactivities may be conducted by the admin-istrative staff hired by the funds' trus-tees or may be handled through cooperativecontractual agreement with either public orprivate agencies.

Two of the national training funds,for example, have maintained a long-standing contractual relationship withmajor universities. The National TrainingFund for the Sheet Metal and Air Condition-ing Industry has contracted with the Na-tional Center for Research in VocationalEducation at The Ohio State Universitycontinuously since 1973 for a variety ofservices. These services have includedconducting several industry studies, col-lecting and cataloging relevant sheet metalindustry materials and resources, andtraining nearly 2,000 instructors and800 local members of joint apprenticeshipand training committees throughout theUnited States and parts of Canada. Theseactivities are available only to thosedesignated by the funds' trustees. Thetrustees for this fund come from the fol-lowing associations: the Sheet MetalWorkers' International Association (SMWIA)and the Sheet Metal and Air ConditioningContractors' National Association(SMACCNA).

The National Center for Research inVocational Education has also worked withthe national joint labor-management train-ing trust fund for the painting, decorat-ing, and drywall industry, and the nationaljoint labor-management trust fund for theinsulation and asbestos industry to developapprentice workbooks, instructors' manuals,and visual aids, and to conduct instructortraining programs targeted specifically tothe needs of these two industries.

Purdue University has worked contrac-tually with the United Association (UA) ofJourneymen and Apprentices of the Plumbing

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and Pipefitting Industry to train instruc-tors of apprentices, administrators, andothers designated by the UA. This programhas operated on a continuing basis since1953--the longest of any in existence.

Labor Education and Labor Studies

Labor Education

Laboi education, or workers' educationas it is more commonly called outside theUnited States, has been considered a partof the general field of adult education.It covers a number of area workers'institutions; the union and its function;the worker's responsibilities to the insti-tution, the state, the nation, and theworld; and the problems that arise in theworkplace and with the laws and customsthat govern it.

Labor education may be distinguishedfrom the general field of adult education.As Rogin and Rachlin (1968) point out,"Labor education is distinguished fromgeneral adult education because it attemptsto reach workers through their union byintegrating them in education because theyare unionists and workers rather thanindividuals" (p. 11). This ability toreach large numbers of workers, especiallyblue-collar workers, has been accomplishedonly by going through the worker's insti-tution, the trade union. University laboreducation centers reach the workers withtheir labor education programs in the sameway. However, the potential outside pro-vider of labor education must be acceptableto the trade union as well as have theability to put on the desired programs.

The word "acceptable" may have manyconnotations, but based on this author'syears of experience, it does not mean thatthe postsecondary institutional provider ofeducation and training must agree with theunion's policies or actions. Rather, itmeans that the union's institutional integ-rity must be respected and its policiesnoted if they are relevant to the subjectmatter being taught; that the union'sprimary functions, specifically colle ctive

40

bargaining, are understood; and that theinstructors can relate to adult unionmembers, can teach adults, and are knowl-edgeable ip their subject matter.

Universities have been able to workwith unions within their states by estab-lishing labor advisory boards that counselthem and their labor center. These boardsmay be composed of union representativesalone, or they may be joint union anduniversity efforts and may include a repre-sentative from the AFL-CIO EducationDepartment as a member. The union repre-sentatives on the advisory boards areusually the top-ranking collective bargain-ing officials in the state or region. Thecommittee is usually chaired by the presi-dent of the state AFL-CIO (or local centralbody as in the case of a con ounity college)who, in theory, represents the entire unionmovement. This, however, does not precludenon-AFL-CIO union leaders from serving onthe advisory board. The university laborcenter must be sure it attempts to serveall major union groups within the slate.Therefore, non-AFL-CIO union representa-tives, such as representatives of theNational Education Association (NEA), heTeamsters, the United Mine Workers, orstate or local public employee association,are welcome.

The advisory board is normally attach-ed to the university, and the presidentmay appoint its members for a term of 2-3 years. Replacements may be made on thebasis of position, influer le, or occasionalrotation.

The advisory boards usually meet onceor twice a year and may or may not have anexecutive committee that meets more often.The function of these boards may vary, butthey usually provide advice and counsel tothe labor center and the university on theeducational needs of workers 1 theirstates. In addition, they may assist withthe setting of educational priorities foithe labor center and with obtaining supportfor its programs. The University andCollege Labor Education Association, thenational professional association for uni-

versity and college labor education, sug-gests minimum standards necessary for theestablishment of an acceptable universityor college program. The standards includethe following:

The postsecondary institution musthave a representative labor advisorycommittee that is established inconsultation with the union organ-izations themselves.

The labor education program must bean identifiable unit within theuniversity with a sufficient budgetto carry out its programs, includingtravel, and it must have sufficientauthority and administrative flexi-bility to plan and develop itsbudget and programs and to hirequalified teaching personnel who canrelate to adult workers.

The piograms should be chaired by arecognized labor education profes-sional.

Rogin (1970) defines labor education asfollows:

Labor education is the attempt tomeet workers' educational needs asthey arise from the participation inunions. It is education directedtoward action. Its programs areintended to enable workers to func-tion more effectively as unionists,to help them to understand societyand fulfill their obligations ascitizens, and promote individualdevelopment. It does not includetraining in job skills for the labormarket, commonly known as vocationaleducation (pp. 301-302).

This definition will generally holdtoday if a somewhat greater stress isplaced on international understanding. Asnoted previously, trade unions today arebuffeted by new problems and new issues,such as foreign trade and internationalmarket competition. These issues will betopics of labor education in the future.

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7

* Labor Studs Creditand Degree Programs

What has been omitted from the abovedefinition, other than new directions inthe field of labor education, is the addi-tion of labor studies. Labor studies isthe generally accepted university andcollege term that distinguishes credit anddegree programs from labor education pro-grams. There were no known degree programsin existence in 1965-66, the base years ofthe last definitive study (Rogin andRachlin 1968). This means that this newaddition to the education and trainingfunctions of trade unions has not beenintr:a rated into the larger picture. Therehas not been a definitive study of creditand degree programs in the new field, norhas there been a study that has reviewedboth labor education and labor studiestogether. We do not know the impact oflabor studies on labor education. Havelabor studies, for instance, diminished orincreased labor education or have theyadded more depth or new knowledge to thelabor education programs? Do labor studiesdegree programs have certain similaritiesand differences, and why? Most of this isnot known from a national perspective, sothe following discussion of labor studiesis based, in part, on the author's knowl-edge and may be subject to his bias.

Labor studies have developed out ofthe merging of several needs within a shorttime span. The growth of credit and degreeprograms is based, in part, on the needs ofthe workers as defined by their organiza-tion, trade union, industry, and work forcemix within the state and in part by the wayin which the universities, colleges, andtheir faculties understood those needs.

The first two degree programs, at theUniversity of Massachusetts-Amherst andat Rutgers, the State University of NewJersey, began at approximately the sametime in 1967 as professional degree pro-grams at the master's level. The Univer-sity of Massachusetts degree was in ighorstudies and the Rutgers degree wa An

education, reflecting its location in theCollege of Education. Both degrees were

31

generally aimed at training professionalsfor trade unions; for state, local, andfederal government positions; and, to alesser degree, for private industry. Bothof these programs began at about the sametime that the major public organizationaldrives and state laws were passed to permitcollective bargaining by state and localgovernmental employees. These had beenpreceded by President John F. Kennedy'sExecutive Order 10988, issued in 1962, thatpermitted various forms of federal employeeunion recognition together with a verylimited scope of "bargaining."

This opened the way for trained per-sonnel in trade unions and in governmentalagencies at all levels who could provideassistance in the various new jobs orexpanded jobs that were developed in laborrelations, such as those created by theestablishment of state and local publicemployee relations boards (PERBs). Thesenew boards usually handled prof 3rns ofunion elections, recognition, mediation,fact finding, arbitration, and generalissues on the scope of bargaining. Trainedpersonnel were required by the union aswell as in public employment, as neithergroup had extensive collective bargainingexperience. Therefore, the hiring ofuniversity-trained students who were oftenolder, who had been in the work forcepreviously, and who were (more often thannot) prounion or procollective bargainingwas very beneficial to certain unions andpublic agencies.

A second major factor that affectedthe growth of labor studies was laboreducation itself. Labor education, as itoriginally developed, consisted of short-term courses aimed at meeting the specificneeds of trade union organizations andtheir officers and members. Needs were meton an ad hoc basis, such as training newstewards at one location, training officersin parliamentary procedures at another, ordeveloping a 2-day conference on a singletopic, such as understanding the impact ofeconomics on collective bargaining. Theseprograms gradually grew until many union-ists had completed the short courses spon-sored by their unions or sponsored joint!;

42

with the university labor education cen-ters. These individuals then wanted andneeded more sophisticated educationalofferings, tying their educational programmore closely to the liberal and socialscience disciplines.

University labor education centersbegan to develop long-term programs, thanksto the efforts of their advisory committeesand their own professional labor educators.Although there was some uniformity, therewere many differences between the coursecontent of the short-term courses and thatof the long-term university programs. Someuniversities, such as The Ohio State Uni-versity, pursued a "go-it-alone" philosophyand developed their own long-term programs.Others, such as Rutgers, Pennsylvania StateUniversity, and West Virginia University,joined forces under the Union LeadershipAcademy (ULA) and jointly developed cur-riculum for a long-term program. Thisprogram began in the early 1960s and con-tinues today.

ULA developed a series of shortcourses that could be taken individually oras a series, with a special certificateoffered for the latter. These includedsuch labor and liberal arts courses asLabor and the Economic System, Labor andthe Political System, Labor and the SocialSystem, Labor History, Labor Law, Psycholo-gy of Union Leadership, and Current andFuture Problems. These courses often werepreceded by short units on how to study anduse the dictionary and were enriched by adaylong winter conference and a 2- to 3-dayspring conference that also served asgraduation exercises for those who hadcompleted the entire course offering.These conferences were occasionally held inWashington, D.C.

A third factor influencing the growthof labor studies was the increase in theeducational level of the work force.Workers had been completing high schoolwith greater regularity, and the educa-tional level had reached 12 years in manyareas of the country. Workers were broughtto the state university door, and they,

like other societal groups, began to openit for themselves.

Workers also began to change theirpast perception of education. They beganto return to school in order to takecourses related to their job or their unionpositions. Often they discovered educa-tional opportunities that would allow themto move into new and nonrelated fields ofwork and into solid middle-class jobs.

The last major factor was the increasein the availability of credit education forthe workers. Prior to 1960, very littlecredit education was available due to threefactors. The first factor was the cost ofeducation, particularly private education,which was usually too expensive for thevast majority of workers. The secondfactor was the location of the publiccolleges and the state university in par-ticular. For political reasons, collegesand universities were often located in themiddle of the state or, in the case of theland grant colleges, in the farm belt awayfrom the population centers. Finally,universities and colleges did not cater toadults, but rather to the 18- to 22-yearold residential student.

During the 1960s, the community col-lege movement took hold and 2- 'ear insti-tutions began springing up in major citiesand counties. Many universities began toestablish branch campuses throughout thestate to serve as feeders for centraluniversities and to provide for the needsof more citizens. A third supplier, theteachers college, had also been goingthrough changes. In the past, these post-secondary institutions had been more orless restricted to the education and train-ing of public school teachers and admin-istrators. They now broadened their basesby offering bachelor's degrees in areasother than education and degrees at themaster's level. These institutions werecloser to the population centers, spreadout within the state, and therefore, closerto workers. These changes made educationmore available to workers. They couldwork, return home, clean up, and take a

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43

class or two at night or on weekends. Thusthe community college movement opened thedoor to higher education for many workers.

For many universities, the student inlabor education and the student in laborstudies have been distinct individuals, buttoday, more than ever before, the laboreducation student is becoming the academicstudent at the community college, the 4-year college, and the university. Laboreducation, in part, becomes a feeder forlabor studies and other academic programs.The academic labor studies students and thenoncredit labor education students are inlarge measure distinct groups, but they mayshare an interest in the trade union andits many functions. In labor studies, thestudent will study the union as an institu-tion from the many perspectives of thesocial sciences and will attempt to inte-grate the knowledge provided by each intothe whole. The student will link theinstitution of the trade union with abroader understanding of society. Thus,the student will also become involved inacademic research and will study the re-search of others.

Labor Education Programs

The major concern i ibor educa-tion student, who is a unio,. ember, offi-cer, or appointed staff member, is theinstitution and how it functions. Thisindividual must be concerned with the job,the union, the problems faced by a unionofficer or staff member, and the problemsthe union and the industry face, as well asthe laws that govern both. The universi-ties and colleges have developed laboreducation courses based on a half centuryof experience and on labor education re-search supplied both by the universitiesand by the trade unions. Labor education,as Gray (1966) points out, has dividedNell* into the following five generalcategories:

Ideological--based on commitment tosocial change

33

Institutional--designed to buildorganizational loyalty and partici-pation

Professional -- preparing individualsfor leadership

Cultural--enhancing an individual'senjoyment of life

Remedial--raising the level of theeducationally disadvantaged

All of these categories have been apart of labor education, but the two thatare now the most characteristic of laboreducation are the institutional and theprofessional categories. The trade unionis more concerned with the former becauseonce groups of workers are organized, theymust become unionized, which translatesinto members' understanding of their union,its functions, the laws governing it, theworker's obligations to the union as dis-tinct from obligations to the employer, andthe building of a loyalty to that union.

In the professional category, theunion plays the major role in trainingtrade union leaders through programs oflabor education or labor studies. Althoughthe university would feel comfortable inexplaining the union, its functions, andthe worker's general obligations, buildingloyalty to a union and its policies or toindividual leaders would not normally bedone by a university. However, the train-ing of trade union officers at all levelsto carry out their union functions would bewell within the purview of the university.In fact, with the increased complexity ofthe tasks performed by union leaders, theuniversity may be better able to providethis function due to its academic re-sources. However, the occasional biasagainst the union on the part of academicinstitutions has inhibited research aboutthe union. When studies have been done,the lack of a system to deliver researchresults to workers and their leaders hascaused new information to remain on theshelves.

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Labor education essentially usesprogram delivery models typical of adulteducation--the short course, conference,seminar, and workshop. The programs arefirst jointly planned with the universityand the trade union organization (or bytrade union national unions with theirlocals), packaged, and brought to where theworkers live and work. They are scheduledat a time when the workers are off work sothey do not lose wages in order to attendthe programs. The two most common programformats are the short course and the con-ference.

The short course is a program thatusually runs 1 night a week, 2-3 hours anight for 5-10 weeks. If the workers livenear the university or college labor edu-cation center, the program may be held oncampus. Many trade union locals have largeconference or meeting rooms where programsmay be offered.

If the short course is taught offcampus, the university labor educators takethe program to the workers' home communityand put it on in a local college, highschool, government building, courthouse,utility, or union classroom. If universitylabor educators, whether faculty or profes-sional, are to teach, they will travel eachweek to the class location. If laboreducators do not teach, they will usuallyopen the class, register the students, passout class workbooks or kits, and introducethe instructor, who may be from the localcommunity, or from the university.

In states with university programs,the state AFL-CIO central body may co-sponsor a weeklong summer school at theuniversity that is open to all AFL-CIOaffiliates within the state. These schoolsmay involve from 30 participants to wellover 100. The topics may be newly selectedeach year or the school may have basic andadvanced sections of standard topics aswell as new topics. These programs maymake use of leadership manuals on politi-cal, legislative, or economic matters thatare produced each year by the national AFL-CIO. In addition, the state AFL-CIO willtreat a number of legislative topics, such

34

as worker's compensation and unemploymentinsurance, or perhaps state tax or safetylaws that concern unionists within thestate. It is not uncommon to have stateofficials who are responsible for adminis-tering laws in specific areas to be presentto explain them. In states without univer-sity labor programs, such as Virginia, thenational AFL-CIO might supply assistance tostate AFL-CIO officers who may hold 2- or3-day weekend conferences. In addition,several state AFL-CIO organizations mayband together to run a regional summerschool.

An example of a successful summerschool program is one sponsored jointly bythe AFL-CIO and the Women's Subcom-mittee of the University and College LaborEducation Association (UCLEA). Theseschools, designed for rank and file womenunion members, are held annually in4 regions of the country and have beenattended by over 400 women each year forthe past 10-12 years.

Again, these programs depend to amajor extent on the AFL-CIO EducationDepartment for expertise, class materials,films, and assistance in obtaining instruc-tors from the AFL-CIO and elsewhere. Inaddition to the state AFL-CIO, many nation-al and international unions (the latterrepresenting workers in Canada as well asthe United States) often use universityfacilities for their own regional summerschools. These schools are often operateddirectly by the international union's edu-cation department, which may do the vastmajority of the teaching. The interna-tional union may, on the other hand, turnover the summer school to the universitylabor educators to develop and teach,although the topical areas will be negoti-ated with the union.

Conferences usually range in lengthfrom 1 day to 2 weeks. Like the shortcourse, the conference is put togetherthrough the joint planning process. In thecase of the cosponsored short course, oncethe topic, fee, location, time, and dateare determined, the university takes

45

charge. For a conference, the joint plan-ning process is much more complex. It mayinvolve a local union and the internationalunion's education director, subject matterspecialists, and conference center or hotelconference and banquet personnel, alongwith the labor educator(s) in charge ofdevelopment. The university may assume theentire responsibility of coordination, orit may divide it with the cosponsoringunion organization. Negotiation aboutdivision of labor extends to program con-tent, costs and fees, instructor conferencematerials, introduction of instructors, andthe graduation ceremony. In some cases,the union will insist that its staff teacha certain topic because of the union'spolicy involvement or upcoming negoti-ations.

The conferences, whether university orunion administered, will usually be of twotypes. The first type of conference isdesigned to disseminate general informationthat will assist participants in under-standing new issues or changes in law,bargaining, foreign trade impacts, and soforth, so they can better carry out theirfunctions. The second type of conferencemay be on a single topic or related topicsthat will provide needed expertise, in-depth knowledge, or problem-solving assist-ance. The latter tends to be designed forthe current or potential union leadership.

The suppliers of labor educationwithin the union vary considerably fromunion to union and often from region toregion. Unions with their own staff oflabor educators design programs on a re-gional basis to be held near the area withthe greatest concentration of members.This is necessary to ensure attendance andto minimize the cost of transportation.The latter cost is the second highest costto the union, with loss of work time beingfirst. In making a determination of edu-cational costs, the international unionmust consider the costs of transportationand the loss of work time by its membersalong with the cost of the program itself.

Because trade unions cannot use educa-tional expenses as tax writeoffs, the cost

35

of education to a trade union is oftengreater than it is for a business. Thismeans that unions must weigh very carefullytheir costs and compare them to the priori-ties noted earlier. This may be one of themajor reasons why so many of the small- andmedium-size international unions are with-out full-time educational staffs of theirown.

The educational function of unions isfurther hampered by the passage of compli-cated laws that affect union government andthe workplace. These laws require unioncompliance with regulations such as theEmployees Retirement Income Security Act(ERISA), although no funds are supplied toassist unions in educating their membersabout the law. When other major pieces ofnational legislation, such as the EqualEmployment Opportunity Act, the Occu-pational Safety and Health Act (OSHA), andother legislation that affects collectivebargaining and the workplace are consider-ed, it is clear that, with the exception ofa very few national unions, it will takelocal union officers and members severalyears to become familiar with the newlegislation. This author estimates that ittakes national trade unions from 3 to5 years after major legislation is passedby Congress to disseminate informationabout the legislation to their members, whoare often scattered in hundreds of smalllocals throughout the United States. Thisis unfortunate for the workers, many ofwhom are not fully aware of their rightsand legal protections.

In the trade union, almost all levelsof personnel will attempt to involve them-selves in the educational process. Thesuppliers of information within the unionsinclude the following:

'AFL-CIO Department of Education.This department supplies technicalassistance to national and inter-national unions, state and localcentral bodies, and university andcollege labor centers that work withtrade unions. It also prepareseducational materials such as films,

46

provides speakers through its speak-ers bureau, teaches in union pro-grams in areas of staff expertise,and develops testimony and testifiesbefore Congress.

George Meany Center for LaborStudies. This is a national tradeunion residential training centerwhose professional staff preparesprograms that are open to all AFL-CIO affiliates, who may send theirstaff for training free of educa-tional charges. The unions mustpay the room and board charges.

The Meany Center publishes an annualcatalog of courses that run from3 days to 2 weeks on topics such asstaff training, collective bargain-ing, arbitration, labor law, use ofcomputers, women's programs, eco-nomics, cost of health care, organ-izing, and so forth. In addition,international unions use centerfacilities (on a space-availablebasis) to hold their own conferencesand training programs.

The center also has a bachelor'sdegree in labor studies that union

members throughout the United Statesmay take through Antioch College.The center uses tutors, weekendconferences, and an atypical, buthighly successful, delivery system.The center considers itself to be anadult education center. It operatesWednesday evening cultural programsfor the local community and hasspecial showings of art and sculp-ture.

The center is also the base forthe AFL-CIO's American Institutefor Free Labor Development(AIFLD), which trains Latin Am-erican labor leaders who come tothe United States for approximately8-10 weeks.

International unions. These organ-izations vary in their educationalactivity, with about 25 percent ofthem having some form of ongoinglabor education programming. Inter-national unions such as the UnitedAuto Workers, Steel Workers, Machin-ists, United Food and CommercialWorkers, and Seafarers have theirown residential centers for stafftraining.

Tuition-Aid Programs: A NegotiatedBenefit for Workers' Education

The financing of education and train-ing programs that benefit members of laborunions takes place in a number of diverseways. Unions generally support the educa-tion and training of their members throughone or more of the following methods:

They support legislation at thelocal, state, and federal levelsthat is designed to provide equi-table, affordable educational oppor-tunities for American adults.

They subsidize members directlythrough union financial loan andscholarship programs.

They contract directly with educa-tional institutions to providespecific courses for their members.

They develop internal education andtraining programs through theireducation departments.

They use collective bargaining tonegotiate contracts that provideeducational benefits to their mem-bers. (Smith 1982)

Of the five methods listed, the nego-tiated benefit is the one that provides the

364 7

greatest number of educational opportuni-ties for union members. Unfortunately, notmuch is known about negotiated educationand training benefits since the topic hasnot been studied in any systematic, de-tailed manner. According to the availableresearch, however, there are three majorforms of negotiated education benefits:

Apprenticeship programs

On-the-job training plans

Tuition-aid plans (ibid.)

Since tuition-aid plans provide workerswith a means of enrolling in courses ateducational institutions, they are ofparticular interest to vocational and adulteducators.

Background

Although tuition-aid programs haveexisted since the early 1900s, only re-cently have these programs become prevalentenough to attract serious attention.During 1976-80, the National Institute forWork and Learning (NIWL) conducted athorough study of tuition-aid programs todetermine the extent of utilization of theprograms and to identify barriers that tendto reduce workers' use of this benefit.According to the study, which was sponsoredby the National Institute of Education, in1977 there were an estimated 198 majorcontracts with tuition-aid benefits cover-ing approximately 1.6-2.0 million workers.However, the utilization rate of the planswas low, particularly among blue-collarworkers. Although there were plans in allindustrial sectors, they were distributedunevenly. Of the plans examined, 54 per-cent were in manufacturing, 19 percent inservices, 18 percent in transportation andutilities, and 9 percent in construction.This variation can be explained in part bythe rate of unionization of differentindustries (Charner et al. 1978; Smith1982).

37

Types or Tuition-Aid Plans

According to NIWL researchers, anegotiated tuition-aid plan is "any formalplan in which a company has agreed, withinthe terms of a company-union contract, togive employees financial aid to pursuecourses offered on or off company and unionpremises" (Charner et al. 1978, p. 27).The following four types of negotiatededucational benefits were identified:

Thition advancement or reim-bursement plans

Educational leave and leave-of-absence plans

Training fund plans

Scholarship and educationalloan plans

Although normally only one of the fourtypes of tuition-aid plans appeared in anegotiated agreement, in a number of in-stances two or more types were found(ibid.). These four types are described inmore detail below.

Tuition Advancement orReimbursement Plans

Tuition advancement or reimbursementplans pay all or part of the tuition ex-penses incurred by eligible individuals whoenroll in education and training programssponsored by an institution other than theemployer. These plans may also cover otherexpenses, including registration fees, stu-dent activities, laboratory fees, gradua-tion expenses, and books (Charner et al.1978; Smith 1982).

Most plans are of the reimbursementtype, in which the employee receives reim-bursement from the employer only aftersatisfactory completion of the course. Ofthe plans examined in the NIWL study,

48

90 percent had tuition reimbursement as abenefit. Tuition advancement plans, inwhich the money is paid either to theemployer or the educational provider priorto course enrollment, were much less com-mon. Only 5 percent of the plans studiedby the NIWL staff were of this type(ibid.).

According to Smith (1982), "The di-versity one finds in negotiated tuition[advancement or reimbursement] planscertifies that no master strategy wasinvolved in their evolution" (p. 7). Acloser examination of the plans and theirprovisions proves Smith's point.

In most plans, worker eligibility isbased on three criteria: job classifica-tion, accrued seniority, and satisfactorycompletion of the course or program.Although most plans permit only activeemployees to participate, a small numbercover laid-off workers who were active atthe time of plan enrollment. Only one-third of the plans have seniority require-ments and those that do generally require1 year (or less) of service with the com-pany. Although most plans specify satis-factory course completion in the contract,there is usually no definition of "satis-factory" given; that is, a very smallnumber of plans indicate that a specificgrade must be obtained (Charner et al.1978; Smith 1982).

These plans also frequently specifythe types of institutions employees mayattend and the kinds of courses they maystudy. Rather than naming specific insti-tutions, plans use the language "approved"or "accredited institutions." Acceptablecourses are listed and plans also statewhether they must be taken for credit or berelated to the individual's job or career.In some cases, plans specify that coursesmust be related to either a degree or alicense (Charner et al. 1978; Smith 1982).

Released time from work is generallynot granted to employees who participate intuition-aid programs of this type. Theymay, however, be given the option of trad-

38

ing shifts or adjusting their work sched-ules to accommodate their course schedules.Since only 3 percent of the plans studiedby NIWL granted time off for study, it issafe to say that tuition aid is assumed tobe an "after-hours program" (Charner etal. 1978; Smith 1982).

Tuition advancement and reimbursementplans, although quite common, are diversein their provisions. It is, therefore,difficult to generalize about them otherthan to say that they are a part of a largenumber of contracts and on paper representa commitment of between $100 million and$1 billion to worker education opportunity(Smith 1980).

Educational Leave andLeave-of-Absence Plans

Educational leave and leave-of-absenceplans permit the employee time off fromwork to pursue educational endeavors.Educational leave is granted to a workerfor a specified period during workinghours, whereas a leave of absence is grant-ed for an extended period of time. Partialor full tuition payment may be a part ofeither of these plans. Although theseplans are common benefits in Canada andwestern European countries, they are rela-tively rare in the United States. Only16 percent of the plans studied by NIWLresearchers had leave-of-absence or educa-tional leave provisions (Charner et al.1978; Smith 1982).

The eligibility criteria for theseplans are similar to those of tuitionreimbursement or advancement plans. Mostplans specify that leave time should bedevoted to study that is career- or job-related. Although most leave plans are forcollege-level work, some unions have beensuccessful in negotiating broader educa-tional options. One example of this is anagreement between the United Auto Workersand International Harvester that permitsqualified workers to use the leave programto attend elementary or secondary school(Smith 1982).

49

t.

Most leave-of-absence plans credit theemployee with continuous service, an impor-tant aspect in terms of pension rights.Also, depending on seniority and job avail-ability, many companies will reinstateworkers at the job classification they heldprior to taking leave (Charner et al.1978).

Training Fund Plans

Training fund plans, also known astrust fund plans or education and trainingprograms, are accumulated under agreementsin which employees contribute fixed amountsof money per employee into a central fundto be used to finance education and train-ing. These funds are usually administeredby a board of trustees composed of bothunion and company officials. The trusteesare responsible for program planning anddevelopment; they secure facilities, hirestaff, and plan the curriculum. Fre-quently, a fund is used to establish atraining institute or school. Twenty-eightpercent of the plans studied by the NIWLhad training fund plans, making them thesecond most frequently negotiated educa-tional benefit (Charner et al. 1978; Smith1982).

Most training funds have as theirobjectives to improve employee on-the-jobperformance, to retrain workers, and toreduce educational costs for employees(Charner et al. 1978; Smith 1982).

Scholarship and EducationalLoan Programs

Scholarship and educational loan pro-grams are the least used form of tuition-aid programs. Only 6 of the 79 major con-tracts studied by the NIWL staff hadscholarship or loan provisions. Underscholarship programs, eligible employeesare given funds to cover direct and relatedcosts of education and training programs.Loan programs make money available toworkers on a loan basis; they also includeprovisions for repaying the loan. Some-times loan programs are a part of tuition

39

reimbursement programs. In these cases,workers are loaned money for educationalprograms, but the loan is waived if coursesare completed satisfactorily. Loan andscholarship programs are not normally asrestrictive as the other plans with respectto courses of study and satisfactory com-pletion, although scholarship programsemphasize the need for program completion(Charner et al. 1978; Smith 1982).

Barriers to Participation

Tuition-aid plans--whether negotiatedor not--are considered a standard benefit;however, only 4 or 5 percent of workerstake advantage of them. This participationrate seems especially low since the NIWLstudy established that management, unions,and workers concur that these plans havevery important functions. They agree thatthese plans contribute to improved jobperformance, personnel development, and jobsatisfaction (Barton 1982). It is inter-esting to note that tuition-aid programsthat are not part of negotiated contractsare also not extensively utilized by eli-gible employees.

According to Smith (1982), low par-ticipation rates have nothing to do withlow regard for education on the part ofworkers, since a number of recent studieshave concluded that unionized workers placea high value on education. He suggests,rather, that underutilization of the plansis a result of the following factors:

Lack of confidence about abilityto succeed in educational settings

Lack of information about availablebenefits

Lack of information about educa-tional programs

Lack of encouragement

Lack of flexible work schedules

Using information obtained from work-ers, unions, and management, the NIWL staff

50

identified the following three areas thatneeded attention in order to improve workerparticipation rates:

Information delivery. Since com-panies and unions do very little topublicize tuition-aid plans, largegroups of workers do not know abouttheir eligibility. Also, workershave inadequate information abouteducational programs. At a minimum,employees should have informationabout the nature of tuition-aidplans, available educational pro-grams, and qualified education andtraining institutions.

Counseling. Inadequate counselingwas another barrier to utilizationof tuition-aid programs. Bothcareer and personal counseling needto be available. Career counselingcan assist workers with careerplanning as well as provide infor-mation about appropriate educationalofferings. Personal counseling canhelp them deal with the stressesthat may result from returning toschool. These include such areas asthe feeling of inadequacy and theneed to readjust to home and workresponsibilities.

Improved linkages between the worksite and educational providers. Im-proved linkages can facilitate thedelivery of educational and counsel-ing services. Educators need to be-come knowledgeable about specificprovisions of tuition-aid programsin order to tailor programs fore .gible workers. Employers canassist in this effort by makinginformation about tuition assistanceprograms readily available. Theycan also provide on-site space for

the delivery of counseling and edu-cational programs (Charner et al.1978).

Conclusions

Tuition-aid programs are an importantnegotiated benefit for many union membt-a s.If more use is to be made of these plans,barriers to worker participation must bereduced. Increased information, availablecounseling, and improved linkages will helpin this process. Other changes that wouldalso enhance worker participation includethe following:

Expanding the notion of "job-related" courses and programs

Expanding the availability ofprepayment plans

Developing more flexible workschedules

Providing incentives for workersto participate in tuition-aidprograms

Devoting special attention to theneeds of women and minorities(ibid., p. 83)

Making Tuition Aid Work for You:An Action Guide for Managers, Labor Of-ficials, Workers and Educators (Rogersand Shore 1980) is a useful publicationfor those interested in developing or im-proving tuition-aid programs. It addressesconcerns of different parties through aquestion-and-answer format and then dis-cusses plans and their implementation. Italso suggests ways to overcome barriers toparticipation.

40 5 1

The Community College Role in LaborEducation and Training Programs

The development of community collegesin the United States in the 1960s dramati-cally expanded educational opportunity forworkers, especially those who were unionmembers. Community colleges that wereestablished in major U.S. counties andcities brought low-cost education close toworkers' homes and workplaces. The com-munity college's often nontraditional edu-cational offerings and its outreach withinthe community brought together the collegesand the union organizations in the geo-graphic area.

Initially, it was often difficult forcommunity colleges to work with unions inthe field of labor education. The firstproblem was that the community colleges didnot have labor education specialists whoknew the union as an institution and,therefore, how to work constructively withit. Secondly, they often did not have thenecessary disciplines to provide facultyfor labor education programs. Finally, thecommunity colleges that were established inmajor industrial states found the "turf"already staked out by the entrenched stateuniversity labor education programwiththe full support of the trade unions.

With the field of labor educationpartially closed, the community colleges,encouraged by trade unions, turned theirattention to the development of laborstudies associate's degree programs. Theseprograms provided a variety of educationalpackages, but most included introductorycourses in such areas as labor and indus-trial relations, labor law, labor relationsand bargaining, union communications,parliamentary procedure, union adminis-tration and contract administration, unionhistory, and unions and the community.

The development of the courses anddegrees by the community colleges reflectedthe union and work force mix of their

41

region or the state (e.g., industrial,mining, construction, transportation, orgovernment center or installation). Thedegree programs had two difficulties--thequality of instruction available and thelack of texts and supporting library mate-rials in the subject areas. This situationhas generally improved due to unions'support of college budget increases and dueto the growing experience of colleges inworking with unions.

As one example, the AFL-CIO GeorgeMeany Center for Labor Studies, with theassistance of grant funds, commissionedseven texts that are being written by laboreducators and that will be published by theBureau of National Affairs (BNA). Theproject also developed pilot programs thatbrought together building and constructiontrade unions and community colleges toprovide academic credit awards for appren-ticeship training completed. Through thisproject, the Meany Center worked with fourcommunity colleges to develop associate'sdegrees that would consist of approximatelyone-third labor studies, one-third addi-tional academic requirements, and one-thirdapprentice training as provided by theunions and the construction contractors.Probably for the first time at the com-munity colleges, this project combined thelabor studies degree with academic creditfor apprenticeship.

Previously, technically oriented com-munity colleges had developed credit awardsfor apprenticeship education programs andother forms of skill training based on thenumber of years of apprenticeship com-pleted, the type of apprenticeship, theskill level required, and the classroomcontent. 1 he credits varied by unionorganization, with those unions in themechanical trades -- electricians, plumbers,pipe fitters, sheet metal workers, andoperating engineers--involving some of the

highest amounts of credit, since programsfor these trades tend to require more mathand science. Community colleges continu-ously evaluate the apprenticeship programsthat they have developed jointly withunions. Despite the fact that apprentice-ship programs are national in scope, how-ever, the credit offered by communitycolleges has often been ad hoc in natureand has differed from institution to insti-tution. The Meany Center project may haveresulted in more uniform criteria forcredit awards for apprenticeship programsin the construction trades.

Relationships between the building andconstruction trade unions, their contrac-tors, and community colleges that havedeveloped as a result of the Meany Centerproject will continue to grow. Because theconstruction industry was particularly hardhit by recent economic conditions, theremay be a temporary decline in the number ofapprentices trained. However, it wouldseem that now would be the time for jour-neyworkers who have completed their appren-ticeship to further their education; unionsand contractors in the construction indus-try must continually upgrade the skills oftheir present journeyworkers as science andtechnology continue to advance.

Whether or not community colleges areplaying a role in the continuing educationof the construction craftworker is notknown, as no major study has delineated thecurrent relationship between the communitycolleges and the construction trade unions.Yet, the interest among certain AFL-CIOinternational unions such as the Inter-national Brotherhood of Electrical Workers(IBEW) and the International Union ofOperating Engineers (IUOE) will continue toassist their locals in building continuingrelationships with the colleges.

The community college is in , positionto assist in the process of training andeducating workers and their union leadersbecause of their locations scatteredthroughout the state, their flexibility inprogramming to meet community needs, andtheir offerings of both academic and voca-tional curricula. These factors shouldpermit the union members to begin or con-tinue their education near home and tomaintain their livelihood at the same time.They should also permit union members tofind courses that will help them betterunderstand their union, its functions, thelaws that govern it and the workplace, andthe political and legislative issues facingit, as well as prepare them to play a moreconstructive role in their organization andtheir communities.

Because most community colleges pro-vide technical training, they are in aposition to develop apprenticeship programssimilar to those developed through theMeany Center project as well as to provideother types of vocational training thatwill benefit workers. Education of thework force is one area where unions andmanagement can cooperate to receive mutualbenefits. The unions want to assist work-rs by providing a means to upgrade skills

and increase job security and eligibilityfor promotion. Employers want to upgradethe work force t' improve productivity.Community colleges can assist both unionsand employers with their concerns. Forexample, the United Auto Workers (UAW) hasnegotiated an educational fringe benefitfor its members. Tnder this agreementGeneral Motors allows each of its UAWemployees $1,000 a year for education andtraining. Such programs have been a majorforce in certain areas of the country,particularly for community colleges.

5342

e

Kenneth Edwards, in the first sectionof this chapter, provided an overview oforganized labor's contributions to Americanproductivity. He also noted that to under-stand industrial productivity, it is neces-sary to understand not only the operationof particular industries, but also occupa-tional groupings with those industries. Inhis discussion of productivity and employ-ment he made the point that improvements inproductivity do not necessarily enhanceemployment opportunities, and that moreeducation, especially inappropriate edu-cation, does not necessarily lead to jobopportunities.

The impact of technology on employ-ment is important, Edwards noted, andorganized labor is taking steps to addressthe consequent problems. Knowledge obso-lescence also needs to be confronted--bybetter occupational planning. He alsostressed the need for a national techno-logical policy including accurate assess-ments of our human resources--both ourcurrent capabilities and our education,training, and retraining needs.

At the end of his discussion he calledfor increased research and development invocational education and noted a number of"fundamental" questions that need to bestudied. Among these were:

1. How and why do people learn?

2. How can learning be made moreefficient?

3. Are the competencies being used ascriteria in today's schools theright ones? Are they adequate fortoday's workplace?

4. Is vocational education adequatelyaddressing the sex equity prob-lem?

Summary

5. Do minority groups have adequateaccess to vocational education?

In the second section of this chapter,Dr. MacKenzie briefly discussed the his-tory and nature of apprenticeship train-ing, stressing its changing nature, linkedclosely to scientific and technologicaladvances that require workers to continu-:y increase their knowledge bases. Dr.

MacKenzie also discussed the nature andstatus of training trust funds, pointingout that funding for training will likelybe more limited in the future--when moretraining than ever will be needed. As henoted, "Therefore, more attention must befocused on alternative ways of obtainingfunds for union-affiliated training pro-grams."

In his discussion of the state oflabor education and labor studies, he notedan important distinction between businessenterprises and trade unions--trade unionscannot use educational expenses as taxwrite-offs. The result, of course, is thatunions must carefully weigh training costsin relation to priorities.

Dr. MacKenzie also provided an over-view of tuition-aid programs. He notedthat three areas needed attention in termsof approving worker participation rates- -information delivery, counseling, andimproved linkages between the work site andeducational providers.

Finally, the author discussed the roleof the community college in labor educationand training programs, pointing out thatthere are many opportunities for coopera-tive activities between community collegesand organized labor that will result inmutual benefits.

43 54

References

Allen, S. Unionized Construction WorkersAre More Productive. Washington, DC:Center to Protect Workers' Right,1979.

Barton, P. E. Work life Transitions: TheAdult Learning Connection. New York:McGraw-Hill, 1982.

Bok, D. C., and Dunlop, J. T. Labor andthe American Community. New York:Simon and Schuster, 1979.

Brown, C., and Medoff, J. "Trade Unions inthe Production Process," in Journalo, Political Economy (January 1'78):355-378.

Chamot, D., and Baggett, J. N.. eds."Retraining: The Need for F.exibility(Workshop)," in Silicon, Satellitesand Robots: The Impact of Techno-logical Change on the Workplace.Washington, DC: Department of Pro-fessional Employees, AFL-CIO, 1979.

Charner, I.; Knox, K.; La Bel, A.; Levine,H.; Russell, L.; and Shore, J. AnUntapped Resource: NegotiatedTuition-Aid in the Private Sector.Washington, DC: National ManpowerInstitute, May 1978. (ERIC Documentreproduction Service No. ED 177 278)

Church, D. W. Statement before the HouseArmed Services Committee on the Sub-ject of Industrial Responsiveness. 25September 1980. ", ,,pewritten.

Clark, K. "Unions and Productivity inthe Cement Industry." Ph.D. diss.,Harvard University, 1978.

Connerton, M.; Freeman, R.; and Medoff, J."Productivity and Industrial Re-'idtions: The Case of U.S. BituminousCoal." Working paper. Washington,DC: National Burcau of EconomicRe:..earch, Dec t, ,ber 1979.

DeSchweinitz, D. Labor and Management ina Common Enterprise. Cambridge:Harvard University Press, 1949.

Donahue, T. R. "The Challenrs of Tech-nology," in Silicon, Satellites andRobots: The Impact of TechnologicalChange on the Workplace, edited byDennis Chamot and Joan M. Baggett.Washington, DC: Department of Pro-fessional Employees, AFL-CIO, 1979.

Fein, M., and others. "What Can You ReallyDo about Productivity?" Training(March 1981): 22-31.

Frantz, J. "The Impact of Trade Unions onProductivity in the Wood HouseholdFurniture Industry." Senior thesis,Harvard University, 1976.

Froehlich, L. "Robots to the Rescue?"Datamation (January 1981): 84-96.

Gray, L. "The American Way of Labor Edu-cation," in Industrial Relations 5(February 1966): 53-66.

Jensen, R. "Maintenance Training." Speechdelivered at State of Ohio Apprentice-ship Conference, Columbus, Ohio,September 1977.

LeMasters, E. E. Blue Color Aristocrats.Madison: University of WisconsinPress, 1975.

Levine, H., and Hutton, C. "FinancingLabor's Role in Education and Train-ing," in New Directions for Experi-mental Learning 10 (1980): 75-84.(ERIC No. EJ 244 057)

Lasterman, S. Education in Industry. NewYork: The Conference Board's PublicAffairs Research Division, 1977.

44 55

Marshall, R. "Productivity, IndustrialRelations, and Management Systems."Lyndon B. Johnson School of PublicAffairs, University of Texas, Austin,1982. Typewritten.

Massey, T. "What You Are Is What YouWere When." Magnetic Video Corpo-ration, 1976. Film.

Murphy, K. "Technological Change Clausesin Collective Bargaining Agreement."Washington, DC: Department of Pro-fessional Employees, AFL-CIO, 1981.

National Association of Home Builders."Breakdown of Costs for a New Home,"in 1981 Fac, Sheet, Washington, DC:National Association of Home Builders,1981.

Pressen, E. "Builders of the Young Repub-lic," in The American Worker, editedby R. Morris. Washington, DC: U.S.Department of Labor, 1976.

Riemer, J. W. Hard Hats: The Work Worldof Construction Workers. Sage Publi-cations, 1979.

Rogers, A., and Shore, J. Making TuitionAid Work for You: An Action Guide forManagers, Labor Officials, Workers andEducators. Worker Education andTraining Policies Project. Washing-ton, DC: National Institute for Workand Learning, 1980. (ERIC DocumentReproduction Service No. ED 200 726)

Rogin, L. "Labor Unions," in Handbook ofAdult Education, edited by R. Smith,G. Aker, and J. R. Kidd. New York:Macmillan, 1970.

Rogin, L., and Rachlin, M. Labor Edu-cation in the U.S. Washington, DC:National Institute of Labor Education,1968.

Schultz, W. H. "The Machinist Shortage."

dation research project directed byPaper produced for a Ford Foun-

Robert Schrank. Typewritten. Boston:October 1980.

45

Smith, G. Employer-Sponsored RecurrentEducation in the United States: A

Report on Recent Inquiries into ItsStructure. Stanford, CA: Institutefor Research on Educational Financeand Governance, Stanford University,November 1980. (ERIC DocumentReproduction Service No. ED 201 066)

Smith, C. Types of Workers' EducationBenefits. Topic Paper no. 5. Wash-ington, DC: Labor Education AdvisoryServices, 1982.

Smith, R. The National Interest in Em-ployment and Training. Washington,DC: National Commission on Employ-ment Policy, May 1981.

U.S. Congress. House Subcommittee onScience, Research, and Technology."The Human Factor in Innovation andProductivity." Hearings before theSubcommittee on Science, Research,and Technology of the Committee onScience and Technology. 97th Cong.,1st sess., September 1981.

U.S. Department of Labor. National Ap-prenticeship and Training Standardsfor Carpentry. Revised. Washington,DC: Employment and Training Admin-istration, Bureau of Apprenticeshipand Training, USDOL, 1982a. (ERICDocument Reproduction Service No.ED 229 613)

. National Apprenticeship andTraining Standards for DentalTechnicians. Revised. Washington,DC: Employment and Training Admin-istration, Bureau of Apprenticeshipand Training, USDOL, 1982b. (ERICDocument Reproduction Service No.ED 236 613)

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. National Apprenticeship andTraining Standards for Drafters.Revised. Washington, DC: Employmutand Training Administration, .'ureau ofApprenticeship and Training, USDOL,1982c. (ERIC Document ReproductionService No. 230 724)

Chapter 3The Two-Year College and

Economic Development

The passage that follows is excerptedand adapted from the following document:

Long, James P.; Gordon, Robert A.;Spence, Charles; and Mohr, Gary.Economic Development and the Com-munity College. Columbus: TheNational Center for Research in Voca-

tional Education, The Ohio StateUniversity, 1984, pp. 1-2.

In this passage, Long et al. provide aworking definition of economic developmentthat can serve as a basis for discussingeconomic development strategies.

Definition of Economic Development

Economic development is the system-atic, organized promotion of economicgrowth and business activity of all kinds.It can involve retail business, manufactur-ing, agriculture, mining, financial indus-tries, education, and all types of serv-ices. Through public relations, moreeffective use of current resources, or theintroduction of additional resources,economic development seeks to encourage newbusiness activity that results in netdollar income, or the infusion of moneyinto the community.

At the national level, this may meanhaving a foreign automobile manufacturerbuild a plant in this country, whereas fora state it may be winning the competitionamong other states for a new electronicsplant. Local development efforts mayconvince a state to build its new hospitalin a certain town, or may aid in the estab-lishment of new small businesses. In all

of these examples the goal is identical--tobring in new dollars. Business activitythat does not bring in new dollars, al-though quite important, is usually notpromoted by economic developers.

The results ..f increased businessactivity, whether the effects of national,state, or local efforts, are wide ranging.Most obvious are such benefits as morejobs, greater income from taxes, and aninflux of workers who become consumers inthe local economy. Another importantresult is more support, financial or other-wise, for schools, community services,recreational facilities, and cultural andsporting events. Hospitals and medicalservices may improve, the availability andquality of housing will increase, and ingeneral, the community will become a moreattractive place in which to work andlive.

NOTE: Please see Case Studies of Programs Serving Adults for examples of actualindustry/labor linkage activities.

47

iiiiilltallissesrsk 57

The passage that follows is excerptedand adapted from the following document:

Warmbrod, Catharine P., and Faddis,Constance R. Retraining and Up-grading Workers: A Guide for Post-secondary Educators. Columbus: TheNational Center for Research in Voca-tional Education, The Ohio StateUniversity, 1984, pp. 11-14.

Warmbrod and Faddis discuss the impor-tance of a human resource emphasis ineconomic development activities and providea rationale for the involvement of the 2-year college in these kinds of activities.They offer an excellent overview of thekinds of economic development activitiesthat the 2-year institution might engagein.

Investing in Human Resources

The concept of economic development isnot new, nor is the involvement of commu-nity colleges in economic development.What is new is the importance these activi-ties take on in a decade of economic reces-sion, declining productivity, imminent andmassive changes in technology, vigorousforeign market competition, and devastatingunemployment rates- -with the prospect thatmany companies may go bankrupt and manyof the unemployed will not return to thetype of jobs they left. Training can be anessential part of the solution to theproblems that American companies and adultworkers are facing.

Two major issues are crucial to theupgrading and retraining of adult workersin this country: (1) how human resourcesrelate to economic development, and (2) how2-year colleges perform the training func-tions related to economic development. Abasic understanding of economic developmentconcepts, policies, and practices is vitalfor training agencies in making intelli-gent, informed decisions about how best toapproach and serve this country's trainingneeds.

It should be noted that no attempt ismade here to argue for or against any ofthe issues; that has been done extensivelyin many other documents and forums (someof which are cited). This part offers anoverview of what appear to be the consensusconcepts and assumptions from which emanatethe current trends in economic revitaliza-tion, productivity improvement, and humanresource development.

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A major dilemma that emerged in thelate 1970s and has continued into the 1980sis the fact that America's productivity, asexpressf 1 in the gross national product,has declined (Bolino 1981). America'sproductivity has slumped in part becauseboth the quantity and quality of its outputin many businesses and industries haveeither slipped or failed to keep pace withforeign competition. America must be ableto compete in a global marketplace. Othersuspected causes, listed by Huddleston(1982, p. 10), include the following:

The slowdown of growth in high-productivity industries

Curtailment of expenditures onresearch and development

Reduction of patent applications,thus depressing the opportunityfor major technological advances

Governmental regulations

Governmental paperwork requiredof businesses

Loss of the work ethic in thework force

Errors in measurement data

Changes in the quality ofmanagement

Rises in energy costs

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Lack of business investment intechnology and people

Relatively low rates--and relatedproblems--of low productivityservice industries

Increased numbers of lessexperienced young workers,minority members, and womenjoining the work force

Cyclical fluctuations in theeconomy

Lack of government-backedincentives

Regardless of which factors or combi-nations of factors are the culprits, theproductivity slump and its related problemshave combined to compel industry, as wellas public institutions, to develop sti ate-gies to try to counteract the situation.

Better technology is one part of theproposed solution to our country's laggingproductivity. The other is investment inhuman resources. Human capital investmentaccounts for a larger share of productivitygrowth than does machine capital (Carnevale1982). The economic success of such coun-tries as Japan, Germany, and France is saidto be in large part due to viewing humanresources as a form of capital in which itmakes sense to invest--and reinvest--inorder to lower unemployment, increaseproductivity, and lower inflation (Striner1982). In fact, training and retraining ofhuman resources are now considered theprime management tool in those countries.And, based on the experiences of Americancompanies such as General Motors. DeltaAirlines, Hewlett Packard, IBM, WellsFargo, Kodak, and 3M, commitment topolicies of human capital investment do payoff in the United States (Huddleston 1982).Building and maintaining an up-to-date,skilled labor force are considered essen-tial for a technology-oriented economy.

49

The two main approaches of investmentin human resources that many Americancompanies are taking involve (1) the use ofnew management practices, and (2) upgradingand retraining of employees. New manage-ment practices have largely been adaptedfrom foreign companies' practices (e.g.,quality circles, adapted from Japanese com-panies) or have evolved from organizationaldevelopment (OD) theory. A partial list ofthe newer or recently reemphasized manage-ment practices includes--

management by objectives (MBO),

job redesign (including use ofergonomics),

incentive systems (such as theScanlon Plan),

employee participation practices,

flextime,

lifelong employment with lifelongtraining,

management development,

improving the work environment,

time management, and

career development and planning.

Upgrading and retraining of workershave also been recognized as vital elementsof human capital investment. Until re-cently, most American companies' humanresources investment policies have focusedon the maintenance rather than the devel-opment of human resources (Leach 1982).However, the increasing rate of techno-logical change and our current unemploymentproblems not only demand the upgrading ofemployees and the retraining of displacedworkers, but also require this to be donemore frequently during the course of peo-ple's work lives. With the shifting demo-graphics of the decade reducing the influx

59

of youth into the labor market, Americanindustry will have to rely even more heav-ily on adult workers in their prime employ-ment years. American companies, labor

organizations, legislators, and educatorswho ignore the importance of developing ourhuman resources may do so at the peril ofour nation's economic stability.

The passages that follow are excerptedand adapted from the following document:

Long, James P.; Gordon, Robert H.;Spence, Charles; and Mohr, Gary.Economic Development and the Com-munity College. Columbus: The. -ltional Center for Research in Voca-tional Education, The Ohio StateUniversity, 1984, pp. 5-23.

In these passages Long et al. discussthe data they gathered from leading citi-zens representing various sectors of theeconomy. This data, generated from inter-views with these leaders, serves as asource of guidelines for effective economicdevelopment efforts.

Perspective from Five Lead Irs Concernedwith Economic Development

When 2-year colleges take an activerole in local economic development efforts,it is vital that all parties involved agreeon what the proper role of a communitycollege should be.

This part examines the perceptions offive leading citizens who represent dif-ferent sectors of the economy in a samplestate (i.e., Iowa, whose economic develop-ment situation is typical of many states inthe American heartland). It also providesa review of these leaders' opinions andoffers a consensus opinion on what guide-lines a community college should followwhen becoming involved in local economicdevelopment efforts. The five individualsresponding to five specific questions areas follows:

The Honorable Terry E. Branstad,governor of Iowa

Jack Bailey, director of the IowaDevelopment Commission

Michael Crawford, chancellor,Eastern Iowa Community CollegeDistrict

50

Richard Weeks, president,Quad City Development Group

James von Gremp, director oftraining, Wal-Mart Corporation

Following are their answers to ques-tions about economic development and com-munity colleges.

1. At what point in the relocation orcreation of a new industry should acommunity college become involved?

Terry E. Branstad:

I believe community colleges shouldbecome involved throughout the pro-cess. As I mentioned earlier, Ibelieve we have an outstanding job-training system available through ourcommunity colleges, and it's one ofIowa's selling points. Obviously, wewant to get our selling points on thetable as quickly as possible, so Iwould like to see the community col-leges involved as quickly as possi-ble.

60

Jack Bailey:

A community college should becomeinvolved at the point where the great-est impact may be made on those makingdecisions to expand or locate a newbusiness. That time will vary, giventhe situation, but, as a general rule,it will be early in the decision-making process.

Michael Crawford:

I think it's important to rememberthat the primary function of a com-munity college is and has to be edu-cation, training, and informationdissemination; and that secondly weshould become involved in the economicdevelopment process. I do not thinkwe can or should lose sight of thatfact. We have a number of existingorganizations whose primary functionis economic development. We havelocal economic development groups,state economic development groups,local chambers of commerce, and soforth. We must always remember thatit is their primary function to pro-mote economic development. Therefore,I see the community college as doingwhatever it can to assist in backingup and providing needed resources tothese other organizations to enhanceeconomic development of the area.

Essentially, I see the communitycollege as a member of an economicdevelopment team. The captain of theteam is the local chamber of commerceor the economic development group, andalthough we serve an important role inthe economic development, we play as amember of that team. Therefore, Ithink the local community collegeshould become involved in the reloca-tion or creation of an industry atwhatever point the chamber of com-merce or economic development groupfeels it is most important. I thinkwe have some very saleable servicesand I hope that we would be called invery early in the game to explain what

51

programs and services our communitycollege can provide to the new busi-ness or industry.

Dick Weeks:

The point of involvement for a com-munity college will vary, depending onthe type of development. My feelingis that the community college shouldbe prepared to respond to requestsfrom community and/or area develop-ment organizations and/or directinquiries from employers.

Jim von Gremp:

In the beginning, to explain thevarious training programs available tonew industry.

2. What typically might be the resistanceto involving community colleges ineconomic development?

Terry E. Branstad:

I hope there would be no resistance.If there is, it may be due to a lackof understanding about what communitycolleges can do. Since they canprovide such a broad range of trainingand education services, I doubt thatthere would be resistance if peoplewere aware of what community collegescan do.

Jack Bailey:

61

There are a few instances where blan-ket resistance to the involvement of acommunity college in the developmentof a project will occur. Occasion-ally, the involvement may be delayedbecause of concerns for confiden-tiality until a site has been se-lected.

There may also be instances where abusiness person may simply wish toavoid all ventures with a public bodyto protect decision-making integrity.

Michael Crawford:

I would guess that resistance to in-volving community colleges in economicdevelopment would come primarilyfrom those individuals or organiza-tions who really have not given us achance to prove ourselves. They maynot feel the community colleges reallyhave anything to offer that willpromote economic development, or thatwe may not know exactly how to promoteeconomic development. There is alsothe possibility that some involvedpersons will believe that working withthe community college may create morebureaucracy and red tape, or that thecommunity college cannot maintainconfidentiality that is so importantin dealing with prospective new busi-nesses and industries.

Again, I think those who have dealtwith us in the past have found us tobe a very valuable member of theeconomic development team - -one thatcan be trusted, one that can be inno-vative and creative, and one thattruly does have something to offer inthe promotion of economic develop-ment.

Dick Weeks:

Traditionally, there has been a hesi-tancy on the part of the privatesector to utilize educational institu-tions because of the perceived lack offlexibility in defining programs andcurricula for today's world.

Jim von Gremp:

The resistance could be any conflictbetween a state economic developmentagency and the community college.

3. How could community colleges positionthemselves better for economic devel-opment?

Terry E. Branstad:

I would suggest two things. First,community colleges should keep their"ears to the ground" so that they areaware of the training needs of currentemployers in their area, or of employ-ers who might be considering coming totheir area. The ability to providethe training that employers need canmake all the difference in some cases.Second, it is important that communitycolleges keep their programs as up-to-date as possible. I recognize thatthis is difficult given the currentfinancial constraints placed on com-munity colleges, but it is certainlyhelpful to have programs that aremodern. Obviously, this makes theprograms more attractive to potentialemployers.

Jack Bailey:

Community colleges need to have per-sons on their staffs who can assessthe basic needs of business for train-ed personnel, and who can conversewith business people in terms that aremutually understandable. It helps ifthose staff persons have a businessbackground and know something aboutthe economic development process.

Michael Crawford:

To position themselves better foreconomic development, I believe com-munity colleges must recognize firstand foremost that to be successfulthey must work with and through theexisting economic development andchamber of commerce organizations. AsI mentioned earlier, we are not incompetition with these organizations,but we should complement their eco-nomic development efforts. That meansgetting to know the people in chargeof those organizations and gainingtheir trust and respect. It means

52 6 2

becoming actively involved on a day-to-day basis with leaders in thebusiness community in order to get inthe "middle" of that community, and toget the feel and pulse of its prob-lems, successes, and needs.

Successful economic development isselling. As a member of a team, wemust be innovative enough to antici-pate the types of programs and ser-vices that are of interest and aresaleable to the business community.We must then create those programs andservices and market them through theseexisting organizations. If we canhelp the economic development andchamber of commerce executives bygiving them a new product to sell inthe economic development arena--thatis, if we can help them do their jobsbetter--we will ultimately positionourselves better for economic develop-ment.

Dick Weeks:

Community colleges can position them-selves better by encouraging theirfaculty and staffs to become moreactive in community activities ofinterest to the private sector. Long-term recognition and commitment for anaggressive, comprehensive program atthe policy level are also important.

Jim von Gremp:

Work with the economic developmentdivision to determine what specificneeds new industry is likely to have.

4. What new service could communitycolleges provide to enhance economicdevelopment?

Terry E. Branstad:

I think it's important that communitycolleges continue to work closely withstate government, and with their localgovernments and local chambers ofcommerce. Each community may havedifferent training needs, so the

53

services community colleges shouldprovide might vary from area to area.Naturally, community colleges shouldcontinue to provide the outstandingjob training resources they are cur-rently providing.

Jack Bailey:

Community colleges could survey theneeds of the industrialists and busi-ness people in their areas more fre-quently as to what kinds of trainingprograms would best aid in retrainingworkers in the existing economicbase.

Michael Crawford:

63

When considering new services thatcommunity colleges can provide toenhance economic development, I thinkwe have to remember that virtuallyevery business we are dealing with isprimarily concerned with three things:profitability, productivity of employ-ees, and the quality of their perform-ance. Any new programs or servicesthat we develop, in my opinion, mustaddress one or more of these con-cerns.

One new service that we have usedsuccessfully at our community collegeis simply that of coordination. Newindustries, many of which have theircorporate offices out of the state orthe region, are looking at coming intoan area and hiring new people. Theyhave concerns about training thosepeople. They are interested in on-the -job training. They are interestedin reducing their initial start-upcosts, thus enhancing their profit-ability. If our corlmunity college canhelp alleviate some of the headachesand worries by serving in a coordi-nation role, that in itself is aproduct to sell. If we can sit downwith a company, explain the plethoraof programs and services that arecurrently available, offer to assistthem in their hiring and in their on-the-job training of new employees, and

coordinate the various programs andexisting agencies that do this, wehave provided a valuable service tothis new industry.

Dick Weeks:

I am not sure that community collegesin general need to identify new serv-ices as much as they need to do abetter job of refining and marketingtheir existing services.

Jim von Gremp:

Community colleges could work withcompanies to provide specializedtraining using that company's per-sonnel as instructors. Through moni-toring a course, an outline could bedeveloped for use in similar newindustry moving to that state.

5. Economic development necessarily hasa shroud of secrecy surrounding it.What constraints have you found orheard of others finding in workingwith open public institutions such ascommunity colleges?

Terry E. Branstad:

To date I am not aware of any majorproblems with the involvement ofcommunity colleges in the economicdevelopment process. It is importantthat we in the public sector, who areworking with a private sector pros-pect, not announce any decisions untilthe private company is ready to doso.

Jack Bailey:

Very few constraints come to mind.However, concerns for confidentialityof some training processes related toefficiency of production have been inevidence. Some companies, of course,are sensitive to concerns of thepublic about the use of public fundsto aid private endeavors, and these

54

firms may elect to conduct trainingprograms themselves, or insist onpaying the institution for the train-ing rather than accept incentiveprograms.

Michael Crawford:

As chancellor of a public communitycollege, I have not found or heard ofproblems or constraints between theprivate and public sectors in dealingwith confidential matters. To ensurethat these types of barriers do notarise, I want t.) go back to somethingI said earlier in responding to one ofthe questions--that first we must gainthe trust and respect of those withwhom we work in the area of economicdevelopment. Before we can expectothers to share confidential informa-tion, they have to know that we, too,will maintain confidentiality. Justlike any other type of business, ifyou are going to function as a team,then the members of that team mustfeel comfortable in sharing informa-tion, in developing strategies, and inanticipating problems without theconcern that information will somehowleak out into the community.

Dick Weeks:

I have not found secrecy to be aproblem in dealing with communitycolleges. It is important for theofficials and staff of the communitycollege to recognize the need forconfidentiality and to be able to makecommitments for the institution with-out having to reveal the name of thecompany.

Jim von Gremp:

64

The primary constraint has been thelong lead time necessary to get atraining program funded and approved.This conflicts with a company's needfor confidentiality of information.

Practical Advice for

Before a community college can playany kind of role in the economic develop-ment of a community, it is clear that agreat deal of groundwork must be done bothwithin the college and in the community toidentify exactly what that role will be inrelationship to the other members of theteam. The following sections summarize theperspectives and recommendations of thefive Iowa leaders interviewed in the pre-ceding part.

Getting the ParticipationProcess Started

The consensus opinion of those con-cerned with local economic developmentefforts seems to be that even the collegemost successful in economic developmentcannot and should not be expected to playthe major role in the community. Theeconomic development team should be headedby a chamber of commerce or a local eco-nomic development group, and the collegeshould provide the education, training, andother support.

The primary responsibility of the headof the economic development team is poolingthe resources of the community in develop-ing the local economy. It is important forthe college to understand fully that itsrole, although very important, is second-ary, and the college should not try to takecomplete control. Without this under-standing, the local community college risksalienating the other individuals and organ-izations within the community, thus seri-ously hampering its effectiveness as partof the team.

As the economic development teamevolves, it is important to know and under-stand what power bases are operating withinthe community. Team members should make ita point to become acquainted with thepeople who make things happen in economicdevelopment, such as the bankers, heads ofeconomic development groups, chambers ofcommerce, the leaders of downtown business

Community Colleges

55

associations, realtors, community develop-ment people in the city and county govern-ments, and any other key figures.

Once these key players have beenidentified, the next step is to understandeach one of them. What do they have atstake? What motivates them? What personalreasons might be involved in making themtake an interest in economic development?The second step is to learn which of theseindividuals are the most effective, whattheir work habits are, and what types ofideas and approaches appeal to them. Oncethese questions are answered, the communitycollege can begin to take steps to meet itsneeds. If the community college can helpthese individuals succeed, whether it be inthe area of finances or of improved jobperformance, it is more likely to be suc-cessful in becoming an effective member ofthe economic development team and a vitalpart of the whole process.

Learning from the Past

It is important to inventory whatothers have done to promote economic devel-opment in the past, to determine what hasworked and what has not worked, and toidentify the programs' strengths and weak-nesses. Once they have been identified, itis important for a community college todetermine how it can continue to build onthe strengths, and at the same time, todetermine what it might be able to contrib-ute to turn the weaknesses into strengths.

In determining what data are alreadyknown, the community college should workwith the key individuals identifiedearlier. As new data are gathered, thecollege's resources, faculty, and staff canbe utilized to assist those individuals inobtaining up-to-date information that willhelp their job performances. By providingthis assistance, the college indirectlyenhances its own position in the com-munity.

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Developing a Plan

Once individuals, data, and previouseconomic development history have beenidentified, prioritized, and inventoried,the next step is to develop a plan. Theplan will explain how to fit the communitycollege into the existing economic develop-ment network by identifying what the insti-tution has to offer and how it can be madeattractive to the power bases operatingwithin the community. The plan will re-volve around key individuals and must takeinto consideration what has worked in thepast. Perhaps here the college can providesome creativity in organizing the plan topromote new concepts. Part of developingthis plan includes identifying availablemonies and packaging services.

Probably no other local communitysource is in a better position to identifywhat state funding sources are availablethan the community college. An inventoryshould be taken of what programs are avail-able through the community college, thestate or federal government, and otheragencies or organizations that are devisedto enhance economic development. Programexamples include the following:

Activities funded under the JobTraining Partnership Act

State and federal programs that aredesigned to stimulate ecoromicdevelopment by providing trainingfor businesses already in the areabut undergoing expansion

Programs that reimburse on-the-jobtraining costs

Programs that pay for instructionalactivities

Programs that provide targeted taxcredits to companies that create newjobs

Programs that reimburse employersfor hiring veterans or minorities

Programs that are available for spe-cialized businesses, such as smallbusiness, exporters, and others

Programs that are designed to helpreduce start-up costs of new indus-tries locating in the area

There are a multitude of such programsavailable, ranging from the local to thestate to the federal level and focusing onthe creation of new jobs, retraining possi-bilities, and productivity improvement ofcurrent personnel. Once an inventory ofthese opportunities has been completed, itis important to step back and see how theyfit together, and to determine what typesof packages can be created from this va-riety of programs.

Once the local, state, and federalprograms have been identified and clearlyunderstood, determine which programs willpay for training and instruction, whichwill assist in on-the-job training reim-bursement, in the recruitment and selectionof employees, and so forth.

It is important to put this puzzletogether in such a way that it will beattractive to a prospective business or toan expanding one, and at the same time,still be attractive to the community'spower structure. The idea is to develop anew sales tool for your economic develop-ment team. If the community college canprovide a new mechanism for recruiting newor expanding industries, then it continuesto be a vital member of the economic devel-opment team.

From the multitude of programs andservices that local, state, and federalgovernments offer, the goal is to compile apackage of services that would--

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pay for all recruitment, assessment,and screening of new employees ofnew industry;

pay, perhaps from a completelydifferent source of funds, for aninstructional program to teach newemployees their jobs; and

provide on-the-job training reim-bursement for newly employed indi-viduals that reimburses the employerfor 50 percent of the new employees'wages.

In organizing this attractive packageof services as an economic developmentrecruitment tool, the college has essen-tially eliminated hiring costs through oneprogram and training costs through another,and has provided substantial reimbursementof new employees' salaries during the firstyear of employment with a third program.It is important to remember that whileeducation for education's sake is a loftygoal, in the business world the more thebenefits of training are tied to enhancedprofitability, improved productivity, orgreater performance, the greater successthe community college will have in sellingprograms and services to the businesscommunity.

In this renarir, we not only havedevised a rather creative package of serv-ices, but we have also given other membersof the economic development team somethingelse to sell prospective businesses orindustries. Not only can the communitycollege now provide businesses with a workforce, but it can also guarantee improvedproductivity by making employees productivethe first day they are on the job.

This is just one example of how serv-ices can be packaged to develop a creativesales tool for promoting economic develop-ment. It is likely that this package ofservices could mean savings of thousands orhundreds of thousands of dollars to thelocal companies.

Once these strategies have been de-vised, success of the program is contingentupon making the power bases in the com-munity aware of what can be offered, andhow this particular combination of programsand services can benefit them in theirdesire to attract new and expanding indus-tries.

57

Identifying Benefits forthe Community College

While working through the process ofunderstanding and motivating the community,simultaneous work must be done to promoteunderstanding and motivation within thecollege. Many of the elements involved inunderstanding and motivating the communityare also relevant in the orientation ofcollege staff.

The college must recognize what bene-fits economic development has for thecollege, the faculty, and the staff. Someof the most visible benefits of workingwith industry include--

an expanded tax base,

new jobs,

placement of college graduates,

training opportunities,

retraining opportunities,

an ongoing continuing educationopportunity,

a new source of corporate giftsand contributions,

new families moving into thearea, and

a source of new full-time andpart-time students.

Working with new industry also pro-vides some intangible benefits such as newoptions to provide cooperative programs forstudents and opportunities for staff andfaculty to update their skills by workingin or with the business. It is imperativethat the college seek and share input fromthe staff and faculty regarding the bene-fits of economic development to the collegeand that everyone look at it for what itmeans to the institution - -an opportunity.

A requisite for a community college tobecome involved in successful economicdevelopment is a commitment to the overalleffort. Lip service is not enough. Thecommitment of the institution must comefrom the president or chancellor, from theboard of directors, from the adminis-tration, and, at least initially, from thefaculty. The institution must also bewilling to commit financial and humanresources to this effort. The communitycollege must understand its own economicand business role in the community, yetmany educators have difficulty admittingthat institutions of higher education arebusinesses and have a place within thebusiness community. In many areas, thecommunity college is among the largestemployers in the region.

Community colleges are businesses inthe sense that they employ numerous indi-viduals and have a product to sell--educa-tion and training. Their concerns are thesame as those of any other business--incomeand expense, productivity, and performance.Although profits may not be measured indollars, college profits are measured inhighly trained graduates, in a good repu-tation so that people will return to theclassrooms and enroll in college programs,and in full-time equivalent enrollments.Similarly, colleges are concerned with theproductivity of employees. Communitycolleges invest in staff development andnew equipment in order to improve theproductivity of employees, thus improvingthe service offered to students. Likewise,community colleges are concerned withperformance. How well are they doing theirjobs? How highly trained are their gradu-ates? If performance is not of the highestquality, the institution's profitabilityand productivity decrease.

Organizing the College forEconomic Development Efforts

Once the benefits of economic develop-ment for the college have been recognized,the institution can begin to organizeinternally. There is no single way toorganize economic development efforts to

ensue: their success. Each institutionmust look within itself and determine themn- efficient method of organization.Several factors, however, may be of assist-ance in putting together such an organ-ization.

It is important to have one individualwith the ultimate responsibility for coor-dinating the college's economic developmentefforts. That individual should be a topadministrator at the college or in the col-lege system. One reason for this is thatthe business community needs to know thatthe institution places a high priority onits involvement in economic development.Ideally, the individual should work for thechancellor or president so that the topadministrator stays well informed and canbecome involved at any point. Presidentsof companies like to communicate withpresidents of institutions or their desig-nees. To relegate the economic developmentactivities to a lower level staff membercreates an obstacle between the businessworld and the college from the outset.

Another reason for selecting an indi-vidual highly placca within the collegeorganization is the need for additionalstaff assistance. If the economic develop-ment officer is highly placed, he or shemay not need a large, full-time staff, buthas the authority to assign other staffmembers, faculty members, or administratorsto work on a particular project on an as-needed basis.

This concept, over time, creates ahigh institutional commitment to economicdevelopment, promotes high visibility inthe business community for the collegeofficial, and initiates a team approachwithin the college toward economic develop-ment by utilizing, as needed, the expertiseof various staff and faculty. It not onlyeliminates the need for a large staff ineconomic development, but it also fostersthe team approach to working with businessand industry.

As the community co" ge moves intothe area of economic development, a certain

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segment of the faculty, staff, and admin-istrators will support the idea from theoutset. It is important to identify thesekey individuals and utilize them as part ofthe !conomic development team to helpspread the word throughout the collegeorganization. It is crucial to rememberthat the one or two individuals working ineconomic development cannot and should notbe expected to carry the total burden forecon is development. Much additionaltalent is available in a community college.The goal must be to identify the key sup-porters and rely upon them to assist indeveloping additional support from withinfor the economic development efforts.Equally important is the process of identi-fl.ng particularly strong departments,programs, and services, and using their keystaff in the college's economic development'Torts.

Once these individuals, programs, andservices have been identified, this pro-vides the foundation on which to market thecollege. At the same time, it is necessaryto build new programs and services ofassistance to economic development, and itis also important to identify the college'sstrengths and ,ci emphasize them. It pro-vides a foundation of sales tools to buildupon in the years ahead.

Although it is imperative for thechief executive officer and the economicdevelopment officer to be involveu inbusiness activities and organizations, itis also imperative to involve selectedfaculty, staff, and administrators in thebusiness community as well. This not onlystrengthens the team concept internally,but it also provides faculty, staff, andothers with new challenges, new opportuni-ties, and new contacts. These individualsbecome the eyes and ears of the college,looking for economic development opportuni-ties and plans, bringing that informationback to the economic development officer,and becoming involved in a project from thebeginning.

As stated earlier, no one individualcan handle economic development alone. Byhelping to get other employees of the

59

organization involved in the community, theeconomic development officer and the chiefexecutive officer immediately expand theircontacts in the business community. Asthese individuals become iavelved in eco-nomic development projects, other staff andfaculty will sense the excitement, thecreativity, and the new directions, andeventually will seize an opportunity tobecome involved themselves. Quite natu-rally, a certain number of individuals w'''never have an interest in participating ineconomic development. It is important torecognize this, but certainly not to becomeconcerned about it.

By being 'able to pick and choose theappropriate en.ployees of the college asneeded, the economic development officecan feel free to utilize faculty and staffto work individually or in small groupswith state or local economic developmentorganizations, local chambers of commerce,and cr.onomic development planning andresearch activities, to name a few. Col-lege employees must be given the opportu-nity to participate, and they must be giventhe opportunity to succeed. College com-mitment is a prerequisite Lo participatoryachievement.

Marketing the College's Plan

Every business person knows thatmarketing is the key to business success.Historically, this is an area where manyeducational institutions have fallen down.Society today is attuned to advertisingslogane, exciting images, and enhanced per-ceptions. When working in economic devel-opment, colleges must realize that they are:nvolved in the business world, not in afantasyland. In presenting a communitycollege to prospective businesses and in-dustries, it is important to place a majoremphasis on marketing efforts and strate-g es. The business person is :t inlygoing to be evaluating the cullege'smarketing effort, and it is critical forthe college to be cognizant of that fact.After all, the college's marketing effortis going to be the first opportunity that

69

the business person has to become acquaint-ed with the institution.

The idea is both to sell the college,and, also as part of the total economicdevelopment team, to sell it so otherswithin the community will notice the mar-keting efforts as well. While four-colorglossy brochures may be important, theysimply are not enough. The business personwill be looking for substance, for a vari-ety of programs and services, and for the

Suggested Economic

A frequently overlooked component ofcon- -aunity college economic developmentassistance is the promotion of inter-national trade. Whereas many communitycolleges may not see this as a realisticarea in which to provide assistance, thereare numerous opportunities for jointventures in the international field.

Identifying International Opportunities

Thousands of jobs have been lost inAmerica due to decreased exports and in-creased imports of consumer goods, oil, andother products. Recognizing that the worldis comprised of interdependent societiesand countries, community colleges cancreate opportunities for economic develop-ment that are beneficial to the privatesector as well as to the community col-lege.

In a variety of ways, the college canplay a key leadership role in working withsmall businesses that have an interest inexploring the international market fortheir products. For example, the insti-tution may hire an experienced individualwho can work on a one-on-one basis inhelping small- to medium-sized industriesexplore what potential the export markethas for their particular products. Natu-rally thi.3 international consultant musthave expertise, background, and knowledgeof international trade and the way in whichthe game of international business isplayed.

way in which they blend together. Keep inmind that the business person is primarilyconcerned with company profits, produc-tivity, and performance. The communitycollege must gear its marketing strategiesto those areas and devise an economicdevelopment marketing plan in concert withthe other marketing efforts of local busi-nesses with the same goals. If the market-ing strategy does not take into account allof these factors, it will be less thansuccessful.

Development Activities

60

This type of project should certainly1)e offs -ed in connection with existingbusiness and local exporting organizations,such as chambers of commerce, internationaltrade groups, export bankers, and so forth.Many times, through a combination of thesesources, funds can be obtained to hire sucha person. While working on a one-on-onebasis with a company, helping it explorethe possibilities available in oie inter-national market for its product, this per-son could have other very important respon-sibilities. As the international expertbecomes familiar with local individuals andcompanies that currently do a great deal ofexportinc, this person inevitably developsan expertise that can be called upon toassist other businesses and industries whohave yet to become part of the exportmarket. Also, as consultants work withpotential exporters, helping them determinethe feasibility of exporting their productsand perhaps helping them get into theexport market, they become aware of issuesrelated to exporting that cut across thevarious businesses and industries andindicate trends in exporting or potentialmarkets.

Determining educational needs iscertainly a role of the community college,that is, providing continuing educationwith current, timely information on sub-jects of interest to the business com-munity. Personnel from experienced inter-national trade companies can become in-volved in the instructional programs of thecollet . Such partnerships may lead to

70

new, full-time programs on campus in thearea of international trade or documen-tation.

In retrospect, the scenario justoutlined provides a number of pluses forthe community college and the businesscommunity:

The business community receives ex-pert assistance in exploring andbecoming part of the export market.If successful, the activity in-creases company profits and createsnew jobs in the local company, whichleads to the economic growth anddevelopment of the community.

In drawing on the internationaltrade expertise of a local com-munity, a community college has anopportunity to utilize that assist-ance for classroom instruction, thusinternationalizing the curriculum.

Continuing education issues aredetermined on an ongoing basis, asthe international expert becomesattuned to the international re-quirements of businesses and to theopportunities for workshops, semi-nars, and so forth in the area ofinternational trade.

Spin-off benefits may include thecreation of new, full-time creditprograms on campus in such areas asinternational trade and documen-tation. In this situation, thecommunity college, in playing aleadership role, creates a number ofopportunities for itself. It alsoenhances the ability of many small-and medium-sized businesses to getinto international trade, to seekout information, to explore whatopportunity international trade hasfor their businesses, to increaseprofits and numbers of employees,and to determine new areas oftraining opportunities. Perhaps thegreatest benefit is the creation ofmuch closer ties to the business

community itself, utilizing the ex-pertise of current exporters andpotential exporters to enhance thecollege's own programs and serv-ices.

Providing Assistance toSmall Business

Another example of a community col-lege opportunity in economic developmentassistance is with the small businesscommunity (i.e., businesses employing 20 orfewer employees). This is an area in whichmany community colleges have become activein recent years to improve and increaseservices. Fully 85 percent of the busi-nesses in this country are considered smallbusinesses. It is anticipated that, in thenext decade, many new jobs will come fromthe small business sector. Primary goalsshould be to increase the number of indi-viduals wanting to start their own smallbusinesses; to help those who are alreadyin business grow and expand, thus creatingnew jobs; and to assist those who are inbusiness, but are having difficulty stayingsolvent, in keeping themselves and theirworkers employed.

Although many community colleges havebeen involved in providing programs andservices to small businesses, what islacking is a comprehensive program thatprovides continuity of information andservices over an extended period of time.Quite often, seminars, workshops, andcourses are offered on an infrequent basis,and do not provide the continuity that thesmall business person desires. Small busi-ness assistance is a very popular topicwith small business, chambers of commerce,downtown development groups, the federalgovernment, state government, and variousother agencies and organizations. The roleof the community college can be to coor-dinate and package services in a verycreative, yet logical manner. Communitycolleges should provide a variety of in-formational and instructional programs andservices to the various components of thesmall business community.

6171

Figure 1 suggests the services thatmight be offered to these components. Itshows an attempt to provide a variety ofprograms and services to subgroups withinthe small business community. Through useof the grid, a specific need can be identi-fied and addressed in a given area by aspecific group within the small businesscommunity.

To incorporate virtually all of theseprograms and services, given the variationwithin the small business community, aunique delivery system must be established.Many of the subject-area topics of interestto the small business community cut acrossall of the groups. It is necessary todevelop a continuous, comprehensive, edu-cational program that incorporates theseareas of mutual interest into an all-encompassing instructional program. Thisinstructional program may serve minority-owned business, women entrepreneurs, thosewanting to start a business, those smallbusinesses already established, and soforth. It would cover topics such as mar-keting, cash flow analysis, computeriza-tion, and a variety of other topical areasmost likely to be of interest to the groupas a whole.

These topics should be organized anddelivered through an ongoing, comprehen-sive, educational program. Classes maymeet one evening per month for a period of2-3 years, so that upon completion of theprogram, the participants will have touchedon virtually every area of small businessoperation and management. This ongoinginstructional component of small businessmanagement assistance should become a core

62

instructional program for any small busi-ness, whatever its type. III

In addition to the core curriculum,specific services and programs should beadded. An example of these services wouldbe a small business library. Numerouspublications exist that are de Signed pri-marily for the small business owner, butdue to the volume and cost, many smallbusinesses simply cannot afford to takeadvantage of these publications. A compre-hensive small business library locatedwithin a community college would be asource of information at no cost to thesmall business owner.

Also, a one-to-one counseling serviceshould be devised to assist those who areenrolled in the core curriculum to incorpo-rate what they learn in the classroom intotheir specific business. The concept pro-vides a comprehensive core of instructionalprograms of interest to the vast majorityof small business people and complementsthe basic instructional program with aspecific service.

The overall purpose of this emphasison small business assistance is to helpindividuals who go into business on theirown grow and prosper. Also, the intent isto assist those who are already in businessin remaining profitable and productive,enabling them to continue employing newworkers. Ideally, what is created is acloser bond between the small businesscommunity and the community college. Thisis another example of utilizing training,education, and information to enhance theeconomic development of the local com-munity.

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Specific groups within the smallbusiness community in need ofthese programs and services

Minority-owned business

Women entrepreneurs

Those wanting to start newbusinesses

Those small businesses alreadyestablished

Retail businesses

Wholesale businesses

Figure 1. Types of informational services and programs requested byvarious sectors of the small business community.

63

7 3

Needs Assessment for

The community college is seldom themajor leader and organizer of economicdevelopment strategies in a region. How-ever, the college can take the leadershiprole in collecting and analyzing data. Theexperience base of most colleges includesconsiderable advisory council work, datacollection and analysis, and facilitationof meaningful community discussions. Theneeds assessment process can be accomplish-ed by taking these steps:

Step I: Define the institution's goalfor doing a needs assessment. Inother words, what is the question thatneeds to be answered? Consider theseissues.

How is economic developmenthappening now?

What are the local barriers tocommunity development?

How can the community collegeassist in economic development?

Who are the people to be broughttogether to plan economicdevelopment activities?

What worked in the past to improveeconomic development?

How can the information flow oncurrent economic developmentactivities be improved?

A common mistake in needs assessmentsis lack of agreement on the actual questionthat must be answered. Too broad a ques-tion confuses the approach and often re-sults in unclear data. Once the overallapproach has been determined by the col-lege, broadening the discussion base ishelpful.

Step 2: Establish a community-basedtask force to validate the questionsto be answered and determine whoshould answer them. The most probable

64

Economic Development

groups to beforce include

represented in this taskthe following:

Business associations

Construction associations

Manufacturing associations

Governmental agencies focusedon job development, retraining,minority needs

Transportation experts

Chambers of commerce

Area development commissions

State development commissions

Human service agencies

Educational institutions andagencies

Step 3: Determine the breadth of thestudy. In an urban setting, partialsampling of some target groups isnecessary, whereas total participationof others may be critical. The groupshould develop and review the totallist of constituent groups to besampled.

Step 4: Establish appropriate datacollection methods for each constitu-ency group identified. Several modelsthat have been tested by communitycolleges have been published. Thesemodels are easily adapted to a varietyof surveying purposes. Other possibleapproaches or methods are describedbelow.

Key information approachThismethod would focus on data collec-tion from individuals deemed "ex-perts" by the task force. The in-formation can be gathered by survey,phone, in person, or collectively.

74

The greatest advantage to thisapproach is the opening of commu-nication channels.

Community forum approachThismethod can bring together largegroups of individuals who are con-cerned about a particular issue. Itcan be established to serve as ameans of listening to variousviewpoints or presenting goals forreaction. (A variation of this ap-proach is described later in thischapter as the nominal groupprocess.)

Survey approach- -This method in-cludes collecting data from aspecified population, typically in asampled form. The most frequentlyused means of surveying includewritten surveys, personal inter-views, and phone surveys. If doneproperly, the survey approach hasthe greatest potential for producingvalid information. Surveys can bedone quickly. They are frequentlythe least expensive method of gath-ering information and can often becontracted to an outside source.

Step 5: Establish the plan for datacollection, the depth of the approach,and costs for completing the plan.

Step 6: Approve the process andimplement.

Step 7: Summarize the data in acommon format for review by the taskforce.

Step 8: Lay out the action appropri-ate to the question asked. It isoften most logical that the collegecontinue to serve the planning groupas an ongoing resource, depository fordata, meeting place, and advocate.The process of economic development isa continuous one, not one that worksfor a few years and then stops whenthe business climate improves.

Using the Nominal Group Process

The nominal group process is an intui-tive approach to needs assessment anddecision making. The advantages of usingthis approach are its speed, opportunitiesfor dialogue among key players, and thefact that a consensus can be reached onmajor approaches. It has been used suc-cessfully by the Eastern Iowa CommunityCollege with chief executive officers oflarge businesses .and industries, faculty,and community leaders. It has proven to bea positive method of generating livelydiscussion and good insights into theproblems reviewed. See exhibit 1 for anoutline of the actual process.

Summary

In this chapter the authors haveprovided a broad overview of economicdevelopment and the role that 2-year col-leges might play. In the first part of thechapter they offered a working definitionfor economic development and discussed theimportance of human resources in economicdevelopment efforts.

In the latter part of the chapter theyoffered practical advice, especially in

terms of planning and organizing a col-lege's economic development efforts, mar-keting the institution, and conductingneeds assessments for economic development.They also discussed the variety of organ-izations and alliances that are makingsignificant contributions on the nationallevel to the task of assisting 2-yearcolleges in effectively advancing economicdevelopment.

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EXHIBIT I

THE NOMINAL GROUP PROCESS

Objective: To identify the major dimensions of economic development for a region by establishing a pro-cess whereby key community leaders share their ideas and reach consensus.

Procedure: I. State the concepts to be considered. such as

barriers to economic development

patterns of economic development

the future of economic development, and

mobilising for economic development.

2. Describe the scope of the problem to be studied.

3. Charge the group to write ideas in brief statements, working independently, respondingwithin 10 to 15 minutes to such specific questions as follows:

What are the positive trends affecting our area?

What are the negative trends affecting our area?

What changes in population. housing. industrial characteristics, financial trends. andso forth, do we see'?

What are the probable changes that will occur in our business and industrial base?

What impact will the new technologies have on our area?

What patterns will emerge in economic growth and development?

What are the most important things to do to improve the economic development ofthe region?

What roles can the community college play in economic development'?

4. Put up a flip chart for each question and elicit in round-robin fashion one idea from eachmember. Continue until all ideas have been recorded for each question.

S. Clear up any items on the list not totally understood by any group member.

6. Each group member then

lists the five items from the flip chart that he or she considers the most important.indicating both the number of the item and the item itself:

places these five items in rank order (5 = most important. I = least important): and

gives the five prioritised items to the group leader.

7. Tally the group results so that all group members can see them (ensure anonymity ofresponses). Allow 10 minutes for this activity.

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EXHIBIT 1Cmitin Hed

8. Discuss. if necessary. the results. If appropriate, repeat or re% Ise the ranking order

9. Record, on a separate sheet, the consensus of the rank order of the items to present tothe zroup.

10. Doe lop a plan of action appropriate to the issues di.,cussed.

References

Bolino, A. C. Productivity: VocationalEducation's Role. Columbus: TheNational Center for Research inVocational Education, The Ohio StateUniversity, 1981.

Carnevale, A. "Human Capital: The Futurefor Private Training," in Trainingand Development Journal 36 (January1982): 41-44, 46-48.

Huddleston, K. R. If Productivity Is theProblem. . . . Columbus: The Na-

67

tional Center for Research in Voca-tional Education, The Ohio StateUniversity, 1982.

Leach, J. A. Reindustrialization: Impli-cations for Voc Ed. Columbus: TheNational Center for Research in Voca-tional Education, The Ohio StateUniversity, 1982.

Striner, H. E. "Why We Must Invest inHuman Capital," in VocEd (May 1982):23-25.

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Chapter 4The Effective Linker

The effective linker, like the effec-tive person in any role, should possessspecific knowledge, skills, and attitudes.Whether one is screening others to serve inthe linker role, or planning to serve inthis role oneself, understanding whatenables a linker to be effective is impor-tant.

This chapter will prove especiallyuseful to the person who is about to or hasjust acquired the linking role. It isintended to provide the new linker with a

starling point. The material in thischapter has been drawn primarily from thefollowing document:

Norton, Robert E.; Harrington, LoisG.; and Spencer, Carol J. EstablishLinkages with BIL/GM. ModuleLT-J-2, Competency-Based VocationalEducation Administrator Module Series.Athens, GA: American Association forVocational Instructional Materials(AAVIM), 1984.

What the Effective

The term linker implies that an indi-vidual serving in this role must haveknowledge of two arenas--education andbusiness, industry, and labor (BIL).

The Education Arena

This individual, as a representativeof an educational institution, must possessinformation about education on at leastthree different levels. A linker must havegeneral information about education, spe-cific information about the educationalinstitution served, and specific informa-tion about the education/training compe-tition.

Possessing general information abouteducation is essential before assuming alinkage role. The linker should understand

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Linker Should Know

the general workings of the American edu-cational system. For examole, a linkershould know the following:

The providers of education andtraining

The funding of education andtraining

The key actors in both systems

The role of government in edu-cation and training; its rules,policies, and regulations

The types of programs typicallyoffered by providers

The curriculum developmentprocesses

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Specific information about the edu-cational institution served is also criti-cal to effective linking. This secondlevel of knowledge should be reached beforeany contact is made with BIL. This levelincludes knowledge of the specific educa-tional institution, or institutions thatare to be served. The linker must adhereto the following:

Understand the organizationalstructure of the educationalinstitutions being served

Know specifically what trainingprograms they offer or can offer

Know the contact person at eachinstitution

Know what kinds of BIL involve-ment in education should be sought

Know what kinds of educationalservices can be provided to BIL

Specific information about the educa-tion/training competition helps createopportunities for collaborative relation-ships-- opportunities to provide BILclients with the best available materialsand programming. Collaborative effortsgenerally result in beneficial outcomes foreveryone--clients are satisfied, the repu-tation of the educational community isenhanced, and a contribution is made to theeconomy.

Knowledge of the competition alsoresults in increased credibility. Assume,for example, that an institution is workingwith an employer who has decided that hisor her employees need a particular type oftraining to upgrade their skills. Thisinstitution can provide this training, how-ever a salesperson from a commercial pub-lishing firm has already convinced thisemployer to use their training package forin-house training.

It may be an excellent training pack-age, or it may not be, however that is notthe point. If this institution is to have

credibility with this employer, then theinstitution's linker must be aware ofand familiar with such materials or pro-grams. The linker could then build on thesituation. For example, he or she could dothe following things:

Point out exactly why this particu-lar package is not appropriate forthe employer's needs.

Point out that this package is quitegood but cannot stand on its own andthen show how their institutioncould be involved, using the pack-age, to provide the needed train-ing.

Point out that it is an excellentpackage and appropriate for thejob--and then move on to other waysof linking with the employer. Hisor her institution may have lostthis particular training opportu-nity, but chances are, a major stepin establishing credibility and indeveloping trust was taken--whichshould facilitate future linkages.

The Business, Industry, and Labor Arena

To be truly effective a linker musthave knowledge of the business, industry,and labor arena at at least two levels- -first, a general knowledge of what might betermed the work world, and, second, spe-cific knowledge of the local BIL environ-ment.

A general knowledge of the workworld, including a basic understanding ofhow the American economy functions, isimportant in terms of credibility. If apotential client obtains the impressionthat the linking agent doesn't reallyunderstand the national/international andlocal environments in which their organ-ization must operate, then it is, ofcourse, unlikely that they will have con-fidence in an institution's ability to meettheir training/education needs. To demon-strate a general knowledge of the work

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world the potential linker should be ableto answer the following questions:

What businesses and industries arein growth cycles?

What businesses and industries areon the decline?

What elements characterize "bigbusiness"? Small business? Howdoes each operate? What are thebenefits for each?

How does supply and demand oper-ate?

What is the effect of world compe-tition on American business andindustry?

What is inflation, and how is itcaused? What is its effect onbusiness and industry?

What other factors have an impact onthe survival of business and indus-try (e.g., labor/management rela-tions, regulations governing busi-ness and industry)?

Specific knowledge of the local BILenvironment would include being able toanswer the following questions:

What businesses and industriesoperate locally? Are there a var-iety, or does one type (e.g., auto-motive industry, mining industry)dominate?

How healthy is the local economy?Which plants are hiring or layingoff workers? Are businesses closingin the downtown area? Are newindustries moving to the area? Whatis the local rate of unemployment?

Is organized labor a dominant forcein the area? Does the state have aright-to-work law, that guarantees(1) a person need not belong to alabor union to get or keep a job and

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(2) a person may not be denied a jobbecause he or she belongs to aunion?

What economic development activitiesare planned or underway locally?

What governmental agencies, militarybases, National Guard units, ormilitary reserve units operate lo-cally? How small or large a part dothey play in the local economy?

The linker also needs to know thelanguage or jargon of BIL: profit, loss,structural unemployment, aggregate demand,capital goods, union-shop agreement, slow-downs, elasticity of demand, labor resourcescarcity, and so on. The "buzz" words. Alinking agent must know how to present aproposed linkage activity using the termsthat prospective clients are comfortablewith.

It is also important that the linkerbe as familiar as possible with state orfederal government incentives that might beavailable to supplrt linkage activities.These facilitators can take many forms:tax credits, reduced-interest loans, gov-ernment supported loans, training assist-ance, job placement services, labor marketdata provision, and so on.

The importance of understanding thelanguage of business, industry, and laborcannot be overstressed. What follows areincentives Ohio linkers must be familiarwith. Similar programs operate in moststates. By contacting the appropriateagencies, linkers can obtain the relevantinformation that they will need.

Industrial RevenueBond Program

Industrial revenue bonds (IRBs) canprovide businesses 100 percent of thefinancing for eligible fixed assets. In-terest rates are 3/4 percent to 3 percentbelow current market rates, and terms are

o

...molilb.iiii11111111111

up to 30 years, often with an option to buythe project financed at maturity.

A company that wishes to finance aproject with an IRB enters into an agree-ment with an Ohio governmental body whichis empowered to issue bonds; the agreementcan be a lease, loan agreement, or install-ment sales contract. The governmental bodythen issues the bond, acting as a conduitbetween the company and purchaser, author-izing all terms, but with no moral or legalobligation to pay interest or principal,except from payments made by the company.Interest earned on an IRB is tax-exempt forthe bond purchaser, so that interest paidby the company financed by the bond isgenerally lower than the market rate.

Direct Loans andLoan Guarantees

The Ohio Department of Developmentprovides direct loans and loan guaranteesto businesses for new fixed-asset financ-ing: land, buildings, and equipment.

Loans and guarantees are intended tostimulate expansion or relocation in Ohioof businesses engaged in industry, com-merce, distribution or research, and tocreate jobs. Therefore, the Department ofDevelopment evaluates applications on thenumber of jobs to be created or retainedand the need for government assistance, aswell as ability to repay the loan on theterms established. Approved applicationsmust have final approval from the StateControlling Board.

Small BusinessAdministration503 Loan Program

The Small Business Administration(SBA) 503 Loan Program can lend small-and medium-sized businesses up to $500,000,representing up to 40 percent of the totalcost of a qualified project, at lower than

market rates. In Ohio, these funds areadministered either by a certified develop-ment corporation or by the Ohio StatewideDevelopment Corporation (OSDC), a non-profit corporation.

Ohio Treasurer'sLinked DepositProgram

Businesses with 150 or fewer employeesare eligible for reduced-rate loans underthe Ohio Treasurer's Linked Deposit Pro-gram. Loans are provided for projects thatcreate or retain Ohio jobs.

The Treasurer's Linked Deposit Programinvests up to $100 million of Ohio's port-folio in certificates of deposit at 3 per-cent below current market rates. Thefinancial institutions around the state,holding these certificates, have agreed tolend the value of these certificates at3 percent below the current lending rate.

Women's BusinessResource Program

The Women's Business Resource Pro-gram helps women who are interested instarting, expanding, or managing a businessin Ohio. It ensures equal access to thestate's business assistance programs andprovides direction to business resourcesthroughout the state.

The Women's Business Resource Pro-gram helps companies locate financingmethods and loan packaging, purchasing andprocurement opportunities with governmentagencies and private industry. The programalso studies legislation that may have animpact on businesses owned by women.

The program is developing a Women'sBusiness Enterprise Directory and distrib-utes information to other women's businessinformation centers, small business enter-prise centers, chambers of commerce, andthe Small Business Administration.

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Small BusinessEnterprise Centers

Small business enterprise centers(SBECs) are local sources of free expertadvice and assistance for small busi-nesses.

Each SBEC has business experts on itsstaff. SBEC staff uses the Ohio Departmentof Development's research, data, and man-agement assistant a programs to get busi-nesses the information they need. EachSBEC is a liaison with local chambers ofcommerce, colleges and universities, laborunions, trade associations, private indus-try counc;ls, and other public and privateresources. Through them, SBECs can pro-vide small businesses with--

management and t. hnicalassistance,

legal assistance,

technical resources,

educational programs,

funding sources,

procurement assistance,

export trade opportunities,and

small business incubator pro-gh.n.s that help provide officespace and clerical help to _tewsmall businesses.

SBEC services arc provided a* no charge.All information obtained for the purpose ofidentifying clients' needs is kept confi-dential.

BusinessnevelopmentServices

The Ohio Department of Developmentprovides businesses with relocation andsite selection services through the inter-

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national Trade Division (ITD) and theBusiness Development Division (BDD).

The ITD is making Ohio an importantfactor i .1 the global marketplace by pro-moting Ohio as an attractive location forforeign firms to establish manufacturingoperations. And BBD works to create andmaintain Ohio jobs through retention andexpansion of established businesses, at-traction of new businesses and assistancew. h local community development efforts.

Labor MarketInformation

The Labor Market Information Divisionof the Ohio Bu: u of Employment Services(OBES) provides ap-to-date labor 'orce datato Ohio employers. Labor market analystsare located in Akron, Bowling Green,Canton, Cincinnati, Cleveland, Columbus,Dayton, Findlay, Steubenville, and Youngs-town.

Ohio DataUsers Center

The Ohio Data Users Center (ODUC),with a central location in Columbus and42 affiliate centers, brings together cen-sus and statistical data from a broad rangeof standard and hard-to-find sources. In-formation is available in print, on micro-fiche, and directly over computer net-works.

Job TrainingPartnership Act

The Job Training Partnership Act (JTP-Oh.o) is / federally-funded partnershipamong business, industry, labor, educationand government that provides job trainingto _sigh unemrloyment groups. This programincreases the pool of qualified workers andprovides tax incentives and reimbursementprograms for employers who hire themthrough the JTP-Ohio program.

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The Ohio IndustrialTraining Program

The Ohio Industrial Training Program(OITP) provides financial and technicalassistance to eligible companies for em-ployee training.

The OITP works to retain jobs andimprove productivity through education andimproved management techniques. Eligi-bility for assistance is determined on alocal basis, through 19 districts, each ofwhich is run by a consortium of representa-tives of local public schools and businessassistance organizations such as chambersof commerce,

Enterprise Zones

The urban Jobs and Enterprise ZoneActs, introduced in Congress durin: the1980s, and variously titled, were designedto allow a local government to designateareas within their jurisdictions, basedon high rates of unemployment :. id poverty,as enterprise zones. Within such zones,residents and businesses receive numerousfederal and local subsidies, including thefollowing:

Social Security cax cuts

Reduction in corporate income taxes

Reductions in property tax rates

This bill provided for the following:

Firms that employ 50 percent of theirworkers from within a zone were toreceive a 15 percent reduction incorporate income tax rates. Theyalso could take 3-year straight-linedepreciation on investments up to$500,(,00, extend the loss carry-forwa 1 to 10 years, and use the cashmethod of accounting if their grossincomes were below $1.5 million.(Trrpper 1981, p. 2)

Businesses operating within one of thehigh-unemployment areas designated in Ohio

as "enterprise zones" can qualify for sub-stantial state and local tax relief . . .

in some cases, abatements of up to 100 per-cent for up to 10 years on real propertyand tangible personal property used in thebusiness, with additional corporate andbusiness incentives.

The Urban Jobs and Enterprise Zone Actworks to increase business activity andemployment through tax incentives. Suchareas are pinpointed by local authorities:municipal corporations or boards of countycommissioners designate enterprise zoneswithin municipalities, with approval andcertification from the director of the OhioDepartment of Development.

The Thomas EdisonProgram

Operating under substantial grantsfrom the Thomas Edison Program, Ohio's sixworld class advanced technology applicationcenters (ATACs) throughout the state bringtogether academic, government, and businessexperts to help industries within Ohiobecome more competitive.

The Thomas Edison Program stimulatesdevelopment and market application ofnew technologies, revitalizes existingenterprises, encourages innovative busi-nesses, and creates new jobs in Ohio.

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The Applied Information TechnologiesResearch Center, Columbus, at TheOhio State University. New infor-mation technologies for office,school, and home.

The Cleveland Advanced Manufactur-ing Program, Cleveland, at ClevelandState University, Case WesternReserve University, and CuyahogaCommunity College. Research anddevelopment in manufacturing tech-nology.

The Edison Animal BiotechnologyCenter, Athens, at Ohio University,The Ohio State University, and CaseWestern Reserve University. Genetic

engineering technology to improvelivestock.

The Edison Polymer InnovationsCorporation, Akron, at The Uni-versity of Akron and Case WesternReserve University. New polymertechnology for commercial/industrialuse.

The Edison Welding Institute,Columbus, at The Ohio State Univer-sity. Research and development,applications engineering, education,training and technology transfer,for the use of welding technology inmanufacturing.

"The Institute of Advanced Manufac-turing Sciences, Cincinnati, at theUniversity of Cincinnati. Systemsanalysis, automated equipment devel-opment, and laser technology formanufacturing.

Innovative Research Financing Pro-gram (IRFP), statewide. State fund-ing is available for technical re-search and development projects

carried on jointly by industry andan Ohio college or university.Applications can be made for proj-ects at early and advanced stages;new awards in each category areannounced monthly.

Companies that submit studies todetermine whether an idea can beturned into feasible commercial useare eligible for matching funds ofup to $50,000. Experimental ortheoretical research on new ideas,including technologically advancedprocesses and systems may also beeligible, if the research is neces-sary to establish the commercialpotential of a project.

Companies that submit proposals todevelop a proven concept for com-mercial use in projects that aim fora measurable technical product (suchas a prototype, or precise specifi-cations) are eligible for matchingfunds of up to $250,000 in the formof risk ..apital that may be recover-ed by the state in royalties afterthe product goes to market.

The Skills of the Effective Linker

Beyond the skill of talking the lan-guage of BIL, there are certain otherskills that have been identified as crucialto the role of the linker. These areorganizational development skills, inter-personal skills, and management skills.Successful linkers in the field indicatethat these three skill areas must be well-developed.

Organizational Development Skills

Organizational development skills,although not generally discussed in thelinkage literature, are important to the

' .. linking agent. Organizational development(OD) is a field of practice concerned withincreasing effectiveness and health throughplanned interventions in an organization's"processes." In the context of this dis-

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cussion, the OD practitioner is concernedwith the overall functioning of the organ-ization, rather than with obtaining fundsfor institutional operation. One primaryconcern to the OD specialist is managingchange and the resistance to it.

Linkers need not become OD experts tobe effective; however, familiarity withsome of the principles of OD and some skillin using OD techniques will pay substantialdividends.

A requirement for OD practice isunderstanding how organizations are struc-tured and how they operate. Linkersare likely to be more successful if theyhave some understanding of organizationaltheory. Armed with this understanding,linkers will be able to ask questions aboutthe organizations that they are attempting

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to link with, and the answers will provideammunition to effectively foster change.Questions that linkers should be able toanswer, at least to some degree, includethese:

Where is authority focused? Isthere a centralized or decentralizedstructure?

How "rule-bound" is the organiza-tion?

How are the organization's goalsdetermined?

What are the most effective com-munication mechanisms and channelswithin the organization?

What is the nature of the valuesystem of the organization? How istraining viewed? How is changeviewed?

What would the effects of certainchanges be?

Where might the best interventionpoints be?

It is also important that linkingagents understand the change process andpossess some skill in using change manage-ment techniques. There is a large body ofresearch on how people and organizationschange. Based initially on observationsof successful change efforts found in agri-cultural extension agencies, diffusion re-searchers discovered that change is not anevent. Change is a process. Successfulattempts to diffuse innovations or infor-mation in order to bring about changeacknowledged that people move towardchange through phases (Rogers 1962). Someof these phases are--

awareness,

interest,

evaluatior,

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trial, and

adoption.

In other words, if linkers ask pro-spective clients to adopt the linkagenotion too early in the linking process,chances for success will be diminished.People need time to reach an adoptiondecision. If linkers understand the changeprocess, and can determine at which stagein the process their client is, they candevise appropriate strategies to move thatperson or group toward subsequent stages inthe process.

The same situation holds true in thelinker's own organization. In most educa-tional institutions, community and tech-nical schools being no exception, some in-structors and administrators may be strong-ly opposed to change and may have to besold on contributing to the linkage effortsof the institution.

If linkers can gain skill in usingsome of the techniques used by OD practi-tioners, then the job can be made a greatdeal easier. The following is a listing ofsome of the more important techniques thatcan be of use to linking agents.

Nominal group techniques

Values clarification techniques

Team building

Brainstorming

Group meeting methods

Intergroup problem solving

Conflict management

Role negotiation

Responsibility charting

a Goal setting

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Proble n diagnosis

Priority setting

Action planning

Data collection and feedback

Interpersonal Skills

The job of linker requires effectiveinterpersonal skills--skills that allowlinkers to effectively interact withothers. Three interpersonal skills areparticularly important to the linker:cooperation, communication, and conflictresolution.

Cooperation can be defined in manyways, but essentially it involves theability to work with others to collectivelyachieve a desired goal. There are manyfacets of cooperative activityteamwork,compromise, knowing when to take the leadand when to follow, when to hold back andwhen to rush a little. The key factor isthat linkers are persons in the middle.Linkers must maintain good working rela-tior ships with both education and BIL inorcor to develop a good relationship be-tween them.

Communication is simk. 6 lined as aprocess whereby a message travels from asender to a receiver. To effectivelyengage in linkage activities, linkers mustensure that messages travel intact fromsender to receiver; misinformation mustbe avoided. Linkers must know how topackage the messages that are sent, andmust make sure that they understand themessages that are received. In short,linkers must possess good communicationskills.

Keep in mind that the communicationprocess involves much more than clear andconcise oral communication. A good com-municator is also an active listener. Su-perior communicators also take the time andeffort to hone their writing skills. Per-sons who wish to be very effective commu-nicators also take pains to note and remain

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aware of the nonverbal messages that arepart of any human face-to-face interaction.

Clear, concise, and timely communi-cation is essential for an organization tofunction effectively. Linkers must do whatthey c..n to ensure that a viable communi-cation system exists within their institu-tion. Without it, linking could be dif-ficult if not impossible to accomplish.People are less likely to be cooperative ifthey are not aware of what the institu-tion's linkage activities are, how theywill be affected by them, and how theinstitution will benefit.

Memos, periodic phone calls, personalnotes to appropriate administrators andinstructors, school newsletters, articlesin other school publications, bulletinboard announcements, departmental meetings,and so forth are just some of the vehiclesthat can be used to keep people informedabout linkage activities. Informed peopleare much more likely to be supporters oflinkage efforts.

Resolution of Conflicts

How should linkers deal with con-flicts? Avoid them? Take a wide detouraround them? Confront the issue head on?Linkers should know how to deactivate apotentially explosive situation.

Unresolved conflicts can seriouslyhamper or even negate linkage efforts.However conflicts should not merely beresolved. In general, resolution shouldcreate what some call a "win-win" outcome;both parties to the conflict should comeaway as winners, each having achieved someportion of what they were aiming for whenthe conflict occurred. Of course, this isnot always possible. Sometimes there mustbe clear winners and losers.

Management Skills

The individuals responsible for link-age activities must make decisions about,or provide input about resources--money,

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people, materials, and equipment. In short,they must manage. Depending upon theirinstitution, linkers may be responsible formany resources, or may be responsible onlyfor a small staff. Whatever the situation,linkers' responsibilities will be moreeasily shouldered if they possess certainskills -- skills generally classified asmanagement skills. The following is a rstof skills particularly pertinent to linkagedevelopment.

Record creation and maintenanceskills

Financial skills--accounting,budgeting, reading financialreport5

Planning skills--goal setting,quantitative decision-makingtechniques

Control skills--budgeting,scheduling

Organizational skills

Time management skills

Program evaluation skills

We could nention a number of otherskills; however, those listed are probablymost important to linkers. Program devel-opment for business and industry requirescareful planning, a great deal of organ-ization, and the ability to talk in termsof costs and the financial benefits thatwill be derived from linkage activities.Linkers, who are often somewhat transient,must also be personally well-organized.

The "Right" Attitudes

Some attitudes, although implicit inthe skills and knowledge already discussed,should be highlighted. Individuals who aremost successful in the linker role shouldpossess certain attitudes:

Linkers should be able to maintain aneutral stance. That is, linkersshould not be perceived as havingonly the interests of his or herinstitution in mind. The effectivelinker must be perceived as a cata-lytic agent by all parties to anylinkage activity.

Linkers should be flexible. Ap-proaching potential linkage situa-tions with rigid preconceptionsabout what form the linkage willtake is to minimize possibilities.Even though an institution might notbe able to provide the kind ofrobotics program desired by a pro-

spective client, it might be able toprovide a supervisory training pro-gram.

Linkers should be patient, persist-ent, and assertive. The developmentof sound linkages can be a lengthy,arduous task. Change is involvedfor the linker's organization andfor the organization that is beinglinked with. Many organizationswill also need to be convinced thatlinkage is to their benefit.

Linking agents must also play thenumbers and focus on successes, notfailed linkage attempts. Aggressivepursuit of linkage opportunitieswill cause them to materialize- -exceptional opportunities will notoften be delivered to a school'sdoorstep.

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Self-Assessment and

Maximum effectiveness in the linkerrole calls fo- assessment and reassessmentof one's qualifications relative to thosedemanded of the effective linker. Thefollowing development strategies and knowl-edge sources can be used to help linkerscarry out the self-assessment and self-development activities that will helpproduce Jfective performance.

Sources of General Knowledge

If there is a need for general knowl-edge, about education or the economy, forexample, there are several routes linkerscan take to acquire the needed informa-tion:

Enrollment in college/universitycourses or adult/continuing educa-tion courses. Regardless of link-ers' present levels of knowledge,there should be a course to meettheir information needs.

Reading texts, periodicals, and soforth. If linkers prefer to workindependently, or are not situatedin an area in which a college/university course is easily acces-sible or if there is a lack of timefor course work, then the necessaryinformation can be acquired throughreading related texts and journalarticles. Reading journals andnewspapers regularly is also a goodway to keep up-to-date with thestate of education and economy, aswell as with the terminology commonto each. The Wall Street Journal,for example, is an excellent sourceof information about the economy.

Legislative records. To learn aboutthe legislation authorizing voca-tional education and other trainingactivities, including funding levelsand guidelines for use of funds,documents such as the FederalRegister, Code of Federal Regu-lations (CFR), Commeice Business

Self-Development Strategies

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Daily, Education Daily, EducationWeek, and similar documents at thestate level, can be reviewed.

Sources of Specific Knowledgeabout the Collaborators

Some of the specific knowledge aboutthe educational institutions and BIL organ-izations with which linkers will likely beworking can be derived through reading,however it is primarily and most readilyavailable through other sources. To ac-quire the specific knowledge needed, link-ers should consider locally prepared re-ports, brochures, and other materials;local and state plans; personal contacts;and data banks.

Locally PreparedReports, Brochures,and Other Materials

Materials prepared by the local cham-ber of commerce, for example, can provideexcellent overviews of the educational in-stitutions and BIL organizations operatingin the area. Economic indicators and datashould also be available from such sources,as well as from local government agencies.Schools and large businesses and industriesoften produce promotional materials, whichmay also contain useful information. In-dustrial guides, training periodicals, andtrade journals produced locally can also beof use.

Local and State Plans

In each state, a state plan structuresvocational programming. By reviewing thestate plan, a good idea of the offeringsand goals of vocational education in thestate can be acquired. Furthermore, thereshould be a local linkage plan outliningthe goals and limits of the proposed edu-cational linkage effort. This shouldfurther define the scope of the linking

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R.:

agent's role and that of the institutionsto be involved.

Personal Contacts

Perhaps the most profitable method ofobtaining specifi information is throughpersonal contacts with agencies, organiza-tions, and individuals locally. If infor-mation is needed about a particular schoolor business, a visit there to talk topeople and tour the facility can be anefficient technique to use. Informal dis-cussions with local government officials orBIL leaders can also be extremely useful inidentifying economic conditions locally.The linker should consider developing--andmaintaining--contacts with sources such asthe following:

Kiwanis Clubs, Jaycees, RotaryClubs, Lions Clubs, OptimistsClubs, and similar groups

Chambers of commerce

Regional (or industrial oreconomic) developmentcommissions

Community improvementcorporations (CIC)

Job services

Placement services

Employment agencies

Industrial professional organ-izations (e.g., AmericanManagement Association,American Society for Trainingand Development)

Manufacturing associations

BIL training directors willingto share information

Accessing Data Banks

Data on employment and training areavailable through the Bureau of EmploymentServices and the National Occupations In-formation Coordinating Committee (NOICC)and its state-level counterpart, SOICC.These tend to be aggregate data for broadgeographic areas, however. It is usuallybest to rely on other sources for morespecific local data.

Through tapping such sources, a var-iety of specific information can be amassedthat can assist in developing linkages,including vital information such as thefollowing:

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Identification of persons or groupswho can facilitate linkage of forts.What leaders or opinion leaders aresold on the need for linkage and canhelp sell others? What specificpersons, organizations, or agenciesmust be involved for collaborationto occur? For example, the involve-ment of Job Services or agencies towhich an industry is responsible(e.g., Interstate Commerce Com-mission) may be needed. Unionsupport may also be needed.

Potential barriers to collaborationin schools. Do administrators seemto be reluctant to change; are theysold on the adequacy of existingprogramming? Are instructors some-what threatened by the notion ofhaving persons from BIL involved?Do the administrators and instruc-tors think their co-op program isenough outreach and involvement? Inshort, how committed to linkage arethe educators? How sold on the needfor and importance of collaborationare they at present?

Potential barriers to collaborationin BIL. Do persons in BIL havea lack of professional respect--

deserved or otherwise- -for educa-tion's ability to provide high-quality programming? To providestudents with entry-level skills?To provide retraining for employees?Do they have proprietary concerns(e.g., the need to keep a processsecret) that make them reluctant tocollaborate? Have they found in thepast that education cannot developand implement a program as quicklyas needed? Does the company haveitself organized and ready for col-laboration? Do people in the com-pany communicate adequately?

Access points within each organiza-tion. Who should be contacted ifthe job is to get done?

Economic status and trends locally.Are the industries in a growth ornongrowth cycle? What are the humanneeds currently? Projected for thefuture?

BIL workings and constraints. Whatproducts does each company or agencyproduce? What services does it pro-vide? How is it structured organ-izationally? What are its facili-ties like? How involved has it beenwith educators in the past, and howsuccessfully?

This chapter provided an overview ofwhat effective linkers should know and theskills and attitudes they should possess.Linkers must possess general knowledgeabout education, specific knowledge aboutthe educational institution they are see-ing, and specific knowledge about theeducation/training competition. Linkersmust also have knowledge of the work worldin general and the local BIL environment.

Sources of Specific Knowledgeabout the Competition

Through personal contacts, linkersshould be able to identify a great deal ofinformation about other education/trainingproviders in the area. But where does onego to identify competing materials? Con-sider the following sources:

Educational and technical tradejournals. Articles and advertise-ments in these journals can alertthe linker to training materialsthat they should be aware of. Mostpublishers or developers are morethan willing to provide informationabout their products.

Catalogs. Writing to the publishersof educational materials and askingto receive a catalog or be placed ona mailing list will provide a sub-stantial amount of material.

Conferences and media/ materialsfairs. Publishers and other mate-rials developers often attend edu-cational conferences, training con-ferences, and media/materials fairsto promote their products. Thisgives the participants an opportu-nity to learn about the range ofmaterials available, to peruse thematerials at length, and to talk toexperts about the materials--all inone place.

Summary

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In terms of stills, linkers should possessorganizational 4evelopment, interpersonal,and management skills.

This chapter also provided a look atsome of the attitudes that successfullinkers should possess, and provided somestrategies for linkers self-assessment andself-development.

9 1.

References

Rogers, Everett. Diffusion of Inno- Tropper, Peter. Enterprise Zones: A Pushvations. New York: The Free Press, from the "Invisible Hand" for1962. America's Cities. Washington, DC:

Northeast-Midwest Institute, 1981.

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9 ,2

AI

Chapter 5Developing a Linkage Plan

One of the most crucial tasks associ-ated with the role of the linking agent isplanning. This may seem a self-evident andobvious statement, but too often the obvi-ous is overlooked. Institutions may rushto get on the linking bandwagon without anappropriate assessment of the future insti-tutional goals, or the means by which goalsmight be reached. This could be a criticalerror since effective planning often meansthe difference between success, mediocrity,and failure.

This chapter provides guidelines fordeveloping and evaluating effective linkage

plans. The material in this chapter wasexcerpted and adapted from the followingdocument:

Norton, Robert E.; Harrington, LoisG.; and Spencer, Carol J. Develop aLinkage Plan. Module LT-J- 1,Competency-Based Vocational Educa-tion Administrator Module Series.Athens, GA: American Associationfor Vocational Instructional Materials(AAVIM), 1984.

Planning

In order to reach the linkage objec-tives set for an institution, a viable,comprehensive plan of action must be devel-oped. The following nine steps, if con-scientiously completed, will result in sucha plan.

Involve appropriate people in theplanning effort.

Review the institutional missionstatement.

Identify the economic developmentprocedures and policies currently inplace in the state and local area.

Define the purposes and limits ofthe institution's linkage efforts.

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Steps

Identify the organizations/agencieswherein linkages should be estab-lished.

Identify the types of collabcration/service presently possible cv: desir-able in the future.

Devise a general marketing strategy.

Determine budget, facility, staff-ing, materials, and equipmentneeds.

Determine how the linkage effortswill be evaluated.

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Involve the Appropriate People

The best way to ensure that realisticplans are developed and that there is

commitment to making those plans succeed isto involve the people who will be neededand responsible for making linkages work.

Administrators, instructors, counse-lors, BIL representatives, and communityleaders should all be consulted and culti-v, _.1 in order to identify their concerns,needs, and desires. And, since theirinvolvement will create a feeling of"ownership" of the plan, successful imple-mentation is much more likely.

One effective and efficient option isto begin the planning effort by forming acommittee made up of persons already in-volved with the institution: members ofthe vocational education advisory council,and representatives from t the instructionaladministrative, and guidance and placementstaffs.

After the overall parameters of thelinkage effort have been determined, plan-ning could continue with the originalcommittee, or a subcommittee could bedesignated to work out the details of theplan. A new committee could also be ap-pointed or recruited to complete thedetailed planning. The members of the newcommittee could be selected specifically toprovide expertise appropriate to the over-all linkage goals.

In seeking to involve appropriatepeople, attention should not be confined tocommittee membership. Especially in aneffort involving outreach into the com-munity and linkages with BIL. The key"movers and shakers" in the area whosesupport will be needed must be identifiedif the effort is to succeed. Some of thesecommunity leaders and opinion leaders may,of course, be members of the planningcommittee. Those who are not directlyinvolved, however, need to be kept awareand informed concerning the institution'sgoals, efforts, and progress. Their sup-port can greatly facilitate linkageefforts.

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Review Mission Statement

Every postsecondary school, like everycorporation, should have a mission state-ment describing its broad goals, purposes,and institutional philosophy. The planningeffort should begin with a review of thisstatement; plans must be consistent withthe mission.

It's important not to underestimatethe importance of this review. The posi-tive outcomes of linkage efforts--economicdevelopment and institutional income--mightovershadow the stated institutional missionand take the organization in a directionthat would negatively affect its missionfulfillment. It's important to remainfocused--to maintain a clear picture of themajor raison d'etre of the institution.

Identify Existing Economic DevelopmentProcedures and Policies

Before your institution can move tomeet training and education needs, it mustfirst determine what governmental mecha-nisms are in place that might structure. ordictate linkage activities.

For example, the West Virginia StateDepartment of Education employs a staffmember responsible for working with new andexpanding industry. A close liaison withthe governor's Office of Economic Develop-ment often results in no-cost trainingbeing supplied by the state department whenan industrial concern has training needsrelated to expansion or relocation.

This type of state-level commitment isbecoming the rule rather than the excep-tion. It is also becoming more widespreadat the local level.

It is important that the linker iden-tify all such existing structures inadvance so that there is no unnecessarycompetition with, overlapping with, orviolation of these authorized structures.If the state or local economic developmentofficer is in charge of (1) developing and

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maintaining linkages with BIL and (2) iden-tifying which training institution(s) toinvolve in providing the required training,then linkage plans will need to take thatinto account. Plans would thus be limitedto ensuring liaison with the governmentlinker and determining what services can beprovided and how they can be provided.

If, on the other hand, there are nosuch :ormalized government linkage plans,then a more extensive, comprehensive planwould be required--which would includeresponsibility for developing and maintain-ing linkages with BIL locally, as well asproviding the needed training.

Define Purposes and Limits

Before conducting any specific plan-ning it is generally helpful to develop awritten statement of goals and limits basedupon the mission statement and governmentalmechanisms that have been identified. Thistype of summary statement can be used toguide the more detailed planning done bythe linker and/or the planning committees.

Identify Organizations with WhomLinkages Should Be Established

TL extent of linker contacts will, ofcourse, vary depending on the extent oflinkage purposes and limits. For truelinkage and collaboration to occur, thesecontacts must be substantive and continual.In general, local educational institutionsshould identify and plan to establish con-tacts with specific organizations/agenciesof the following types:

Education/training providers

Community organizations/agencies

Government agencies

Business and industry

Organized labor

Military87

Edu,:ation/TrainingProviders

In order to efficiently and effec-tively link with BIL, it is helpful to knowwhat other organizations or agencies areoffering vocational-technical training lo-cally. By taking responsibility for in-itiating contacts with other educators, byproviding a forum for dialogue and sharingto occur, a linker will be taking the firststep on the road to cooperation and col-laboration--to articulation rather thancompetition.

Included in the set of all education/training providers are the following:

Comprehensive high schools

Area vocational schools

Public postsecondary schools

Proprietary postsecondary schools

Colleges/universities

Community-based organizations(CB0s)

Job Corps programs

BIL training programs

For more information abou' CBO, JTPA, andJob Corps programs, see exhibit 2.

Community Organizations/Agencies

It is important to maintain contactswith those community organizations andagencies that are "in the know" about localeconomics, bus;ness, industry, and labor.Chambers of commerce, Elks, Kiwanis, JuniorAchievement, and so forth, can help in avariety of ways by--

5

providing information about localemployment conditions (e.g., whois hiring; what types of jobs areavailabl4 or becoming available;

EXHIBIT 2

FEDERALLY FUNDED TRAINING PROGRAMS

CBO.

Community-Based Organisations (CBOs) evolved from a grass-roots movement in the 1960s to respondto the minority plight. CBOs later received partial support under M DTA. CETA, and li PA funding CBOsare private, nonprofit organisations that represent a community or a significant segment of tile community,and their purpose is to provide employment and training services for (1) the structurally unemployed, (2) thesocially abandoned. and (3) the disadvantaged. Because they serve clients who have often been alienated byThe System," they tend to offer training that is apart from and different than that offered by traditional

vocational education institutions. However, institutions who can offer relevant programming (e.g., open-entry open-exit. less formal programs) can and do take part in CBO efforts

Job Corps

Job Corps is a nationally directed program designed to serve those who are 14-21 years olrl and who arepoor. out of school, and out of work. Its purpose is to permanently break the cycle of poverty by improv-ing the lifetime earning prospects of youth in need." Training is offered in a residential setting at selectedcontact center. which are generally quite separate from the "normal" educational establishment. The feelingis that these are persons for whom traditional schooling did not work, and thus, there is no point in return-ing them to a setting that to them equates to failure. The students are trained in a self-contained, open -entry, open-exit system. Learners have multiple learning options, are tracked based on their individual abili-ties. work at their own paces. and are provided with frequent achievement benchmarks to reinforce that theycan succeed. Included in the training package are general education, basic life skills training, vocationaltraining, and world of work experience. The students also receive allowance,. health care. residential sup-port. counseling, and access to recreational activities.

JTPA

JTPA stands for Job Training Partnership Act (1982). It replaced the Comprehensive Employment andTraining Act (1973). that had replaced the Manpower Development and Training Act (1962). JTPA (P.L.97-300) is intended to provide training for youth and adults for jobs in the unsubsidind private sector.JTPA funds are provided to the governor's office and from there are funneled to programs approved by thegovernor. There are adult and youth programs. summer youth programs. governor's special programs. dis-located worker programs, Job Corps programs, and other national programs. Public service jobs (e.g..shoveling snow) are prohibited. A total of 40 percent of adult/youth programs must be for youth: 70 percentof adult/youth program funds must be spent on training that includes work experience for which the costsare borne by the employers; administrative costs must be limited to 15 percent: and 10 percent of thoseserved need not be economically disadvantaged.

JTPA programs are coordinated by a slate job training coordinating council. Units of local governmentwith a population of 200.000 or more. called ,service delivery areas (SDAs), decide, within given guidelines,whom to serve, what programs to provide, and who is to provide the service. Program planning is overseenby a Private IncluAtri. Council (PIC). PICs are responsible for policy guidance and monitoring of all jobtraining activities in their area. Each PIC must establish procedures and performance goals for training pro-viders; vocational-technical schools can :,erve as training providers if they meet the stated criteria

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which industries are closing, ex-panding, or moving to the area);

serving as liaisons, initially,between linkers and the BIL com-munity;

alerting linkers to potential BILtraining needs; and

identifying the "movers and shakers"in the community--those official orunofficial leaders whose support maybe needed in linkage efforts.

Government Agencies

Local or state government agenciesconcerned with economic development,employment, and training should be iden-tified and contacted, and linkages shouldbe maintained with them on a regular basis.Like community organizations, such agenciescan provide information on local economicand employment conditions, projections, andneeds. They can also provide informationabout policies and guidelines affecting theprovision of training in the private sec-tor, as well as funds or tax breaks thatcan be used to support training activi-ties.

Furthermore, it may be that a particu-lar government agency itself has employeeswho could benefit from training or retrain-ing programs. Through appropriate contactssuch opportunities can be identified.

Business and Industry

Preparing students for the work forcerequires gaining access to the work arenaand determining what skills are needed anddesired by employers.

Too often, vocational educators andemployers both operate as if they weretotally separate entities with nothing incommon, or worse, as if little the otherhad to say were relevant. It is onlythrough meaningful dialogue that these two

groups can effectively offer vocational-technical training.

Linkage plans must allow for thisdialogue to occur. Administrators must bein contact with local business and industryofficials, instructors must remain continu-ally involved in the world of work, andemployers must be involved in the school'sprograms. And these involvements must besubstantive.

If these types of meaningful dialogueand working relationships are established,it is likely that mutual respect will bebuilt. This, in turn, leaves the door opento fully serve the employment community andbetter prepare students. If employersrespect an institution's training abili-ties, they will be more likely to get outof the training business themselves andcontract with that institution for the on-the-job training and retraining programsthey require.

Organized Labor

Apprenticeship training is still themost likely service that might be providedfor organized labor, altnough other kindsof educational/training experiences arebecoming more important (retraining unionemployees after displacement, for ex-ample).

In general, these apprenticeshipprograms are 2 or more years in length,depending upon the skill requirement of thetrade or craft. They are operated byeither (1) an employer, (2) a group of em-ployers, or (3) a joint apprenticeship com-mittee (JAC) representing both the employ-er(s) and the union. Sometimes, a repre-sentative from the educational community isalso included on the JAC. In some states,such programs must be approved by andregistered with the state government (labordepartment) to be considered bona fideapprenticeship programs.

Apprenticeship training consists oftwo components: (1) on-the-job training

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and (2) related classroom instruction(minimum of 144 hours per year). More andmore, JACs are engaging in cooperativeventures with postsecondary institutionsfor the provision of apprenticeship train-ing, retraining and upgrading, and laborstudies. In these cases, the postsecondaryinstitution develops the programs at therequest of, and with the approval of, thejoint labor/management committee. Help insetting up these programs is usually avail-able from the state-level Bureau of Appren-ticeship and Training. In some cases,apprenticeship credit is being offeredthrough programs at the secondary level.

However, according to Robert Glover(1980), Chairperson of the Federal Com-mission on Apprenticeship,--

apprenticeship sponsors remain quitecommitted to retaining the essen-tially private character of thesystem, and they are highly resistantto any effort which they view asgovernment intervention. Partlybecause of this suspicion of publicsector involvement and partly result-ing from the failure of publicschools to understand apprenticeshipand reach out to industry in thepast, meaningful alliances betweenvocational-technical schools andapprenticeship programs are sensitiveand difficult to build despite thefact that related classroom instruc-tion is often provided to apprenticesby local school systems or communitycolleges. (p. 1)

For this reason, it is important thateducators "do their homework" before seek-ing such alliances. Knowledge of thevarious types of apprenticeships (e.g.,construction vs. industrial-corporationbased) and knowledge of the specific con-cerns of apprentice trainers in the immedi-ate geographic area are essential if jointefforts are to become a reality.

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Military

If there is a military installation ina school's geographic area, contacts alsoshould be made with personnel there. Newrecruits require training. Civilian per-sonnel often need retraining. Militaryspending at the federal level is not de-creasing; defense preparedness is a toppriority. A total of .51 percent of thedefense budget is spent on personnel, andthose personnel must be trained.

The military system has much experi-ence in providing training, but localinstallations may be willing to draw uponyour resources to meet specific trainingneeds. Similarly military reserve unitsand National Guard units provide personnelwith training--training needs that might bemet by a vocational-technical school. Forexample, if a local reserve unit wants totrain one of its members to operate wordprocessing equipment, it may be more real-istic to enroll that person in a programoffered at a local technical institutionthan to plan and offer such training withinthe unit. Or, if a nearby military basewishes to train paramedics and a localinstitution offers an excellent paramedictraining program, it would make sense forthe military to tap that existing resource.Military installations may also provideexcellent training stations for students incooperative education programs.

Identify Types of Collaboration/Service Possible/Desirable

The next step is to review the rangeof types of collaboration/services possibleand to select those that would be appropri-ate to the local situation and realistic interms of institutional capabilities. Atthe very least, BIL should be involved inan advisory capacity. Better still, insti-tutions and BIL should be involved in somecooperative efforts. Best yet, vocational-

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technical education and BIL should developa working partnership. Exhibit 3 shows asampling of the types of collaboration/services that should be considered.

Devise General Marketing Strategy

All community and technical colleges,to varying degrees, engage in institutionalpromotion. However, many institutions donot market themselves and their products.Promotion is only part of the marketingprocess, which involves the product, itscosts, and its distribution.

Marketing strategy development shouldbegin early in the linkage process. Pro-spective buyers must be considered and adetermination made of what products andproduct packaging is likely to appeal tothem. It is much less effective, and oftenmore difficult, to develop products andthen devise the means to sell them.

The provider of educational/trainingproducts and services must determine buyerpreferences and provide the right mi-c ofproduct/service, price, and place.

Thus, as linkage plans are developed,questions such as the following must beanswered:

Who are the buyers and what aretheir characteristics?

What is their present level ofinvolvement in the vocational-technical system?

What is their current opinion ofvocational-technical education, andhow can we improve our image anddispel any misconceptions?

What types of products (i.e., pro-grams) would appeal to them?

What types of packaging (i.e.,program characteristics such asopen-entry/open-exit) would appealto them?

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What types of promotional devices dothey respond best to?

Selling, buying, standardizing andgrading, financing, transporting, storing,and risk bearing are all part of marketing,and vocational-technical educators alreadyaddress these program concerns, but sepa-rately. Marketing involves a differentattitude--a total approach to producingprogram offerings. The emphasis must be onthe consumer and on producing a productthat best meets the consumer's needs anddesires. Educators often operate as ifthey are in a seller's market. They arenot; the market is a buyer's market, andany approach to designing, packaging, andpromoting programs or collaborative activi-ties must take the buyer into consider-ation.

Determine Supporting Items Needed

It is conceivable that determinationof the supporting items needed -- budget,staffing, facilities, equipment, and mate-rialsmay have been a first step ratherthan a last. That is, planning may havebeen based upon supporting item limits.

This approach is fine as long as thoselimits are not permitted to totally re-strict planning so that key elements areforegone. Regardless of limits, it is bestto determine (1) what must--at an absoluteminimum - -be done to accomplish linkagegoals and (2) what should ideally be done.Then, given supporting item limits, smallpieces of the plan can be attacked oradditional support sought. The plan shouldanswer the following types of questions.

Budget

What funds are presently available tosupport linkage efforts? What funds wouldbe required to support activities specifiedin the plan (e.g., line items such aspostage, duplication, telephone service,clerical support, professional staff, pro-motional materials, paid advertisements,

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EXHIBIT 3

TYPES OF COLLABORATION/SERVICE

To improve vocational programming andestablish linkages do the following:

Ensure that each instructor or instructional area has an active adsisory committee of appropriate B1Lmembers and that this committee is involved in program activities in regular and substantive ways.

Offer open houses and career days involving B1L attendance and participation.

Provide opportunities for students to visit BIL facilities, to observe workers on the job. and to partici-pate in on-the-job experiences.

Arrange opportunities for students to receive training on up-to-date equipment not available in theschool through temporary equipment loans from BIL or through on-the-job training.

Promote placement of students in cooperative education programs.

Respond to BIL suggestions concerning program changes needed to adequately prepare students tosucceed in the world of work.

Help BIL to identify other ways in which they can help improve program offerings (e.g., provision ofhuman, financial, and in-kind resources).

Provide for instructors (and administrators) to spend time in the world of work. For example, staffdevelopment credit could be offered for related work experience undertaken on weekends or duringholiday periods. Exchange programs could be set up whereby an employee (with some training expe-rience) trades places with a school instructor for a designated time period.

Coordinate and articulate offerings with other providers of education and training.

To meet the in-house training needsof BIL do the following:

Conduct needs assessments to identify employees' training needs.

Conduct occupational analyses to identify skills needed on the job.

Adapt existing secondary or postsecondary "on-campus"courses to meet training needs.

Develop new on-campus courses to meet training needs.

Develop program curricula for BIL trainers to .se.

Develop curricular materials and media for BIL trainers to use.

Provide BIL trainers with technical assistance.

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EXHIBIT 3Cont in ued

Develop and offer BIL-specific training using their facilities and your instructors or vice N er sa .

Offer outreach programs designed for and accessible to employees located at a distance from anyvocational-technical institutions.

Develop and offer programs to train BIL trainers.

Evaluate Bit, training programs.

Consider all levels of employment when offering training:

Management skills

Supervisory skills

Technical skills

To expand program offerings for the unemployedseek opportunities to do the following:

Assist dislocated workers.

Cooperate with private Industry councils (PICs).

Share facilities. equipment. and personnel with other education training providers (e.g.. CBOs).

Offer entrepreneurship training.

Offer remedial education.

travel, and so on)? Are existing fundsadequate to cover funds needed? If not,what options are available to secure theneeded funds, and what steps must be takento do so?

Staffing

What clerical and professional staffwill be involved in the linkage effort?In what ways will they be involved? Canthe linkage activities be accomplished byexisting staff as part of their regularactivities or by adjusting staff responsi-bilities? Will new staff need to be hired

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(e.g., a full-time director of linkageactivities, or additional instructors toprovide the additional programs to beoffered)?

The linkage plan, must be as thoroughand as specific as possible at this point.If part of the plan is to increase instruc-tors' use of advisory committees, then "allinstructors" should be listed. If it isknown who will be appointed to particularpositions these should be listed. If not,positions to be filled should be listed.

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Facilities

What building space will be requiredto support the plan? Will additionaloffice space be needed? Is such spaceavailable? If not, how can such space bearranged?

If new BIL specific programming is tobe offered, where will it be offered?Within the school? At the BIL facility?At some other outreach location? Whatarrangements must be made to secure thefacilities needed?

Equipment

Equipment could include the typewriterneeded by the new linkage director's secre-tary, as well as the minicomputers requiredto add a course to teach computer literacy.Again, plans must be reviewed to identifythe stated or implied equipment needs. Itmust be determined whether (1) such equip-ment is currently available, (2) arrange-ments can be made to acquire such equipment(or access to it) from BIL, (3) a sharingarrangement can be worked out with anothereducation/training provider that has suchequipment, or (4) arrangements will have tobe made to purchase such equipment.

Materials

What materials needs are stated orimplied in the plan? What promotionalmaterials will be developed, and what formwill they take? Will they be designed and

This chapter has provided an exami-:ion of many of the elements involved in

establishing effective linkages. The nextchapter describes some of these elements in

produced in-house or professionally? Whatother materials will staff require tosupport their liaison efforts with BIL(e.g., letterhead stationary, envelopes,business cards)?

What materials will be required tosupport the additional programming to beoffered? Will additional instructionalmaterials (e.g., texts, workbooks, learningpackages) be needed, and if so, can they beacquired, or will they have to be developedin-house?

Determine Evaluation Methods

Plans should be made in advance togather formative (process) and summative(product) evaluation data. Formative eval-uation data will allow for midcourse cor-rections and adjustments to ensure thatlinkage plans unfold as conceived. Sum-mative evaluation data will help plan ef-fective future linkage efforts. Exhibit4 provides examples of the types of ques-tions that might be addressed in developingthe evaluation component of a linkage planfocused on building partnerships for eco-nomic development.

If linkage plans have been thoroughlydeveloped, they will facilitate evaluationefforts. With specific tasks listed to-gether with their target dates, it is arelatively simple task to monitor progressand ensure that planned linkage goals aremet.

Summary

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more detail, with a particular focus onadministrative support requirements andpromotional material development.

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EXHIBIT 4

EVALUATION QUESTIONS

External Feedback

How will you continually get feedback from the business community?

Will you focus on data from employers served by the program directly'?

Is it important to get broad data from the larger district business community? If so. what mechanismswill you use?

How will the economic development program's advisory committee participate in this feedback pro-cess? What will be their ongoing role?

What mechanisms are now in place to assess the total district reaction to all services offered by theschool? Are these adequate in light of the economic development emphasis?

Internal Review

What internal mechanisms for program supervision and review of program quality are presently inplace?

Will the present system provide adequate supervision of off-campus instruction and services'? If not.what mechanisms will you implement?

How will you obtain feedback from the instructional staff directly inohed in economic developmentservices?

How will you evaluate the impact and cost benefit relationships of various offerings?

How will you ensure overall excellence in the economic development program'?

How will you evaluate and share the implications of economic development activities for regular pro-gram offerings?

SOURCE: The &Iunni Development Opportunity. n d.. pp. 57-58.

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11)3

References

The Economic Development Opportunity: AGuide for Building VTAE District-Community Partnerships for EconomicDevelopment. Appleton, WI: FoxValley Technical Institute, Eco-nomic Development Guide Committee,n.d.: pp. 57-58.

Glover, Robert W. Apprenticeship inthe United States: Implications forVocational Education Research andDevelopment. Occasional Paper no.66. Columbus: The National Centerfor Research in Vocational Educa-tion, The Ohio State University,1980.

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Chapter 6Techniques for

Establishing Linkages

A particular institution has committeditself to developing BIL linkages, hasdeveloped a detailed linkage plan, and hasappointed a person who has the appropriatecharacteristics, knowledge, skills, and at-titudes to fill the linking agent role.What should be done next? Should linkageactivities be started? Probably not.

Several other elements must be ad-dressed if linkage efforts are to success-fully result. First, the administration ofthe institution must ensure that the personcharged with linkage development has thesupport needed to fulfill his or her re-sponsibilities. Second, appropriate de-scriptive and promotional materials must bedeveloped and available in sufficientquantities. It's more difficult to market

services without effective marketing mate-rials than it is to market products.

And, finally, the linker should beaware of certain important do's anddon'ts in terms of making, cultivating,and managing BIL contacts.

The material in this chapter thataddresses these concerns was excerpted andadapted from the following document:

Norton, Robert E.; Harrington, LoisG.; and Spencer, Carol J. EstablishLinkages with BJL /GM. ModuleLT-J-2, Competency-Based VocationalEducation Administrator ModulesSeries. Athens, GA: American Asso-ciation for Vocational InstructionalMaterials (AAVIM), 1984.

Administrative Support

Administrative support must go beyonda commitment to linking with BIL; tangiblesupport is required. Most important isthe provision of time--the time requiredto do the tasks. If an educator has splitduties--half-time linkage development andhalf-time administration--then chances aregood that the linkage job will never getthe attention it needs. At the adminis-trative level, as at many other levels,there is really no such thing as a half-time job. This is particularly a problemwhen a present administrator is reassignedto a part-time linkage role. Old roles mayinterfere.

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The best situation is to assign aperson full-time to the linkage role. Itis next best, if the linker must hold asplit assignment, to ensure through physi-cal arrangements or scheduling that he orshe will in fact be allowed to actuallyspend half-time developing and facilitatinglinkages. It may also be helpful to pro-vide the half-time linker with some sort ofsimple procedure for documenting how muchtime was spent on each half-time assignmentand what activities were performed relativeto each. This can help to ensure that each

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assignment gets its fair share of atten-tion. But some flexibility must be pro-vided. If, for example, some linkageactivities require full-time work for aweek, then that should be possible. Theother role should then get full-time atten-tion the following week. Always spendingmornings in one role and afternoons in theother may not be possible or even desirablein many cases.

In business and industry particularly,many productive contacts are made overlunch. If the linker is expected to par-ticipate in luncheon meetings, then thebudget should allow for reimbursement. Anysuch expectations involving the expenditureof funds should be provided for. Typi-cally, educational budgets do not coversuch "noneducational" expenses. However,to work with BIL, education must cooperatewith common B1L practices to some extent.This does not mean wining and dining themto obtain cooperation, but it does meanthat if the linker can do his or her jobbest by meeting a business person overlunch, the luncheon should not be an out-of-pocket expense.

A dedicated office space is alsoimportant. The linker needs a place tomaintain materials, develop reports, holdmeetings, file records, and so on. Thisspace need not be plush, but it shouldreflect the importance of linkages to theinstitution. This means relatively high-quality, well designed office space. Asmall, cluttered space that seems to be anafterthought will not create the credi-bility that is essential to linkage ef-forts. Persons from BIL must also be ableto easily reach the linker to ask questionsand make needed arrangements. The linkershould also have access to sufficientclerical help as needed.

Finally, the administration may needto do some in-house public relations on anongoing basis to ensure support for thelinker. Other staff may resent the linkerfor having special privileges. It may bevery important to orient staff to thelinker's role and purposes and to sell themon the importance of this role to allstaff. If staff understand the role, theyare more likely to be supportive--of boththe linker and the linkage effort.

Promotional Materials

In attempting to create linkages, BILrepresentatives must be moved through thechange process, the first two stages ofwhich are awareness and interest. Theymust be made aware of what linkage meansand what linkage goals are being pursued.Once they are aware, they will probablyrequire additional, more detailed informa-tion to study and consider. Some of theseawareness/interest informational needs canbe met through personal contacts, butinitial contacts are likely to be brief.Informational materials that can be leftwith the BIL representatives for further,more leisurely, perusal must be prepared.

The types of materials required andthe quality of the materials to be devel-oped (e.g., typed and photocopied, andprofessionally prepared with color andphotographs) will obviously vary depending

98

on the local situation. If an institutionis part of a statewide economic developmentlinkage effort, it may have access to awide variety of promotional materials. Ifonly a single institution is involved, thematerials may be fewer and more simplyprepared. An institution or districtshould first consider the types of mate-rials they wish to prepare and the generalguidelines for their preparation. A de-scription of some of these materials fol-lows, as well as a look at the range andtypes of materials used in two statewideefforts.

Types of Materials

Appropriate materials are requiredthat will (1) introduce the linker andthe institution(s) he or she represents,

106

(2) explain the linkage effort, and(3) convince BIL to participate in theeffort. In general, these purposes can bemet through materials such as the follow-ing:

Simple well-designed business cards,listing the linker's name, position,address, and phone number

Brochures describing the linkageprogram, the school's goals andprograms in general, the programsdesigned for BIL specifically, orthe ways in which BIL can becomeinvolved in education/training

Slide-tape presentations (7-12 min-utes in length, maximum) describingthe school and its programs, or pastBIL linkage efforts

Flip charts with key bits of in-formation (illustrations, facts,charts, diagrams) on each page thatcan be used to guide and enlivenpresentations

Simple handouts describing presenta-tion points in more detail

The types of handouts that can beprepared are many: letter of introductionwritten by the chief school officer, by arespected member of the BIL community, orby an elected government offizial; photo-copies of newspaper or journal articlesdescribing or commending the school'sprograms, activities, or accomplishments.

One highly effective selling tool isto let others do the selling. Once alinkage program is in place, handouts thatcontain the views of satisfied BIL cus-tomers, written in their own words, can beremarkably convincing to prospective BILparticipants. A list of BIL persons whocan be contacted for further informationcan also be provided. The words of otherBIL personnel, in person or in writing,often have substantial credibility.

Exhibit 5 shows the narrative contentfrom a brochure used by Trident Technical

99

College in Charleston, South Carolina, tointroduce their Business and IndustrialTraining Programs. The actual brochure isa trifold. The cover shows a photograph ofthe school, lists the title of the program,and provides the school's name and address.Also, part of the brochure is a mailer thatcan be cut out and returned, pre-addressedand postpaid, to the college for additionalinformation. The mailer allows the re-spondents to check whether they wish toreceive additional information by mail orto be contacted by phone. Finally, 'heback of the brochure is slotted to allowthe linker to slip in a business card.

The materials used by Columbus Tech-nical Institute (CTI) in Columbus, Ohio,include a six-page linker handout introduc-ing the school and its Business and Indus-try Division and a number of trifold bro-chures. The contents of the large handoutinclude full-color photographs of trainingactivities and a series of case studiesdescribing customized training programsconducted by CTI for central Ohio busi-nesses and industries. Exhibit 6 shows asection of and a photograph from theschool's multipurpose Bulletin devoted tothe Business and Industry Division.

Preparation Guidelines

There is one guideline that governspreparation of materials: keep themsimple. Unless an institution has money toburn, materials need not be professionallyprepared, multicolored masterpieces ofpromotion. If materials are too slick,people may wonder whether their tax dollarsare being spent wisely. On the other hand,amateurish, typewritten, mimeographed bro-chures may not have the impact needed, andmay not compete favorably with the promo-tional materials BIL persons are accustomedto receiving. Some middle ground of qual-ity and expense is required.

If an institution has a graphics orprinting capability, make use of the skillsand equipment available to produce mate-rials. And, regardless of who preparesmaterials, follow these few basic rules:

EXHIBIT 5

TRAINING BROCHURE

Customised training. Bringing a course of study into a company changes it from a canned presentationinto a dynamic tool with immediate usefulness on the job. Customising a program goes far beyond schedul-ing. It means trimming the topics that may not relate to an operational need and expanding those that do:combining the best parts of different programs: or even designing a completely new course.

Our courses include a variety of subjects in general studies. industrial electricity, electronics, mechanicsand supervisory training. Classes are held at times and places convenient for your organisation. Mostcourses can be taught In-plant, limited only by the availability of laboratory or computer facilities. Manyindustry programs are conducted several different times. Some are repeated quarterly. semi-annually orannually. and a few programs are repeated numerous times each year to meet the demand.

At Trident Tech in Charleston. South Carolina. quality in our classes is important. We constantly mon-itor and evaluate student performance. instructional procedures and course effectiveness to maintain ourhigh-quality educational standards.

The most return for your training dollars. Many businesses and industries have similar concerns abouttraining mils. You will find our costs per student are usually one-third of what other , stitutions charge. Weoffer affordable training. with quality guaranteed. With Trident Tech's industrial training programs you willget your money's worth and a lot more.

Qualified and experienced instructors. Capable and responsive instructors are essential to the success ofany industry training program. Trident Technical College selects experienced instructors from industry.governmental agencies. and our own faculty. Our goal is to recruit the finest instructors and select onlythose who will provide the optimum solution to your training needs.

Industrial student support services. Industry students enjoy the same privileges and benefits as fulltimestudents attending the college. These benefits include the use of college libraries and access to campusrecreational facilities (with a Trident Tech Student 1.D.). as well as counseling and career planning assist-ance. Also students can use the libraries of other low county colleges. including The Citadel. The College ofCharleston. Baptist College. and the Medical University of South Carolina. by presenting their Tech I.D.

Media support services are also available to industry instructors and students. Our media support capa-bility includes 1 /2 -inch and 3/ 4-inch video recorders and playback units: 16mm film, overhead. slide, andfilmstrip projectors: and tape recorders. Most of this equipment can be transported to off-campus locations.

Additional support services for students include learning labs with audiovisual equipment. cassette tapelibraries, study rooms, and photocopying machines. The Learning Resources Staff provides support for allindustry courses.

Continuing education credits. Trident Technical College awards Continuing Education Units (CEUs) toindustry students. The CEU is used to measure learning acquired while participating in an industry trainingprogram. CEUs carry no credit toward college degrees or diploma programs. However, they provide a per-manent record of participation in non-degree continuing education activities and are an indication of theknowledge and skills one acquires by attending such programs.

Certificates of achievement are also available from the college and are awarded when appropriate.

100

.A.t n 8

I 1

EXHIBIT 5Continued

Summary. The Business and Industrial Training Programs at Trident lech offer your compan manstraining benefits. By exploring your needs and using our resources, we can deNellp a comprehensi%e trainingprogram that will enhance your company's growth and productivity.

Our industrial representative is looking forward to hearing from you and will be happy to set up anappointment to discuss your training needs.

SOURCE: Trident Technical College, n.d.

1011 0 9

EXHIBIT 6

EXCERPT FROM BULLETIN

rBusiness and Industry Division

%Infos Programs For Business,Industry And Government

As part of Columbus Technical Instowie's commitment tomecum the nods of businem, industry. and envenomed, thecoller's 141111111111 and Industry Diatom provides sumac pro-grams that are consistent with the developmental needs of theorgan atom.

Columbus Tech is pagamd to provide 'nonunion andopium promos in most tochmcal mac and the Businessand Industry Dimon can also design specific naming pro-grams Onion netam-ladored to men the everchanguy needsof all types of myouations

With toltaology changsaa almost every field, employeet n u r a n g ho become an ongoing and never ending requirementin the workplace The naming programs that are availableprondeemployes with the background and knowledge neces-sary to upgrade their skills and result at increased productivity.sweeseful performance on the yob. and cost effectiveness

For additional information on how Columbus TechnicalInstitute can provide your orpmettion with cost effacingtraining programs contact Business and Industry Division at(614) 221-50011

On-Site Training Programs

All of CT1's training programs can be offered on-sate, at anemployers place of business Programs can also be held onCTI's main campus, near downtown Columbus. at any of thecolleget suburban locations, or at any suitable location asaroused between the college and the sponsonng employer

The following employers have taken advantage of theseongite training programs.

Ohio BellDCSCAT &TGeneral MesonLeber CorporationColumbus Auto Parts

Community Mutual Issuance CoCity Of ColumbusCapitol City ProductsAshland ChemicalCapital Tool and DieWorthington Industries

For additional information contact Business aria IndustryDivision at (614) 227-5000

6

Types Of Training Programs

The Summand Industry Divisional Columbus TechmodInstitute can provide your orprwation with training programsin the form of collegroedit courses, workshops, senuran.andnon-credit provams

Listed below u a mmpk of the types of training programsthat have been provided by the CT1 Business and IndustryD imon

AccountingAir Conditioning ServicesBasic Bluepnnt RendingB annon WnungComputer LiteracyComratologyEffective SpeakingBannon CliontryEnterpnse Training Food ServicesFur ProtectionIndiums! Hydraulics/ PneumaticsIntroduction CNC MachinesLOTUS 1.2.2Pnnoples of BankingPrivate SecuntyResidential Sales HumesStarting/Chagrins Systems (Automotive)%WW2! Quality ControlSupervisory TrainingTalmo] WiningTelephone CommunicationsTime Management

In addition to the trains nn programs hued above. progomsare also available in a wide vsnety of subtoct areas and on becustom-uulored to meet your specific weds For additionalinformation contact Business and Industry Division at (614)227-5000

Organizations That HaveParticipated

Listed below are some of the orpnizations that have takenadvantage of the training programs that art offered by the

Business and Industry Division at CIns Auk

Adna Laboratories IncAT&T Network SystemsBuckeye FederalCity of ColumbusColumbus Bar AssociationColumbus Coated FabricsColumbus !whomColumbus Metropolitan HoumaCommunity MINN! Instance CDefense Construction SupplyDollar SavingsFederal Highway Transports&Franklin County Children SerGeneral ElectricGeneral MotorsIndustrial Fabricators...11771113

Kest -Kanluel CorporationNestk's CompanyOhio Bell TelephoneOhio Deponmem of HOhio Deponment of TOhio Medical IndoorJCPenney Inman*Physical Ins. CaPitney BonesPlaskolitePrinting IndustryRehabilitating BsRockwell InternWorthington

stateperson. to traboner problem'

For additional infonnetionColumbus Technical Inoutute. (614)227

whams!

lb411

a_

wF

SOURCE: Columbus Technical institute. 1986.

110BEST COPY AVAILABLE 1.1i

Reproduce materials using a photo-copier or offset process for bestresults. Do not use mimeograph orditto processes.

Use paper stock of various colors(not white) and, if possible, use asturdier weight of paper stock.

Use photographs and illustrations tobreak up the text and produce visu-ally attractive materials.

Leave "white space." Don't try tofill every conceivable corner. Iden-tify key points and present thembriefly if you want the recipient totake the time to read the materials.With promotional materials, less isoften more. If you can producematerials that get read and that canwhet the appetite, the reader willcall or write for more information.

Typeset brochures and booklets. Usevarious type sizes to highlightheadings and key points.

Use a crisp, businesslike style oftypeface if materials such as hand-outs are to be typewritten.

Duplicate handouts on the school'sletterhead, if it is clear and at-tractive.

Make sure that all copy is clean,clear, and error-free.

Lay out copy and illustrations sothat the overall effect is visuallyattractive.

By following these rules, anyone should beable to produce professional materials witha minimum of expense.

Sample Statewide Materials

In two states--South Carolina andOhio--the educational system and BIL train-ing are an integral part of the state'seconomic development activities. Regional

103

linkers have access to a wide variety ofpromotional materials. Same are designedto promote the area; some, to promote thetraining available.

One task of the linkers in thesestates is to attract business and industryto the state or to a region within thestate. In South Carolina, linkers use afolder that proclaims "START UP IN THEBLACK in South Carolina" on the cover.The folder is a trifold design, whichmeasures 8-1/2" x 11." This design allowsthe folder to be used to hold other hand-outs, but the folder can also stand aloneas a promotional device. After the cover,its five other surfaces simply state thefollowing information:

A repeat of the title and fourparagraphs (seven short sentencesin all) explaining that South Caro-lina's Technical Education Systemcan minimize the time and moneyrequired to recruit and train a workforce for a new plant.

"TEC's Industria' Report Card"--Fivestatements fro plant managerspraising the TEC System, with threecolor photographs showing workers onthe job. (See exhibit 7)

"We Take It by the Numbers"--Briefdescriptions of the eight servicesthe TEC System can provide.

"Our Service Never Stops"--Key dataconcerning the institutions andstaff available for provision oftraining, with a state map showingthe location of the TEC institu-tions.

An address and phone number to useto acquire further information andthe system logo.

Booklets and brochures are also avail-able to describe the advantages of life ina particular city or town. For example,the Akron (Ohio) Regional DevelopmentBoard makes available a 32-page booklet(8-1/2" x 11") filled with photos and facts

112

EXHIBIT 7

PROMOTIONAL HANDOUT

TEC's Industrial Report Card

Cost Efficient Start-Up A+Obviously, this program was one of the

deciding criteria in site selection of our plant, butit's people like your representatives who put forththat extra professional and personal interest andeffort that make the program a success. Theoutstanding job done for us provided theinvaluable asset of trained individuals with whichto start our plant, and to the S. C. Board forTechnical and Comprehensive Education we aresincerely grateful.

Ronald S. MensikPlant Manager

Mueller CompanyClinton, S. C.

On behalf of the staff of the York plant Iwould like to commend you and yourorganization on an outstanding job in thedevelopment, coordination and implementationof what is undoubtedly one of the most thoroughand comprehensive training programs I have everhad the privilege of being associated with.

Certainly you can be proud of yourorganization in knowing that it serves theindustries and communities of South Carolina insuch an effective and supportive manner.

'The State Board for Technical & Comprehensive Education doesorigin, religion, or handicap "

Dennis R. WinklemanManager/Employee Relations

Rockwell InternationalYork, S. C.

Low Employee Turnover A+I wanted to express my appreciation of the

State support given A. 0. Smith in conductingour training classes, providing the materials, andgetting us started here in McBee. The State canindeed be proud of the people on the State Boardfor Technical and Comprehensive Education andthe mission they are accomplishing with us andother new industries. Their efforts have given usan excellent start-up and a solid foundation ofexcellent people on which to build.

In my opinion, your program is one of thebest in the nation and certainly has made A. 0.Smith feel at home here in South Carolina.

Thomas W. RobinsonPlant Manager

A. 0. SmithMcBee, S. C.

Tailor-MadeTraining Programs A+

not discriminate on the basis of race, color, sex, age, national

1041 1 3

EXHIBIT 7Continued

DesigningTraining Programs A+

I want to extend to you and to the membersof the South Carolina State Board for Technicaland Comprehensive Education my sincereappreciation for the excellent support we havereceived in preemployment training for potentialemployees. This support, the costs borne entirelyby the State of South Carolina, has been anintegral part of the successes that we haveachieved thus far in our operations at Alumax ofSouth Carolina.

In my opinion, any company consideringlocating a facility in South Carolina shoulddefinitely be exposed to the numerous advantagesoffered by the South Carolina State Board forTechnical Education. I will personallyrecommend South Carolina as the place to start abusiness.

Mike G. KareefVice President & General Manager

Alumax of South CarolinaMt. Holly Plant

Goose O,ek, S. C.

.4-` 1; 04pf

p

We are completing our fifth State-sponsoredtraining program at TEC. The program wasdeveloped to prepare individuals for positions ofassembly, fitting and wiring operations in themanufacture of Switchgear Equipment.

One measure of the success of the overallprogram is the rate of turnover of personnelexperienced by Westinghouse, after hiring thoseindividuals who did accept employment offers. Ofthe total of 72 people hired from the programthus far, only one was released.

We are grateful for the fine relationship thatexists between your Division and ourCorporation, and appreciate the effort anddedication of your personnel toward thesuccessful achievement of our mutual goals.

B. J. PleunikManager of Manufacturing

Westinghouse Electric CorporationGreenwood, S. C.

Screeningand Testing Applicants A+

siimarry44*

4111; se GI.1114.

SOURCE: South Carolina State Board for Technical and Comprehensive Education. n.d.

105

114

about Akron's history, housing, communityfacilities, health care, government, educa-tion, industry, cultural events, research,sports and recreation, communications,transportation, and development. Chambersof commerce also produce these types ofbooklets, brochures, and handouts.

Materials used by linkers in the Ohioconsortia system include the following:

Small, professionally producedbooklets, available from the OhioDepartment of Development. Ex-hibit 8 is an example of one ofthese, the OTTO (Ohio TechnologyTransfer Organization) booklet.

An 18-page document from the OhioDepartment of Economic and Com-munity Development entitled "Start-ing & Operating a Small Business inOhio." This is a guide to basicbusiness information: legal struc-tures, financial assistance, taxes,OSHA, training facilities, and soon.

Handouts and other promotional mate-rials describing a specific trainingconsortium.

School-specific materials such asprogram or institution brochures andcourse catalogs.

In addition, Ohio uses a multipurposepromotional packet. A large pocket foldercontains a 32-page, full-color, spiral-bound booklet describing Ohio's resources.It also contains a series of 25 singlesheet color handouts describing state workforce training capabilities, assistanceprograms of various types, the state taxclimate, and R&D centers and incentives.Some of these handouts are shown in ex-hibit 9. They can be used as part of thecomplete packet or as individual promo-tional items.

Other materials used by linkers in theSouth Carolina TEC System include--

106

115

Impact, a journal published by theSouth Carolina State Board forTechnical and Comprehensive Edu-cation, which "is distributed freeof charge to inform the industrialand business communities and gen-eral public of developments in thestate's technical education sys-tem;"

a 6-page, typeset brochure, "Historyof Technical Education in SouthCarolina;"

an 8-page color brochure "Planningfor Profit, Progress, Productivity:South Carolina's Training SuccessStory," with introductory informa-tion about South Carolina's specialschools, a list of schools, a mapshowing their locations, and lots ofphotographs;

a 21-page handout including (1) num-bers of persons, by company andcounty, trained by Special Schools,(2) a bar graph showing number oftrainees per year, and (3) a statemap showing numbers of industriesserved by TEC Special Schools bycongressional district;

a brochure describing the SpecialSchools (see exhibit 10);

a handout describing the benefits ofthe Special Schools to a company(see exhibit 11); and

a handout listing the names, ad-dresses, and phone numbers of theindustrial service representatives --the linkers.

Note in the samples the use of letterheads,logos, and illustrations. Also note thatnot all materials are introductory orselling tools. Some, like the Ohio bookleton small businesses, are designed as a"free gift"--a helpful tool that can beused by BIL representatives in their ownday-to-day activities. Production and useof materials like these can greatly enhanceeffectiveness in developing linkages.

O

boo id""

csrscAt

Elpurr 8

OHIO TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER BROCHURE

TO YOU...the smell

buskers* owner

FROMOTTO...OleoTechnology Trenskr

Otgenizetion

0 ADVICE

0ASSISTANCE

INFORMATIONon tethnicalproblems, state-of-the art

technology. businessmanagement needs, etc.0 COST

Normally atno cost to theclient!

OTTO is funded by theOhioDepartment of

Development

In the CentralOhioarea, theseservices are provided by theColumbus Technical Institute.

SOURCE: Columbus Technical institute. n.d.

116

WhatIs OTTO?Founded by the Ohio

Board ofRegents toserve the

needs ofbusiness and

industry, theOhio Technology

TransferOrganization (OTTO) is a

state-funded net-

work ofcolleges and

universitiesthroughout Ohio

Agents locatedat thesecolleges act ss brokers

betweenbusinssefinflusbyand higher

education tohelp solve

technical andape antproblems.

Your local agent islocated atColumbus Technical

Institut* Simply call todiscuss your

business needswith your

OTTO agent, who will tapevery available

resource to helpyou fill those

needs He will prordesmall business

consultation directly, orthrough CTI

faculty members

Why Is OTTO?freesarch is

occurring daily in Ohio'scolleges and

universitiesGp-to-dete

information faaccumulating

federal andstate agencies

OTTO wasestablished

for you, thebusiness person, to transfer

this researchand information

to solveyour businea

problems

Whom Is OTTO?You can

contact yourOTTO agent

at ColumbusTechnical

institute. (614)227-5000 Technical experts

are weltingto givehands-on

assistance Give OTTO

a calf

Sadness Need

How Doss OTTO Wolf&cu. slums1 Adistributor of

automobile and truck tires devel-

oped aninnovative

technique to =yds usedthe

However, forthis process. called

la/alai& to Uscoat-effective the principal

by-productcarbon black,must be sold

for industrialapplication The

businessowner requested

information onpotentialindustrial

uses and onmethods of

grading carbonblack The

OTTO agentreferred this

request to theBuenas

ManagementSpecialist aro

brokered It toa chemi-cal engineerat the college

After sconsultation. the

company woe able to initiatemeeting efforts with

several newindustrial2 A

restaurant ownerwith inventory

Control prob-lems contacted

her localOTTO agent

for assistanceOTTO's

computerizedinformation

system providedthe ratituranteur

with data on inventorycontrol As s

result, thecompany's cash

flow significantlyImproved3 A

machiningcompany added a row product

lineas a result of

assistance in racketingreferral' from

the localOTTO agent

The product line was devel-oped to crests

a diversity ofmarketing In the few

months it hasban on the

market, productsales of531030 haverouted4 A

manufacturer ofentered powder

metal partswas experiencing

excessive diewear in itsmolding

presses Therepresentative froma governmentresearch center

arranged to coat andtreat eight dif-

ferent moldpins, each in a different

manner Eachwas then put in use and

is currentlyunder evaluation

It is anticipatedthat savingsof at least

550000 a yearwill resultfrom a solution

to this problem,both in

materials and in production rate

Facultyconsultant

SualeessManagement

Consultant

OTTO Agent

Specialist

osu InformationService

ANSWER

i 1 1

EXHIBIT 9

PROMOTION itt IIANDOUTS

fitAscl'

coo sINGESsEpitCHitAstsori

potiED0%1'0"

thelnnovauve Besearchfinant %rig Program thtFP), part of

oflam, state holding is available for technical

s tamed on toio atby dustry'IRAK c be madeaketot

-

- FrhSOr1

OHIO DATAUSERS

CENTER

INFORMATIONCATEGORIES

HOW TO GETINFORMATION

The OhioData Users

CentertODUCL with a

central leK awn in

Columbusand 42athhatec enters,

bringstogethercensus and

statistx aldata froma broadranged

standardandhard-to-find

sourcesInformation is avaiiable

in pont,on microfiche,

and

directlyover computer

networksDemographics:

populationand housingdata from

the United

States deeennia I

census and fromavailable

ongoingcensus pro-

grams Thedemographics see tion

providesstatistic +from

the block

and zipcode to

the nationallevel This

see lion alsodevelops popu-

lationestimates and

prole( bons for themate and

c ()ordinatesthis

informationthrough all

state agent wsEconomics:constantly

updatedinformation

Irma broadvariety of

sourcesInformationa

help inanalysis for

spec diepurposes in

construenon industriesmineral

industrieswholesale tradelabor

impactanalysis

industrial tee hnologymarket radius

analysisgross stateductfederal

procurement analysisdevelopment of indices tochart loxal et()mimic pertor-mance aroundOhio

manufacturersretail trade

serviceindustries

personalincome

input-outputindustrial

technologyandgrowthassessmentpatent studies

banking

Information is availablewhen you call,

write or visit theODUC's

head,loaders Infoi

matron Centeror any of

the 42 lox al and

regionalaffiliatesin

universities,librariesand

panningagent ies

around Oho,Additional

information is availablethroughtwo

regularpublications

DataNotes:published

bi-monthly,Data Notes

updates the

sources ofinforntattooavailable

through t /DUE Free

OhioEconomic

indicatorsQuarterly:(Lodi Is

economic trends

Bysubscription

For alisting of

ODUClocationsand phone

numbers, and more

informationaboutODUCservices,

contactOhio DataUsersCenterOhio

DepartmentofDevelopment

PO Box1001

Columbus, Ohio43266-0101(614)466-2115

ap,RICHARD F

CELESTE,Governor

Department of Development, 1985.SOURCE: Ohio

log

EXHT 10

BROCHURE INTRODUCING THE SPECIAL SCHOOLS

Special SchoolsThe South Carolina Technical

Education System has been a model forthe nation since 1961. In the 1960's,TEC's plan to help new and expandingplants "start-up in the black" attractedinternational attention.

More than 40 states and a numberof foreign countries have sentrepresentatives to study TEC's success inhelping bring diversified, prestigiousindustries to South Carolina.

In meeting the needs of industry inSouth Carolina, TEC Industrial and Eco-nomic Development Division throughSpecial Schools has provided short-termpre-employment training programs formore than 750 industries and 90,000people.

These start-up training assistanceprograms are temporary and areespecially designed to meet the specificneeds of the new or expandingmanufacturer. Special Schools areoperated under the management of theIndustrial and Economic DevelopmentDivision on a statewide basis with thecooperation of the involved technicalcollege.

Contact:Industrial & Economic Development DivisionS. C. State Board for Technical &

Comprehensive EducationII 1 Executive Center DriveColumbia, S. C. 292101.20 and Bush River Road803. 758.6926 5/85

South Carolina's Technical Colleges

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Omura

Aden TichnirAl CollegePost Office Drowsy 606Aiken, South Caroline 29601P hone 5939231

S eddon Technical Cone,1005. Ramat Road P.0 Box 1211111

Banton. South Caroline 29902Phone 5244380

Chesterfield-Marlboro Technical CollegePost Offen Drawer 1007Cheraw, South Cerohne 29520P hone 537 5286

Denmark lichened Cones,Post Office Box 327Denmark, South Carolina 29042Phone 7931301

Floninc4DerlInglon techntai CollegePost Office Box 8000Fianna , South Carolina 29501Phone 6624111

Greenville Technical CollegePost Office Box 5616, Stanton 8Greenville, South Caroline 29606Phone 242 3170

Howv-Georgetown Technical CollegePost Office Box 1964ifighwev 601Conway, South Carolina 29526Phone 347 3186

Mullen& Technical CollegeP 0 Box 24011Columba, South Carolina 29202Phone 7914281

r

Wahmisog

balm

OrangeburpCdhoun Tochmeal College3250 St Matthews Road, N EOrangeburg, South Caroline 29115Phone 5360311

PoadmOnt Technical COOPPost Of lice °rawer 1467Greenwood, Saudi Carolina 29646

Phone 2234367

Spartanburg Technics( CollegePost Office Or 4386Spartanburg, South Caroline 29305Phone 5765770

Sumner Arse Technical College506 North Guipure! DenaSumter. South Carolina 29150Phone 778-1961

Tri-County Technical CollegePost Office Box 587Pendleton, South Carolina 29670Phone 6464361

Trident Technical ColloidP 0. Box 10367Charleston. South Caroline 29411Phone 572-6111

Wilhamiburg Technical Camp001 Lane RoadKinptree. South Carolina 29556Phone 3647423

York Technecol ColleyUS Ifighsvei 8y4rins 21-4Rock Hill. South Carolina 79730Phone 3243130

South Carolina'sSpecial Schools

Published By:The S. C. State Board for Technical and

Comprehensive Education

119 120

EXHIBIT 10Continued

1

2

3

IN DEVELOPING SPECIAL SCHOOLS TRAINING,WE TAKE IT BY THE NUMBERS

Analyze

TEC's Special Schools Manager andIndustrial Consultant meet withyour people and observe youroperation to fully understand yourneeds.

Plan

A complete plan for recruiting,selecting and training the necessaryproduction workforce is preparedfor your approval.

Schedule

TEC's Special Schools Managerprepares a leadtime schedule whichpinpoints all recruiting, testing,selecting and training activitiesaccording to your requirements.The training time required for eachjob skill is scheduled so that allrecruitment and training arecompleted according to yourworkforce requirements.

PrepareTraining MaterialsWith cooperative assistance fromyour company, manuals aredesigned to teach the specializedskills demanded by your process.These are printed in our supportcenter print shop. The supportcenter also has capabilities forproducing audio-visual training aids.

Recruit InstructorsQualified instructors are hired fromlocal industry, the TEC collegei'esuuity or from your company togive trainees the best in practicalexperience as well as classroomlearning.

Recruit TraineesWe work very closely with theSouth Carolina EmploymentSecurity Commission (Job Service)to recruit, test and selectapplicants. Successful applicantsattend training classes on their owntime, without pay.

7

8

PrepareTraining SiteA facility for training is locatedwithin the community of yourplant site. Usually, programs areconducted in one of sixteentechnical colleges of the SouthCarolina TEC System. If there isnot a TEC college nearby,production machinery, otherinstructional equipment, andlighting from TEC's centralwarehouse can be quickly installedin a facility provided by thecommunity.

ManageOver twenty years of experience inserving industry provide us with theknow-how to make all the elementscome together for one purposeproviding trained workers to getyour plant into immediate highefficiency production.

"The State Board for Technical &Comprehensive Education does notdiscriminate on the basis of race, color,sex, age, national origin, religion, orhandicap."

S RCE: South Carolina State Board for Technical and Comprehensive ucation. 1984.121 122

EXHIBIT 11

HANDOUT DESCRIBING THE VALUE OF THE SPECIAL F-HOOLS

G WILLIAM DUDLEY JREXECUTIVE DIRECTOR

THE BOARD

OFFICERS

P HENDERSON BARNET TE

CHAIRMAN

CLIFF B MORGAN

VICE CHAIRMAN

1110111E1IS

HERBERT J SCHOLZ JRCharleston S C

First Congressional District

CLIFF B MORGANOranpeburg S C

Second Congressional District

P HENDERSON BARNETT E

Greenwood S CThird Co ngressionai District

BENNETT L HELMSSPananburg S C

Fourth CONMS1110.81 ChStroCI

CLARENCE H HORNSBY JRRoca mil S C

Fifth Congressional District

J BANKS SCARBOROUGHImmensities S C

Stain Congressionw. (MIMI

H CARL GOODINGAllendale S C

At-Latpe

OSCAR E PRIOLEAUGteenvolW S C

Al Lame

CHARLIE 0 WILLIAMSColumbia S C

Supermiendent of EducationE -OTTKro

J MAC HOLLADAYColumbia S C

State Development BoardER-Officio

STATE BOARD FOR TECHNICAL AND COMPREHENSIVE EDUCATION

111 Executive Center Drive, Columbia, South Carolina 22110 F 1',8 1,,4' 1

OUTLINE OF THE VALUEOF SPECIAL SCHOOLS

TO A COMPANY

Our brochure, Planning for Profit, Progress, Productivity: outlinesthe pertinent aspects of a typical Special Schools program. A fewobservations about the value of such a program may be helpful.

As you may note from the brochure, the monetary contributions bythe State for pre-employment programs to prepare South Caroliniansfor job opportunities are significant and meaningful to a company.For example, we provide (or have provided by others such as thecommunity and Job Service):

(1) Trainee recruitment, preliminary screening and testing;

(2) Recruitment and payment of instructors;

(3) Site for training (unless done in the plant);

(4) Supplies and hand tools;

(5) Equipment (other than specialized equipment which isborrowed from the company);

(6) Use of our own staff in preparing the training site;

(7) Assistance in developing instructional materials includingprinting, photography and development of slide presen-tations, provision of audio-visual equipment for training;and

(8) Program management which includes quality of instruc-tion; trainee progress; adequacy of equipment andinstructional materials; and termination of trainees whoare not meeting standards for retention.

In addition, the techniques of trainee selection, screening andrete- in are of untold value to a company. For example:

(1) As most trainees are already employed elsewhere, they aretaking advantage of the training opportunity, withoutcompensation in order to better themselves and theirquality of life. In other words, they are motivated, anattribute that is certainly to be desired by a prospectiveemployer.

1111 7

EXHIBIT 1 1Cont n tied

R6-22-84

Outline of the Valueof Special Schoolsto a CompanyPage 2

(2) Trainees have an opportunity to ascertain whether or notthey will enjoy the type work for which they are beingtrained and to assess their abilities to successfully performprior to having to leave the security of their currentemployment. Those who are not desirous of continuingvoluntarily terminate from training. As a consequence, apotential malcontent employee is avoided.

(3) Trainees who do not meet the criteria for retention in thetraining are dropped by TEC. Reasons for their termina-tion may be such as failure to learn, excessive absenteeism,repetitive tardiness, being disruptive, and other similarreasons that are reflective of a poor risk as an employee.

(4) Only those trainees who have successfully demonstratedthat they have acquired the prerequisite level of skill andknowledge for the particular tasks involved are certificatedat the conclusion of the training.

In light of the foregoing, the company has the distinct advantagesof motivated, interested, trained, and quality candidates forprospective employment. Labor relations are greatly enhanced,turnover is significantly reduced, initial quality and levels ofproductivity are higher, and cost of training is much less. Thesefactors are the heart and essence of our programs.

Incidentally, our selection processes, including testing, are notcontrary to EEOC standards, and affirmative action.

F. Earl Ellis, Sr.Associate Executive DirectorDivision of Industrial and

Economic Development

SOURCE: South Carolina State Board for Technical and Comprehensive Education, n.d.

112

Linkage Do's

It's time to build linkages havingfulfilled the requirements of an adminis-trative commitment and support, a qualifiedlinker, appropriate marketing materials,and high quality vocational-technical pro-gramming. But, before taking action, itwould be useful to consider some generallinkage do's and don'ts suggested by suc-cessful linkers.

Review information about theorganization/agency. During initialinformation-gathering efforts, spe-cific information about local BILshould be obtained. Before contact-ing a BIL organization, review in-formation about it (e.g., its prod-ucts, services, structure, facili-ties, personnel).

The linker should also review whatis known about any potential facili-tators or barriers to the linkageeffort. Has this organization beeninvolved with schools extensivelyin the past, or in small but affirm-ative ways? If the organization hashad prior positive experiences, pre-sent efforts will be facilitated.

On the other hand, if the organiza-tion has had negative experienceswith schools in the past or hasnever been involved with schools,the linking agent needs to know thisin order to prepare for and approachthe contact effectively. For ex-ample, experienced linkers havenoted that some BIL people are waryof the "open palm" syndrome or arereluctant to talk to them because ofwhat the linkers call the "CETAcomplex." These BIL persons havebeen approached by educators repre-senting CETA and, for whateverreasons, the contact was not posi-tive. The quality of the workershired may have been poor, or theamount of documentation may havebeen perceived as excessive. Thelinker must get past these negative

and Don'ts

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125

feelings before he or she can besuccessful.

Real barriers must also be distin-guished from perceived barriers andfabricated barriers. Real barrierscan often be removed through carefulplanning and creative problem solv-ing. Perceived barriers can oftenbe removed simply by providing ap-propriate facts. Fabricated barri-ers are sometimes constructed todisguise real barriers or to providea rationale for inactivity. "TheUnion won't let us do it" or "I'dlike to do it, but it's not withinmy power," may be statements thatserve to mask hidden objections.The right kind of probing is re-quired to determine whether thesekinds of statements are valid anddo truly reflect the real objectionor problem.

e Identify and reach the most appro-priate person( s) in the organiza-tion. This is often not as easy asit sounds--but it may be the singlemost crucial step in the contactprocess. The linker should be waryof job titles. Persons in differentorganizations may have the same jobtitle, but perform very differentfunctions.

Furthermore, the most appropriateperson(s) to contact may vary.Ideally, the person to contact isthe one who will be receptive andwho has the power or ability to makedecisions. This may be a personwith a particular title (e.g., pres-ident, training director), or it maybe an opinion leader--a person with-out much official power who, never-theless, commands the respect ofothers to the extent that he or shecan effect changes. Or, the firstperson the linker talks to may bethe one whose ear he or she can getmost easily and who can then arrange

Tr

for contacts with others in author-ity within the organization. Insome cases, more than one personwill need to be contacted. Forexample, training may be a componentof several separate units or divi-sions, and the training director ofeach unit or division may need to becontacted.

Organizational structure should bestudied to learn both the formalchain of command and the informalpower structure. Formal and infor-mal personal contacts should be usedto determine how the organization isstructured and what the most appro-priate or accessible entry pointwould be, given institutional objec-tives.

* Develop a variety of approaches foruse in making initial contacts andbe able to select and use the mostappropriate approach for each situ-ation. Organizations, situations,linkage purposes, and contact per-sons will vary. The most effectiveapproach for each situation must bechosen. Experienced linkers suggestthree basic approaches:

- I have a service . . .

- You have a need . . .

- I'm just here to talk . . .

Assume, for instance, that a linkermeets with a harried executive in alarge corporation who is not overlyeager to get involved with theeducational system, and he or shesays, "I'm just here to talk." Thatcontact is not likely to be verysuccessful. On the other hand, thatthrough-the-back-door, soft-sell ap-proach may be just the right one inother circumstances. An effectivelinker must learn to read the situ-ation and select the best approachto use.

114

In addition, the most appropriateapproach for dealing with the smallbusiness person, the entrepreneur,may need to be quite different fromthe approach used with the largecorporation executive. Their ques-tions, needs, and concerns arelikely to be very different.

Be professional. Chances for suc-cess will be enhanced if behavior isclearly professional. First, a link-er should never just drop in tovisit; an appointment should alwaysbe made first. Second, the pre-scribed chain of command should befollowed. If a linker goes oversomeone's head, he or she may suc-ceed initially only to find the ef-forts undermined or short-circuitedlater. Third, appropriate dress iscalled for. Over concern about andover reaction to dress may reflect ashallow outlook, but research showsthat we all react strongly to out-ward appearances. It also showsthat first impressions are long-lived. Part of one's credibilityas a person aware of the needs andconcerns of business and industryrests upon the perceptions of con-tacts. It's important to look thepart.

12 6

Fourth, it's important to rememberthat the information garnered duringcontacts should be treated as con-fidential. Fears of industrial espi-onage are well-founded. Competitionis fierce. Trust is essential toany linkage relationship. A linkershould never risk destroying ordamaging hard-won relationships bydiscussing other contacts.

Finally, women should be aware ofthe sexual biases that still exist.Over reaction should be avoided.Women also need to remain aware thatmany male executives are simply notused to dealing with females in pro-fessional roles. They may approach

meetings somewhat awkwardly, seemto be unsure of how to relate, andso on. Maintaining professionalismover time will eliminate most prob-lems.

Don't overload the first meeting.The linking agent should not makethe mistake of trying to "do it all"during the first meeting. It'R bestto plan to take only the first fewsteps during the first meeting toensure that one will be invited backto continue the change process.

Materials describing the institu-tion's linkage effort, the school,or whatever should be handed out atthe mee ,g, not mailed in advance.Chances are, mailings won't getread. However, the person shouldnot be inundated with materials. Afew, well-developed materials willprobably be read and can serve towhet appetites.

Part of the first meeting, ofcourse, should be devoted to orallyproviding the BIL representativewith appropriate information: ori-enting him or her to the school'sgoals and programs, describing theservices that can be provided, orwhatever. But it is critical thatthe BIL representative talk. Whatservices does his or her organiza-tion need? What training needs havethey felt? What concerns does he orshe have about linkage with educa-tion?

Also, the linker needs to haveidentified in advance the types ofquestions he or she is likely tohave. The linker should have theanswers to those questions handy orknow where to get the information.The linking agent must provideopportunities, and encouragement ifnecessary, to have those questionsasked and answered.

Communicate skillfully. Educationaljargon should be avoided. The

115

linker should not risk misunder-standing or alienation. The lan-guage of BIL should be used whenappropriate.

The linker should be wary of over-emphasis on educational credentials.Introducing oneself as "Dr. "

may be inappropriate. Some BILpeople may see titles as barriers.First names or the conventionaltitles of courtesy are the bestapproach.

The linker should also be carefulabout the use of the term economicdevelopment when describing linkagegoals. The word training is prob-ably a more accurate descriptionof purpose. State-level economicdevelopment people will be lesslikely to perceive an institution ascompeting with or interfering withstatewide efforts.

Communication needs to be open.Inherent in open communication ishonesty. The linking agent shouldnever promise something that his orher institution may not be able todeliver. If a project cannot bebrought in on time for the moneythat a BIL organization is willingto spend - -a commitment should notbe made. This may sound like ratherobvious advice, but unfulfillablepromises are sometimes made whenthere is strong pressure to createlinkages and bring in dollars. Ifan organization does not meet therequirements of a particular con-tract, it is likely that word willspread, and other potential linkageswill be adversely affected. Anatmosphere of open and honest com-munication often results in theremoval of barriers. If, for ex-ample, it is stated up front thatcertain training cannot be providedbecause of lack of access to theproper equipment, the linking insti-tution might provide the neededaccess or funds to allow access.Effective training can be worth more

127

to a particular company than is atfirst apparent.

A reputation for trust and relia-bility is a very valuable commod-ity.

Document efforts. For the purposesof accountability, and future refer-ence, it is critical that '11 link-age efforts be documented. BILcould be sold on linkage, but if thelinker can't sell his or her employ-ers on the value of their efforts,linking may not continue. This isespecially crucial in that documen-tation may not be a designatedrequirement of the linker's job atthe outset, but the quality andextent of documentation at the endof a given contract may well deter-mine whether the school's linkageefforts are continued.

Develop and use linking skills. Thelinker who is effective over thelong term is the linker who contin-ues to acquire appropriate knowledgeand works to develop skills andattitudes related to the linkingrole. Listed below are remindersand pointers that all linkers shouldremain aware of.

- The linker must remember to act asa neutral party, not as an advo-cate of either education or BIL.

Given proper planning and preparation,bcth initial and subsequent contacts withBIL should be successful and fruitful.Single contacts, although a sufficient goalat the outset, should be built on andexpanded as the linkage effort continues.It is important to eventually build rela-tionships not only with, but between BILorganizations.

One educational linker, for instance,holds monthly meetings of persons from the

- The linker must be willing andable to function as a followeras well as a leader and be acatalyst.

- The linker must work efficiently.

- The linker must be patient andpersistent.

The linker should be an activelistener who doesn't tell BILrepresentatives what they need butrather helps them to determinewhat is needed. BIL involvementshould be real and substantial.

- The lint. ;r must be flexible.

- The linker should strive to be agood manager.

- The linker should not promise whateducation can't deliver, and notask BIL to do the impossible(e.g., to hire co-op students forhazardous occupations, when thestudents do not meet the minimumage requirement).

The linker should be a detailperson, but one who doesn't losesight of the "big picture."

Summary

public and private sectors to promote andenhance awareness and cooperation. Thislinker offers the following guidelines forconducting such meetings:

116

128

Select the right people to partici-pate (i.e., the leaders and opinionleaders).

Meet with each individual prior tothe meeting to identify and head offany potential conflicts.

Plan activities that allow eachparticipant to leave each meetingwith a sense of accomplishment--afeeling of time well spent.

Rotate the meeting locations to en-sure that each participant is awareof the "home conditions" of theothers.

References

Columbus Technical Institute. Excerpt ficunBulletin. Columbus, OH: ColumbusTechnical Institute, 1986.

Columbus Technical Institute. Ohio Tech-nology Transfer Brochure. Columbus,OH: Columbus Technical Institute,n.d.

Ohio Department of Development. Promo-tional Handouts. Columbus: OhioDepartment of Development, 1985.

South Carolina State Board for Tech-nical and Comprehensive Education.Brochure Introducing the SpecialSchools. Columbia: South Carolina

117

State Board for Technical and Compre-hensive Education, 1985.

. Handout Describing the Valueof the Special Schools. Columbia:South Carolina State Board for Tech-nical and Comprehensive Education,1984.

. Promotional Handout. Colum-bia: South Carolina State Board forTechnical and Comprehensive Educa-tion, n.d.

Trident Technical College. Training Bro-chure. Charleston, SC: Trident Tech-nical College, n.d.

1_29

Part IIITaking Action

119 130

The creation of effective linkagesdepends upon many variables--skilled link-ers, a responsive institution, solid plan-ning. One of the most important of thesemany variables, in today's competive envi-ronment, is the quality of customizedtraining and other special services pro-vided to employers. This chapter detailsthe various components that an institutionmust consider in order to offer a qualitycutomized training program.

The material in this chapter has beenexcerpted and adapted from the followingdocument:

Norton, Robert E.; Harrington, LoisG.; and Spencer, Carol J. Pro-viding Customized Training Pro-grams for BIL/GM. Module LT-J-3.Athens, GA: American Association forVocational Instructional Materials(AAVIM), 1984.

Defining Customized Training

There are differing conceptions ofcustomized training, but for the purposesof this discussion we can define it asfollows:

Customized training includes thosetraining and training-related serv-ices that are or could be offered bya 2-year institution--in addition toregular programming--in response tospecific business, industry, andlabor needs.

The customized training programs dis-cussed here are those designed to meet spe-cific and immediate needs for (1) quicklystaffing a new or expanded plant, (2) re-training current employees in response tochanging technology, and/or (3) upgradingthe skills of current employees so they cancontinue to grow and develop and so promo-tions can be made from within. Althoughmany of these programs may be short- term --a training need is identified and filledand the program ends--it would be a mis-

121

take to place too much emphasis on thatcharacteristic as a descriptor of custom-ized training. Many programs developed inresponse to a short-range need become long-term programs once their effectiveness hasbeen proven.

Customized training goes beyond thetraining of normal student populations andenters the realm of human resource devel-opment--of lifelong learning and retrainingfor those already in the work force andthose who are unemployed but beyond whathas been traditionally considered "schoolage." Although predictions for numbers ofjobs and skill levels related to high -technology occupations in the future vary,most predictors seem to agree that therapid changes inherent in high technologywill require that workers be retrainedperiodically--perhaps every 3-10 years--tostay abreast. Vocational-technical educa-tion has a great deal to contribute to suchan education and training effort.

131

BIL training 'Needs can be reportedby a number of sources: the vocational-technical institution, the economic devel-opment division of the city or state, BIL,or other government training programs.

Vocational-Technical Institutions

All effective vocational-technicalprograms are developed with a desire toprepare students for work. Consequently,through community surveys, linkage effortswith BIL trend analysis, and the study ofother data, vocational educators try todetermine what and where the jobs are andwill be.

If, for example, projections indicatethat workers will need certain basic com-puter skills, the institution could developan appropriate course which could be takenby current students or by employees alreadyon the job.

If a school has a staff member assign-ed to establishing linkages with BIL, thelinker may identify training needs throughhis or her contacts. It may be that theseneeds will be those the BIL organization isalready very much aware of. Or, based onhis or her special expertise, the linkermay identify a training need that theorganization has not yet felt or that isnot considered a high priority. In thatcase, the linker may try to develop theorganization's awareness of and concern formeeting that need.

Economic (Industrial)Development Division

In areas where such a mechanismexists, officials from BIL can go to theeconomic development division for trainingassistance. A corporation moving in fromout of state may need to be sure that therewill be a trained work force awaiting itsarrival. A local industry that is expand-ing its operations or installing state-of-

122

the-art equipment is likely to have train-ing needs. The economic development divi-sion staff then arranges to provide thetraining assistance required, often bylinking the BIL agency with the appropriateeducational institution.

BIL

Sometimes an organization will contactan educational institution directly to gethelp in meeting its training needs. Forexample, perhaps a plant president hasheard a lot lately about the effectivenessof quality circles in improving produc-tivity, product quality, and worker morale.The president wants all plant supervisorsto be trained to implement quality circles.After some research, this president couldconclude that the best and most cost-effective way to secure this training is toask the local postsecondary school todesign and conduct a training program.

Other Government Training Programs

Federally funded programs designed tocounteract high unemployment rates andstructural uneir ployment through job train-ing may also be a source of identifiedneeds. A Private Industry Council (PIC)in a given area, for example, might iden-tify a training need that could best bemet through programs offered by a localvocational-technical institution. If theinstitution has maintained regular andpositive contacts with the PIC, the insti-tution will be aware of these needs and canhelp respond to them.

In short, needs may be identified bythe vocational-technical institution, orthey may be brought to the institutionfrom a number of outside sources. Thequality of your linkage efforts with out-side sources will affect how aware you areof the needs that exist, which in turn willaffect your ability to participate in meet-ing those needs.

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Meeting BIL Training Needs Effectively

There is sometimes a ter lency to thinkthat the primary way to meet the trainingneeds of BIL is through the provision oftraining programs (e.g., a 6-week wordprocessing course), but the staff atvocational-technical institutions possessmyriad skills that might be utilized inmeeting training needs.

In some cases, an industry may wantan institution's help in recruiting andscreening potential trainees. Educationalinstitutions typically have staff withexpertise in selecting, administering, andinterpreting aptitude and achievementtests. Thus, it may be that a school canhelp an expanding or new industry first byhelping them to identify those persons mostlikely to complete the training and succeedon the job.

Then again, it may be that help isneeded in conducting an occupational analy-sis. Before any training is undertaken, byany educational institution or BIL organ-ization, it is critical that the knowledge,skills, and attitudes required for the jobbe adequately identified.

Of course, it may be that the BILagency may want a training program design-ed, developed, and conducted for them.However, it is equally possible that theagency c, organization will wish to conductthe training Icing its own instructors andfacilities and equipment. That does notmean that additional assistance is notrequired or desired. Assistance could berequested for the following objectives:

Designing the program

Developing training materials

Training the trainers

Providing technical assistancethroughout the training program

Developing evaluation instruments

Evaluating trainee performance

Evaluating program effectiveness

The types and extent of trainingservices an institution provides will bedetermined by its capabilities, resources,and mission. However, it is important thatthe full range of possible services beexplored in making any decisions. It isentirely conceivable that an educationalinstitution could be extensively involvedin helping BIL meet its training needswithout ever having one of the school'sinstructors actually teach a course.

Assume for a minute that a localindustry is planning to expand its oper-ations, knows that training assistance willbe needed, and has come to your institutionfor help. What characteristics determinewhether your efforts will succeed or fail?

First and most critical is the abilityto listen. One of the most common com-plaints one hears regarding education'sefforts to serve BIL is that educators havetheir own ideas about what BIL needs andfail to listen. Programs designed withoutBIL input will not, at least in the longrun, succeed. If a postsecondary institu-tion has a set training "agenda" that itis determined to use regardless of theactual needs of BIL, it is unlikely thatits services will be utilized--or at leastnot more than once.

Second, the institution and staff mustbe capable of responding quickly--provid-ing service almost instantly or often com-pleting the effort within a very shorttime. Typically, educational programchanges materialize very slowly. An insti-tution may take a year or longer to designand implement a new training program. Thedecision to commit scarce monetary andhuman resources to such an undertaking isnot treated lightly.

This slow, cautious approach to pro-gram delivery will not work if BIL training

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133

needs are to be met. When a BIL organiza-tion comes to a school and says, "We willneed 20-45 additional production welders asquickly as possible so production will notlapse and outstanding purchase orders canbe filled on time," it cannot take a yearto design, staff, and implement the pro-gram.

Related to speed of delivery is theneed to minimize both red-tape proceduresand complicated decision-making channels.Persons from BIL frequently list thesekinds of concerns in explaining why theywould rather offer their own trainingprograms than contract with educationalinstitutions. If every simple decisionmust travel through a maze of bureaucraticred tape, paperwork, sign-offs, and admin-istrative procedures, then it is probablethat the training deadlines will havepassed before the training program is evenin place.

Some system of streamlined, localizeddecision making is required if customizedtraining is to be a reality. Ideally, theperson working directly with BIL to providetraining assistance should have broaddecision-making powers so that he or shecan do the job required.

The need for flexibility is anotherconcern that must be addressed. If allcourses are time-based (e.g., 8 weeks inlength with a specific starting and stop-ping date), the curriculum set, the in-structional delivery system fixed, and allcourses tied to credit hours and FTE (full-

time equivalent) funding formulas, theability to provide customized training forBIL may be greatly restricted or evenimpossible. The location, scheduling,content, and structure of programs must beflexible in order to best serve the varyingneeds of BIL.

In fact, according to statements bynumerous BIL representatives, training pro-grams prepared for them will generally havethe following characteristics:

Multiple instructional methods

Performance-oriented--sometimescompetency-based in certainindustries and larger companies

Highly focused on specific jobskills

Usually short term

Taught by persons with extensiveoccupation/industry experience

Geographically accessible

An institution thus will need toensure that mechanisms allowing for theneeded flexibility are developed and oper-ational. An institution's ability to re-spond quickly and individually and effec-tively to BIL training needs will determinehow successful it will be in its efforts todevelop and serve BIL clientele.

Planning Customized Training Programs

High-quality planning is essential tothe success of any customized trainingeffort. This has been stressed throughoutPart H of this book and will be emphasizedin Part III also. This stress is appropri-ate since the credibility of an institutionas an effective provider of training restslargely on its ability to deliver qualityproducts and services on a timely basis.To accomplish this, effective planning is

critical. It is well to remember that thealternative to planning is random action.

A suggested planning and developmentguide for an industry start-up trainingprogram is shown in exhibit 12. A chartdescribing the steps used at Trident Tech-nical College in South Carolina to providea customized training program to satisfy anindustry training need is shown in table 1.

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134

EXHIBIT 12

START-UP TRAINING PROGRAM PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT GUIDE

Phase I: Establishing Rapport

Determine when to begin planning for the start-up training program.Assign a coordinator to the program.Identify the liaison contact with the industry.Define in writing the responsibilities of each leader of various segments of the start-up program.

Phase II: Identifying Training Objectives

Identify the manpower requirements of the industry.Identify the date for plant start-up.Determine how many people will be enrolled in the training program.

Phase III: Determining Training Methods Means

Determine if cross-training will be needed for key jobs.Determine how instructors. equipment. and supplies will be furnished for training.Acquire a training site.Determine if training aids will be necessary.Determine if regular students in other vocational-technical programs will be allowed to participate inthe start-up training program.Determine who will recruit. test. screen. and refer prospective employees to the training program.

Phase IV: Conducting the Training

Determine if a teacher-training program is needed for the project staff.Establish a routine of "positive discipline" in the training program.Conduct each training session from an agenda developed by the project staff.

Phase V: Evaluating the Project

Set aside time periodically to examine the effectiveness of the training activities.Review the ratings and accomplishments of each trainee periodically with the prospective employer.Recognise the educational accomplishments of each graduate.Assist all graduates in finding employment.Enlist industry cooperation for a post-project on-the-job evaluation of employees.

NOTE: A start-up training program provides a pretrained work force for an industry that is locating in thestate or for an expanding industry within the state.

SOURCE: Brooks. Herring. and Newby. 1979. pp. 53-59.

125 1 35

Wm&

ivOs

TABLE 1

STEPS IN PROVIDING CUSTOMIZED TRAINING PROGRAMS

Trident Technical College (TTC)STEP 1W PNDUSI RV NIIKI Initial Meeting with Industrt.

RepresentititesDiscuss Capabilities1 raining CapabilitiesOhiectit csCoal.

DiscussFasting I raining

--Further I raining `eedsSt heduling Alternoto es

larger Audience

I

X

3 1 4 S 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

? Initial Course Planning DiscussCourse Material At ailablePresentation OptionsMaterial Organitation

I raining I ovation OptionsSupport Requirements

Prot idc!canna! Details

Content AgreementI otation Agreement

\

1 Formal ( nurse Planning Ret ic9let MLA Iktails

( nurse Proposal( tot AnalisisI nstruttor Option

I esthool, Options

Approte( nurse Proposal( ost Proposal

!LAI\

4 Instruttor Selection require Resume of PotentialInsulatorsArrange Intent ienPrepare I emporai t I mplus memAgreement

Re% lett ResumesInters en Instruttorstpprote Instrutior Selettion \

,

5 Course Detelopment lit required) Prepare( nurse Obietto esP-rtormante (Nett it esC ) use Si 11,1 Nis

Ie."

Prot ide

Subiett Matter SpetialistI il netessart I

( timpani. 5 potation\ \ \ \ \

6 Course Approt al Re% lett ( omplete I rainingPat Lige

Prot ide Final ( nurse Approt al

Approte I raining PlanSelett A milt Students \

7 Implementation Begin I rain g ( ontratt Implement I raining St hedult \II Monitoring ( 'intim:. Intruttor

Identitt and ( orrett ProblemsI mum Support Materials

Supple I eedhat ADetermine I rainingDetermine I raining I Item% cm,

\ \SOl R(I I Went le Smeal ( ollege n d

136 1_37

An alternative planning format is shown inexhibit 13. Figure 2 provides a graphicdescription of the basic steps generallytaken when providing customized training.These examples should provide the linkerwith an understanding for the overall plan-ning process.

The common elements of any trainingplan include the following items:

Defining the training effort

Time frames

Logistical concerns

Legislative concerns

Political context of the trainingeffort

The rest of this chapter will deal with thespecifics involved in planning customizedtraining programs.

Defining the Training Effort

Before beginning any other task in thedevelopment process it is important todefine the training effort so that allinvolved parties will understand the extentof the training tasks, their nature, andwho is responsible for each. These tasksshould be clearly delineated in detail, onpaper, and the responsibility for eachnoted. Verbal agreements have a way ofsometimes changing form during the develop-mental process. It could be disastrous fora training program if a certain piece ofequipment, for example, was not availablewhen needed.

The Time Element

Meeting deadlines is always a concern,no matter what the enterprise, but it is

especially critical in terms of trainingprogram development for BIL clients. If,for example, an institution contracts witha company to train welders for a particularproduct line and a production schedule iswell-established, failure to have trained

127

employees on line, on time could result inserious financial losses to the company.Very large losses can occur if all elementsof the line are not operational by a givendeadline. For want of a nail. . . .

Estimating time requirements can bedone in a number of ways. One effectiveway is to start at the deadline and planbackwards to determine how much lead timeis required. If lead time is set andrelatively short it may be necessary to usea different approach requiring adjustmentand structuring of activities to staywithin time limits. The development oftimeline charts which can be distributed toeveryone involved in the process is also

useful. They provide a handy planningreference. An example of one such timelinechart is shown in figure 3.

Logistics

Given the overall task to be accom-plished, there are a substantial number oflogistical decisions that must be dealtwith. Let's look at some of the key deci-sions to be made in this area of logis-tics.

Students

If the task involves actual training(rather than just a needs assessment oroccupational analysis), then who will thestudents be- -local persons seeking work oremployees already on the job? What levelof work is involved--unskilled, semi-skilled, skilled, production, nonproduc-tion, supervisory, managerial, support(e.g., maintenance or secretarial)?

If the prospective trainees will beselected from a larger pool of employed orunemployed workers, how will the selectionprocess be handled? Who will handle re-cruitment and advertising, and who willscreen and select the trainees: the schoolor the BIL client? On what basis will theselections be made? Depending on theclient and job level involved, selection

138

EXHIBIT 13

ACTION PLAN WORKSHEET

OBJECTIVE

(Include: type of result, way of measuring. specific numerical target)

TARGETDATE

COMPLETED

WHAT (Steps) WHORESOURCES NEEDED

KIND OF RESOURCEREQUIRED

TO BEPROVIDED BY

NOT LATERTHAN

SOURCE: Norton. Harrington. and Spencer. 1984. p. 31.

139140

Determine trainingrequirements

Course contentNumber of traineesCourse length/timeTrainee selection criteriaMaterials/methods requirementsEquipment requirementsClient goals/orjectives

Identify SME's/possible instructors

Yes NoClientDecision

Request revision/resubmission

Conductcostanalysis

Develop preliminarycourse plan/trainingproposal including/evaluation plan/proposed instructors

Submit completeproposal to clientincluding instructorcredentials

Instructorinterviews

3110.Y

Submit 1_4.proposal Client

decision

Yes Acquireinstructors

Develop course/materialF,

Acquireequipment/materials

---- 10.. Make sitepreparations

Scheduletrainees/instructor

DELIVERTRAINING

4 4Formativeevaluation

Summativeevaluation

141

Administrativefollow-up C LyF ciiver evaluation results

,ent follow-up

Determine client satistactionDetermine other needs

Figure 2. Steps in providing customized training

42

TASKS WEEK

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Determine training goals/objectives A._ AJob/task analyses A. _.Cost analyses A. _ _1111

Course planning

Preliminary course approval A__Equipment acquisition 1Facilities acquisition A_ _.Instructor selection/preparation

Course materials development A_ ...Final course approval

Facilities preparation

Course implementation

Trainee evaluation

Course evaluation

= Task Start

= Task Completion

Figure 3. Project timeline

143

A.A_ _ --

criteria could include items such as the minations, the final decisions must befollowing: known in order to plan rationally.

High school diploma or equivalent

Union status

Manual dexterity

Mechanical aptitude

Physical strength

Good eyesight

Ability to work independently

Ability to work at heights orin peculiar positions

Ability to work in places withhigh noise levels

Interest in working at timesavailable (e.g., swing shift)

Cooperativeness

Ability to meet health require-ments

Basic reading, writing, and mathskills

Scores on aptitude tests

If the persons to be trained are notpresently employed by the client, will theclient guarantee to hire them upon success-ful completion of the training program?Will they be paid during the training pro-gram? If so, by whom: the client, moniesavailable through government training fundssuch as Job Corps? What other funds areavailable to support the trainees? For ex-ample, will trainee travel be reimbursed,and by whom?

In some cases, of course, a BIL clientwill have made all decisions concerning thestudents to be enrolled and the types offinancial support available. But whetherthe client holds this responsibility orwhether the linker must make these deter-

131

144

Instructors

How many instructors are needed toconduct the training program? Will theseinstructors be employees of the client(e.g., industry trainers, supervisorystaff) or of the school? If BIL instruc-tors will be used, do they need to betrained? For example, supervisory staffmay be occupationally competent but weakin teaching skills. If a specific newinstructional approach or training packageis to be used, BIL instructors may need toreceive training accordingly.

If the school is to provide the in-structors, will they be drawn from thepresent instructional staff or will part-time instructors be hired to conduct spe-cific BIL training programs? Will any ofthese persons require preliminary training?What types of instructors can best serveBIL needs? It should be true, of course,that all vocational-technical instructorshave strong and recent occupational experi-ence. Unfortunately, however, some havemore education than experience, and theexperience of some was in the not-so-recentpast. To meet BIL training requirements,use of instructors with extensive up-to-date occupational experience is probablycrucial--if the instructors are to havecredibility with the clients and trainees.

A caution: It is important not tohire disgruntled BIL persons as instruc-tors. They may be available and may havethe occupational skills needed, but theyare not likely to convey to students thedesired work attitudes and ethics an em-ployer expects. If trainees are taught tobe dissatisfied before they are even em-ployed, their ultimate employment willprobably be satisfactory to neither thetrainees nor their employers.

A suggestion: It is helpful to developa list of prospective instructors -- eitherpersons on staff or in the community--whohave specific skills. With such a list

available, the right persons can quicklybe tapped to handle a particular trainingneed. In compiling this list, persons re-cently retired from a BIL organization orcurrently employed but who could teachduring nonwork hours should be considered.BIL clients or prospective clients wouldvery likely provide assistance in compilingsuch a resource list.

Facilities

Where will the training program beheld? It seems to be generally agreed thatthe training facilities need to be readilyaccessible to the students and need tocontain the necessary equipment. In anindividualized, competency-based program,space for a learning resource center wouldalso be a must. If the school is locatedin proximity to the BIL client's facility,and has the needed space and equipment, thetraining could be offered at the school.Or, to have access to the needed machines,tools, equipment, and so on, the trainingcould occur in the client's facility.Another option would be to use both facili-ties--to provide preemployment training crrelated instruction within the school andskill training on the job.

Still another option is to select anentirely separate facility. Perhaps, forexample, a corporation has three separateplants, and the most conveniently locatedfacility is one equidistant from all three,which can be rented and equipped to meetthe corporation's training needs. In thislater case, it would be necessary to deter-mine all related costs and to specify whowould be responsible--the school or thecorporation--for meeting those costs andmaking all needed arrangements.

A fourth option is the use of a mobileunit. For example, in the Boston area,most schools do not have access to comput-ers for student use. To give students achance for hands-on experiences with anarray of modern computer equipment, theDigital Equipment Corporation equipped a

132

computer bus. Thus, a well-equipped mobileunit can take the training to the trainees.This type of facility could be equallyuseful in providing BIL training.

Scheduling can also affect the selec-tion of facilities. The school may beconveniently located but if there isn'tspace available at the times required, thenthe school is not an appropriate choice.For example, if the trainees are employed,classes may need to be scheduled duringtheir shift or after their shift, dependingon the client's preferences. The facili-ties must be available at those times. Ifthe client's facilities are to be used,similar concerns must be addressed. Ifthey want training to occur during peakworking hours, is adequate space availableto provide training without interruptingthe work flow? Can high-quality instruc-tion occur in the midst of plant operation?In some cases, a BIL client will minimizethin problem by arranging for vestibuletraining--training in a corridor outsidethe work area.

Two examples of devices for evalu-ating prospective training facilities areshown in exhibits 14 and 15. The form inexhibit 14 covers the general adequacy oftraining facilities. The form in exhibit15 is related to safety requirements thatmust be met. If a facility to be used doesneed modifications, costs can be minimizedby involving students in building tradesprograms or maintenance personnel fromthe BIL client in the modification effort.This assume:;, of course, that the involve-ment of students is related to their pro-gram objectives.

One final note regarding facilities.If the training is to occu. at the facili-ties of the BIL client, and if federalfunds are supporting the training effort,it is essential that any products producedin the training program be kept separatefrom the products produced and sold by theclient. The selling of items producedduring training in such cases is pro-hibited.

145

EXHIBIT 14

APPRAISAL FORM - PROPOSED TRAINING SITE

Proposed Training FacilityAddressClient CompanyType of TrainingDateAppraisers

Rating Scale: S = Satisfactory: US = Unsatisfactory: CBA = Can He Altered

S US CBA

I. Adequate space is mailable for equipment and tools 0 0 0

2. Equipment may be spaced so that trainees are not subjected to undue safetyhazards 0 0 0

3. Sufficient equipment and tools are presently located in the facility to handle thetraining needs 0 0 0

4. The facility is well lighted (both natural and artificial) 0 0 0

5. Ample supply of electrical power is mailable 0 0 0

6. Electrical outlets are ample 0 0 0

7. Present electrical wiring is satisfactory 0 0 0

8. Ventilation is appropriate for training 0 0 0

9. Adequate classroom space is available 0 0 0

10. Ample supply of utilities (water. gas. telephone service) is mailable 0 0 0

Check one:

Facility is suitable for training--Facility is not suitable for training_Facility may be suitable after minor alterations

Alterations needed: I.2.

3.

4

5

6

SOURCE: Adapting the Training Site to Training Needs. n.d.. pp. 17-19.

133

EXHIBIT 15

TRAINING SITE SAFETY CHECKLIST

(Basal on OSHA Regulations)

Directions: Place a check mark in the apropriate box that best describes the safety conditions of the train-ing station. Each item must be appropriately rated.

I. bighting in work areas is adequate for jobs

2. A trained person is available to render first aid

3. First aid supplies approved by the health department are readily mailable.

4. Safety meetings are scheduled and held at regular intervals

5. Slippery conditions on floors are eliminated as soon as possible

6. Aisles and passageways are kept clear

7. Storage areas are kept free of debris

8. Portable stepladders are in good condition

9. Personal protective equipment for ears, eyes. face, head, and extremities: protectiveclothing: and protective shields and barriers are provided, used, and maintained

10. Suitable fire extinguishing equipment is immediately mailable in the area and ismaintained in a state of readiness for instant use

NOTE: Additional rules may be added to this list from other standard rules of safety

SOURCE: Evaluating Safety Conditions at Training Sites. n.d.. p 23.

147

134

Yes No N/A

0 0

0 0 0

0 0 0

0 0 0

0 0 0

0 0 0

0 0 0

0 0 0

0 0 0

0 0 0

Equipment and Supplies

What equipment and supplies are neededto support the training program? Are theypresently available, or must they be pur-chased? Who will pay for equipment andsupply costs? The provision of suppliesshould be a fairly straightforward task andone educators are accustomed to. It is inthe area of ensuring that up-to-date equip-ment--consistent with that used by the BILclient--is available that problems mayarise.

If the training is to be offered onthe job, then tool and equipment problemsshould be minimal. The tools and equipmentare already there. The only potentialproblems might involve the availability oftools and equipment in sufficient numbersat the times needed. It is important to beaware that voids cannot be filled usingstate-owned equipment if the equipment isused to produce marketable products.

If the training is not to be conduct-ed in the school or the BIL facility, pro-vision of tools and equipment can be amajor concern. Or, if the training is tobe offered in the school and if, as islikely, the vocational-technical institu-tion does not have the most up-to-datetools and equipment, or the types of toolsand equipment used by the client, or suf-ficient numbers of tools and equipment tosupport the training, what then? An insti-tution or the state department could pur-chase the necessary items, but this is bestdone only when these materials can be usedin the institution's regular programs. Pur-chasing sophisticated items that will be ofuse in only a few short-term training pro-grams for BIL does not make sense in termsof economics. There are other options,however:

Borrow the needed items from the BILclient

Borrow them from another school inthe district or area

Borrow items through the U.S. De-partment of Defense's Tools forSchools program

Rent or lease the items from theclient, a school, or commercialfirm

Purchase the items at reduced costfrom government surplus propertyagencies

Arrange for a BIL client to donatethe items to the school

By tapping all available sources, the nec-essary equipment and tools can generally beacquired with a minimum of cost.

Instructional Methods

The instructional methods to be usedin the programs will affect costs, suppliesand equipment needed, types of facilitiesrequired, number of instructors necessary,and so on. For example, an individualized,competency-based program might require awell-stocked resource center, with studycarrels and a variety of print and audio-visual materials. More instructors mightbe needed to support the individualization.However, fewer tools and equipment mightsuffice since students are not all workingon the same task at the same time.

To select the most appropriate in-structional method or variety of methodsfor your client and its training needs, thecharacteristics, ad Itages, and disadvan-tages of each need to be considered, asshown in table 2.

Instructional Materials

Given the training content and in-structional methods to be used, what in-structional materials will be required, forexample:

135 ! 48

al"

TABLE 2

INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS

INS1 RUC I ION AI ME I H01) AI)VA\ I A(iFS DISAD% A\ I A(if ti

Competency-Rased Education

Competenc) -based education (CHF) is anapproach to instruction in which theemphasis is upon students' clex eloping anddemonstrating specified competencies asmeasured by perlormance tests Ilse essen-tial elements characterwe CBE

Competencies to he achicx cd are care-fully identified, %era-led. and made pub-lic in achance

I he criteria to be used in assessingachicx ement and the conditions underwhich achicxement will be assessed arcexplicity stated and made public inachance

the instructional program pros ides forthe inclo 'dual deselopment and ex alua-lion of each of the competenciesspecified

Assessment of competency takes thestudents' knowledge and attitudes intoaccount but requires actual performanceof the competency as the primal, sourceof ex lance

Students progress through the instruc-tional program at their own rate b)demonstrating the attainment of speci-fied competencies

Implicit in these essential elements are thefollowing desirable characteristic,

Instruction is index idualued to the Min-imum extent possible.

Learning experiences are guided b) fre-quent feed back

Emphasis is on program exitrequirements

Instruction is indix 'dual!) paced

Instruction is, to a considerable extent.field-centered

Instruction is modulari/ed and flexible

Allows trainer close tontait ith thetrainee

Allows trainee to work on set of Lompc-tenties vccilic to his/her abilities andnerds

Allows trainee to work at ow n pate

Trainee reteucs Ircquent feed hat. k

Since trainee is ealuated on his/ her ahil-it to actual!) perform the skills in ofitd,It is more like!) that he/she can performsutcessfull) on the lob

149

136

11111611k more time and et lort man herequired to des clop the indiidualved!cal flint; packages needed

Riqunes ins(' nom to manage multiplestudent IC.111114. ado ities (to serc

oune

( HI proglarn xx huh is tints-Ilcible rnanot tit into a structured time frame

1

TABLE 2Cmet in tied

INSIRUCIIONAI MF I HOD ADVANIAGUS DISADVAN I AGIS

Personal Coaching

Personal coaching is similar to Indus dual)oh instruction in that it is a one -to -onesituation. but diflerer.1 in that it is alonger-term affair. Coaching is consideredto be more casual and less intensisc thanindisidual job instruction and is frequentlyused in des elopment of subordinates toassume more responsibilits Whereas indi-sidual on- the -doh instruction is aimed dtteaching the basics of the )oh to the personand obtaining good performance. coachingis used more to smooth off thc rough edgesAnd deals with smaller elements of thc ;oh

Small-Group Instruction

Allow, trainer close contact with theem plos cc

Allow, support and reinforcement ofnew Is learned skills

Allow, the trainer to des clop and maintainem plos cc moils anon

Allow, the trainer to line tune theemployee, on-Ole-lob performance

Allows the trainer to show .1 Lontinuinginterest in the pi ogress of the emplosc-

Allow, the trainer to esaluate perfornidimein one area beton Ens ing the emplos ccadditional tasks or responsibilities

Group instruo.c., is quite useful wherethere are mans employees to he trained ina short time. and where the jobs are NO ITOO COMP' EX. Group sessions lendthemselses best to presentation 01 informa-tion as contrasted to the practice of skills.Often. group sessions arc used to presenttheory or proccedres from an informa-tional slew point (there may he limitedskills practice) and then the more complexskills are presented indisidually on the )ohInstruction in small groups also allowsmembers to actively participate indiscussion.

I ime consuming

I he time factor olte .-. presents themanager trainer from doing a good lob ofcaching mans emplosecs dt once

('an handle groups of 8 to 10 participants

1 he group can pros idc a pool of informa-tion. suggestions and problem solutions

I his method ins nes acme participation(and learning) of each indis idual Groupdiscussion can he more stimulating landtherefore hold the learner's interest more)than other hum, of instruction

Members of the group tend to answer oneenother's questions (when the) k now theanswers). thus simphls ing the trainer'srole

Requires substantial leadership skill tokeep the discussion on the right track andmos ing from item to item

I he conference leader must hint: tact, and-its to communicate well and to ask stimu-lating question

Shs or introserted people may not partici-pate as much as sou would like (there is achance that someone w ill "hide" in thegroup 1

Instruction is group-paced rather thanindis idualls -pde^d

Indisidual On-the-Joh Instruction

Indisidual job instruction is a one-to-onesituation where the trainer deals o. withone trainee a:. time Intricate and com-plex jobs must almost always be taughtindividually and, in some cases, so mustrepetitive jobs where body motions timingis important. Ben in cases where thetrainee may time the basic skills, butwhere many questions are anticipated.indisidual instruction may prose usefulIndividual instruction normally requiresthe advance preparation of a Job Break-down and ',earning Outline. A four-steptraining sequence is then followed. ondrepeated. until the trainee ha. Ibtainedadequate skills to do the job

Allow, close contact and supers ision oftrainee

I raining can he more concentrated andpersonali,ed to the Indus idudl's needs

lrainer has first-hind k nowledge ofemployee's progress and per,(4.m.int.e. andcan gise feedback to the em, los cc quickly

Emplcsee not onls I eel% he or she is get-ting special treatment. but actually is get-ting it 1 his aids the creation and mainte-nance of a las °rabic attitude

*5 0

Often time-consuming

I united to only a less emplosees within apen time period

Requires lux: as much instructor prepara-tion as other training methods

I ulna must he able to mate well to awide %arms of people so as to he Meet is cwith the indisiduals being trained

TABLE 2 Co n tin tied

INSIRUCIIOSAI MI: I Fl 0 D AIM AS, I A(.1 S DISAI)\ A\ I A(iFS

Written Instructions

Written instructions are used where theemploscc already knows the basics 01 theloh and only needs some guidance in thedecision-making process related to that)oh Another area where written instruc-tions might he used is in making minorchanges in procedures or policies And(mall). written instructions can he used asreferences that the emploec can use on anas-needed basis

SOURCE Hindes, n d

I he materials need to he %intim onlyonce

Can he duplicated and used h mans dui-lerent emplosecs

Written instruction sales time lot both theemplosee and manager IF the contents Lanhe tinders, I without interpiciation

I raining can take place at an time thatthe trainee is as tillable for studs

I he training program can readily he dis-tributed to mans sites in mans differentlocations

138

I heic's a good possibilits for moundei-standing the material

I Mess estremek well-written then areopen to itkorreet interpretation

ommunual ion is one-was I here is noL hame to ask question during studs 01 thetraining mate) ials

I hoc is no immediate leedhaLk to themanager/ t amer about the em plmee'sunderstanding or lack of understanding

I he trainee is green no Iced hack or rein-forcement to assure that he/she haslearned the material as expected

Ks the time errors show up in the work.the emplosee ma has e already learnedimproper work habits. making correctionmore difficult

Preparation of well-written instructions isdifficult and time-Lonsuming for thetrainer

I aLks reinforcement and insolsement

Manager/trainer 11111\ miss the opportunitto build confidence. moto al ion and pro-s ide en ouragement

Textbooks

Workbooks

Modules

Technical manuals

Overhead transparencies

Slide/tapes

Films

Videotapes

Computerized instructionalmaterials

Are these materials available in-house,commercially, or through curriculum con-sortia? If not, how will they be devel-oped, and by whom? How much developmenttime will be needed? And who will supportany costs involved?

Student Evaluation

One of the ways in which the BILclient can judge whether or not a programhas been successful and that the traineesare well trained is through the results ofan evaluation system. Well-written, relia-ble, and valid tests to measure knowledgewill be needed. Performance tests tomeasure process and product skills must beavailable. Are they presently available aspart of the school's training programs?Are they included in the modules to beused? Must they be developed? And again,if so, by whom will they be developed, howmuch time will be needed, and who willsupport the costs?

Legislation

Most educators are accustomed to beingresponsive to the legislation specific toeducational programs. The same concernsabout equal opportunity and nondiscrimi-nation that apply in educational settingsmust also be part of any BIL services that

139

your institution may provide. These con-cerns are particularly important if aninstitution becomes involved in screening/selection/recruiting activities.

Involvement in BIL training may alsorequire awareness of other labor laws. Forexample, if trainees are being paid asalary during training, minimum wage lawsmust be adhered to. There must also not beany differentiation in pay based uponillegal factors such as sex.

If trainees are being trained on thejob, child labor laws (with standards gov-erning age requirements, work permits,hours of work, working conditions, and soon) may come into play.

If the occupation involved is one thatis legally defined as a hazardous occupa-tion, the institution must ensure thattrainees meet the minimum age requirements.The training facility must also be in com-pliance with Occupational Safety and HealthAdministration (OSHA) regulations. Alsoof concern are health insurance coverage(such as Workers' Compensation) for train-ees and liability insurance for instruc-tors.

If training is supported by fundsavailable through specific federal legis-lation such es tne Job Training PartnershipAct (JTPA), then it is important that allapplicable provisions of the act are com-plied with.

Attention to these legislated require-ments is essential if an institution'straining efforts are to be legal and equi-table.

Political Context

Although the political context isbeing presented as the last topic in theplanning section, it should be a key con-cern throughout all steps of the planning- -and implementation--process. Concern forpolitical context means that administratorsmust not lose sight of the institution aspart of the community.

52

At the very least, various segmentsof that community should be kept informedabout BIL activities. People involved inlocal economic development activities, forexample, need to know about the contri-butions of institutions in their area.Chamber of commerce personnel should beaware of such education-BIL partnerships.Informing community organizations whosememberships include persons from BIL can bean excellent way to promote additionalpartnerships.

At best, appropriate persons from thecommunity should be involved in pla:ningefforts. Their input can be helpful, theirsupport may be crucial, and they may beable to assist in solving logistical prob-lems. Can union officials, for example,help in identifying qualified instructors?Does another school in the area have equip-ment that can be borrowed or leased? Arethere other related training programsoperating locally (e.g., community-based

organizations or Job Corps) with whichefforts should be coordinated to preventoverlap and to share information? Canstate-level personnel, board members, orlobbyists help get approval for neededchanges in curriculum, scheduling, grading,and so on?

The institution's provision of BILtraining should be just one part of over-all community involvement and linkagestrategy. To ensure that it contributesto overall goals, people in the communityat large need to be kept informed and in-volved. If BIL training is treated as avery private arrangement, opportunitiesto create additional linkages, promotevocational programming, secure needed re-sources, and develop increased support maybe missed. In addition, "spreading theword" in this way (without, of course,infringing on proprietary information) isa way to say thanks to BIL clients fortheir involvement and support.

Developing an Agreement or ContractOnce plans have been developed for

providing the BIL training assistance, itis necessary to formalize the terms of thatplan in writing. This may initially takethe form of a proposal (see exhibit 16,but ultimately, after the proposal hasbeen accepted or oral agreement has beenreached, it should take the form of a legalagreement or contract. And officials re-presenting both parties--the institutionand the client--need to authorize thatagreement or contract by signing it.

This is not simply a matter of pro-tection against later criticisms--it is away of defining the limits of what eachparty will be expected to do so that thereare no surprises down the road. The formshould include objectives to be met andshould specify items such as the follow-ing:

Who will be trained? How manytrainees?

Where will training occur?

How long will the program be?Number of hours? Length oftraining period? Dates? Times?

Who will conduct the program?Numbers of instructors?Qualifications?

For what aspects of the programis the BIL client responsible?For what aspects is the schoolresponsible?

What costs are involved and howand by whom will these be met?

As indicated by part B of exhibit 16,the agreement or contract frequently in-cludes a budget. Exhibit 17 shows a train-ing agreement form suggested for use byindustry service providers in Mississippi.

Agreements with the BIL client are notWhen will training occur? the only legal documents required. As

140

153

EXHIBIT 16

TRAINING PLAN (PROPOSAL)

NARRATIVE DESCRIPTIONPart A

1.0 GENERA!. INFORMATION AND AGREEMENTS

1.2

1.3

Project No.

Name and Address of Agency to Proide Immediate Stwer, ision to this Project

Name and Address of Training Facility

Name of Project (Occupational Title)

1.4 Number to Be Enrolled in This Project

List Number to Be Enrolled by County:

1.5 Length of Training

D.O.T. Number

Number of Slots

a. Starting Date Ending Dateb. 'Total Number of Training Weeksc. Number of Hours Per Weekd. Average Number of Weeks Per Traineee. Estimated Total Hours of Training Per Traineef. Number of Sections Per Projectg. Training Is to Be Conducted from a.m./ p.m. until-a.m. p.m.h. Schedule of School Closures (e.g.. legal holidays)

1.6 Comments (if any)

2.0 COURSE INFORMATION

2.1 Occupational education ohjectives (attach as an appendix)

NOTE: The form shown in this sample was part of a proposal outlining the program to be offered, and italso included a narrative description of the program: a list of equipment needs and costs. a statement of thecourse objective: an outline of the course content and competencies: a budget summary: and facility rentalagreements. including the terms and conditions of the lease (e.g.. responsibility for liability andmaintenance).

141! 5 4

EXHIBIT 16Continued

2.2 Topical outline of major units of instruction and approximate clock hours denoted to each.

2.3 Daily training schedule for one week:

2.4 Records to be kept on progress and achiesement of students (e g.. attendance. progress. perfor-mance. skill levels):

SUMMARY OF COST OF TRAININGPart B

3.0 FACILITY COSTS Total

3.1 Facility Charges

Vkilmlim

a. Type of Facility: Public--Private

b. sq. ft. for months@ per sq. ft. per year

c. Description of Space:

3.2 Utilities

a. Utilities (not for use in projects without students):

Cost per student contact hourmultiplied by number of slotsmultiplied by average number ofscheduled hours per monthmultiplied by number of months inproject equals:

b. Telephone:

Number of telephone instruments to beused-. multiplied by estimatedmonthly cost per instrumentplus estimated monthly long distancecharges-. multiplied by number ofmonths in the project-.equals:

142

1 5 5

EXHIBIT 16Cmihnitrd

3.3 Minor Remodeling (Public Facilities Only)

Description of Work:

4.0 ADMINISTRATIVE SAI.ARIES Total

4.1 Administration

Hours HourlyNo. Weeks Per Week Salary Rate Total

4.2 Clerical and Accounting Personnel

Hours HourlyNo. Weeks Per Week Salary Rate Total

4.3 Custodial Personnel

Hours HourlyNo. Weeks Per Week Salary Rate Total

x

x

4.4 Other Administrative Costs

x

x

a. Custodial Supplies:Lot of supplies such assoap. detergcnts. mops.brooms. etc.

b. Costs Not Elsewhere Classified:Administrative costs such asstationery, stamps. officesupplies. etc.

4.5 Employers Share of Employee Benefits

a. (4.1 - 4.3) Salariesx.1460 =$

:43

156

EXHIBIT 16Continued

b. (5.1 - 5.4) Salariesx .1460 = S

NOTE: Includes social security, stateretirement. worker's compensation.and unemployment compensation.

c. Health & Liability Insurance $employees employed 20 hours

per week of more for monthsx 48.02 per month.

5.0 INSTRUCTIONAL AND EDUCATIONAL COUNSELING SALARIES Total

5.1 Coordinator Supervisor Salaries

Hours HourlyNo. Weeks Per Week Salary Rate Total

x x =x x =

x x =

5.2 Guidance Counselor Salaries

Hours HourlyNo. Weeks Per Week Salary Rate Total

5.3 Instructor Salaries

==

=

HoursClassroomInstruction Hourly

No. Weeks Per Week Salary Rate Total

=

=

NOTE; Rates shown are only average rates andare to be used as a salary guide. Rates maybe exceeded. according to the employee'saccreditation. ability. etc.. provided thatthe line item total is not exceeded.

57144

EXHIBIT 16Cm/towed

5.4 Other In%tructional Personnel

Describe position

HoursClassroomInstruction Hourly

No. Weeks Per Week Salary Rate Total

5.5 Tune'

=

=

a. miles per month x per milex months =

b. days per diem x per day =

6.0 EQUIPMENT (Use attachments if more space needed) Total

6.1 Major Instructional Equipment (List)

a. Equipment to be purchased at a cost of51.000 or more

b. Equipment to be purchased at a cost ofS50 to S999

c. Installation of equipment

6.2 Repair and Servicing of Equipment

6.3 Minor Equipment and Tools to BePurchased (Unit cost of less thanS50)(List)

6.4 Rental of Instructional Equipment (List)

7.0 INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS AND SUPPLIES Total

7.1 Audiovisual Aids (to be purchased or rented)

7.2 Textbooks and Reference Books

7.3 Workbooks and Paperback Books

7.4 Supplies and Materials

145

EXHIBIT 16emit /Hurd

8. OTHER COSTS NOT ELSEWHERE CLASSIFIED total

8.1 Tuition

8.2 Trainee Transportation

8.3 Other Miscellaneous Costs

a. Student Liability Insuranceb. Malpractice Insurancec. Other (Explain)

9.0 TOTAL. COSTS

10.0 COST PER TRAINEE

11.0 COST PER TRAINEE HOUR

SOURCE: Trident Technical College. n.d.

146

159

EXHIBIT 17

TRAINING AGREEMENT FORM

PURPOSE: To provide a written document of mutual understanding on the part of industry and thetraining institution.

AGREEMENT: It is mutually agreed between the training institutionand industry located at that:

I. The training institution (public school named herein) agrees:

A. To pay salaries for instructional personnel not to exceed per hour.

R. To Not to ,secure qualified personnel to conduct industrial training

C To secure a trainee aflidax it from each student enrolled, stating his her position in this trainingprogram. (Affidavit will he collected and filed b) the training institution.)

D. To provide administrative supervision (institution employed) of instructional program.

E. To Not to(NOTE: Specify.)

furnish some any all -impplies for this training project

F. To Not to furnish some equipment for this training project.(NOTE: Specify.)

G. To Not to furnish facilities for this training project.

H. To Not to adxertise this training program.

I. To Not to renovate facilities for this training project.

.1. To work jointly with the industry and employment agency in promotion of the training programand recruitment of suitable students.

K. To provide a top flight instructional program for the trainees.

I.. To furnish the participating industry with rating sheets showing the trainees' progress, perfor-mance and personal adjustment.

M. To Not to furnish utilities for the training program.

N. To Not to special machinery in training institution building.

0. To Not to place state and local equipment in in-plant training program. (NOTE:Specify and secure equipment agreement.)

P. To

Q. To

Not to provide a course curriculum for this project.

Not to develop a special course curriculum for this project.

147

!CO

EXHIBIT 17Coutinited

II. The industry (named herein) agrees:

A. Ti Not to furnish some _ an all supplies for this training project.(NOTE: Specify.)

B. To Not to furnish some an all equipment for this training project.(NOTE: Specify.)

C. To Not to furnish lacilities lor this training protect. (NOl E Specify .)

D. To permit and aid the training institution to conduct a lollow-up stud) of inchsiduals trained(October following FY trained).

E. To ensure that no product made during the training program will he entered into channels ofcommerce.

G. To assist in securing instructors for this training project.

H. To pay difference in salary necessary to secure qualified instructors (NOTE Specify

I. To provide for transportation of special equipment to he used in training.

.1. To purchase any unused supplies at cost prices

K. To provide equipment layout, suggested floor plan. and utility requirements.

I.. To provide a qualified consultant.

M. To Not to-provide instructors for the training project.

N. To permit the training institution and %ocational di% ision to use this program in athertisingcampaigns.

0. To give the training institution a letter stating the success or failure of this training program.

P. To provide the necessary paperwork for reimbursement. etc.. required by the training institution.

Training InstitutionDate:

IndustryDate: By:

SOURCE: Developing Training Agreements. n.d.. pp. 23. 25. 27.

161

mentioned in the note in exhibit 16, leasesmay be required. Purchase orders forequipment and supplies and instructionalmaterials must be completed, approved, andprocessed.

Legal staff at the school or legalconsultants should be involved, as needed,in the process of developing and executingany legal documents required. By docu-menting the terms of the training effort

and securing signatures to authorize theterms--all with adequate legal advice--itcan be ensured that program plans areclearly stipulated, that all parties agreeto the terms of the plan, and that allparties know what they are accountable for.Evaluation of the program's success willultimately be easier, too, if the objec-tives to be achieved are carefully spelledout in advance.

Tips on Conducting a Needs Assessment

The term "training need assessment"en joys widespread use, both within educa-tional institutions and BIL organizations.However, the term is a misnomer in a sensebecause it implies that there are organ-izational problems that can be solved bytraining solutions. When one is conductinga training needs assessment, there is atendency to approach the assessment asthough one had a bag of solutions and wasgoing in search of a problem. There isalso often strong pressure from line man-agers and others in some organizations to"throw" training at problems without reallyattempting to determine their root causes.

It would behoove the linking agent todetermine, as best as he or she can, iftraining is really the most appropriatesolution to a given organizational problem.It could very well be that a nontrainingsolution is called for. Figure 4 illus-trates the differences between problemsthat can be solved by training solutionsand those that are better solved by non-training solutions. The implications ofusing training to solve a non-trainingproblem could be far-reaching in the longterm. Suppose, for example, that a certainBIL organization is experiencing unaccept-able turnover in a particular division.The BIL human resources manager approachesa local community college with a requestfor a course in motivating employees, sincea number of line managers concluded thatthis type of course would serve to reduceturnover. If the linking agent moves tooquickly and arranges for the course withoutfurther investigation, the outcomes could

149

be less than desirable. It could be thatthe problem is not a knowledge, skill, orattitude discrepancy in supervisors, butrather, is related to inadequate compensa-tion. In this case, the motivation courseis unlikely to affect turnover. The resultwill be decreased credibility for theinstitution--the training being viewed asineffectual.

There is also, of course, the possi-bility of providing the wrong training fora problem amenable to a training solution.

The linker cannot, of course, spend agreat deal of time and effort attempting topinpoint the causes of organizational prob-lems. But neither should he or she leap toprovide customized training without someconsideration of the problem (or the per-ceived problem) in some depth.

Thus, the question becomes, how doesa "linker" help a BIL client identifytraining needs?

Exhibit 18 lists some sources of datathat can help determine training needs.Determining needs in a broad sense can beaccomplished by maintaining a wide networkof informal contacts. In a more narrowsense, needs can be determined by usingdifferent types of surveys and structuredor unstructured formal interviews. Exhibit19 provides an example of a proposal formthat a BIL agency could be asked to use tobegin the need determination process.

PROBLEMS RELATED TO: Staffing (recruiting/selection)Prorbiction/OperationsH%. an RelationsInformation Systems/ManagernentFinancial Systems/Management

BASED UPON

Organizational factorsother than employeeskill, knowledge,attitude discrepancies

RESULTS IN

NEEDS

Met by

NONTRAINING SOLUTIONS

Management Actions

compensation systemmodification

job rotation

performance appraisalsystem modifications

changes in recruiting/selection practices

Outside Agent Actions

recruiting/screeningpotential employees

technical assistanceto in-house trainers

BASED UPON

Employee skill,knowledge, attitudediscrepancies

RESULTS IN

NEEDS

1Met by

TRAINING SOLUTIONS

start-up training

retraining

incumbent employees'skill, knowledge,

attitude training

Figure 4. Training and nontraining solutions toorganizational problems.

150

163

EXHIBIT 18

SOME DATA SOURCES TO DETERMINECUSTOMIZED TRAINING NEEDS

Informal contacts at trade associations and professional societ meetings

Communit) surreys

targeted sun eys (specific companies industries)

Formal company %has

Sac N !sits

Employer-generatal proposals inquiries

State and local economic de%elopmcnt offices

1 rade business journal. and other business publications

Faculty members

Students

Other educational training institutions

Community organi/ations agen-les

Labor unions, at both national and local loci

PriLatc industry councils (PICs)

Formal company needs assessments

Informal contacts with training ii RD per mnel

151

1_84

EXHIBIT 19

BIL-GENERATED TRAINING PROPOSAL

COMPANY MAKING REQUES1

COMPANY ADDRESS

COM?ANY COORD:NA I OR 1111 E PHONE

DA1 E PROPOSAL NUMBER (state assigns no

TEI I E OF PROPOSED PROGRAM

PURPOSE AND OBJECTIVE (include expect:A functional lexel upon completion)

LOCATION OF TRAINING (in-house or school-based)DESCRIPTION OF TRAINING (specific content)

SUR.' IRA MASI. PAR I ICII'AN IS (sR0( I'S HOURS OF INS I SI SSIO\ .161% \ IS(, I \ I)IMI DA I I S

TOTALPARTICIPANTS,

TOTAL INSTRUCTIONAL HOURS

Add sheet for additional information, as needed, for additional subjects or training components.

SOFTWARE ASSISTANCE NEEDED (Audiovisual aids? Instructional materials?)

TRAINING FACILITIES OR EQUIPMENT NEEDED

CONTRACTUAL TRAINING NEEDED (Special Process or Equipment)

EMPLOYEE (or potential emdloyee) ASSESSMENT NEEDED

152

/85

EXHIBIT 19Cunti»urdINS I RIIC1 OR 1 RAINING (to carry out training b company ) NFFDFD

OR IEN I A HON DF D (No% employees? For company expansion'')

APPRFN1 ICFSHII' CONSIDFRFD IN SKII I.-1 FVFI DFVE1 OMEN I

RFSFARCH RESOURCES ASSIS I ANCF NEEDED (manulacturing. teclncal. management)

I RAINING COORDINATION NFFI)EI) (for larger programs)

Fl IGIBI1.11Y CR1 I FRIA (to qualif for financial assistance) PI FASF BF SPECIFIC

A no% company or de%eloping organiiation planning major expansion (Ne% emploees needed?)

A company making or planning capital imestment expenditures for nc equipment. process. ortechnology (retraining required?)

A depressed industr that can he re% [tallied (de%elopment needs?)

A company facing a critical need for skilled employees (shortage occupation?)

COS I ES1 IMAI E (Add any cost information or estimates for any contractual training equipment.soft%%are. or other financial data Irom company e%aluation of training project.)

SOURCE: Mid-Central Training and De%elopment Association. n.d

153

!86

r-

In addition, the Postsecondary Alli-ance of Institutions/Districts (Nasman1981) has developed a model to assess theeducation and training needs of business,industry, and labor. The data gathered byusing this model can then be analyzed to

Tips on Conducting

The content of vocational-technicalprograms should be based on occupationalanalyses. An occupational analysis identi-fies the competencies needed to enter aparticular occupation or job. In somecases, the "required" competencies areidentified by what's in the textbook or bythe instructor's past experience. Thistype of "analysis" will rarely reflect theactual needs in the local world of work. Amore formal analysis procedure is needed.

Traditional Approach

Typically, conducting an occupationalanalysis has been a very lengthy process.The educator must complete all the follow-ing steps:

Define the scope of the analysis.

Prepare a complete occupationaldescription for each occupationinvolved, drawing from a variety ofsources.

Develop an initial listing of dutyand task statements, drawing from avariety of sources.

Have the initial listing reviewed byworkers and/or supervisors from theoccupational area.

Revise the listing.

Have the revised listing reviewed byworkers.

Verify the duty and task statementsthrough observation of workers, in-terviews with workers, or by havingworkers complete an inventory form.

determine if the institution's present pro-grams are meeting BIL needs and whatadditional--unfulfilled--training needs ex-ist. (A more detailed description of thismodel can be found in chapter 3 of Devel-oping Curriculum in Response to Change.)

an Occupational Analysis

Tabulate the data gathered.

Interpret the data.

Select the duty and task statementsto be included on the final list.

The analysis process generally is designedto answer the following types of questionsabout each task statement listed:

Is this task performed by beginningworkers?

How often is this task performed?

How important is this task?

How difficult is it to learn toperform the task?

It can take a year to complete this type ofanalysis, with a major commitment of time,money, and staff. For many agencies, itsimply is not an efficient way in which toregularly update program offerings. Whatthen?

Use of Existing Analyses

One option is to identify existingoccupational analyses through sources suchas state curriculum laboratories, theVocational-Technical Education Consortiumof States (V-TECS), or one of the sixregional curriculum coordination centerssupported by the U.S. Office of Education.An existing analysis or analyses can beused to prepare a listing that can beverified locally, using a process like theone described above. This approach canyield the results required using less time,money, and staff.

154

167

DACUM Approach

DACUM (Developing A Curriculum) hasproven to be a very effective approach forquickly deriving, at a relatively low cost,the competencies or tasks that must beperformed by persons employed in a givenposition or occupational area. DACUM,which utilizes small-group brainstormingtechniques, is a process that results in askill profile for a particular job or occu-pational area. DACUM is primarily concern-ed with the what of a curriculum, ratherthan the how. It is, in fact, an analysisof the occupation rather than a curriculumevolving from an analysis.

It is graphic in nature, presentingdefinitions of an entire occupation on a

sheet of paper. This tends to preventtreatment of any element of the occupationin isolation and, conversely, tends topromote treatment of each element as partof a larger whole. General areas of compe-tence required in the occupation are de-fined, and each is subdivided into thoseindividual skills (tasks) that collectivelyenable an individual to perform competentlywithin that general area. These skills aredefined quite simply and are structuredine:.pendently in small blocks on the chart.Each can serve as an independent goal forlearning achievement. (A more detaileddescription of the DACUM process can befound in chapter 6 of Developing Curricu-lum in Response to Change.)

Tips for Developing Instructional Materials

The development of instructional mate-rials is not an easy task. Content spe-cialists are needed. Curriculum special-ists are needed. Skilled editors are need-ed. And media specialists may be needed.Thus, the first tip is that, unless aninstitution can devote sufficient quali-fied staff and adequate funds to accom-plish the task, it should not get into thematerials development business. If theBid, client is promised special materialsfor the program and then an instructor isexpected to quickly come up with some-thing--with limited time, help, and re-sources--the result will probably not beparticularly appealing or useful.

It may be advisable to adopt a systemsuch as that used in South Carolina. TheirSpecial Schools are supported by a curricu-lum development unit, and although this isa statewide system, a single school ordistrict could support a small unit for thesame purpose. The Special Schools mate-rials are attractive and customized, yet assimple to develop as is probably possible.

For each training program offered, anattractive loose-leaf notebook is prepared.The cover is plastic-coated and shows *'letitle of the program (e.g., metal fabri-

155

cation, laboratory chemistry, measuringtools). It also has an illustration fromthe specific industry, such as a pictureof the plant or its workers. And creditis given on the cover both to the StateBoard for Technical and ComprehensiveEducation and ti, the industry. Thus, thecover personalizes the material and givespartial ownership to the industry--helpingto create a sense of cooperative effort.

The contents of the loose-leaf note-book are a blend of general and specificmaterial. For instance, if the program ison metal fabrication, there will be sometraining mat -ials that will apply regard-less of the specific industry involved.Those materials can be simply pulled from afile and duplicated. Other materials, spe-cific to a given industry, may be alreadyavailable. The industry itself may haveprepared materials. Equipment manufac-turers' guides and other materials may beavailable. These can be easily blendedinto the training notebook. And finally,additional materials may have to be devel-oped to fill gaps or air pand the presentscope of the contents. By adding glossa-ries, graphics, and photographs (preferablytaken at the specific industry), a trainingpackage is produced that makes use of

M8

already existing materials insofar as pos-sible, but that is truly customized.

One final tip regarding the dupli-cation of materials. Care should be takenin reproducing existing materials. First,of course, copyright laws must not beviolated. Second, if a particular document

is to be duplicated without retyping ortypesetting it, the quality of the "orig-inal" must be good. There is nothing morefrustrating than barely readable copy- -broken letters, holes punched throughwords, blurred characters, and so on. Poororiginals should be retyped or typeset--ornot used.

Tips on Evaluating the Training Effort

A solid evaluation of training effortsis necessary for both improvement of train-ing development and delivery and for ac-countability purposes. The usual approach,and the best, calls for both formative andsummative evaluation. Results from forma-tive evaluations allow for assessment ofthe program in process and consequent in-course corrections. Results from summativeevaluations allow for assessment of thetotal program and post-course improvements.Data gathered during a summative evaluationcan also be used to assess learning out-comes and, in some cases, transfer oflearning to actual work situations.

There are many evaluation strategiesand techniques available. Exhibit 20shows three different groupings of op-tions--instruction/post-instruction, long-

An educational institution must payattention to many different components inorder to design, develop, and deliverquality customized training programs. Thetraining effort must be clearly defined.Time requirements must be estimated accu-rately. Students and instructors must beselected. Facilities, equipment, and sup-plies must be obtained. Instructionalmethods and instructional materials mustbe developed. And evaluation techniquesmust be determined.

term, and quantitative. These can be usedin combination to produce an effectiveevaluation. What is used, of course, willdepend upon available resources includingtime, money, and personnel. Space does notpermit a full examination of these options,but it is important that they be understoodby the linker. Formal evaluation devicesensure that the training provider has datathat are reliable, organized, verifiableand, most importantly, useful.

Some examples of formal evaluationdevices follow. Exhibit 21 is a summativeevaluation form to be used by trainees.Exhibit 22 lists some of the major ques-tions that should be answered by a summa-tive evaluation. A sample supervisorsurvey form is shown in exhibit 23.

Summary

If the educational institution wantsto respond quickly and effectively to BILtraining needs, the institution must ensurethat mechanisms that allow for the neededflexibility are developed and operational.Careful advance planning will help theeducational institution minimize red-tapeprocedures and complicated decision-makingchannels.

!f9

156

InstructionPost instruction

1 rainee Performance MeasurementI estingObservation

Trainee Inter% icv4s

Reaction Questionnaires.Course content structureMaterials mediaInstructor

Instructor FeedbackCourse implementationCourse materials1 rainee obscr%at ion

Trainee Sell-Report

EXHIBIT 20

EVALUATION OPTIONS

I ong-1 erm

1 rainee Performance Measurement-Sell-reportsSuper% ',or reports

Effect Measures (indirect )-Changes in error rates, work speed, workqualit, customer complaints. sales orders,etc.

Supplementary Data1 rainee inter ley.,Super isor inter%toksQuestionnaires

Other Quantitatk c Approaches

Experimental Designs:Education of group differencesMeasures of correlation

ROI (Return on Investment) Measures

Formal Observation Sstems

1571 7 0

EXHIBIT 21

TRAINEE CHECKLIST FOR APPRAISINGINDUSTRY SERVICES PROGRAM

What did you think via, good about the program? Check all that apply

The program helped me learn how to perform the tasksThe program helped me pass the testsThe program helped me perform the tasksThe program was interesting.1 he instructional aids were good.

What did you think via, wrong with this program? Cheek (x) all that apply. I his information will helpimprose future training programs.

- Did not understand the purpose of the programDid not understand the information given during the programThe program had nothing to do with preparing lor a Job.The program took too long to complete.The program was too hard to complete.I did not understand the meaning of some instructionThe program needed more pictures. demonstrations, and illustrationsDid not hose an opportunity to perform the tasks.

How could the program he improved'! Comments:

SOURCE. Closing a Tramibg Program, n.d., p. 27.

158

171

EXHIBIT 22

OUTLINE FOR ASSESSING TRAINING PROGRAM

PI ANNING [RAINING PROGRAM

I Was enough planning time mailable prior to the start 01 the training program''2. Did the %arious agencies in% oked spend an adequate amount 01 time preparing for the training

program?3 Were the responsibilities for planning made clear to all concerned parties'4. Was sufficient training prmided for instructors prior to the start of the training program?5. Wcrc the manpower requirements clearly identified prior to the start of the training program?6 Was a proper study made of the manpower a%ailability prior to the start of the training program"'

ORGANIZING 1 RAINING PROGRAM

I. Wcrc the industry skills to be taught properly identified''2 Wcrc instructional material% de%cloped based upon industry skills required?3. Wcrc instructional materials properly organiied for ellectic use?4. Wcrc facilities and equipment ready for use?5. Were proper communication channels established for the industry ser% ices stair'( Wcrc proper communication channels established for prospectke :minces')

MANAGING TRAINING PROGRAM

I. Did the proper number of trainees enroll m the training program?2. Did the training program start on schedule'3. Did the training program close-out date parallel the plant start-up date'4. Was the length of the training program appropriate?5 Did trainees reccic the proper amount of training?6. Were the instructional materials de%cloped for the program used effectnely97. Were the instructional actiities appropriate to industry needs?8 Was instruction handled efficiently (without redundancy or lost timer9. Was the training program properly monitored and coordinated?

EVALUATING TRAINING PROGRAM

I. Wcrc the skills acquired by the trainees recorded?2. Were opportunities pro% idcd for industry personnel to periodically re% IC% the progress of trainees?3. Wcrc the achic%ements of the trainees certified?4 Wcrc competent trainees prodded opportunities lor placement?5. Were trainees satisfied with placement opportunities?6. Did trainees progress on the job?7. Arc plans being made to use instructional materials produced for the pmgram in future training ellorts1

SOURCE: (losing a Training Program. n.d.. pp. 29. 31. 33

159 1_72

I

EXHIBIT 23

SUPERVISOR SURVEY

Course/ Program Name. Date.Date Training Received

TRAINEE INFORMATION

Length of time: with company in present positionCurrent work location job title

SUPERVISOR INFORMATION

Did you supervise the employee prior to most recent training

If yes, how long?If no. STOP. DO NOT complete this form.

Length of time: With company in present positionCurrent work location job title

The following statements relate (I) to employee performance SINCE he or she has completed the trainingexperience or (2) to the overall effectiveness of the training experience. Inoicate your level of agreement witheach statement using the following scale:

SD=Strongly Disagree D=Disagree NC=No Change A=Agree SA=Strongly Agree

SD D NC A SA

I. The employee works in a safer manner

2. The employee can do most parts of the tasks on which training wasreceived

3. The employee can do all parts of the tasks on which training was received...

4. The employee can show and explain to others how to do tasks C!

5. The employee needs much less supervision to complete tasks than beforetraining

6. As a result of training, the employee has demonstrated a knowledge ofparts, tools, and simple facts used in the tasks

7. As a result of training, the employee has demonstrated a knowledge ofprocedures used to complete tasks

8. As a result of training, the employee has demonstrated a knowledge ofoperating principles involved in performing the tasks C.1

160

1 73

EXHIBIT 23Continued

9. The correct amount of material was covered during the training of theemployees on the identified tasks for the best benefit of the company

10. 1 have seen a positive change in the employee's attitude as a result of thetraining

SD D NC A SA

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

Comments/Support

SOURCE: Closing a Training Program, n.d.

161

1. 74

.4,

References

Adapting the Training Site to TrainingNeeds. Module VII-A in the Indus-try Leadership Development ModuleSeries. Mississippi State: Mis-sissippi State University, Collegeof Education, Research and Curricu-lum Unit for Vocational-TechnicalEducation, n.d.

Brooks, Kent; Herring, Keith, and Newby,Howard, comps. "Start-Up Trainingin Mississippi," in Teaching forTomorrow: "Quick Start-Up" Voca-tional Training Programs, edited byHerbert J. Langen and Violet S.Thomas. Phoenix: Arizona Depart-ment of Education, Vocational Edu-cation, Research Coordinating Unit,1979.

Closing a Training Program. Module XIin the Industry Services LeadershipDevelopment Module Series. Missis-sippi State: Mississippi StateUniversity, College of Education,Research and Curriculum Unitfor Vocational-Technical Education,n.d.

Developing Training Agreements. ModuleIII-Ain the Industry ServicesLeadership Development Module Se-ries. Mississippi State: Missis-sippi State University, College ofEducation, Research and CurriculumUnit for Vocational-Technical Edu-cation, n.d.

Evaluating Safety Conditions at Train-ing Sites. Module VII-B in the In-dustry Services Leadership Develop-

ment Module Series. MississippiState: Mississippi State Univer-sity, College of Education,Research and Curriculum Unitfor Vocational-Technical Education,n.d.

Hindes, Tom. Developing Short-TermSkill Training--Part of Vocational/Technical Education's Role in Eco-nomic Development and IndustrialTraining. Columbus: NationalAcademy, The National Center forResearch in Vocational Education,The Ohio State University, n.d.

Nasman, Leonard 0. A Model Package toAssess the Education and TrainingNeeds of Business, Industry, andLabor. Columbus: The NationalCenter for Research in VocationalEducation, The Ohio State University, 1981.

Norton, Robert E.; Harrington, Lois G.;and Spencer, Carol J. ProvidingCustomized Training Programs forBIL/GM. Module LT-J-E. Athens,GA: American Association forVocational Instructional Materials(AAVIM), 1984.

Trident Technical College. Steps in Pro-viding Customized Training Pro-grams. Moncks Corner, SC: TheCoastal Industrial Training Center,Trident Technical College, n.d.

Trident Technical College. TrainingPlan. Moncks Corner, SC: TheCoastal Industrial Training Center,Trident Technical College, n.d.

1 75162

Chapter 8Providing

Apprenticeship Programs

Kncwing how to develop and maintainan apprenticeship program is important toany vocational-technical school or com-munity college, since these types of pro-grams provide linkages that can greatlybenefit both local employers and students.This chapter contains guidelines for devel-oping and maintaining quality apprentice-ship training programs at the postsecondarylevel.

The material that follows has beenexcerpted and adapted from the followingdocument:

Bhaerman, Robert; Fitch, Brian; Gold-wair, William; Lankard, Bettina;Pritz, Sandra; and Zahniser, Gale.Apprenticeships in Employment andTraining Programs: An Action PlanningGuidebook. Columbus: The NationalCenter for Research in VocationalEducation, The Ohio State University,1981.

Definition of Apprenticeship Programs

Apprenticeship training programs com-bine two methods of occupational training- -on- the -job and classroom. Apprenticeshipmay be defined as a training system inwhich a person learns a skilled trade onthe job under an experienced craftworkerand in related classroom instruction.Apprentices are paid while they train,usually at progressive rates from a start-ing wage of about half the journeyman'srate up to 90 percent of full pay near theend of their apprenticeship.

Characteristics of Apprenticeships

Although there is considerable programdiversity, apprenticeship as a system ofoccupational training has certain charac-teristics that employers, organized labor,and state and federal labor departments allrecognize: in-depth, structured, and

163

comprehensive training in the skills of aspecific trade.

Although there is not total agreementon the concept of preapprenticeship, thatterm is used generically to refer to pro-grams that could lead to direct employmentin a skilled trade and that prepare indi-viduals to compete for apprenticeship open-ings. Such programs provide services toaspiring applicants for apprenticeship butgenerally do not guarantee admission toit.

An apprenticeable occupation, accord-ing to the U.S. Department of Labor, is askilled trade that possesses the followingcharacteristics:

It is customarily learned in apractical way through a systematic

1176

program of supervised on-the-jobtraining.

It is clearly identified and com-monly recognized throughout an in-dustry.

It involves manual, mechanical, ortechnical skills and knowledge thatrequire a minimum of 2,000 hoursof on-the-job work experience.

It requires related instruction tosupplement the on-the-job training;such instruction may be given in aclassroom, through correspondencecourses, self-study, or other meansof approved instruction. (PROJECTASSIST 1980, p. 4)

Program Types

Apprenticeship programs may be basedon one or more of the following arrange-ments:

A written agreement between the in-dividual apprentice and the employeror the appropriately designated em-ployer's agent (an employers' asso-ciation, a union, or a joint appren-ticeship committee), containing theterms and conditions of employmentand training or referring to aspecific written program plan thatmakes adequate provisions for theemployment and training of appren-tices

A written program agreement betweenthe employer or an employers' asso-ciation and the union describing thetern and conditions for the employ-ment and training of apprentices

A written program plan, prepared bythe employer or an employers' asso-ciation for firms without a union,that describes the terms and con-ditions for the employment andtraining of apprentices and has theemployer's written consent

A written program plan, prepared bythe union, that describes the termsand conditions for the employmentand training of apprentices and hasthe employer's written consent

A written program plan, prepared bythe employer or an employers' asso-ciation, that describes the termsand conditions for the employmentand training of apprentices and hasthe union's written consent

A collective-bargaining agreementcontaining the basic standards ofapprenticeship, with any supplementsneeded to cover these standards(U.S. Department of Labor 1980a,p. 4)

Three types of apprenticeship prepa-ration programs, or preapprenticeship pro-grams, have been identified. They are asfollows:

164

177

Apprenticeship Outreach recruits in-dividuals and prepares them to per-form in apprenticeship selectionprocedures. Services provided in-clude preparation for tests, coach-ing for job interviews. Programsare not trade-specific but work witha variety of apprenticeships. Out-reach efforts conduct no trade skilltraining as such.

Outreach with Skills Development isa modification of the outreach con-cept in that it attempts to conducttraining designed to increase manip-ulative skills and provide partici-pants with a threshold proficiencyin the skills of a certain trade.Because such programs offer trade-specific training, they tend to bedirected at orly one trade or alimited number of trades.

Craft Readiness Training concen-trates on skill development for aspecific craft. Training is con-ducted more intensively and forlonger periods. Recruitment and

orientation are lesser concerns ofsuch programs (Lynd..n B. JohnsonSchool 1979).

Apprenticeship Standards

An apprenticeship program must bebased on an organized, written plan statingthe terms and conditions of employment,training, and supervision of one or moreapprentices in an apprenticeable occu-pation. The plan must be endorsed by asponsor who has agreed to carry out theapprenticeship training.

According to the Employment andTrainhig Administration of the U.S. Depart-ment of Labor, programs registered by astate apprenticeship agency or the Bureauof Apprenticeship ;,*(.1 Training must meetcertain training anG Lciministrative stand-ards.

lows:The training standards are as fo!

Work ProcessesStandards mustoutline the work processes or spec-iric tasks in which an apprenticewill be trained through supervisedW01.: experience or on-the-job train-ing. They should specify how muchtime will be spent in each majorprocess or division of the trade.

Planned Related Instruction- -Standards should provide fororganized inst-uction in technicalsubjects related to the apprentice'strade. This may include supervisedcorrespondence or self-studycourses, as approve(: by applicablelaw or by the policy of the regis-tration agency. At least 144 hoursof instruction for each year ofapprenticeship is recommended.

Progress Evaluation Records- -Standards should show how the pro-gram will periodically review andevaluate the appren'tice's progress.

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Number of Apprentices to be Em-ployedStandards should identifya ratio of apprentices to journey-workers that is consistent withproper supervision, training, andcontinuity of employment.

Equal Opportunity in Apprenticc-shipStandards should affirm thatthl program will provide equalopportunity in recruitment, selec-tion, and all phases of employmentand training.

Term of ApprenticeshipStandardsshould set a term J apprenticeshipthat is consistent with trainingrequirements as established byindustry practice, but in no caseless t- a 1 year or 2,000 hours.

Probationary Period-- Standardsshould establish a probationaryperiod that is reasonable in rela-tion to the term of apprenticeship.Apprentices should receive fullcredit toward the completion oftheir apprenticeship for the timeserved during this period.

Safety and Health Training-- Stand-ards should state how the programwill provide safe training in ahealthful workplace for apprentices,both on the job and in relatedinstruction.

The administrative standards set bythe U.S. Department of Labor are as fol-lows:

Union-Manageme-q Cooperation- -Standards should provide for union-management approval of the programwhere a collective bargaining agree-ment exists. Approval may be demon-strated in--

- a)propriate provisions in thebargaining agreement,

- signature to the standards and/or,

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- letters indicating agreement tothe program; andjor establishmentof a joint apprenticeship com-mittee.

WagesStandards should set a pro-gressively increasing schedule ofwages for apprentices. The entrywage must be at least equal to theFair Labor Standards Act minimumwhere applicable, unless a higherwage is required by state law orregulation.

Recognition far Completion of Ap-prenticeship-- Standards shouldprovide for acknowledgement of suc-cessful completion with an appro-priate certificL

Qualifications for Apprenticeship-Standards should set specific qual-ifications for apprenticeship, ap-plying equally to all applic- ats.

Minimum Age--The starting age ofan apprentice should be not lessthan 16 years.

Apprenticeship Agreement-- Standardsshould provide for placement of ap-prentices under an apprenticeshipagreement, pursuant to state appren-ticeship Laws and regulations, orBureau of Apprenticeship and Train-ing policy where no such laws orregulations exist.

Credit for Previous Experience-Under the standards, apprentices

Action

The six tasks described in the remain-der of this chapter do not necessarily fol-low any rigid time pattern--each should beconsidered an ongoing task. Understandingappre, 4iceship, for example, does not meanthat studying the system stops after thefirst contacts are made, nor does estab-lishing linkage mean that this activityends after the first series of meetings

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should receive credit toward com-pletion of apprenticeship for appli-cable work experience, or demon-strated proficiency, with commensu-rate wages (National GovernorsAssociation 1981).

An important related concept in ap-prenticeship is registration, both of pro-grams and of individuals. The most currentU.S. Department of Labor data indicate thatthere are now over 400,000 registeredapprentices in the United States. Thismeans that each of those apprentices isparty to a written agreement that is evi-dence of that individual's participation ina particular registered program. Theagreement contains the terms and conditionsof me employment end training. Beingregistered simply means that both theagreement and the program have been accept-ed and recorded by an approved state ap-prenticeship agency and/or the Bureau ofApprenticeship and Training as meeting thebasic standards for approval. The reason aprogram/agreement is registered--that is,conforms to standards recommended by theSecretary of Labor- -is to determine whethervarious "federal purposes" apply to it.

It is important to remember that thestandards pertain only to registered pro-grams. There are programs operated byemployers in apprenticeable occupationsthat have not received recognition becausethey have not been registered. However,these programs may offer quality trainingand should be taken into consideration whendetermining what training opportunitiesexist in an area.

Guidelines

with apprenticeship agencies has been held.In the same way, identifying, selecting,and guiding participants are not the laststeps of the process either but are simplypart of an unending chain of activitiesthat, hopefully, will lead to an ongoingrelationship with this mode of equipmenttraining.

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Apprenticeship development is a com-plex activity. These guidelines, therefore,are not to be used as a programmed system.Not all of the points may be applicable inevery situation.

Task 1: Study and Understand theApprenticeship System

The educational institution shoulddesignate a person to serve as liaison tothe apprenticeship system and to study itas it relates to the local situation. Theliaison should also study the character-istics of the apprenticeship system sinceit is a form of employment and, as such,differs from most other institutionalizedsystems of education and training. Appren-tices are employed workers; an apprenticeopening is a job opportunity. The systemis voluntary; most apprenticeships aresponsored and supported financially by theprivate sector. The liaison should under-stand, too, that the competition to enterapprenticeship openings is real. Many moreapplicants apply for apprenticeship train-ing than openings can accommodate. Thereis no lack of applicants; there is, moreoften than not, a lack of sponsors to trainapplicants.

The particular system within eachstate should also be fully understood. Forgeneral information about apprenticeshipprograms, contact should be made with theBureau of Apprenticeship and Training (BAT)regional and state offices, state and ter-ritorial agencies, and the ApprenticeshipInformation Centers located in each state.However, for establishing program linkages,the individual sponsor should be contacted.In most cases this means a joint appren-ticeship committee (JAC). The person to Ilecontacted is the sponsor staff person whois normally called the apprenticeshipcoo-dinator/training director or adminis-trator. This person is responsible for theday-to-day operation of the program and isintimately involved in all aspects of theparticular skill training. This personundoubtedly is the best source of specificlocal program information. Some JACs donot have a paid person in the position; in

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such instances, the person to contact isthe JAC chairperson.

The liaison should be aware of thefunctions of the following agencies:

The Federal Committee onApprenticeship (FCA)

The Bureau of Apprenticeshipand Training (BAT)

Apprenticeship and TrainingRepresentatives (ATR's)

State and Territorial Appren-ticeship Agencies (SAAB) andCouncils (SACs)

Apprenticeship InformationCenters (Airs)

National Joint ApprenticeshipCommittees (NJACs)

Joint Apprenticeship Committees(JACO

The liaison should also be aware offederal apprenticeship regulations, severalof which are of special importance. TheU.S. Department of Labor, 29 Code ofFederal Regulations Part 29 (29 CFR Part29) sets standards that programs must ful-fill in order to be registered. A secondimportant regulation is the promotion ofequal opportunity. First promulgated inDecember 1963, the regulation prohibitsdiscrimination based on race, religion,national origin, or sex. The regulationrequires the adoption of written affirma-tive action plans that include goals andtimetables for increasing the representa-tion of women and minority males in ap-prenticeship training; it also describesthe activities that constitute a "goodfaith effort" to comply.

Task 2: Examine OtherApprenticeship Programs

The liaison should thoroughly reviewother apprenticeship programs. The most

1(ROALL.)

direct sources of information are suchagencies as the regional Bureau of Appren-ticeship and Training offices, state andterritorial apprenticeship agencies, andapprenticeship information centers. Regu-lar contacts with these agencies will pro-vide useful information about programs inoperation.

Task 3: Establish Linkages withthe Apprenticeship System

The liaison should establish linkswith the apprenticeship system. The re-lationship between the two follows logical-ly. Joint involvement at the very begin-ning is essential for all parties--theeducational institution, industry, stateagencies, and applicants for apprentice-ships. This will help ensure that programdesigns will be based on real expectationsof all who are involved.

The liaison should particularly seekout BAT staff to serve on advisory boardsand to lend technical assistance in plan-ning programs. This should occur asneeded, from the inception of planning.The liaison also should examine the possi-bility of local joint apprenticeship com-mittees acting as operators of trainingprograms. It is wise to consider experi-enced groups as potential program oper-ators. Educational institutions offeringapprenticeship-related training programsshould designate a liaison person fromtheir staff who is familiar with the ap-prenticeship community. Many linkageopportunities are never achieved, appar-ently, because persons with improper ex-perience and background are assignedliaison responsibilities.

Task 4: Develop CooperativePlans and Program Elements

Program planners should bear in mindthat the three major goals regarding par-ticipants are to (I) attract potentialparticipants; (2) determine their needs,abilities, and aptitudes; and (3) assess

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fit of potential applicants within the pro-gram. The design of the program involves acareful matching of the characteristics oftargeted groups with the requirements setby employers and joint apprenticeshipcommittees for targeted occupations. Thesuccessful mix of program components de-pends on several factors- -for example, ad-dressing the needs of both applicants andapprenticeship sponsors and being sensitiveto the problems of these groups; exploringlabor market conditions, characteristics ofthe local industries and trades which theprogram serves; and considering hiringschedules and procedures.

Programs leading to apprenticeshipshould be planned to fit the needs of theapplicant group to which they are adapted.One must remember that apprenticeshipprogram sponsors are not suffering from alack of qualified applicants. In fact, thenumber of persons making application toapprenticeship programs is increasingyearly.

Decisions must be made on the type oftraining that would be most relevant to theindividuals to be assisted. Training mustbe designed to provide participants withskills and background education that willenable them to qualify for apprenticeshipprograms.

When planning on-the-job training(OJT) contracts for an apprenticeable occu-pation, the educational institution shouldencourage the employer to register all ap-prentices with the appropriate state orfederal apprenticeship registration agency.This will help increase the possibility ofcontinued training after the completion ofthe OJT period.

Apprenticeship activities should alsobe incorporated into the annual and long -range plans. In order to promote thecoordination of employment and trainingactivities, plans should include a descrip-tion of the apprenticeship program and itsefforts to coordinate with the local ap-prenticeship community. One significantway to ensure apprenticeship input is to

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consult with local joint apprenticeshipcommittees as part of the planning process.Remember to notify this group when the planis available for review. Committee mem-bers' suggestions for improvement should beactively sought.

In addition, programs leading toapprenticeships must establish and maintaincredibility with industry. By contributingto the design of these courses, industry isensured of the preparation of the partici-pants. Having the confidence and theendorsement of industry is important indeveloping jobs for program completers.Coordination ensures employers of a suffi-cient number of employees with "first-dayskills" at the time labor is needed.

In terms of specific elements, thefollowing six are identified: educationalservices, orientation and counseling,skills development, supportive services,credit toward apprenticeship completion,and special components for target popula-tions. Within these elements, a number ofspecific tasks are suggested. The follow-ing haw. been adapted from the Lyndon B.Johnson School of Public Affairs report,Preparation for Apprenticeship ThroughI ETA, (1979, pp. 29-33). (Note that someapprenticeship programs will not accept aGED.)

Educational Services

- Remedial work should be availablefor those lacking a high schooldiploma.

- Classes in English as a secondlanguage or referral to otheragencies offering such classesshould be available. If possible,language education should beconducted with training in toolidentification and trade termi-nology.

- Tutoring in test taking should beprovided as needed.

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Orientation and Counseling

-Orientation-- Acquainting partic-ipants with a new work environ-ment--should be available for in-forming persons about opportuni-ties in apprenticeship.

-Counseling-- Assisting partici-pants in resolving employment -related problems--should be pro-vi&d.

Skills Development

Three approaches that should beconsidered are classroom, hands-on, and on-the-job training. Manytraining programs employ a combi-nation of approaches. Classroomtraining includes theoretical as-pects of learning a skilled trade.Hands-on training is developingmanipulative skills under super-vision; it is distinguished fromon-the-job training in that ittakes place either in a shop orin a simulated work environment.On-the-job training is based onthe idea that the best way tolearn a trade is by actually doingthe work in a job setting. Theparticipant in OJT learns theskills of the trade by practicingthem.

Credit Toward Apprenticeship Com-pletion

- To increase the attractiveness ofprograms and to heighten partici-pant motivation, considerationshould be given to establishingadditional rewards for success-fully completing a preapprentice-ship course. Note that credit forprevious experience is evaluatedby the program sponsor. In mostinstances, in fact in about allinstances, preapprenticeship isnot creditable toward the term ofapprenticeship. It is merely one

avenue of helping a person preparefor entcring into the apprentice-ship program.

Special Service Components

A special problem of some womendesiring to enter the skilledtrades is insufficient physicalstrength. Consider offering phys-ical conditioning programs. Sev-eral preapprenticeship programscontain a physical training com-ponent that helps women developthe physical capabilities neededin many skilled occupations.

- Women need to be prepared for thechallenges associated with pur-suing nontraditional occupations.In preparation for dealing withharassment that women might en-counter, training in special com-munication skills might be offer-ed. This type of training teachesthe use of appropriate language indifferent types of job-relatedproblems, enabling the women toassert their rights to equal wagesand treatment without alienatingtheir fellow workers.

- Another approach, "counseling thewhole person," provides servicesthat might improve a participant'semployability. Individual andgroup counseling sessions helpparticipants learn ways to copewith problems. Some programs setup informal meetings to helpalleviate the problem of isola-tion. These meetings serve as aforum to discuss mutual problemsand to provide encouragement andcamaraderie.

- Several programs stress the impor-tance of having knowledgeableinstructors capable of developinga rapport with persons of diversebackgrounds. This is importantwhen instructors and students comefrom different socioeconomic back-grounds. Orientation of instruc-

tors should be provided to height-en their awareness of the perspec-tives of the students with whomthey will be working.

Because each preapprenticeship programhas its own uniqu( goals and objectives,evaluation of a program should be tailoredto the specific goals of that program.According to the Lyndon B. Johnson Schoolof Public Affairs (1979), short-term evalu-ation should be based on each program'sprogress toward its stated objectives;long-term evaluation should focus on therelative contribution of various servicecomponents to successful performance ofparticipants in apprenticeship positions.Evaluative criteria should include place-ment and retention rates, changes in earn-ings, program cost effectiveness, and ef-fectiveness of service components.

Task 5: Identify and SelectPotential Applicants

Two major problems in attempting toincrease participation rates of females andminority males are the lack of qualifiedapplicants and high dropout rates among thetargeted groups. Both of these problemsinvolve the need to search for qualified orqualifiable candidates, inform them ofopportunities available, and encouragetheir interests in apprenticeship. Counse-lors should disseminate information con-cerning the nature of apprenticeship, theavailability of opportunities, the sourcesof applications, and the time and frequencyof times for applying. They should makeclear to potential participants that ap-prenticeship training requires highly moti-vated individuals.

Educational institutions providing ap-prenticeship programs should coordinate andpromote the use of veterans' benefits forapprenticeship or on-the-job training.They also should be aware that eligibleveterans can receive benefits by partici-pating in approved apprenticeship and otheron-the-job training. These benefits in-clude the payment of a substantial training

1701,83

assistance allowance. The Bureau of Ap-prenticeship and Training or state appren-ticeship agency also can assist in estab-lishing such programs and ensuring thatthey are approved by the Veterans Adminis-tration.

Apprenticeship outreach programs (ortargeted outreach, as it is called) at-tempt to identify individuals who are "job-ready? These programs should assess par-ticipants on the basis of educational andpersonal needs. The latter includes suchneeds as transportation or other personalconcerns that can affect job performance.The former includes diagnostic testing inmath, vocabulary, and spatial relation-ships. Once the initial needs assessmentshave been completed, participants may bereferred to other community agencies forhelp or may be assisted directly by theoutreach program.

The proper use of testing is vital inidentifying and selecting potential partic-ipants. It is important to consider theuse of a standardized, uniform battery oftests to determine applicant proficiencyand aptitudes in reading, computation, andmechanical skills suitable for the craft inwhich participants show interest.

It is suggested that educationalinstitutions become familiar with a docu-ment published by the National Center forResearch in Vocational Education, Testingin Employment and Training Programs: AnAction Planning Guidebook (1981). In it,eight specific action planning tasks arepresented in detail. One of the tasks,setting test specifications for partici-pants, is summarized below:

Establish individual goals of as-sessment. Each participant shouldbe treated as an individual. Par-ticipant involvement in goal settingis important. Participants oftenare well aware of what informationabout their vocational needs, inter-ests, and abilities may be relevantto their employment goals.

1 i R 4

Decide what other specific informa-tion is needed about individual par-ticipants prior to testing. Alsodecide whether some (or all) of theinformation needed about an indi-vidual may be obtained throughtesting and whether or not a par-ticular test is useful in obtainingaccurate information for some (orall) of the participants.

Set specifications for each partici-pant; that is, determine what typesof tests are needed for each. Someexamples involve testing

- for mechanical aptitude that doesnot require a high reading level,

- for literacy for a low-functioningparticipant that does not requirea high reading level,

- of general learning ability thatis available in Spanish.

Determine each participant's testtaking ability, whether the individ-ual is "high literacy," "low liter-acy," or (as in some cases withdisabled persons) whether the testsneed to be adapted or modified.

The idea of custom tailoring assess-ment to fit each participant as aunique individual is important andshould be carefully explored. In-dividuals having similar needs couldbe tested in groups--as long as eachperson is treated uniquely and aslong as individual needs are consid-ered.

Provide participants with the exactreasons for selecting each test. Forexample, explain what an aptitudetest measures and how the resultsrelate to a variety of jobs. Ex-plain exactly what the results are,and what they mean, and how theywill be used.

Several areas should be assessed inidentifying and selecting potential partic-ipants--for example, personal traits, po-tential skills, acquired skills and experi-ence, education and training, interest inthe trade, social and economic factors,leisure activities, and physical con-dition.

The following items, adapted fromAdministering an Apprenticeship Programfor the Trade of Operating Engineer (n.d.),illustrate the types of assessment concernsof practitioners:

Personal Traits-- Assess charactertraits such as reliability andhonesty. Review school records andthe interview in determining aparticipant's attitudes toward workand whether the individual appearsto be able to take and carry outassignments.

Potential Skills-- Aptitude testscan help determine potential skills.A number of local joint apprentice-ship committees use some form ofaptitude tests. Caution should beused in giving the tests and inapplying test results. Testing ishighly technical; therefore, testingprograms should be conducted only bycompetent testing personnel. Testbatteries provide "tools" to measurepotential. Scores serve as indi-cators and not predictors.

Remember that skill tests do notmeasure "drive." With drive ormotivation, those with less poten-tial may succeed. If an applicantlacks dynamic interest, even thesmartest one may fail to completethe training. On the other hand,drive may develop if the applicantfinds a rewarding challenge. Schooland previous employment recordsshould be used to provide informa-tion on potential skills.

Acquired Skills and r. erience--Checking previous employment re-cords gives clues to determining

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skills. It is also useful to checkthe types of summer jobs one hashad. Questions on the applicant'sforms can give some informationabout past work experience. Aninterview should help determine someof these points. The applicationblank provides additional sources ofinformation. Contacts with employ-ers listed and with personal refer-ences will help you "get a line" onacquired skills and experiences ofthe applicant.

Education and Training--A goodbasic high school education (includ-ing mathematics, science, and Eng-lish) should be standard. Excep-tions can be made for those who passequivalency tests or present otheracceptable evidence of educationalqualifications. Educational stand-ards should be practical and basedon the type of craftspersons de-sired. Setting standards too highmay eliminate many desirable appli-cants.

Interest in the Trade-- Interesttests can help determine possibleavenues of success. These testsshould be supplemented by an inter-view and a supervised probationaryperiod. In some cases upon receiv-ing complete explanation of thequalifications required in the localapprenticeship standards, the appli-cant may reveal a lack of interestin learning a trade. Questions per-taining to interest should be in-cluded in the application form forfollow-up during the personal inter-view. The probationary period isimportant. Here the apprenticefinds out what the work is like andthe kind of people and workingconditions that individuals willmeet. A report of observations madeduring this period will help thecommittee and the apprentice deter-mine what is best for both.

Social and Economic Factors - -Hav-ing craftpersons in the family is a

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possible indication of interest inapprenticeship but is not a guaran-tee. Check these factors against anapplicant's interest and aptitudetest. Try to determine whether theapplicant is interested only ingetting a job or really wants to getinto the trade.

Leisure Activities-- Information onvoluntary pursuits may help deter-mine the applicant's suitability tothe trade. Hobbies may indicatelatent craft interests.

Physical Condition-- The applicantshould be given some idea of thevarious job conditions faced byjourneyworkers carrying out theirduties in a craft. The interviewshouid be used to obtain informationon these points. A certificate ofmedical examination may be requiredby the JAC of all applicants. It isbetter to spot hazardous physicalconditions before the applicant ishired.

Minor physical defects need not ruleout an otherwise excellent candi-date. The JAC normally will discussthe physical requirements and haz-ards of the trade with a medicaladvisor in order to obtain informa-tion that will help the committeemake decisions regarding physicaldefects discovered in examinations.Such information will help to estab-lish general physical requirementsto be met by all applicants.

Task 6: Guide Participants inthe Apprentice System

Although orientation and counselinggenerally are considered distinct activi-ties, they are basically part of the sameprocess (Lyndon B. Johnson School 1979).The Lyndon B. Johnson School of PublicAffairs report addresses the issues in thefollowing ways:

Orientation-- The initial step is toacquaint apprenticeship participantswith the nature of the trade, theconcept and method of appren-ticeship, the demands that will bemade of the apprentice, the expecta-tions of employers regarding atti-tudes on the job, and other rulesand regulations which affect theemployee on the job.

Counseling-- The next step is tohelp participants know what toexpect and how to handle problemsthat might cause them to drop out.In addition, many programs prepareindividuals to deal with ethnic,racist, or sexual harassment. Educa-tional institutions that provideapprentice training programs shouldoffer counseling to help individualschoose a trade based on their inter-ests and abilities. Another compo-nent is financial counseling. Con-sider bringing in former partici-pants to meet with applicants.These role models should discussexperiences on the job and explainhow they coped with the various dif-ficulties of completing the appren-ticeship program.

In implementing an Employability De-velopment Plan (EDP) for each participant,counselors need to incorporate the neces-sary information about apprenticeship andapprenticeship preparation programs. Thefive major elements of the EDP are criteriafor entry, goals, activities, persons re-sponsible, and evaluation.

Counselors should also alert the par-ticipant to any unique features of particu-lar apprenticeship programs in occupationalareas. An excellent example of this hasbeen cited for the constritz.tion industry:

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There are two general methods forentering construction apprenticeshipprograms: the "list trades" or"hiring hall" method and the "huntinglicense" method. In the hiring hall

method, applicants are taken from thetop of the list of eligibles asopenings are available, and asked toreport for formal acceptance into theapprenticeship program. At this timethe applicants sign their apprentice-ship or indenture agreements andbecome apprentices. Apprentices maybe ordered to report either to theunion hiring hall for assignment tojobs, or to vocational schools or tothe JAC's training school to beginclassroom work.

In the hunting license method, appli-cants are given a blank letter ofintent to hire, and must find anemployer who participates in theapprenticeship program to hire them.This approach has advantages anddisadvantages, depending on theapplicants' contacts and ability toconvince the employer that they willbe good workers (U.S. Department ofLabor 1980b, p. 20).

Participants should also be alerted toany restrictions such as age requirementsand the fact that most programs are openfor new entrants only once or twice a year.An apprenticeship is not necessarily aninstant job. In some instances personshave waited 2 years to get into a program.This is not uncommon. However, appren-ticeship opportunities are becoming moredesirable. Applicants should be counseledto be persistent.

Counselors should assist participantswith the application process in every way.The process varies from trade to trade.Each JAC will set up its own system foroperating its program and selecting appren-tices. Counselors should "walk" partici-pants through the local programs so thatparticipants are aware of the procedures.For example, while some programs takeapplicants all year long, others set spe-cific recruiting times; still others openthe program for new applicants wheneverthere is a need for more apprentices.

In general applications are acceptedfor 30, 60, or 90 days. During the open

174

application period the applicant must fileall information related to the applicationwith the JAC. Some program sponsors willallow persons who meet requirements anadditional 15 days for processing papers(such as high school transcripts or birthcertificates). The materials required aspart of the application package usuallyinclude a birth certificate, a high schooltranscript, a high school diploma or GEDcertificate, transcripts from vocationaleducation schools, military dischargepapers (if applicable), letters of recom-mendation, and letters verifying workexperience ln a trade area.

Participants should also be made awareof the nature of qualifying tests andinterviews. Here are some key points toremember:

The applicant is notified by the JACof the date, time, and site for thequalifying test (if a test is re-quired). Tests vary in scope andduration. Frequently all that isrequired is an aptitude test admin-istered by the Apprenticeship Infor-mation Center (if there is one) orthe employment service. In othercases, the qualifying test may lastseveral hours or even several daysand cover a wide variety of sub-jects. These tests are generallyscored on a point basis, with 70 outof 100 a passing grade. Testingprocedures are spelled out in detailin the standards established foreach registered program. Applicantswho pass the test are notified andasked to come for an interview withthe JAC. In theory, the number ofpoints a candidate earns, the rankscore, and the number of availablecraft openings determine entry intoa program.

The interview is a crucial part ofthe process. Members of the JACinterview applicants and evaluatethem on factors such as attitude,motivation, interest, and willing-ness to accept direction. Courtesyand a neat appearance are important,

87

in addition to other interviewingskills, such as answering questionscompletely and providing the inter-viewers with information that willdemonstrate interest in and knowl-edge of the trade. JACs are lookingfor people who will make dependableworkers. It does not help appli-cants if they appear either submis-sive or overbearing and aggressive.They should be careful to maintain abalance. Committee members will askquestions with the purpose of find-ing out as much as possible about anapplicant's capacity to become anapprentice.

After all the application papers arefiled and the test and interview arecompleted, each applicant is ratedon the basis of pLdints. Points aregiven for test scores, the oral in-terview, educational qualifications,letters of recommendations, voca-tional education courses, and pre-vious experiences. Apprentice pro-gram sponsors are required by law toretain the list of eligibles for2 years. Applicants should keep theJAC informed about changes in ad-dress, as well as additional coursesor experience which could raisetheir rank on the list of eligibles.The ratings normally take intoaccount education; martial statusand dependents; financial condi-tions; transportation; physical con-dition and handicaps; and factorsbrought out in the interview such asinterest, character, and coopera-tiveness (U.S. Department of Labor1978).

Participants should be made aware ofthe following concerns: selection fromcommittee rating, rejection of applicants,the appeals procedure, and the probationaryperiod. Some of the main points to bear in

mind are as follows:

Selection from Committee Ratings

IIII - The number of new apprentices tobe accepted normally is determined

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!RS

before starting interviews. Thisis based upon the needs of theindustry.

Selection of individuals from thelist of interviewed applicants isnot done until all interviewsessions are completed, each ap-plicant rated, and all applicantsranked.

- The actual selection of individ-uals is made by accepting from thetop of the list (as rated by thecommittee) the number of appren-tices previously decided upon.

- All those interviewed are noti-fied. Applicants who have beenplaced in a pool of eligibles areretained on lists of eligiblessubject to selection for a periodof 2 years. Applicants may be re-moved from the list at an earlierdate, at their request, or fol-lowing their failure to respond toa job offer sent by registeredmail.

Rejection of Applicants

- If an applicant fails to achieveacceptance, the JAC attempts toinform the applicant and thecooperating agency of the insuf-ficiency. Educational institu-tions should assist the applicantby referral to the appropriateagency for obtaining remedialskills.

Appeals Procedure

- An appeals committee normally isestablished and is composed of onemember appointed each from laborand management and a public mem-ber appointed by them.

- The authority of the committee islimited to the rendering of deci-sion on cases involving unjusttreatment of applicants for the

4^

apprenticeship program in thematter of selection.

- Any appeal must be filed in writ-ing within 15 days of the date ofthe notification to the applicanton the decision of the apprentice-ship committee regarding theapplication.

A copy of the appeal is filed withthe JAC.

- The committee must file a writtenanswer to the appeal within30 days of receipt of the copy ofthe appeal.

The committee considers the writ-ten evidence and shall, upon re-quest, grant a hearing.

A final decision is rendered with-in 30 days of the date of filingof the committee answer to theappeal or from the day of a hear-ing.

Developing an apprenticeship trainingprogram is a complex activity. The educa-tional institution must thoroughly under-stand and establish linkages with theapprenticeship system and other apprentice-ship programs. Special assessment consid-erations must be made in order to identifyand select qualified applicants. Specialeducational services, such as orientationand counseling, skills development, supportive services, credit toward apprentice-

- Decisions of the appeals committeeare final and binding upon theJAC.

Probationary Period

- After being accepted in a program,all apprentices go through a pro-bationary period, usually from500 hours to about 6 months,during which time they can beasked to leave the program withoutcause. Lack of interest, badattitude, poor attendance, tardi-ness, poor grades in courses, andbad reports from supervisors couldlead to being dropped from aprogram. This period is usually adifficult time for apprentices.Not only are they trying to provethat they can perform well in theprogram, but they are sometimessubject to harassment from otherworkers (U.S. Department of Labor1978).

Summary

ship completion, and special components fortarget populations should be provided.

In addition, apprenticeship trainingprograms must establish and maintain credi-bility with industry. Having the confi-dence and endorsement of industry is impor-tant in developing jobs for program com-pleters. Coordination ensures employers ofa sufficient number of employees who havemastered the required skills.

References

Lyndon B. Johnson School of Public Af-fairs. Preparation for Apprentice-ship Through CETA, Vol. 1. Austin:The University of Texas at Austin,Lyndon B. Johnson School of PublicAffairs, 1979.

National Governors Association. CETA andApprenticeship: A Resource Guide forEmployment and Training Profession-als. Washington, DC: National Gov-ernors Association, 1981.

176 189

Testing in Employment and Training Pro-grams: An Action Planning Guidebook.Columbus: The National Center forResearch in Vocational Education, TheOhio State University, 1981.

U.S. Department of Labor, Employment andTraining Administration. National Ap-prenticeship Standards for OperatingEngineers. Washington, DC: U.S.Government Printing Office, 1978.

U.S. Department of Labor, Employment andTraining Administration. The Nation-al Apprenticeship Program. Rev. ed.Washington, DC: Bureau of Apprentice-ship and Training, 1980a.

U.S. Department of Labor. A Women's Guideto Apprenticeship. Pamphlet 17. Wash-ington, DC: Women's Bureau, 1980b.

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Chapter 9Providing

Cooperative Education

Understanding how to develop andmaintain cooperative education programsremains important to all vocational-technical institutions and community col-leges. In recent years we have seen agreat deal of interest in other kinds oflinkage activities, but cooperative educa-tion programs still remain an importantsource of associations between educationand the public and private sectors.

The material that follows has beenexcerpted and adapted from the followingdocument:

Humbert, Jack T., and Woloszyk, CarlA. Cooperative Education. Infor-mation Series no. 254. Columbus: TheNational Center for Research in Voca-tional Education, The Ohio StateUniversity, 1983.

Key Terms

The terminology used in the operationof cooperative education programs is oftenconfusing to both employers and schoolofficials. Much of this confusion hasresulted from the proliferation of experi-ential learning programs existing in boththe public and private sectors. Termsrelated to cooperative education programsfollow:

Advisory Committee-- a group ofoccupational-area experts selectedfrom outside the field of educationto advise educators on vocationaleducation programs.

Competency-- a quality (e.g., knowl-edge, skill, or attitude) requiredfor occupational success.

Cooperative Education (Title VIII,Higher Education Act of 1965, asamended by P.L. 96-374)--an educa-tional approach that provides alter-nating or parallel periods of class-

179

room study and supervised public orprivate employment. Such a programis characterized by (1) a writtentraining agreement between an insti-tution of higher education, a stu-dent, and an employer; (2) workexperience related to the student'scourse of academic study and careergoals; (3) alternation between classattendance and work planned andsupervised to further the student'seducation and employability; and(4) employment in compliance withfederal, state, and local laws.

Cooperative Vocational Education(Vocational Education 4,:t of 1963 asamended by Title 11 of the EducationAmendments of 1976. P.L. 94- 482)--a program of vocational educationthat provides, through written coop-erative arrangements between schoolsand employers, instruction that in-cludes required academic courses

1191

and related vocational instruction.These two experiences are plannedand supervised by schools and em-ployers so that each contributes tostudents' education and employ-ability. Work periods and schoolattendance may be on alternate halfdays, weeks, or other periods.

Coordination - -the process of inte-grating the administrative, organ-izational, and instructional activi-ties of cooperative education pro-grams.

Coordinatoran educator who coor-dinates school and occupational ex-periences for students.

Diversified Occupations--a programto provide vocational education inschools where the required trainingfacilities are lacking. On-the-jobtraining is combined with classroominstruction through an agreementamong the school, an employer, and astudent. A diversified occupationscoordinator places students inseveral occupational areas and workscooperatively with instructcrs whoprovide related vocational instruc-tion.

Job Description--a summary listingthe elements of a specific occupa-tion. The description may includethe (1) purpose of the job, (2) du-ties, (3) equipment used, (4) quali-fications, (5) training require-ments, (6) physical and mentaldemands, and (7) working condi-tions.

On-the-Job Training-- the instruc-tion in the performance of sequen-tially planned tasks given a studentby an employer during usual workinghours. Learning experiences involveboth the theoretical application andthe skill aspects of the learningsituation.

Related Vocational Instruction- -instruction specifically designed

92

to improve personal and socialskills, provide needed basic educa-tion (developmental), and developrelevant occupational skills andknowledges. Instruction should beregularly scheduled, complementoccupational learning experiences,and be planned and developed to meetthe specific needs of each student.Instruction should include occupa-tional information and related work-adjustment skills.

Student ( Higher Education Act of1965, as amended) - -a person en-rolled in a cooperative vocationaleducation program who alternatesinstruction in school with a job inany occupational area.

Task--a measurable element of workfrom a larger occupational dutyusually performed by a single workerin a short span of time.

Task Analysis-- a sequential list-ing of the tasks necessary to theperformance of a clearly defined,specific job. Tasks analyses areuseful for classification and in-struction.

Training Agreement-- a writtenagreement that outlines the respon-sibilities of the student and em-ployer. It is approved by the stu-dent, employer, teacher-coordinator,and parent or guardian.

Training Plan--an educational planoften used in conjunction with atraining agreement. Specific jobtasks to be learned on the job andin the educational institution areincluded, along with an organizedplan for the orderly acquisition andprogression of job, duties, andtasks.

Training Sponsor-- an individualdirectly responsible for supervisingstudents' on-the- job learning ex-periences.

Training Station-- an organization periences for students enrolled in aproviding on-the-job training ex- cooperative education program.

Essential

Cooperative education programs arecomprised of basic elements required bythe Vocational Education Act of 1963, asamended, and the Higher Education Act of1965, as amended. Descriptions of theseessential elements follow:

Alternate or parallel periods ofinstruction in school and supervisedpublic or private employment arerequired. Periods of work andclassroom activities may be made upof alternate half days, full days,weeks, or other time segments. Post-secondary cooperative education stu-dents often work full-time for aquarter or semester term and thenreturn to classes for a term.

A written agreement among theschools the employers, the students,and where appropriate, the parentsor guardians is required. Thiswritten agreement is commonly knownas the training agreement. Thetraining agreement is school initi-ated, and it outlines the responsi-bilities of the educational agen-cies, employers, and students to theprogram. An example of a trainingagreement appears in exhibit 24.

Instruction (including required aca-demic instruction) must be relatedto the job and to the students'aca-demic study or career goals. Coop-erative education programs normallyhave time requirements for relatedvocational instruction by occupa-tional area, as dictated by thestate vocational agencies. Highereducation cooperative education workexperiences are generally a compo-nent of the institutions' degreerequirements. A designated amountof credit is awarded for the experi-ence. Required instruction andcourses are dictated by the require-

181

Elements

ments of each individual degreeprogram.

e The alternation of study and workmust be planned and supervised tofurther the students' education andemployability. Cooperative educa-tion coordinators are responsiblefor planning and conducting relatedacademic and vocational instructiondesigned to meet the students' on-the-job needs. Training sponsorshave the responsibility of providinga variety of well-planned tasks toassist students in becoming compe-tent employees. Competent super-vision by both parties ensures thatexperience in a systematic progres-sion of job-related skills is corre-lated with classroom instruction.

Students must be employed and com-pensated in compliance with federal,state, and local laws. Such compli-ance ensures that students are notexploited for private gain. Thecompensation feature guarantees thatstudents are paid for work performedand that they are recognized employ-ees of the employing organization.

Research related to each of the five essen-tial elements is reporteti in the followingsections.

Alternation of Study with Employment

The U.S. Office of Education (1975)reports that three patterns of study andwork are commonly used:

The Alternate-Semester Pattern. Twostudents hold one full-time jobduring the year, each spendingalternate semesters on campus and onthe job.

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EXHIBIT 24

SAMPLE COOPERATIVE EDUCATION STUDENT TRAINING AGREEMENT

EMPLOYER: STUDENT NAME:(Name of Business)

EMPLOYER IRS NUMBER: STREET:

STREET: CITY:,

CITY: STATE:

STATE: ZIP CODE- PHONE:

ZIP CODE. PHONE: SOCIAL SECURITY NO

FEDERAL HAZARDOUS OCCUPATIONAL DRIVER'S LICENSE NO.:DEVIATION:

GRADE:_ YES NO

BIRTH DATE:SUPERVISOR:

RATE OF PAY.DATE EMPLOYMENT BEGINS:

EXPECTED PROGRAMWORKER'S DISABILITY: YES _NO COMPLETION DATE-

AGE:

UNDERWRITER. DAILY TIME SCHEDULE:(Carrier)

FROM TO.

LIABILITY INSURANCE: MAXIMUM WORK HR./WEEK:

YES NO CAREER OBJECTIVE:

UNDERWRITER: OCCUPATIONAL TITLE:(Carrier)

NCES (USOE) CODE:

EXHIBIT 24Continued

JOB TASKS AND ACTIVITIES RELATED VOCATIONAL INSTRUCTION

The student will complete the following work-related tasks and activities (on-the-job):

The student will complete the activities in school:

EMPLOYER'S RESPONSIBILITY INPROGRAM:

I. The student's training period shall be an averageof 15 hours per week.

2. The training plan should include job tasks andactivities that are of vocational and educationalvalue.

3. The employer shall complete a brief progressreport (provided by the coordinator) at the con-clusion of each marking period indicating thetrainee's progress on the job.

4. The training program that is agreed upon shallnot be interrupted by either trainee or employerwithout consultation with the coordinator.

5. The employment of the trainee shall conform toall federal, state, and local laws and regulations,including nondiscrimination against any appli-cant or employee because of race, color, reli-gion. age, marital status, sex, national origin, orancestry. This policy of nondiscrimination shallapply also to otherwise qualified handicappedindividuals.

SOURCE: Humbert and Wolosyzk, 1983, pp. 39-40.

TRAINEE'S RESPONSIBILITY IN PROGRAM:

I. Trainee will abide by the regulations and poli-cies of the employer and the school.

2. Each trainee shall faithfully perform theassignments of the job and school program.

3. No trainee shall leave the training programwithout first receiving the consent of the coop-erative education coordinator.

Approved Date

Trainee

Parent.

Coordinator

Employer

NOTE: (Employer must retain a copy of thecompleted training agreement at theplace of employment before a minorbegins work.)

1..95183

The Parallel Pattern. Studentsengage in concurrent part-time workexperience and classes.

The Career Development Plan. Stu-dents hold full-time jobs and attendclasses in the evening.

A 1978 study noted that 75 percent ofthe postsecondary schools studied in NewJersey offer cooperative education programson a semester basis (Agrawal 1978). Stu-dents enroll primarily in parallel orextended-day plans. In the interest ofgaining the apparent benefits of the flexi-ble programming at the postsecondary level,a national institute recommended thatscheduling patterns should more variedand that supervised summer employmentprograms should be implemented (Billings1970).

Written Agreements

The most commonly used agreement isknown as a training agreement, a statementof understandings and responsibilitiesrelated to student employment. A trainingplan, a second type of agreement, is aneducational outline used in conjunctionwith a training agreement. The trainingplan details specific job tasks to belearned, focusing on the students' careergoals and identifying time periods forlearning assigned job tasks. It alsospecifies tasks to be learned in the class-room and at the training station.

Palmieri, Iw ler, and Lucas (1980)suggest that training agreements shouldhave three distinct sections:

General student-learner, school,and job site information

Responsibilities of the trainingstation, students, parents, andschool

A statement of nondiscriminationpolicy

Pear t (1977) found that training agreementsused in postsecondary institutions areusually concise forms representing informalunderstandings rather than formal legalcontracts. Oral agreements are the basisof many postsecondary cooperative educationprograms. The results of this study sug-gest that written agreements should beused, and that the following items shouldbe included:

Information about the program

Objectives of the program andfor the student

Signatures of all involved parties

Information about the student

Information about the employer

Student responsibilities

Parent responsibilities

Employer responsibilities

Job requirements

Employer requirements

With regard to training plans,Palmieri, Iw ler, and Lucas (1980) reportthat only 51 percent of the cooperativeeducation programs studied use such out-lines identifying the responsibilities ofteacher, parent, student, and trainingsponsor. Litchford (1977) remits that themajority of training sponsors studied werenot involved in the development of trainingplans.

The use of such a training plan isadvantageous. Thompson's (1976) researchfindings indicate that a structured ap-proach to the work experience component ofcooperative education is effective inteaching occupational competencies.

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6

Related Instruction

Cooperative education programs provideoccupational instruction, including in-struction related to the students' jobs andeducational and career goals. As eachstudent is placed in employment, the coor-dinator, student, and training sponsorshould cooperatively develop a trainingplan to structure the educational experi-ence.

This task may be somewhat difficultbecause agreement between coordinators andtraining sponsors is not widespread. Re-search indicates that coordinators believethat related instruction should be occupa-tionally specific (Hutt 1975). Employersbelieve, however, that the instructionalprogram should have a broader focus andshould include such topics as computationalskills, personality development, and com-munications skills (Hutt 1975; Litchford1977). This is supported by a study com-pleted by Usoro (1980) that indicates thatemployers of vocational-technical workersexpect their prospective employees to havethe following characteristics:

Adaptability

Ambition

Cooperativeness

Dependability

Neatness

The ability to follow directions

The cooperative development of train-ing plans should also provide for studentconcerns. Several studies have examinedstudent perceptions of what should be pro-vided in related instruction. Misley(1980) suggests that community collegevocational curricula are deficient inrequirements related to work attitudes andinterpersonal skills. Phillips (1980) sup-ports the perceived need for employabilityskills training and suggests that graduatesacquire jobs more quickly when they receiveemployability skills instruction.

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Regarding the structure of a trainingplan, Stewart (1979) noted that communitycollege students prefer an open-entry/open-exit, self-paced instructional style fol-lowed by on-the-job training. Severalstudies have also been conducted on coor-dinators' perceptions as to what relatedinstruction should be offered. Welch andDixie (1972) found that coordinators placea high priority on the teaching of workattitudes, employer-employee relations,human relations, and job-seeking tech-niques. Lloyd (1981) reports that coordi-nators rank topics in descending order ofimportance for related instruction asfollows:

1. Attitudes

2. Employer-employee relations

3. Communication skills

4. Payroll procedures

5. Mode of dress

. 6. Employer-customer relationships

7. Information on current technologyand economic information

Planned and Supervised Schooland Work Activities

The alternation of study and work incooperative education programs must beplanned and supervised to ensure thatsystematic progression and acquisition ofskills by students occur. School experi-ences must be correlated with on-the-jobaspects of cooperative education to con-tribute effectively to students' educationand employability. Structured trainingplans provide for this coordination, butclose supervision is necessary for success-ful implementation.

Palmieri, Iw ler, and Lucas (1980)found that 89 percent of the cooperativevocational education programs studied pro-vide this close supervision. However,agreement on this point is yet to be

197

achieved. A study of the perceptions ofemployers, college administrators, andcoordinators reveals that about 35 percentof administrators recommend five or morevisits by the coordinator to the trainingstation each semester. However, 85 percentof the coordinators and 78 percent of theemployers see this amount as excessive.

A New Jersey study reveals that em-ployers neither receive sufficient infor-mation regarding cooperative education norare contacted by the coordinator on aregular basis (Agrawal 1978). This may bedue to the problems identified by Collins(1977). Extensive teaching assignments andinsufficient time for coordinating andtravel are major concerns.

Lloyd (1981) suggests that additionalresearch is needed regarding the optimumcoordinator-student ratio. The averagecoordinator-student ratio per hour ofdesignated coordination time is 1 to 11.However, as many as 45 students (per hourof released time) are assigned to somecoordinators.

Although ;here is considerable dis-agreement regarding supervision of coopera-tive education students, consensus clearlyexists regarding the importance of coordi-

nator visits to training stations. Becausecoordinators are responsible for thehealth, safety, welfare, and educationalprogress of students, many state educationagencies have established coordinationschedules for training station visits.

Compensation of Students

Students involved in cooperative edu-cation must be employed and compensated inconformity with federal, state, and locallaws. Little research has been conductedregarding compliance with the legal re-quirements. Secondary vocational coopera-tive education students are limited intheir work schedules by federal and statelegislation affecting minors, whereaspostsecondary students generally have theflexibility to work up to full time at atraining situation.

The requirement that cooperative edu-cation programs comply with federal, state,and local laws attempts to ensure that co-operative education students receive avalid training experience, adequate compen-sation for their efforts, and are not ex-ploited for private gain.

Program Organization

Research on the functions of coopera-tive education coordinators in Michiganidentified nearly 60 required tasks classi-fied into 5 functional areas (Vocational-Technical Education Service 1981). Theseareas are as follows:

Administration

Coordination

Guidance

Professional development

Public relations

These classifications for the func-tions of cooperative education coordinatorsprovide a framework for the discussion ofthe available research related to programorganization. Program administration isthe first area of concern in the organiza-tion of cooperative education programs.

Administration

Various aspects of planning, imple-menting, and operating cooperative educa-tion programs have been well researched.The findings of these studies are discussedin the following section.

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198

Needs Assessments

A needs assessment should be conductedprior to the implementation of a coopera-tive education program. Stauber (1976)assessed the need for a cooperative educa-tion program in a technical institute. Inthat survey, which obtained results muchlike those of similar efforts, 96 percentof the employers, 97 percent of the educa-tors, and 95 percent of the students sur-veyed favored the implementation of acooperative education program.

Cost Analyses

It is also recommended that a costanalysis be completed prior to the estab-lishment of a cooperative education pro-gram. In such analyses, Molnar (1973) andMoore (1976) found that the costs of oper-ating cooperative education programs arecomparable to those of operating othereducational programs. There seems to belittle difference in the costs of providinga vocational-technical cooperative educa-tion program and a regular vocational-technical education program. Capital plan-ning and staffing for "work-study programs"need not cost more than a regular classroomprogram. Several studies, however, do re-port higher costs for cooperative educationthan for regular programs (Lewis et al.1976; Stromsdorfer and Fackler 1973; Voca-tional-Technical Education Service 1982).

Ideally a cost analysis of a coopera-tive education program would compare theactual program costs with the discountedvalue of the benefits derived by studentsfrom program participation over the periodof their employment. Obviously, the bene-fits that accrue to a student over a life-time of employment must be estimated, mak-ing cost-benefit analr s less than accu-rate. Research regaraing the accruedbenefits to students over a lifetime hasnot been conducted for cooperative educa-tion.

Advisory Committees

Administrative guidelines for coopera-tive education programs developed by Mooreet al. (1975) emphasize the following asimportant steps in developing a program:

Establishing a steering committeemade up of representatives of allgroups with an interest in theprogram (i.e., employers, students,parents, and educators)

Holding joint meetings with cooper-ating agencies

Documenting the events that occurduring the planning effort

The Vocational Education Amendmentsof 1976 require vocational education pro-grams to include an advisory cork.mittee intheir operational plans. The establishmentof a steering committee for the purpose ofimplementing a cooperative education pro-gram offers administrators an opportunityto begin the development of an advisorycommittee for the program. An advisorycommittee assists a coordinator in theoperation of the program, according toone administrative handbook (Vocational-Technical Education Service 1981), bydoing the following:

Identifying program goals andobjectives

Reviewing the instructionalprogram

Determining expected programoutcomes

Assisting with student placements

Furnishing equipment and supplies

An Oklahoma study (Amos 1974) reportsthat the following are perceived as impor-tant contributions of advisory committees:

DI

Gaining support and assistancefor public relations efforts

Promoting the program

Identifying community problemsand training needs

Acquiring community surveysand manuals and the servicesof resource persons

Updating the teacher-coordinator

Training employers

Providing feedback from thecommunity

Planning

In developing an organizational planfor the implementation of a cooperativeeducation program, the steering committeemust consider the following questions:

When can employers best use theservices of students?

How flexible is the school calendarand daily schedule?

When are qualified staff available?

When is transportation availabletake students to training stations?

How waling are administratorsadjust student schedules?

Reporting

In addition to the requirement thatadvisory committees be established, theVocational Education Amendments of 1976require that follow-up surveys be conductedannually of completers of vocational edu-cation programs. Accurate records andreports are needed for compliance with thisrequirement, as well as for those of stateand local agencies. An annual reporthighlighting the accomplishments of thecooperative education program can easily beprepared from the information collected forrequired reports. Such a report is invalu-able for promoting the program. It is sug-gested that the report answer the followingquestions about cooperative education pro-dram graduates:

How many jobs are represented by thegroup?

What types of jobs are representedby the group?

How is employment among the grouprelated to the cooperative educationprograms represented?

To what extent does the cooperativeeducation experience of the groupappear to have been adequate?

To what extent does the group demon-to strate occupational mobility?

To what extent has the group soughtto additional education?

Postsecondary institutions frequentlyuse an organizational plan for cooperativeeducation in which students attend classesevery other term and work during the re-maining terms. Some industry-sponsoredcooperative education programs are organ-ized similarly, providing periods of in-struction alternately with work periods.

What occupational problems have beenencountered by members of thegroup?

Coordination

Coordination is the process of inte-grating all the administrative, organiza-tional, and instructional activities of a

2J0188

Al

cooperative education program to the bene-fit of students. Activities involved incoordination are (1) those related to theessential elements of a cooperative educa-tion program and (2) those provided assupportive services.

Cooperative education programs areoperated by coordinators--individuals whomust possess the versatility to carry out awide variety of activities. The Handbook ofCooperative Education (Seaverns and Wool-dridge 1971) asserts that a cooperativeeducation coordinator functions in the fol-lowing roles:

Administrator

Educational recruiter

Mediator

Placement specialist

Referral agent

Salesperson

Teacher

Troubleshooter

Vocational counselor

Guidance

Cooperative education programs aredesigned to contribute to students' careergoals by providing career preparationactivities. These programs can also con-tribute to the broader area of careerconcerns--individual career development.Career development involves planning, ex-ploring, and establishing life roles. Coop-erative education programs are increasinglyrecommended as a career development inter-vention that eases the transition fromschool to work and promotes career explora-tion (Silberman and Ginsburg 1976; Superand Hall 1978; Wirtz 1975).

Research reveals that cooperativeeducation on-the-job experience provides asuperior vehicle for vocational exploration(Ducat 1980). This finding is supported byKlubnik (1977) which indicates that thequality of on-the-job experiences in coop-erative education is an excellent predictorof the quality of the individual's survivalskills. It may be inferred that the pos-session of superior survival skills is anindicator that the individual is effective-ly managing the transition from school towork.

Lamb and McKay (1979) suggest a planfor effectively assisting students in theirefforts to reach career goals. This careerdevelopment strategy is the consolidationof placement and cooperative educationprograms. Lamb (1980) notes that studentsoften come to the placement office toinquire about part-time work, and may notbe aware of the benefits of cooperativeeducation.

One study (Husted 1977) reveals thatcooperative education coordinators believethe . following to be important guidancefunctions of coordinators:

Placement

Recruitment and selection

Educational guidance

Career counseling and occupationalinformation

Personal and social counseling

Follow-up

Permanent record inventory

Not surprisingly, cooperative educa-tion coordinators who have had training inguidance activities are more likely toperform these functions than those who havenot. Another survey (Vocational-TechnicalEducation Service 1981) reveals that coop-erative education coordinators perceive the

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following guidance functions to be a sub-stantial part of cooperative educationcoordinators' responsibilities:

Orienting students to cooperativeeducation policies and procedures

Consulting with counselors, adminis-trators, and teachers about enroll-ing students in cooperative educa-tion programs

Assisting students in preparing forjob interviews

Conducting interviews with potentialcooperative education programs

Assisting students with employmentapplications

Assisting students with personaladjustment problems

Conferring with students about theireducational progress

Analyzing students' permanent rec-ords in relation to placement

Writing letters of recommendationfor students and graduates

Orienting school personnel to coop-erative education policies andprocedures

Conducting parent conferences

The procedures that cooperative educa-tion coordinators rank as most effective incarrying out guidance tasks--especially inassisting students with problems--have beenidentified by Rudisill (1976). These areas follows:

Strategies directed toward students'high-interest concerns

Individual counseling and individu-alized instruction

Placement on a job appropriate tostudents' interests and abilities

190

These activities emphasize the impor-tance of individualization in working withstudents. The needs of all students mustbe considered, but those of certain popula-tions may require special consideration.Whereas cooperative education programs areenrolling larger numbers of females andmembers of racial minority groups, contin-ued emphasis on this effort is needed. Inaddition, efforts to enroll disadvantagedand handicapped students are in order.Lloyd (1981) reports that 87 percent of asample of cooperative education coordina-tors have no contact with handicapped stu-dents. Jernigan (1978) asserts that a needexists to coordinate services for handi-capped students with employers. If coop-erative education coordinators are to makea real contribution to the career develop-ment of special populations, the followingrecommendations made by Gulledge (1978)must be put into practice:

Ensure that the program operatesresponsive outrea'h and recruitmentprograms

Ensure that guidance practices pro-vide all students with the assist-ance necessary for making intelli-gent, informed occupational choices

Develop effective communicationswith significant influences in thefamilies of female (and other spe-cial) students

Provide inser vice education experi-ences designed to increase educa-tors' awareness of their role inmaking vocational-technical educa-tion available to all students

Devise means for improving females'(and other special students') per-ception of their potential

Provide assistance to females (andother special students) in occupa-tional decision making

Public Relations

Cooperative education program objec-tives are misunderstood by many students,parents, and educators. The image of coop-erative education is not as positive as itcould be among these groups (Waddell 1976).Key individuals may not be as knowledgeableabout the program as is desirable. A studyby Davis (1977) reveals, for example, thatsecondary principals demonstrate a need forincreased knowledge of the program.

One of the often overlooked responsi-bilities of cooperative education coordina-tors is program promotion -- activitiesdesigned to increase awareness of the pro-gram. Lamb (1980) notes that a communitycollege developed a special public rela-tions project to increase awareness ofcooperative education programs among stu-dent, faculty, and employers. Counselors,instructors, and students visited localbusinesses and industries to facilitate theexchange of information. Enrollments incooperative education increased as a resultof these visits. Public relations isranked as important among coordinator tasks(Brownlee 1977). A survey (Vocational-Technical Education Service 198!) uf coop-erative education coordinators indicatesthat they believe the following publicrelations tasks to be a significant part oftheir job:

Zponsor seminars about cooperativeeducation for educators, employers,,and parents

Sponsor visits to businesses andindustries for students and educa-tors

Implement a "day-on-the-job" pro-gram for students

Develop a vocational group for stu-dents

Such activities can ensure the vital-ity of cooperative education programs byeffectively communicating program purposesand procedures to the individuals whosesupport is needed for success. Strategies

that are suggested to improve public rela-tions for cooperative education programsinclude the following:

Inform student groups about coopera-tive education

Plan and conduct an annual employer-employee recognition activity

Inform the school and communityabout cooperative education

Include cooperative education stu-dents in recruitment activities

Develop a cooperative educationcourse catalog

Prepare brochures about cooperativeeducation programs to a.stribute tostudents

Display information about coopera-tive education programs on bulletinboards

. Prepare information pieces aboutcooperative education programs to beused as public service announcementson radio and television

a Place advertisements for cooperativeeduratioli in school and communitynewspapers

Professional Development

Cooperative education coordinators aretypically required to hold a baccalaureatedegree, to have 2 years of experience intheir occupational field, and to completeone or two professional courses in coopera-tive education at a postsecondary institu-tion. An assessment (Brown and Wilson1979) of cooperative education teachertraining programs led to the followingconclusions:

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2 0 3

Cooperative education coordinatortraining should focus on participantobjectives and outcomes.

Workshop faculty must be highlyskilled (i.e., competent).

Workshops designed for experiencedcooperative education coordinatorsshould be offered.

Continuing education for cooperativeeducation coordinators is becoming increas-ingly important because both instructionalmethodologies and the technologies used inbusiness and industry are constantly chang-ing. Coordinators were found by Brownlee(1977) to believe that inservice educationis important, and that training in thefollowing topics is needed most

rcvaloping training agreements

Selecting training stations

Public relations

Student relations

Roth (1978) reports that cooperativeeducation coordinators perceive the follow-ing as important topics for inservice edu-cation programs:

Correlating classroom instructionwith on-the-job instruction

Placement

The essential elements of cooperativeeducation programs include (1) alternate ofparallel periods of instruction in schooland supervised public or private employ-ment; (2) a writ= training agreementamong the school, an employer, and a stu-dent; (3) vocational instruction (includingrequired academic instruction) related tothe job and the student's academic study orcareer goals; (4) carefully planned alter-nation of study and work supervised tofurther the student's education and employ-ability; and (5) student's employment andcompensation in compliance with federal,state, and local laws. Progarn implementa-

Student occupational problems

Improvemen. of students' workingenvironments

In order to maintain a high degree ofprofessionalism, coordinators must contin-ually keep abreast of innovations. Attend-ing workshops and seminars and participat-ing in college courses provide cooperativeeducation coordinators with opportunitiesto discuss innovations with other profes-sionals. Professional organizations, suchas the American Vocational Association,sponsor state and national conferenceswhere state-of-the-art information may beobtained. Journals dealing with topicsrelated to cooperative education are alsomade available by these organizations andothers, and these should be rev; ved regu-larly.

Cooperative education coordinators cancontribute to their knowledge of currenttechnology in business and industry byattending meetings of business and civicorganizations. Business and civic groupsin many communities offer opportunities forcoordinators to attend lectures and work-shops on topics related to cooperativeeducation or to an occupation. Membershipin business and civic organizations alsoprovides coordinators with opportunities topromote interest in cooperative educationprograms.

Summary

tion involves assessing needs, completing acost-benefit analysis, organizing an advi-sory committee, planning, and reporting.

A cooperative education coordinatorintegrates all the administrative and in-structional activities of a cooperativeeducation program to the benefit of stu-dents--those activities related to theessential elements and those related tosuch supportive services as guidance.Guidance activities contribute to careerdevelopment--that is, the planning, explo-ration, and establishment of life roles.The coordinators' responsibilities in the

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area of public relations include activitiesdesigned to increase awareness and create apositive image for the program. Profes-

sional development activities are importantto keep abreast of innovations.

References

Agrawal, R. N. The Status of CooperativeEducation Programs in New JerseyTwo-Year Colleges, 1976-1977. Phila-delphia: Temple University, 1978.

Amos, J. "A Study of the Perceptions ofOklahoma Distributive Education Co-ordinators Regarding Functions ofLocal Advisory Committees." Ed.D.diss. Oklahoma State University,1974.

Billings, D. Cooperative Occupational Edu-cation Programs: A Conference Seminarto Extend the Range of Vocational Edu-cation. New York: The City Univer-sity of New York, 1970.

Brown, S. J., and Wilson, J. W. NationalAssessment of Cooperative EducationTraining. Boston: Cooperative Edu-cation Research Center, NortheasternUniversity, 1979.

Brownlee, R. "Analysis of Opinions ofSecondary Cooperative DistributiveEducation Coordinators in Mississippi:Toward Recommended CoordinationActivities." Ed.D. diss. Virginia Pol-ytechnic Institute and State Univer-sity, 1977.

Collins, C. R. A Historical and Descrip-tive Study of Adult Cooperative Voca-tional Education Programs in ColoradoPostsecondary Institutions. Greeley:University of Northern Co!orado,1977.

Davis, E. L. An Investigation of Georgia'sDistributive Education and VocationalOffice Training Programs in Termsof the High School Principal's Per-ceptions. Athens: University ofGeorgia, 1977.

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Ducat, D. E. "Cooperative Education,Career Exploration, and OccupationalConcepts for Community College Stu-dents," in Journal of Vocational Be-havior 17 (October 1980): 195-203.

Gulledge, E. N. A Study of ContributingFactors to Sex Stereotyping of Femalesin Vocational Education in Okaloosaand Walton Counties. Tallahassee:The Florida State University, 1978.

Husted, S. "Perceptions of SecondaryNational Association of DistributiveEducation Teachers (NADET) Regard-ing Their Role in Guidance and Coun-seling." Ph.D. diss. Michigan StateUniversity, 1977.

Hutt, R. W. Perceptions of Employers Re-garding Cooperative Distributive Edu-cation Programs at the SecondaryLevel. East Lansing: Michigan StateUniversity, 1975.

Jernigan, J. S. A Study of Barriers En-countered by Handicapped StudentsWhich Impede Successful Completion ofVocational Technical Programs inCommunity Colleges. College Station:Texas A&M University, 1978.

Klubnik, J. P. The Effect of Job Qualityand Work Experience Exposures on theLevel of Job Survival Skills of Com-munity College Cooperative EducationStudents. Los Angeles: University ofCalifornia, 1977.

Lamb, S. H. "Promoting Cooperative Edu-cation by Providing Career ExplorationExperiences," in Journal of Coopera-tive Education 17 (Winter 1980-81):46-51.

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Lamb, S. H., and McKay, C. F. "Place-ment and Cooperative Education: AResourceful Partnership," in Journalof College Placement 39 (Fall 1979):38-42.

Lewis, M. W.; Glyde, G. P.; McKee, D. E.;Kozak, L. A.; Lewis, L.; Crandall, R.M.; and Flanary, P. E. School Super-vised Work Experience Programs: Costsand Effects on Personal Development,Education and Employment, Final Re-port, edited by Jacob J. Kaufman. Uni-versity Park: The Pennsylvania StateUniversity, Institute for Research onHuman Resources, 1976.

Litchford, C. D., Jr. A Case Study ofTraining Sponsor Perceptions Regard-ing The Coordination Phase of Second-ary Cooperative-Plan-Distributive Edu-cation. Blacksburg: Virginia Polytech-nic Institute and State University,1977.

Lloyd, G. M. An Assessment of CooperativeEducation Programs Since the Educa-tional Amendments of 1976. Columbus:The National Center for Research inVocational Education, The Ohio StateUniversity, 1981.

Misley, R. F. Personal Behavior Skills:Their Role in Successful VocationalEmployment. Salt Lake City: BrighamYoung University, 1980.

Molnar, D. E. Cost Effectiveness of Se-lected Cooperative Vocational Educa-tion Programs as Compared with Voca-tional Programs without a CooperativeComponent, Final Report. Columbus,OH: Battelle Memorial Institute,1973.

Moore, Allen B., et al. Guidelines for theDevelopment and Study of CooperativeAdult Education Programs. Washington,DC: Bureau of Occupational and AdultEducation, Division of Adult Educa-tion, 1975. (ERIC Document Repro-duction Service No. ED 122 125)

Moore, R. S. "V, ork-Study: Education'sSleeper," in Phi Delta Kappan 57(January 1976): 322-323.

Palmieri, D. F.; Iwler, I. L.; and Lucas,A. Characteristics of CooperativeEducation in Pennsylvania. Pitts-burgh: University of Pittsburgh,1980.

Peart, E. E. An Assessment of Character-istics of Cooperative Agreements Be-tween Postsecondary Educational In-stitutions and Business, Industry andLabor. Greeley: University of North-ern Colorado, 1977.

Phillips, J. M. Job Acquisition Methods ofSecondary Vocational School Gradu-ates, Their Use and Relationship toTraining Related Employment. Knox-ville: University of Tennessee, 1980.

Rudisill, G. C. Instructional ProceduresUsed by Occupational Work ExperienceTeacher-Coordinators for ResolvingSchool and Work Problems. Columbus:The Ohio State University, 1976.

Seaverns, C. F., and Wooldridge, R. L."Coordination and Placement," inHandbook of Cooperative Education,edited by A. S. Knowles. San Fran-cisco: Josse y-Bass, 1971.

Silberman, C. F., and Wooldridge, R. L."Coordination and Placement," inHandbook of Cooperative Education,edited by S. Knowles. San Francisco:Jossey-Bass 1971.

Stauber, D. T. Cooperative Education,Final Report. Fond du Lac, WI:Moraine Park Technical Institute,1976. (ERIC Document ReproductionService No. ED 122 888)

Stromsdorfer, E., and Fackler, J. AnEconomic and Institutional Analysis ofthe Cooperative Education Programs.Dayton, OH: 1973. (ERIC DocumentReproduction Service No. ED 083 463)

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Super, D. E., and Hall, D. T. "CareerDevelopment Exploration and Plan-ning," in Annual Review of Psychol-ogy 29 (1978): 333-372.

Thompson, D. L. Structured and Non-structured Work Experience Programs inTexas. College Station: Texas A&MUniversity, 1976.

U.S. Office of Education. New Horizons inCooperative Education: Project Re-port (1 July 1974 - -30 June 1975).Washington, DC: U.S. Office of Edu-cation, 1975. (ERIC Document Repro-duction Service No. ED 112 984)

Usoro, H. S. U. Affective Work Compe-tencies as Perceived by Vocational-Industrial and Industrial-TechnicalStudents and Expected by PotentialEmployers. Columbia.. University ofMissouri, 1980.

Vocational-Technical Education Service.Total and Eligible Cost Analysis1980-81. Lansing: Vocational-Technical Education Service, MichiganDepartment of Education, 1982.

Vocational-Technical Education Service.Vocational Cooperative Education Hand-book. Lansing: Vocational-TechnicalEducation Service, Michigan Depart-ment of Education, 1981. (ERIC Docu-ment Reproduction Service No. ED 212910)

Waddell, R. H. The Distributive Educationand Cooperative Education Programs inSelected Junior/Community Colleges inSouth Florida--A Status Report. BacaRaton: Florida Atlantic University,1976.

Welch F. G., and Dixie T. C. The Develop-ment of Related Theory Class Outlineand Program Evaluation Instrument forCooperative Vocational Education. Co-operative Vocational Education Series,monograph no. 1. University Park: ThePennsylvania State University, Depart-ment of Vocational Education, 1972.

Wirtz, W. W. The Boundless Resource.Washington, DC: New Republic, 1975.

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Chapter 10Dealing with Business and

Industries' Barriers to Linkages

While attempting to establish linkageswith business and industry, your educa-tional institution is likely to encounterproblems or barriers that impede thislingage. This chapter discusses some ofthese barriers and reports on inventivesolutions that other educational institu-tions ...ive used to get around these bar-riers.

The material in this chapter has beenexcerpted and adapted from the followingdocument:

Warmbrod, Catharine P.; and Faddis,Constance, R. Retraining and Upgrad-ing Workers: A Guide for Postsecond-ary Educators. Columbus: The Na-tional Center for Research in Voca-tional Education, The Ohio StateUniversity, 1983.

Barriers and

The barriers, solutions, and recommen-dations discussed in this chapter are oneresult of information gathered through sitevisits to colleges involved in exemplaryeconomic development activities. The col-leges studied were Tri-County Technicalcollege in Pendleton, South Carolina;Macomb Community College in Warren,Michigan; State Technical Institute atMemphis, Tennessee; Triton College in RiverGrove, Illinois; and South Oklahoma CityJunior College in Oklahoma.

During the five case study site vis-its, probing questions were asked regardingthe kinds of barriers--and related solu-tions, if any--staff members at the fivecolleges encountered in their efforts toparticipate in economic development throughupgrading and retraining of adult workers.More often than not, the enthusiasm of thecollege representatives for their programswas such that discussions veered away fromdirect discussion of barriers, focusing

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Solutions

instead on the innovative policies and pro-cedures by which the colleges managed toavoid or demolish such barriers. As aresult, analysis of the case studies pro-vided a plethora of "solutions" whose bar-riers could only be inferred from the dis-cussions. The barriers thus derived seemedto cluster into the following categories:

State and local linkages foreconomic development

Course approval systems

College forecasting andplanning

Marketing of customizedtraining

Quick response customizedtraining

Customized training management

2n8

e Flexibility of resources

Internal organization andcooperation

Faculty and staffing

Other economic developmentoutreach services

In the discussions that follow, specificbarriers related to each of these cate-gories will be examined and practical so-lutions (where they exist) utilized by thedifferent case study colleges will be re-viewed.

State and Local Linkagesfor Economic Development

Barrier 1: It is difficult to convincestate and local politicians and agencies toconsider educational needs in a long-term,futurist perspective.

Solutions

At Triton College, the president hasthe ear of the locally-elected board oftrustees, who "have bought into" Triton'spriority for economic development. At thestate level, Triton's president, top admin-istrative staff, and board of trustees havedeveloped excellent contacts and workingrelationships with Illinois representativesand senators, with state agencies, and withthe governor.

At Tri-County in South Carolina,college administrative staff members havedeveloped their own personal contacts andrelationsh) ps with the state TechnicalEducation College (TEC) System and thestate's economic development agency.Although the TEC System appears to be moreformally forwardlooking than most stateeducation agencies, Tri-County staff didsuggest a number of strategies that couldstimulate continuing long-term perspectivesand planning. These include (1) establish-ing a computerized network across statepostsecondary institutions to facilitateready access to statistics on any ai-ea of

the state and (2) conducting more jointregional funding projects and seminars toeducate local politicians about changingeducational needs and the great potentialthat training represents for improving thelocal and state economies.

Barrier 2: There often are problems inacquiring funding and other support fromthe state for college economic developmentefforts.

Solutions

At the State Technical Institute atMemphis, college administrators make surethat all upgrading and retraining coursesoffered by the college, whether customizedfor industry or not, are credit-grantingcourses. This is because the state reim-bursement policy is based on the number ofcredit hours generated. The college de-signs all courses for industry to meet bothinternal (and company) standards and allstate requirements for credit.

In Michigan, where Macomb Com-munity College is located, the state re-cently began to fund start-up training inthe state through its community colleges.The effort is very new, however, and notwell marketed. Even so, the Michigan Com-munity College Presidents' Committee onEconomic Development took the major re-sponsibility for proposing and promotingthe initiation of the state program. Theskillful use of such formal organizations'influence is one avenue to awakening legis-lators to the potential of postsecondarytraining activities for economic develop-ment.

Barrier 3: State funding for customizedtraining exists, but it is too often limit-ed by strict eligibility restrictions,thereby reducing its effectiveness.

Solutions

There are at least several avenues forcolleges to acquire state funding for cus-tomized courses, if they are willing toassume leadership in influencing state

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economic development activities, or arewilling to look for ways to ensure reim-bursement by the state for customizedcourses offering credit. Where such ave-nues are not available or effective thecolleges may assume responsibility them-selves for trying to provide inexpensivecustomized training to industry. Suchcourses may be offered at cost or at near-cost by the colleges, or funds may besought from other, local sources, such as acounty or city council.

Barrier 4: There is the will for coopera-tion between state agencies and colleges ineconomic development efforts, but poor ormuddled communications hamper those ef-forts.

Solutions

A number of the colleges designate asingle person as the contact for communi-cations about economic development efforts,both for the college and for the agency.While colleges have no control over suchdesignations for state agencies, within thecollege itself the designated contact mostoften is the president. By dealing on aone-to-one basis with the agency commis-sioner or board director, rapport is built,confusion and red tape are avoided, and thecollege is able to move faster, when neces-sary, on customized training agreements.College presidents or other senior admin-ist -ators can also serve actively in anylocal development agencies, in order tocultivate crucial contacts and establishuseful communication networks acrosspolitical levels.

Barrier 5: Poor or insufficient communi-cations and articulation among state andlocal educational institutions often hampertheir efforts to improve their economicdevelopment outreach.

Solutions

The State Technical Institute at Mem-phis shares its courses, curriculum mate-rials, and expertise with area vocational-

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technical schools in the state so they maybetter serve industry throughout the state.The institute has also contracted witheight area vocational-technical schools tobring them under the administration of theinstitute in order to further their out-reach to industry and to ensure efficientand accurate articulation of technicaltraining.

Tri-County Community College, as partof South Carolina's TEC System, will soonhave access to model curricula (as well asa mobile equipment pool) in the six desig-nated high-technology training areas servedby TEC's Innovative Technical ResourceCenters.

Barrier 6: Formal contracts mandated forsome states' customized training programsfor industry may require many signatures ofvarious college and state officials.

Solutions

In some states, contracts are eithernot required, or they require the signa-tures of only the college president and thecompany representative. In Tennessee, theState Technical Institute at Memphis has,on occasion, felt it necessary to begintraining before all the numerous signatureswere obtained on the contract. In thatstate, new legislation will be necessary todelete the contractual red tape. This is abarrier that may be best avoided in otherstates from the time of initial statelegislation to fund customized training.Legislators must be educated about thecosts of bureaucracy so that legislationallows any contracts deemed necessary to besigned only by the company representativeand the college president.

Course Approval System

Barrier 7: Credit courses, whether custom-ized or not, require time-consuming courseapproval by the state board of regents orother state education agency.

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Solutions

The Oklahoma State Board of Regentsfor Higher Education reserves for itselfthe right of approval for not only everynew program, but every new course. SouthOklahoma City Junior College (SOCJC) main-tains some flexibility by creating coursecategories with a Special Topics subcate-gory that has a generic course description.This description is written so it can beused for almost any new kind of course,within the general course area. The Spe-cial Topics courses are also written tohave variable credit (0-4 credit hours).The newly developed course description isthen transmitted to the state Board ofRegents as a Special Topics course withinthe approved course category. Such SpecialTopics courses require only internal col-lege approval. The Board of Regents recog-nizes the necessity of such a genericcourse generation system, and informallyallows much flexibility. The Board ofRegents also has a procedure for 30 dayemergency course submission and approval.

The State Technical Institute atMemphis has a similar arrangement with theTennessee State Board of Regents for cus-tomized credit courses. The college is notrequired to submit a revised course de-scription for approval unless that coursehas had its content changed by more than10 percent, overall. When more than10 percent of an e'isting, approved coursemust be changed to meet customizationrequirements, the college makes use of aSpecial Course designation that has apreviously approved generic description.

Barrier 8: When seeking course or programapproval, the State Board of Regents re-quires that employer demand be shown, eventhough the course may address trainingneeds that are only emerging.

Solutions

At Triton, the college's Office ofResearch conducts employer surveys todetermine demand levels, with a shortturnaround time on the . -search. This is

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highly useful to the college not only forcourse or program approval, but for gaugingjob demand for graduates of its acceleratedJob Training Institute courses (as well asfor adding, dropping, or modifying them).Triton also finds it very useful to surveyall possible applications for new tech-nology areas to determine the true jobdemand level. For example, for laser/optics, Triton researchers found very lowdemand for the obvious manufacturing appli-cations, but the demand for laser techni-cians rose significantly when they surveyedlaser applications in optical-, medical-,and research-related jobs.

Colleges also make effective use ofadvisory committee members to collect dataon employer demand. Advisory committeemembers, especially those employed by orowning local companies, have numerous con-tacts through their professions and can askother employers more readily for sensitivedata than can college representatives.

College Forecasting and Planning

Barrier 9: There are problems findingenough reliable information on changing jobdemand, high-technology trends, changingoccupations, changing regional economicpatterns, shifting demographics, and so

forth in order to make intelligent deci-sions about both short- and long-rangeinstitutional needs and economic develop-ment programs.

Solutions

At Triton College, long-term strategicplanning is emphasized and depends on aninformation gathering and sorting strategycalled "environmental scanning," as well ason formal surveys conducted by the col-lege's Office of Research. Environmentalscanning is considered the responsibilityof every staff member, although top admin-istrative staff members have the primaryresponsibility to "keep their ears to theground" for reliable, useful informationand data. Environmental scanning is con-ducted informally, with all Triton staffencouraged to keep track of what is going

on in their own specialty areas in whatevermanner is effective and fits their own workstyles. Information is fed back to theadministration to guide priorities anddecisions. The state of Illinois alsoconducts surveys every 5 years, and Tritonstaff members make use of that data, butalso conduct their own annual graduatesurveys and other more frequent surveys ofthe community in order to have the most up-to-date information. In some cases, Tritonmakes excellent use of professional sur-veys, such as the Gallup poll, but mostoften Triton's surveys are conducted by itsown staff via telephone.

Macomb Community College also hasaccess to some statewide data, but has notalways found them applicable. Macombsupplements state data with its own evalu-ations and surveys. A special department,the Center of Community Studies, is beingset up to help gather data for planning anddevelopment. The center uses primarilytelephone surveys, and plans are to have aspecial room designed with plug-in phonesand staffed with 10 to 12 trained personsto make and take calls.

Barrier 10: Changing technologies contin-ually render current programs obsolete.

Solutions

At SOCJC, the College administrationrecently added 6 months of "futuring"activities to its regular duties, in orderto collect information on changing tech-nologies and application trends and toforecast how the college's own prioritieswould be required to change to meet theemerging training needs. This futuringactivity included considering the informa-tion in Three Thousand Futures: The NextTwenty Years for Higher Education (Carne-gie Council 1980). As a result, the col-lege has created four in-house task forcesto conduct intensive brainstorming sessionswith mid- and upper-level management staffand with related faculty in the college inspecific content areas. These groups havecollaborated to develop departmental andinstitutional goals for their trainingareas, with schedules for development of

'illiglilliMIMOIlmiliiimor

programs and acquisition of facilitiesand/or equipment over the next 10 years.

At Triton College, technological fore-casting depends in part upon the staff'senvironmental scanning approach, and inpart upon advice and insights from thevarious programs' advisory committees.These committees deliberately involveexperts from the technologies related tothe programs--including researchers andusers of the technologies, persons who areactive in the industries. Information fromadvisory committees is also a primarysource of technological forecasting for theState Technical Institute at Memphis andfor Tri-County Community College. Tri-County also has access to information andforecasts from the TEC System's six inno-vative 1 echnical Resource Centers aroundthe state, whose express mission is to keepthe TEC System colleges on the cutting edgeof technical training in the six designatedtechnological areas.

Barrier 11: Poor communications betweenbusiness and industry and the 2-year col-leges keep them from becoming informedabout each other's needs and services.

Solutions

Much of a college's communicationsrelate to the way it markets its trainingservices, and to its methods for gleaningimportant environmental information forforecasting and planning. All of the col-leges in the site visits give strong em-phasis to finding more (and more expert)industry people for their advisory com-mittees, because these persons are keyagents in linking the private sector withthe colleges. At Tri-County, top collegeadministrators work to convince countyplanning commissions to include more expertbusiness and industry representatives onthe commissions and other related agenciesor councils. Tri-County also conductsplant-site visits with most companies forwhich it delivers customized training, onepurpose being to establish good communi-cations with that company and its industry.Tri-County faculty members are encouragedto become involved in plant functions and

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to spend summers seeking on-site workexperiences with companies in their spe-cialties. Tri-County also has a TECindustry services representative who spendsthe majority of his time in the fieldmaking personal calls on companies tomarket the college's customized trainingservices and to establish two-waycommunications between the companies andthe college for any other purposes that mayarise.

Triton College has perhaps the mostunique--and probably one of the mosteffective--strategies for establishing two-way communications with the private sectorthrough its special relationships withprofessional societies and trade associa-tions, and through the long-term trainingcontracts it has established with corpora-tions. Bringing the trade associations'headquarters right onto the Triton campushas been especially effective, as it en-courages experts in various fields to be-come involved in college training activi-ties as students, instructors (or lec-turers), or as advisory committee members.Triton also puts time and effort into main-taining its contacts with a variety of pro-fessional and technical networks aroundthe country. These contacts serve a varie-ty of two-way functions, but are especiallyuseful to Triton in locating experts toinstruct highly specialized customizedcourses or seminars.

Barrier 12: Job openings may not always beavailable for graduates of training pro-grams, especially of programs designed toretrain adults for new occupations.

Solutions

Customized training for start-up inMichigan (Macomb Community College) isfunded by the state only if the companyrequesting the training guarantees to hireall qualified graduates. In South Caro-lina, start-up training funded by the statedoes not have this stipulation, but themajority of training graduates have alwaysbeen hired by the requesting companies, and

turnover rates for hired program graduatesafter 1 year in the company have beenconsistently low (often around 1 percent).

Triton College makes good use of itsenvironmental scanning and its annualgraduate surveys to keep the college in-formed of local job market changes. Theannual survey of graduates probes how manygraduates are employed in the areas oftheir training, and how well their trainingmatches up with what their jobs entail.This information is used for yearly deci-sions on whether to add, delete, or modifycourses and programs. In addition, Tri-ton's Job Training Institute (JTI), whichdelivers accelerated training to adults forentry-level employment in high demand jobmarkets, has its own placement specialists,who contact business and industry and"develop" jobs for JTI graduates. Tie goalis to have at least one promising interviewlined up for trainees upon completion oftheir JTI training.

Marketing of Customized Training

Barrier 13: Colleges do not always makethe right contacts or adequately communi-cate their commitment to economic develop-ment and their customized training servicesfor industry.

Solutions

There are a variety of approaches tomarketing a college's economic developmentservices, but at virtually every collegestudied, top administrative staff membersat the college as well as faculty in gen-eral are considered "salespersons" forcustomized training. At Tri-County, TritonCollege, and SOCJC, the top administrativestaff conducts intensive personal marketingthat involves meeting with industry repre-sentatives who approach the college fortraining services. Several of the collegeshave specific persons or departments re-sponsible for making direct industry con-tacts with the express purpose of informingthose companies of the college's customizedtraining services and then selling them.

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Several colleges make effective use ofother marketing strategies in addition topersonal selling. Triton College usescatchy slogans ("Are you running a schoolor are you running a business?" and "Tritonfor Training") in its direct mail marketingof training to companies, as well as inmarketing its courses to the community atlarge (daybreak courses have been adver-tised as the "Breakfast of Champions").Triton puts considerable emphasis on fol-lowing up every "nibble" from its directmail campaign with intensive telemarketingfollow-ups (i.e., telephone contacts in-tended to set up appointments with companyrepresentatives in order to sell customizedtraining services). Triton also uses jour-nals, popular periodicals and newspapers,professional and trade networks, and radioads. The college has a marketing officedevoted to pursuing its aggressive market-ing policy, with expert graphics and adver-tising staff to prepare its enticing book-lets, brochures, posters, letters for mailcampaigns, and copy for ads.

Every college involved in activelymarketing its customized training serviceshas emphasized the need for staff memberswho speak industry's language--that is,these staff members must understand abusiness's priorities, listen well, talk"turkey," try not to preguess or tell acompany what its needs are, and avoid edu-cational jargon. A number of colleges arefortunate to have their key marketing staffbe persons who have owned or worked withindustry, which lends not only greatersavvy to college-company contacts, butalso greater credibility.

Barrier 14: Colleges may not have the re-sources or may not have made it a priorityto do extensive marketing of customizedtraining services, though they may wishthey could do more.

Solutions

SOCJC has an interesting tradition inregard to marketing customized trainingthat appears to work well, despite itssomewhat reduced emphasis on direct and

aggressive marketing, as compared to someother colleges. SOCJC does give someresponsibility for direct marketing to thedean of community services, the dean ofcareer development and industrial rela-tions, and the business-industry coordi-nator, but much of this responsibility isshared with the rest of the college facultythrough SOCJC's "decentralized" marketingapproach. In this system, faculty membershave primary responsibility for looking foropoortunities to expand economic develop-ment participation and training in theirown specialities. While this approach hascreated a "fragmentation" of effort in thepast, the new structure--with the expandedresponsibilities of the dean of careerdevelopment and industrial relations- -should remedy the problem. The dean willcoordinate all the faculty efforts andfollow through on institutional objectives.Faculty members are nonetheless consideredthe best program marketers, because theyhave the expertise and are best equipped totalk to industry about the training oppor-tunities they can provide.

Macomb Community College does nothave the resources to do an extensiveamount of customized training, nor has itmade this one of its priorities. Michi-gan's Department of Labor provides somefunds for free start-up training for indus-try, but the state does not aggressivelyadvertise this service, nor is there a teamapproach among the state community collegesto promote the training. As a result,Macomb staff have been reluctant to take aleadership role--they have all they canhandle in trying to stretch their budget tomeet other college obligations, of whicheconomic development is only a part.Macomb staff members have recently beenorganized, however, to create a center forcommunity studies and services, which doessome planning and outreach to inform thecommunity of the college's services, andto gauge what the community and industrywant from the college. Most outreach hasbeen through contacts with local chambersof commerce (highly active in economicdevelopment), and with work-educationcouncils in the county. The college hasjoined with the Michigan Community College

22 1 4

Presidents' marketing for programs that doexist.

Barrier 15: Colleges may run into problemsconvincing companies of their commitmentand credibility in delivering customizedtraining.

Solutions

Administrators at the colleges studiedemphasized that the person responsible formaking direct contact with a company tomarket customized training has to (1) con-vince the company that the college's cus-tomized training program will be conductedby qualified instructors and (2) that theprogram will meet all of the company'sspecified needs (as well as any certifica-tion standards, where they pertain). Oneof the most important marketing aids is thecollege's track record, which should showits long-term commitment to industry train-ing needs, customized and/or noncustomized.The college should also cultivate a repu-tation for always making good on its prom-ises. For this reason, the president ofTriton College has laid down the collegepolicy regarding all customized training,whereby even if college representativesmiscalculate what the college can deliver,the college always backs its commitmentsand invests whatever resources are neces-sary to make the training program work.

Colleges that have been involved suc-cessfully in delivering customized traininggenerally keep track of the effects of thetraining on the productivity and employerturnover of the companies. South Carolina(Tri-County) claims that its "Start-up inthe Black" training allows new companies tooperate at almost immediate high produc-tivity rates because trainees received in-struction on equipment and processes thatare virtually identical to the set-up atthe new plant. Although this claim mightv argued, there does seem to be reductionn the amount of time that plants startingp in that state take to become productive,mpared with start-up in other statesithout such training. In addition, Tri-

County keeps track of the rate of turnoverfor trainees from its customized trainingprograms, and in many cases (especially forstart-up training, where the college isinvolved in recruiting and selecting thetrainees) the rate of turnover is as low as1 percent during the first year of employ-ment. This compares with turnover rates ashigh as 150 percent in a year for new em-ployees reciuited by the company and notgiven customized training. Even in theless stable economy of Michigan, turnoverrates of graduates from Macomb's customizedtraining programs are 20 percent in a year,compared to local companies' more usual85 percent.

Several colleges take representativesof prospective companies to meet represent-atives of companies for which the collegehas delivered customized training. Thelocal companies frequently are quite eagerto give their recommendations to the visi-tors, and satisfied "customers" lend enor-mous credibility to a college's salespitch.

At all of the colleges studied, themost important agent for communicating andsupporting a college's credibility is thecollege president, who must be the ultimateleader and contact for the college's cus-tomized training services. At several ofthe colleges, the interest, knowledge, andcommitment of the president to the col-lege's economic development outreach andtrack record have been extraordinary, andthe colleges' track records have beenimpressive. Presidents who have the sup-port of their boards of trustees and stateagencies in marketing customized trainingare probably the most important marketersfor any economic development outreach.

Barrier 16: Some Colleges have troubleconvincing or assuring a company thatupgrading its employees through customizedtraining will not result in those employ-ees' taking their new skills and leavingthe company for more lucrative employmentelsewhere.

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4 i t)0 i r

Solutions

Although no such instance was uncover-ed in the five case studies, some companiesand/or colleges apparently require traineesin customized courses to sign documentsstating that they will stay with theiroriginal employer for a stipulated lengthof time following completion of thecourses. At the request of a given firm,some colleges make sure that courses forindustry make use only of that company'sspecific materials and customized machinesand that training is highly specialized tothe particular company's operations.Changing jobs involves a basic individualfreedom in this country; it is questionablejust how much any college or company can orshould try to block workers from exercisingthis right.

Barrier 17: Some companies do not wantcustomized training because they do notwant outsiders involved in their business.

Solutions

No solution was encountered for thisproblem at any of the five case studysites. Macomb administrative staff membersadmit that it is virtually impossible todesign customized training without beinggiven enough information about a company to"know what's going on with it." Therefore,they do not pursue customized trainingagreements with firms firmly opposed tooutside influence.

Quick Response Customized Training

Barrier 18: It is often difficult to de-velop effective customized training courseson short notice.

Solutions

Several colleges emphasize the impor-tance of having all staff and faculty bewell informed about their college's econo-mic development priorities and why economicdevelopment is so vital to the community.This--and a good deal of general prepared-

ness on the part of those staff chargedwith negotiating and developing the cus-tomized training--infuses college staff andfaculty with a sense of commitment toeconomic development efforts, and providesmotivation and confidence in meeting unpre-dicted training opportunities.

The difficulty of finding qualifiedinstructors is cited as one of the worstbarriers to quick response. Strategies forlocating such instructors include usingfull-time faculty where practical, usingmembers of adjunct (part-time) faculty,using outside consultants, and using ex-perienced employees from the very companyrequesting the customized training. (Thesewill be discussed later in the barriersunder "Faculty and Staffing.")

Macomb College, because of the verylimited funds committed to providing cus-tomized training, sometimes functions as abroker rather than a provider of training,by steering a firm requesting customizedtraining tc the services of other areatrainers who own their own training consul-tation firms and work independently. Evenhere, the companies usually want the col-lege to remain a participant to some de-gree, asking college staff to look over theindependent trainer's syllabus, to cospon-sor the training arrangement, and in gen-eral, to provide input that adds credi-bility to the training.

Regarding designing curricula and pro-viding instructional materials, many col-leges base customized courses on trainingmodules that are already in use at the col-lege in regular occupational training pro-grams. At SOCJC, staff members who put to-gether customized courses phone publishersto try to locate any materials that mayrelate to the course (or any future coursesthe college is likely to customize). Thecollege staff members also try to keepmaterials on hand that appear to haveutility for any potential customizedcourses. Many regular college courses aredeliberately designed to be modular andflexible in content so they can be reorgan-ized and adapted readily for customizedtraining needs.

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At Memphis, all courses--includingcustomized training--must be for credit,and college staff members are careful tomake only minimum adjustments to existing,approved courses, whenever possible. Toremain eligible for credit (and thereby forstate reimbursement), course content mustretain 90 percent of the approved curricu-lum. If the customized course requiresmore adjustment, the college compensates aninstructor to revise the curriculum ordesign a new one. Such curricula (withmore than 10 percent revision) are design-ated "Special Courses," and are covered forstate approval under a generic SpecialCourse description. This speeds up thedesign, approval, and delivery of custom-ized training enormously. (Course approvalcan take up to a year in some states, somost colleges do not offer customizedtraining for credit unless a company spe-cifically requests it. In those cases,most colleges make use of special emergencyprocedures to obtain state approval, thoughdelays are still a problem.)

Both SOCJC and Tri-County use acompetency-based approach in all instruc-tion, and this enables very clear andconcise definition in agreements aboutcourse content and objectives when deter-mining training needs. Tri-County also iscurrently putting all fundamental coursemodules on a word processor so staff canstore, reorganize, modify, and print outcustomized courses as they are needed.

Barrier 19: Many colleges have problemsfinding funds to provide quick response indeveloping and implementing customizedtraining as the need arises.

Solutions

In states where free start-up trainingis provided, there are usually set-asidemonies for the purpose of developing ormodifying courses. In South Carolina,facilities are created or adapted to meetspecial training needs through funds ap-propriated from local taxes by the countyplanning commissions, but the state TEC

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System pays all other developmental costs.The local and state economies are not un-duly stressed by these costs, since mostsuch training pays for itself in additionalincome and revenues created by the newjobs, often will. in a year or two.

At both SOCJC and Memphis, there isconsiderable budget flexibility, so thaicustomized program development needs canbe met. At Memphis, a certain amount o`:money is budgeted annually for its Busi-ness, Industry, Government Division tooperate customized programs, and this moneypays the Wade of the staff that devel-ops the courses. On occasions when thisannual allotment runs dry, the collegepresident always finds funds to continuethe division's work. At all the colleges,the staff does whatever is necessary to geta program up and running--secure modules,hire consultants to develop a program, orfind some other method to enable quickresponse, and to fund course development.

Customized Training Management

Barrier 20: There is a danger of a collegeoverpromising on what it can actuallydeliver regarding customized training.

Solutions

Having an administrative staff memberor a department charged with coordinatingand controlling the college's economicdevelopment outreach and marketing candiminish the likelihood that overpromisingwill occur. Colleges such as Triton, wheremarketing is a major thrust, have foundthat they must continually caution them-selves not to let their reach exceed theirgrasp. The message is not, "Don't do it";rather, it is remembering that resourcesare limited. The philosophy at Triton hasbeen, We take risks, but we don't fail--even if we lose additional resources."That is, if a commit:nent costs the collegemore in personnel or equipment than wasbudgeted, the college tries to make good onits promise anyway, because college admin-istrators believe that the college's repu-tation and credibility are worth more than

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some lost monies. Once a college fails todeliver on its promises, it will take muchmore time and many more resources to con-vince industry that the college will "do itright" the next time.

Barrier 21- Companies may collaborate witha college on setting up customized trainingfor their employees, and then have to backout of the arrangement.

Solutions

There is no simple solution to thisprogram; colleges must be prepared to takethis risk. However, economic developmentstaffs at several colleges recommend thatcollege management be careful about howmuch consulting the college gives away,gratis. in the planning phase of the activ-ity, and how many staff members becomeinvolved whose time (and salaries) will bea loss to the college if a company mustback out of a customized training agreementafter resources have been committed. Itmay also be a good idea in some cases tohave at least a simple contract with thecompany, and to write into that contractthat the company will reimburse the collegefor developing the instructional materialsand syllabus and consulting regarding theactivity. (This does not apply, of course,to start-up training funded by the state.)

Barrier 22: It can be difficult for col-lege course developers to make sure thatcustomized courses teach the skills thattrainees need and companies want.

Solutions

At Tri-County, the coIlege providesfree needs assessments, and qualified col-lege staff will frequently make site visitsto company plants to work with companyrepresentatives on designing course out-lines and writing competency statements toguide instruction. The course syllabus andinstructional materials are closely review-ed by the college and the company, to-gether, prior to implementation of train-ing. The use of competency statements andthe competency-based approach to instruc-

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tion simplifies communications and coursedevelopment efforts.

SOCJC has companies that requestcustomized training do their own in-housetraining needs evaluations, and then thecollege collaborates with the company toproduce clear-cut competency statements toguide course design, rr.41.1 .:..s Tri-Countyuses. To keep the course in line with thecompetency objectives, course instructorsconduct interim evaluations using studentfeedback and revise the course as needed.This kind of formative evaluation is con-ducted during customized training deliveredby most of the colleges studied and hasproven invaluable in making sure thattrainees are indeed learning the skillsthey are being taught, and that these arethe skills stipulated by the agreementbetween the college and the company.Colleges may also encourage a company toconduct its own interim evaluation, so thatthe company can ascertain whether theskills being learned are the skills ittruly needs. Should any inconsistencies berevealed, the company and college cancollaborate on course modifications, as

needed.

Barrier 23: College course designers mayrun into problems with persons taking cus-tomized or other special training who donot have sufficient basic skills to learnthe more advanced skills being taught.

Solutions

At Macomb, Triton, and Tri-County,applicants for special training courses areall pretested in basic skills, which mayinclude basic reading, math, English com-prehensicd and verbal ability, mechanicalaptitude, and so forth. For Macomb'srobotics training program, applicants gothrough a 2-week pretesting period thatmeasures mechanical aptitude, space rela-tions, abstract relations, math and Eng-lish, and mechanical space relationsskills.

To compensate for trainees' basicskills deficiencies, most of the collegeshave begun to include math and reading

review modules in their customized trainingcourses, to serve as "brushups" for stu-dents whose skills have deterioratedthrough disuse. At SOCJC, students whoseskills are insufficient to enter specialtraining courses are offered remedial,open-ended courses, such as math review,where students' individual needs and levelsare identified and materials are providedto bridge the gap between basic skillsdeficiencies and the skills to be coveredin the special training course. Studentsreview the individualized materials and areusually able to enter the special trainingcourse within 8 weeks or less.

At Triton, persons whose basic skillsare not adequate for Job Training Institute(JTI) programs are counseled to get tutor-ing, including tutoring in English as asecond language, at the college's LearningAssistance Lab. If such prospective train-ees insist on taking a JTI course withoutthe remedial tutoring, they are requiredto sign a disclaimer absolving the collegefrom responsibility if they fail thecourse.

Barrier 24: Adult students demand more interms of training content and instructionalmethodology than do traditional communitycollege students coming directly from highschool.

Solutions

At Tri-County, instructors are requir-ed to conduct interim student evaluationsregarding the effectiveness and interestlevel of the material and instructionalmodes and to modify those as needed. In-struction is delivered in a wide varietyof modes--videotapes, roleplaying, hands-on experiences that relate academic in-struction to the job, slide-tape presenta-tions, paper-and-pencil activities, groupdiscussions, and so forth. These modes areintermixed to maintain a high level ofstudent interest. Students also haveaccess to videotapes of the operations theyare trying to learn so they may review theoperations and assimilate the material moreor less at their own rate.

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Triton's courses have built-in adulteducation techniques that vary the instruc-tional modes to maintain student interest.Some courses are on videotape and coursecontent may be studied at the students' ownpace during a semester. Some courses andlabs are open-entry/open-exit so studentsmay use the equipment at their own conven-ience during certain hours or on certaindays.

At SOCJC, all of the courses are com-petency based and individualized to focuson students' individual needs in developingspecified competencies. The college's phi-losophy is to strive to serve individualsfirst, because individuals are ;le basicunit upon which industry's labor needs mustultimately depend.

Most of the colleges studied providedsome form of training in the instruction ofadult learners for their adjunct facultywho deliver most adult training.

Barrier 25: Too often, persons in retrain-ing programs for the unemployed come to thetermination of their unemployment benefitsor other resources, and must drop out ofthe training before completion.

Solutions

This is a most serious problem instates such as Michigan, where high ratesof unemployment make such retraining op-portunities a vital hope, but where unem-ployed workers and their families increas-ingly find themselves at the end of theirfinancial tethers. The retraining programin robotics offered by Macomb College incooperation with the Downriver CommunityConference has run into this problem fre-quently. The Downriver Community Confer-ence has tried to help keep such traineesin the program by providing a small stipendat minimum wage) for the time trainees

spend in class. If such trainees are ongovernment assistance (their unemploymentcompensation having run out), the Down-river community Conference also gives thema stipend of $30 to $40 dollars a week,plus $10 dollars toward gas for travel.

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This small incentive apparently can makethe difference to some trainees betweenhaving to drop out of the training or beingable to complete it and go on to find em-ployment in robotics.

Barrier 26: Colleges may find it difficultto stretch limited resources to meet thechallenge and additional costs of providingcustomized training.

Solutions

The presidents at the five collegesstudied are particularly active in seekingways to stretch their colleges' limitedresources, making "the most of what wehave." Some presidents become entrepre-neurial to a great degree, getting fundingfrom as many sources as they can find.They look for equipment donations andfacilities. They try to set up specialtraining relationships with industry andtrade associations, as well as with profes-sional associations. They campaign forgifts of scholarships. For customizedtraining efforts that are not funded by thestate, they become involved in determininghow those courses can be offered in themost cost-effective manner both for thecollege and the company. Often this re-sults in customized curses requiring acertain minimum of students in order tomaintain at least a break-even status onexpenditures. Some colleges (such asMacomb) cannot always stretch resources tomeet all customized training requests, butdo serve industry at least in the capacityof brokers to help them locate experttrainers to deliver the needed training.

Flexibility of Resources

Barrier 27: Competition is keen for limit-ed space on campus to conduct both specialtraining (including customized training)and regular college programs.

Solutions

Where practical, most of the collegesdeliver customized training courses at off-

campus sites, most frequently at the com-pany's site. Triton also uses hotel orother facilities when necessary. For Tri-County's Special Schools training, it isthe responsibility of the local countycouncils, together with the TEC system areacommission, to set up and pay for facili-ties off-campus, if necessary.

Some colleges designate certain areasof buildings as special training centers,but overflow and competition for somefacilities and equipment remain a perennialnuisance. SOCJC has open landscaping inall its facilities, and dividers can bemoved around to give considerable flexi-bility to classrooms and offices, but thisis not always sufficient to meet all train-ing needs. Triton College puts its Officeof Research to work scheduling usage ofspace for competing programs in order todetermine the best ways--and times--toshare facilities during peak periods. Tri-ton also uses new buildings and trainingfacilities built on campus through uniquecooperative relationships with trade asso-ciations. Collaborative scheduling allowsthe associations and the college to sharetraining facilities both for the associ-ation's special training and regular col-lege programs.

Creative scheduling is another impor-tant solution to conflicts for space andequipment. Triton has at least partiallyresolved the problem of demand for its wordprocessing lab by scheduling special train-ing programs' use of the facilities atunusual times, when regular classes are netusing them. Memphis also uses creativescheduling to resolve conflict over the useof its computer facilities by running someof its customized computer training coursesout of sync with the school quarter, whenregular demand is greatly reduced. Macombruns Saturday classes, midnight or earlymorning classes, classes on holidays, andclasses between semesters in order to givetrainees in special programs access toequipment that otherwise is in heavy use.Triton uses the same strategy to consider-able advantage.

20p).... :!.. U

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Barrier 28: Working adults and companiesneeding customized training are oftenunable to use traditional schedules.

Solutions

Triton and several of the other col-leges make extensive efforts to meet thetraining needs of adult workers by offeringcourses at unusual times to fit unusualneeds. For example, Triton has a MidnightCollege program offering a variety oftraining classes that run throughout thenight. These courses are especially con-venient for persons working a second shift.Triton's "Breakfast of Champions" is amenu of courses available in the very earlymorning (6 a.m. and later) for adults wish-ing to take a class before going to work.Weekend College courses at Triton enableworking adults to bring their children intothe classroom, where subjects are taughtso that both parents and children may en-gage in interesting learning opportunities.Also at Triton, open-entry/open-exitcourses allow adults to view videotapecourses modules and/or to make use of labfacilities on a flexible schedule of theirown choosing.

At SOCJC, the academic calendar over-laps, with essentially seven different of-ficial entry points throughout the year(every 8 weeks) when students can begincourses. Every course taught at Memphis isvideotaped so that if working adults areforced to miss a class, they can go to theLearning Resources Center and review thetape.

To meet industry's training needs,most of the colleges will begin a custom-ized course at any time of the year, be-cause when companies need training, theyvery often need it immediately (or nearlyso), not when it is convenient for the col-lege to start up a new class. SOCJC's fre-quent course-entry schedule gives greaterflexibility for customized courses that arerun on campus, though the college will be-gin a new course at any time if the needis great. Triton is able to customize aseminar or short course on fairly shortnotice, and uses flexible scheduling to

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enable sharing of facilities on campus forcourses that cannot begin off campus. Mem-phis' Business, Industry, Government Div-ision frequently operates its customizedtraining courses out of sync with the restof the college, and while this has createdsome auditing problems (because all cus-tomized courses there are given for creditand reimbursed in part by the state), theflexibility is considered a vital part ofthe college's economic development commit-ment.

Barrier 29: Colleges face problems keepingup-to-date equipment for high technologyprograms.

Solutions

It may be all but impossible for 2-year colleges to acquire truly state-of-the-art equipment in high-technology areasfor training programs. As Clem Le Pack,section chief of management and educationfor Western Electric (Oklahoma City)points out, "It is impossible . . . for anyschool to keep up with what is going on inindustry. In our particular case, you putyour new machines into your own develop-ment groups, you don't give them around toschools . . . you supply your customersfirst."

Even so, colleges must strive toacquire access to high-technology equip-ment, even if that equipment is not thevery newest, "cutting edge" equipment. Forthis purpose, most of the colleges studiedactively seek loans or donations of equip-ment from industry. For many customizedcourses, the colleges turn to the request-ing companies to supply the equipment, ortry to gain access to in-plant equipmentfor training at times of the day when theequipment is not normally in use (or be-tween peak usage times).

Tri-County has access to a stateequipment pool through the TEC System, andthe state's six Innovative Technical Re-source Centers are busy acquiring up-to-date equipment in each of their specialtyareas. Some of this equipment is slated to

be installed in mobile demonstration andtraining lab units that can be moved aroundto the different colleges or other sites asneeded.

Triton College has resolved a numberof its equipment problems by bringing tradeassociation headquarters and training fa-cilities onto the campus. The trade asso-ciations maintain the most up -to -dateequipment for their training programs andshare the facilities and equipment with thecollege's regular programs as well.

Barrier 30: Outside institutions that pre-viously have provided free cooperativeeducation oppor'.'nities for communitycollege students -e now beginning tocharge for tr-3se opportunities.

Solutions

The problem, of course, stems from thefact that hospitals and similar institu-tions are also suffering budgetary problemsand must find new sources of funding. Itseems at this time that colleges will haveto find monies to pay for such clinicaleducation opportunities. Alternatively,colleges could close such training programsand allow hospitals to do their own train-ing--whereupon the hospitals would findtheir training costs soaring. The mutualdependency of the institutions needs to berecognized.

Internal Organizationand Cooperation

Barrier 31: Staff resistance and institu-tional red tape within a college may reducethe efficiency and effectiveness of thecollege's economic development outreachefforts.

Solutions

First and foremost, administratorsemphasize that economic development needsto be identified clearly as a major compo-nent of the college's mission. Collegesinvolved in economic development outreach

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also need a "team spirit," wherein allstaff and faculty understand and feel partof the college's economic developmentefforts. At both Tri-County and Triton,the priorities, goals, and pace come downfrom the college presidents, and facultyand staff are apprised at every opportunityof those priorities and of the college'ssuccesses. At Triton, the management styleis free, allowing staff and faculty to pur-sue economic development activities intheir own individual ways. So long as thejob gets done, there is freedom in how theTriton staff does it.

At SOCJC, the college conducts a 2-dayannual management retreat (about 30 stafffrom mid-management on up) to go through aprocess of prioritizing the ideas and con-cerns of all staff and students. Thisgroup then decides on the institutionalgoals for that year and delegates responsi-bility for them throughout the collegestructure.

At Memphis, the Business, Industry,Government Division coordinators can callfor assistance from anyone in the instituteif help is needed. The institute's prior-ities are well communicated to the staffand faculty, and everyone seems to have thecommitment to do whatever is needed. Thereis heavy reliance on the use of interde-partmental memos to convey needs forassistance, and staff members expect tohave to "do things a little faster ordifferently" now and then to get the jobdone.

In fact, being willing to bypass orcut through procedural red tape when neces-sary is a characteristic of the most activecolleges in economic development outreach.For example, at Triton, computerization isused as much as possible to speed up order-ing books and other tasks, but staff mem-bers do not hesitate to resort to penciland paper, telephone calls, or whatever ittakes to get the job done.

Colleges having contracts with full-time faculty members usually use directnegotiation, but this can lead to trouble-some delays. At Macomb, faculty members

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have shown considerable flexibility, eventhough in some instances the college hashad to override some guidelines previouslyestablished. The strength of Macomb'sinternal responsiveness lies in the factthat the administration first acquired theunderstanding and cooperation of setilorfaculty representatives.

Barrier 32: Unclear internal structure forhandling economic development efforts maycreate confusion among faculty and staff,as well as among companies requesting cus-tomized training services from the col-lege.

Solutions

The simplest and perhaps most effi-cient strategy that was encountered is fora college to create an internal organiza-tion and/or to identify a specific staffmember (or members) as the primary contactand organizer for the college's economicdevelopment outreach efforts. Memphis hasits Business, Industry, Government Divisionand coordinators, who are selected fortheir good human relations skills--whichnot only enables them to deal effectivelywith industry representatives, but alsofacilitates good working relations withother college staff and faculty.

Triton takes a somewhat more diverseapproach, with the president and all topadministrative staff being contacts withindustry, along with the heads of theEmployee Development Institute and the JobTraining Institute. Tri-County has asimilar arrangement, although the industryservices coordinator is the main industrycontact for start-up training. At thesetwo colleges, the involvement and awarenessof faculty and staff are such that industryrepresentatives can contact any staffmember initially and word will be passedalong to the right people.

SOCJC appears to have melded the bestelements of both the concentrated anddiversified approaches. On the one hand,industry contact is decentralized, withevery staff and faculty member being a part

of the team. This is based on the notionthat faculty members are the most knowl-edgeable persons to talk to industry repre-sentatives about their specialty areas. Onthe other hand, SOCJC does have an industryservice coordinator who coordinates eco-nomic development outreach activitiesthroughout the college, and who is respon-sible for following up on faculty contactswith industry, as well as for calling onindustry himself.

At all of the colleges studied, theissue of interdepartmental territorialityover the delivery of customized training isa moot one. Departments and divisions seemwilling to share responsibilities, and mostfaculty and staff members are kept informedof the colleges' priorities and expecta-tions in that regard. In all cases, thesupport and influence of the college presi-dents are major elements in ensuring clearcommunications and willing cooperation.

Barrier 33: There may be poor articula-tion-or sometimes competition-among sistercolleges for economic development outreachefforts, especially for customized trainingopportunities.

Solutions

Although the opportunity for consider-able competitiveness among the 16 TECSystem colleges in Sonth Carolina wouldseem to be great, the state offices of TECoversee the distribution of funds andequipment among the colleges and coordinatethe articulation of curricula as well. InMichigan, the absence of coordination ofcommunity college services at the statelevel is quite noticeable, and is probablyresponsible (at least in part) for thesometimes acute competition among thestate's 2-year colleges for customizedtraining opportunities and other potentialresources.

The State Technical Institute atMemphis does not compete directly with itssister organizations for students, funds,or customized training contracts. In fact,Memphis gives as many customized training

opportunities as it can to area vocationalschools in West Tennessee in order toreduce the competition for space and re-sources on its own campus as much as possi-ble without compromising the quality ofinstruction. It also articulates many ofits curricula to its sister institutions.Memphis faculty and staff are well awarethat economic development outreach is thenumber two priority in the institute'smission statement, and that economic devel-opment must be a statewide effort.

Faculty and Staffing

Barrier 34: It is frequently difficult tofind qualified instructors-often on shortnotice- to teach customized courses.

Solutions

Four colleges studied rely primarilyon part-time faculty or consultants toteach customized courses or seminars. Themajor reason for using them is that suchinstructors--who usually are also employedfull-time in the specialty--have the mostup-to-date skills and knowledge availablein the training subject. Quite often,especially for seminars and workshops, suchinstructors have practical, hands-on ex-perience with the theories, processes,and/or equipment involved. In addition,these experts are often willing to travelto off-campus sites to teach, and to teachin the evening hours or other times conven-ient to the company and/or trainees.

Triton College is in a particularlyadvantageous region for finding qualifiedpart-time instructors in a plethora orspecialties, because of its metropolitanChicago location. The college also makeseffective use of its many contacts throughprofessional networks, its advisory com-mittees, its other customized training cus-tomers, its relationships with trade asso-ciations, and other sources in order tolocate and contact the best possible in-structors for its customized trainingcourses. Such instructors are generallycontracted on a one-shot basis, though some

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adjunct faculty have been with the collegefor years.

Tri-County is also able to find part-time instructors for most of its customizedcourses because the college is located in aretirement resort area. Many eminentlyqualified retirees teach customized coursesfor the college. Tri-County and severalother colleges may also use skilled employ-ees or even training personnel of the com-pany as instructors for the course. Thisis often necessary for highly technicaltraining because the course content may beproprietary. SOCJC has even gone to acompetitor company to find an instructorfor a customized course, simply becausethat person was most qualified to teach thecourse.

At Macomb, full-time faculty membersin the various specialty areas are respon-sible for providing and updating lists ofcandidate instructors for customized train-ing in their specialties. The full-timefaculty members consult the candidateinstructor files and make recommendationsfor prospective instructors upon request.They sometimes make initial contacts withthe prospective instructors. This strategyhas not always been completely successful,as lists are inadequate for some special-ties.

Barrier 35: Regular, full-time facultydemand the first shot at teaching allcustomized courses.

Solutions

At Memphis, the business, industry,government coordinators, with assistancefrom the industrial relations and outreachstaff, do all recruiting for customizedtraining. The staff members of the divi-sion do try to find a qualified full-timefaculty member to teach the course beforelooking outside the institute.

At Macomb, the faculty contract pro-cedure requires that when a continuingeducation opportunity arises (this includescustomized training), a notice must be

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posted for at least 5 days to give regularfaculty the first chance to bid on teachingthe course. Most do not bid, however,because many of the courses are conductedoff-campus or at odd times. Also, in manycolleges, continuing education salary ratesare lower than regular teaching rates(although in some, such as Tri-County, therates for customized instruction can besubstantially higher).

Of course, there are occasions whenpart-time instructors cannot be found toteach customized courses, espec;ally whenthe courses are offered during normal work-ing hours (8 a.m. to 5 p.m.). At SOCJC,many customized courses are held during thedaytime working hours, when employees getreleased time from work. SOCJC has foundthat most part-time instructors can onlyteach evening classes, so the collegerelies heavily on its own full-time fac-ulty. Where possible, those faculty mem-bers get released time from part of theirnormal teaching load, and if the assignmentgoes beyond their regular workload, theyreceive overload pay.

Barrier 36: Part-time faculty have tech-nical expertise in their specialty, but maynot be skilled or experienced in instruct-ing adult workers.

Solutions

At Tri-County, the college offers aspecial Job Instruction course on funda-mental adult instruction, just to train in-structors how to teach customized trainingcourses. Triton has a variety of approachesto helping part-time instructors becomeeffective teachers. New part-time facultymembers are assigned a full-time facultymember as a mentor. Instructional method-ology and other important topics are cover-ed in seminars open to both full-time andpart-time faculty on Saturdays, with asmall stipend as an incentive to attend."Meet and eat" sessions are provided toTriton's part-time instructors, in whichspeakers give brief talks on instructionalmethodology and other topics of interestprior to evening classes. Finally, newpart-time faculty at Triton are given an

"instructor's survival manual" containingteaching tips and other useful informa-tion.

Barrier 37: Colleges may have problemskeeping full-time faculty upgraded in theirspecialties.

Solutions

For specialities where instructorsneed to be on the cutting edge of develop-ments, perhaps the most effective solutionthe colleges use is to send the instructorsinto industry to receive hands-on experi-ence with new applications. At Tri-County,instructors are encouraged--and rewarded-for seeking industry experience during thesummer, and in some situations, the col-lege has been able to set up cooperativearrangements with companies or even re-search centers at universities in order totrain college instructors and upgrade theirknowledge and skills. Triton College re-wards its faculty for seeking industry ex-perience by giving "points" toward raisesand promotions. While Memphis also praisesthis strategy, so far only about two of itsfull-time faculty per summer have been ableto take advantage cf the "return to indus-try" experience.

Tri-County also sends its facultyalong with students to take its own custom-ized courses when those courses are taughtby industry instructors. But most col-leges must rely mainly on providing occa-sional seminars or workshops for faculty,on bringing in experts to speak on vitaldevelopments, or providing small allowancesfor individual or departmental staff devel-opment purposes. SOCJC recently conductedcomputer literacy and applications sessionsfor all departments in the college. Tritonconducts its Saturday morning lectures forfaculty, and also provides $150 in travelallowances during the school year for eachfull-time faculty member to attend profes-sional development workshops or otheractivities.

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09r-4, ... ti

Other Economic DevelopmentOutreach Services

Barrier 38: Colleges must find ways tomeet the training needs of entrepreneursand small businesses that cannot of fordcustomized training.

Solutions

Both Tri-County and the State Tech-nical Institute at Memphis have smallbusiness institutes to serve local smallbusiness training needs. These institutesare part of a small business network thatis a project of the American Associationof Community and Junior Colleges and ispartly funded by it. SOCJC also partici-pates in this network.

Macomb has its own Small BusinessInstitute which helps small businesses inthe Warren-Mt. Clemens area. This insti-tute provides early morning classes ("Sun-rise Seminars") for small businesses andfor entrepreneurs. The college also offersbusiness courses for entrepreneurs at alocal shopping mall.

Barrier 39: Colleges may find it difficultto deliver much-needed counseling andplacement services ( for training and find-ing jobs) to the community at large.

Critical Elements

Analysis of the five community andtechnical colleges and the industry serv-ices they provide has afforded some uniqueinsights into the critical factors for ef-fective participation by 2-year collegesin local and state economic developmentand the delivery of training for industry.These recurring themes or elements for suc-cessful upgrading and retraining of workersalso constitute recommendations to practi-tioners and policymakers who wish to becomeor already are involved in meeting theircommunities' job-related training needs.This section describes some of those criti-cal elements and makes suggestions for how

Solutions

Some of the colleges try to meet atleast some of this community economicdevelopment need through seminars andworkshops. Triton College, for example,recently conducted a 1-day job clinic thatoffered occupational and training informa-tion, resume preparation clinics and aid,placement aid, counseling, and other 1-hourtalks or workshops related to the problemsof unemployment and job seeking--all freeto the public.

As part of a U.S. Department of Edu-cation project (the Collaborative CommunityCareer Guidance Program), the NationalCenter fn: Research in Vocational Educationtrained Macomb Community College counse-lors to provide guidance counseling to thepublic in such locations as public librar-ies, in order to maximize guidance counsel-ing outreach. The philosophy of the ap-proach is that community colleges need toinstitute "storefront counseling" in orderto take career guidance out to where thecitizens are and where they will feel com-fortable in using the service. This proj-ect is part of a long-term plan for evengreater outreach, which may involve takingguidance counseling into other public andsemipublic locations such as shoppingcenters and union locals.

and Recommendations

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they can be incorporated into colleges'economic development outreach efforts.

1. Strong leadership on the part of thecollege president is essential inmobilizing the college to serve indus-try and to aid in local and stateeconomic development. College presi-dents who see the need for theirinstitutions to become thus involvedshould take the initiative instead ofwaiting for their states to mandatetheir involvement. Presidents musteducate themselves and their key staffmembers to the potential roles that

'A; 2 6

2-year colleges can take in economicdevelopment that are beyond the scopeof regular occupational education andcontinuing education programs. Othercritical tasks are to assess commu-nity and industry training needs andto make initial contacts with and seekthe cooperation of local industries,organizations, and agencies. At thesame time, presidents should make apriority of communicating the new in-stitutional goals to their staff andfaculty, and should seek new ways toinspire them to a sense of commitmentand cooperation. Presidents must alsoreallocate the resources of their in-stitutions to address the new priori-ties.

2. The visible commitment of top collegeadministrators is a key in fosteringcommitment throughout the college toserving industry. Commitment resultswhen governing boards, administrators,faculty, and support personnel arewilling to do whatever it takes to getresults. The drive for such commit-ment must come from the college presi-dent and top administrative staff, whomust educate college staff and fac-ulty, the board of trustees, and com-munity leaders in the crucial economicdevelopment roles of 2-year colleges.This commitment is based on the real-ization that the economic developmentactivities of the college--includingserving the training needs of industrydirectly--have the potential to im-prove life for everyone in the com-munity.

3. An explicit statement in the college'smission statement or the institutionalgoals of the president should committhe college to providing specialtraining and educational services toindustry. By specifying such servicesto industry in these important docu-ments, it becomes clear to everyone--both internal and external to thecollege--why the college is there andwhat it is to accomplish. Such astatement should also be supported byclear and visible internal structures

216

and procedures for operating the in-dustry services programs, for promo-ting and communicating the college'sintentions and related needs to allrelevant outside organizations andagencies, for finding resources toinitiate and support the industryservices, and for keeping always inview the mission of the programs andtheir feasibility.

4. Institutional flexibility is crucialin responding to industry's upgradingand retraining needs, as well as thoseof adult workers. Industry's needsusually do not fit colleges' regularpatterns of operation. Companies' re-quests often stipulate training at thecompany site. Starting times and pro-gram lengths seldom conform to theacademic schedule, and companiesusually want the training to startalmost immediately. To customizecurricula and find instructors, books,and equipment may require specialaction within the institutions. Flexi-bility must be built into institution-al budgets to enable industry trainingactivities to take place despite theunpredictability of training demands.

Colleges must also become flexible tomeet the training needs of adultworkers. This means being as flexibleas possible in scheduling classes,sharing labs and high demand equip-ment, locating instruction, usinginstructional modes, and providingalternatives to class attendance foradults with home and other outsideresponsibilities. Other nontrainingassistance to help adult workers orthe unemployed to attend classes andcomplete their training may requireinstitutions to build basic skills re-mediation directly into customized orother special courses, as well as toprovide tutoring, child care, finan-cial aid, and other kinds of assist-ance.

5. Good communications--both with out-side organizations and within the col-lege itself--are pivotal to serving

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industry's training needs. Collegesmust communicate clearly to industrywhat kinds of services they offer thatwill help companies increase theirproductivity through investment in up-grading and retraining employees. Tothat end, colleges need a structurefor marketing their services as wellas effective strategies for contactinglocal and prospective employers. Themajor tasks of the marketing unit mustbe to communicate what services thecollege offers, how the services maybe delivered, how dependable the col-lege is in making good on its prom-ises, and what benefits there are forcompanies that use the upgrading andretraining programs. College repre-sentatives must also listen carefullyto companies' expressed needs and mustseek opportunities to meet thoseneeds. Finally, internal communica-tion lines and clear procedures areneeded within a college to enable in-formation about opportunities to serveindustry to reach the right peoplepromptly, and to facilitate interde-partmental cooperation in developingand delivering industry training.

6. The college must convince industry ofits commitment to serving industry'straining needs. Colleges must maketheir commitment visible to companies.One way is through official missionstatements and established industryservices units. Another is being partof a state-level economic developmentsystem with mandated funds to supportcustomized training. But perhaps mostconvincing is establishing and main-taining a track record of sound suc-cesses and no failures--"nothing suc-ceeds like success." This means thatcolleges must give careful attentionto the details of planning and deliv-ering training programs. College re-presentatives should listen closelyto what companies are telling them,and should "speak industry's language"to gain the respect and confidence ofmanagement and workers. Finally,colleges must be ready to back theircommitments, no matter what prob-

217

lems may arise. A college that backsout of a commitment or fails todeliver on its promises loses itstraining credibility. More resourcesmay be expended recouping a college'sdamaged reputation than are likely tobe spent supporting an underbudgetedcourse or revising a program in mid-stream to make it deliver what waspromised.

Labor organizations must also be con-vinced of colleges' commitment toserving them. In colleges' educationoutreach, labor organizations oftenfeel left out or ignored. College re-presentatives need to learn how toestablish relationships with and gainthe confidence of labor leaders. Laborrepresentatives should be included onappropriate advisory committees. Alsocollege industry service representa-tives or college apprenticeship coor-dinators need to be aware of labor'seducational needs and how to tailorthe college's services to them.

7. Accurate and up-to-date profiles oflocal industries are vital to servinglocal economic development needseffectively. Such data reveal train-ing needs and identify factors thathave potential for increasing economicgrowth. An up-to-date profile of areaindustries is evidence of the extentof the college's involvement and com-mitment to meeting local industrytraining needs. An area profile canalso be a powerful public relationsinstrument, showing linkages withindustry, success in providing cus-tomized training, and a record of thecollege's responses to local economicdevelopment needs.

8. Designating an office with specificresponsibility for providing industrytraining services is critical tosuccess. This not only furnishes anidentity for the college's services toindustry and provides staff to do thejob, but also--by allocation of theseresources--demonstrates institutionalcommitment.

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9. Companies must see how they willbenefit from using the upgrading andretraining services provided by thecollege. Profit must be the "bottomline" for industry, and colleges mustdemonstrate clearly that they under-stand and support that priority forindustry.

10. Being an integral part of a statesystem for economic development is anadvantage for a 2-year college. Col-leges that are part of a cohesivestate economic development team usu-ally have state funds allocated spe-cifically for start-up or retrainingprograms, including funds for equip-ment. This kind of relationship alsofosters good cooperation among thevarious agencies and bodies involvedin economic development.

In many states, 2-year colleges arenot part of the states' economicdevelopment teams. Some states do nothave specific economic developmentagencies, or economic developmentefforts are in their infancy. Two-year colleges in such states shouldlobby for more active roles in stateeconomic development plans, and espe-cially for funding for (at least) cus-tomized start-up training and for anequipment pool for the state 2-yearcollege system. By becoming part ofactive state economic developmentefforts, 2-year colleges can greatlyextend their capacity to reach out tomeet industry training needs with up-to-date instruction and equipment.

11. A staff development system that helpsfaculty keep up-to-date is crucial indelivering effective upgrading andretraining. One of the challenges ofworking with industry is keeping in-structors abreast of changing tech-nologies. This is particularly essen-tial in delivering customized trainingin high-technology specialties.

Working with industry is good for fac-ulty members, especially in terms ofkeeping their skills and knowledge

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up-to-date with the equipment and pro-cesses being used by local companies.The more experience faculty have withindustry, the easier it is for them torelate meaningfully to the workersthey train. Structured work experi-ences, whether during summer vacationsor on sabbaticals, are proven staffdevelopment experiences.

12. Active advisory committees are criti-cal in providing information and con-tacts for quality upgrading and re-training programs Advisory commit-tees can be useful at many collegelevels, including committees forregular program areas, for the indus-try ser"ices unit, and a committee toadvise the college as a whole. Advi-sory committee involvement makes asignificant difference in the qualityand extent of the colleges' programsand services, especially when commit-tee members are owners or executivesof representative area industries.

13. Up-to-date equipment is a key elementin providing quality upgrading andretraining for industry. Educationoften lags behind industry in usingequipment available for training. Butmatching equipment used in instructionas closely as possible to equipmentused in actual work is crucial, be-cause the closer the training experi-ences are to actual work situations,the greater is the transfer of learn-ing and the development of competen-cies needed on the job.

14. Close coordination is essential amongcollege industry services representa-tives, customized training instruc-tors, and company personnel whenplanning, conducting, and evaluatingcustomized training courses. Collegesshould follow this philosophy in orderto ensure that the courses fit theneeds of the company, follow its pro-cedures, and adhere to its philosophyof training.

15. Technically competent instructors whoktow how to teach adults effectively

are necessary for quality training inan industrial context. The importanceof the instructor in teaching adultsin a work setting was stressed at allcolleges studied. Often a potentialinstructor is technically competentbut lacking in teaching skills, inwhich case inservice education is re-quired to give the instructor therange of competencies needed to reachadults in the work environment.

16. An institutional incentive systemhelps secure the involvement andcooperation of faculty in servingindustry's needs. Customized coursesseldom fit usual college time framesand procedures. To encourage staff andfaculty cooperation in such efforts,colleges should find meaningful waysto reward their people for the extrawork and time they put in to make thecourses work.

17. The scheduling of courses at times andplaces convenient to companies andemployees is critical to successfuleconomic development outreach. Thisparticular area is highly dependenton college flexibility and creativity.It often means that a course may bestbe taught in a place of business orduring working hours or immediatelyafter them, or even during the "swingshift." Colleges must be willing togo where students need them, when thestudents need them.

18. Including time for course developmentand evaluation in schedules and budg-ets for customized training is crucialto successful programs. To avoidbudgetary problems and misunderstand-ings between industry and the college,a college should stipulate time andbudget monies for the development ofcustomized course as well as for theirevaluation. A college should assign astaff person to develop the necessarycourse materials, and this person'stime should be budgeted in the custom-ized course funds in order to ensurethat the work is accomplished and a

219

quality educational experience is

provided.

19. "Quick response" is a key factor inmeeting industry's training needs ef-fectively. Colleges must create orhave in place a response mechanismthat allows them to respond quicklyand flexibly to industry training re-quests and to assign appropriate staffand resources to the effort. Companiesrequesting training often want and ex-pect the college to deliver suchtraining very soon after request,because the companies' productivityand market competitiveness requireemployees to develop new competenciesquickly.

20. Sharing resources among related col-legesespecially those within statesystems--should enable more collegesto meet industry's training needs moreeffectively. Colleges should seekways to pool and share resources, evenwhen the state system does not specif-ically support such activities. Pooledresources could include the sharingor lending of equipment, instructors,and curricula. A curriculum-sharingnetwork may be the most immediatelyfeasible type of resource-sharingactivity and could be greatly facili-tated by putting course outlines andother materials onto word processorsand/or sharing the materials viaelectronic networking (using computershooked into the phone system). Col-leges with newly developed coursesthat are on the cutting edge of atechnology may even be able to "rent"such materials to other colleges inthe state or across the country,thereby recouping some or all of thecourse development costs.

21. Evaluations and feedback mechanismsgauging the quality and outcomes ofcustomized instruction should be builtinto customized courses in order toensure successful programs. Formativeevaluations conducted at midpoint orat several points during a course are

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invaluable for ensuring that a courseis on target and that students arelearning the competencies desired,because such feedback permits "mid-course" corrections to be made tosteer the instruction into more appro-priate directions, if necessary. Sum-mative evaluations provide valuableinformation on the strengths andweaknesses of the course and the in-structors that can then be applied toimproving future courses. Summativedata are also highly important tobuilding a credible track record incustomized training offered by thecollege.

Because of the changing nature of theeconomy, technologies, the job market,

Summary

Strong leadership of the college pres-ident is essential in mobilizing the col-lege to serve industry and to aid in localand state economic development efforts.Commitment throughout the college--admin-istrators, faculty, and staff--is requiredto get results. This commitment must bevisible to persons both within and outsidethe college. One way to help ensure suchcommitment is for the college's missionstatement or the goals of its president tospecify the college's role in serving thetraining need of industry. Another is tocreate a special office or division assign-ed to facilitate this function.

Good communication between the col-lege and industry is likewise essential todeveloping effective working relationships.Companies need to see how they will benefit

Carnegie Council on Policy Studies inHigher Education. Three ThousandFutures: The Next Twenty Years for

and worker expectations, collegesshould review summative evaluationdata periodically to get an overviewof how effective and on-target theiroverall customized training policiesand procedures are. Colleges shouldexpect to have to refine or revisesuch policies and procedures periodi-cally. Also, the policies and proce-dures should be expected to change ascolleges mature in their customizedtraining outreach efforts. The needsand capabilities of a college justbeginning such efforts will not be thesame as those of a col'ege with a moreestablished program.

from using the college's training services,and colleges depend on feedback from indus-try to focus training programs and othereconomic development activities. Industryservices coordinators should work closelywith course instructors and with companyexecutives or training directors in plan-ning and conducting customized courses.

Institutional flexibility is a key inresponding to industry's upgrading and re-training needs. Flexibility is necessaryin scheduling courses, assigning instruc-tors, finding and sharing facilities andequipment, funding the programs, and pro-viding support services. The equipmentused in such courses must be up-to-date tomaximize the transfer of learning and thedevelopment of needed competencies, espe-cially in high-technology areas.

Reference

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Higher Education. San Francisco:Jossey-Bass, 1980.

Chapter 11Dealing with Organized Labor's

Barriers to Linkages

Organized labor and vocational -technical education can accomplish more byworking together than by working alone, orworse, at odds with one another. Organizedlabor Possesses a wealth of technicalknowledge about the workp' .ce, whereasvocational-technical educators possess awealth of instructional expertise. Organ-ized labor can provide on-the-job instruc-tion to trainees through apprenticeship andcooperative education programs, whereasvocational-technical education is wellequipped to provide the necessary relatedinstruction in their classrooms and labora-tories.

While it is widely acknowledged bymany that vocational-technical educatorsand organized labor leaders should be work-ing together harmoniously for the reasons

cited, the fact is that the degree of co-operation ranges from little to none inmany states and communities to extensivecollaboration in some states and locali-ties. This chapter will discuss some ofthe barriers to cooperation and presentsome guidelines for more effective link-ages.

The matei.al in this chapter has beenexcerpted and adapted from the followingdocument

Norton, Robert E., and Belcher, James0. A Guide to Linkages BetweenVocational Education and OrganizedLabor in the United States. Columbus:The National Center for Research inVocational Education, The Ohio StateUniversity, 1984.

Barriers to Linkages

The barriers, facilitators, and guide-lines discussed below are one result ofinformation gathered from a study that in-volved a large number of general and voca-tional educators, organized labor represen-tatives, governmental personnel, and pro-fessional association members. As part ofthe study's data collection effor', eachindividual was asked what he or she be-lieved to be the barriers to effectivelinkages with organized labor.

The various barriers are presented ina manner designed to capture the full mean-ing of the concern or hurdle being discuss-

ed. It is the opinion of the authors thatsome respondents have exaggerated to maketheir point and that other responses re-flect personal opinions that may or maynot be totally true or may be reflectiveof only the climate in their particularstate.

The authors hope that, by the specificpresentation of many of the views express-ed, the real issues preventing closer coop-eration can be dealt with effectively, atleast in many cases. After each barrierstatement, the position of the respondentis given in parentheses to provide the

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relder a better understanding of the view-point being expressed. The barriers iden-tified have also been clustered into thefollowing eight categories:

Feelings of mutual distrust

Problems involving communication

Program control concerns

Problems involving financial matters

Concerns about trainee placement

Concerns about program quality

Concerns about research

Lack of concern for training

The reader should note that some ofthe barriers are complex and of much great-er significance than others. All of theviews presented, however, are consideredworthy of consideration and have implica-tions for corrective actions that could betaken either to reduce or remove the bar-riers.

Feelings of Mutual Distrust

Barrier 1: There 's a pervasive suspicionamong labor unions of academic institu-tions, including public schools and post-secondary colleges. (state department edu-cator)

Barrier 2: Many times organized laborincorrectly perceives vocational educationto be a threat to established apprentice-ship programs, rather than a source ofpotential apprenticeship applications.(state department educator)

Barrier 3: Some administrators and teach-ers believe that unions are hurdles thatprovide little worthwhile assistance. (re-searcher)

Barrier 4: The vocational edu, pn systemthat organized labor helped to create has

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become competitive and hostile to theformal apprenticeship system. (nationallabor union official)

Problems Involving Communication

Barrier 5: Poor or limited communicationexists between vocational education andorganized labor leaders. (education dean)

Barrier 6: There is an overemphasis byschool administrators on advisory commit-tees as the sole technique for achievingorganized labor cooperation. (researcher)

Barrier 7: Many secondary and postsecond-ary vocational schools do not provide anyinstruction on the existence of the AFL-CIOor other organized labor groups. (commis-sioner in department of labor)

Program Control Concerns

Barrier 8: Many unions want to restrictthe labor supply in ways that are contra-dictory to the goals of vocational educa-tion. (state department educator)

Barrier 9: Organized labor has tradition-ally sought to maintain control of thedevelopment of the curriculum as well asthe selection of instructors for appren-ticeship programs. (state department edu-cator)

Barrier 10: Unions want a scarcity ofworkers because that drives up both wagesand benefits and that is far more importantto them than any educational goals. (statedepartment educator)

Barrier 11: Some school administrators areconcerned that organized labor groups willbecome special interest pressure groups.(researcher)

Barrier 12: Some preapprenticeship pro-grams for high school students have pur-posely avoided linking with organized laborso as to avoid "turf" fights. (statedepartment apprenticeship coordinator)

4

Barrier 13: Some prolabor leaders believethat vocational education has been takenover by procorporate educators and bureau-crats. (National Institute for Educationstaff member)

Barrier 14: Secondary and postsecondaryschools have generally excluded organizedlabor from the program planning process.(union director of education)

Barrier 15: Nonunion administrators andinstructors in vocational education havebegun to assume that they are offering thefull and complete training experience; somevocational educators believe that theyshould be able to confer journeyman status.(national labor union official)

Problems Involving Financial Matters

Barrier 16: Limited financial resourcesprevent vocational educators from makingmore contacts with labor unions. (statedepartment of education official)

Barrier 17: Limited financial resourcesprevent vocational education from providingmore support for related instruction forapprentices. (three state department ofeducation officials)

Concerns about Trainee Placement

Barrier 18: Organized labor is reluctantto assist cooperative education coordi-nators with the placement of students in

suitable training stations. (state depart-ment of education consultant)

Barrier 19: The severe shortage of work insome trades precludes the placement of manyapprentices. (state director of vocationaleducation)

Barrier 20: Vocational education trainspeople in much vaster numbers than unionsdo, whether the industry needs them or not.(national labor union official)

Concerns about Program Quality

Barrier 21: Government procedures foraccrediting and evaluating vocationaltraining schools are less than adequate.(union director of education)

Concerns about Research

Barrier 22: Most current research intolabor-education relationships seems to bedesigned for the researcher instead ofthe practitioner. (state department re-searcher)

Lack of Concern for Training

Barrier 23: Traditionally, some unionshave not tried to become directly involvedin vocational education programs under theassumption that job training and prepara-tion for work is the function of the schoolsystem. (union education director)

Guidelines for More Effective Linkages

What causes close and cooperativeworking relationships to exist in somestates and communities, whereas almostbitter and antagonistic relationships existin other states? From the informationgathered through reports, letters, andtelephone calls, the following guidelinesare offered to help vocational education,organized labor, and government officialsat all levels improve vocational education

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programs for youth and adults by strength-ening the relationships between organizedlabor and vocational education. As re-searchers who have been privileged toreview confidential materials and to talkpersonally with many concerned persons, wefeel these guidelines will enhance effortsto promote and maintain more effectivecollaborative efforts to the mutual benefitof all concerned.

There is a need for more open andhonest communication between leader-ship persons in both vocational-technical education and organizedlabor. Good communication requiresthat each person in organized laborand vocational-technical educationsincerely seek to understand theother's views, roles, and responsi-bilities.

There is a need to recognize theexistence of several important andshared goals on the part of bothvocational-technical education andorganized labor. Both groups areconcerned with the preparation ofyouth and adults for productive andsatisfying employment. That majorgoal, while not the only common one,should be reason enough to considercooperation seriously.

There should be an open recognitionof the existence of some conflictinggoals between public vocational-technical education and organizedlabor. It should be acknowledgedthat although both parties may dis-agree on s-rne issues, there is noreason tr. . disagreeable and,hence, d 11 types of coopera-tion.

There needs to be wider recognitionby both vocational-technical educa-tion and organized labor that muchmore can be accomplished by workingtogether toward common goals than byworking separately, or--even worse-by working against one another.Limited resources, the need to poolthe talent of both groups, and themammoth training and retraining jobthat must be accomplished makecloser cooperation an essential andsensible approach.

There is a need for everyone con-cerned at all levels to take theinitiative in establishing personalcontacts and relationships withtheir counterparts in vocational-technical education, organized

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labor, and government. There isclear evidence that where individu-als have taken the initiative insincere and appropriate ways, coop-eration and mutual benefits haveresulted. We must abolish the "letthem take the first step" attitude.

There is a need to avoid unjustifiedexaggeration and unfounded criticismof each other's efforts and pointsof view. Both organized labor andvocational-technical education havemade major contributions to oursociety and democratic way of life.These contributions should be ac-knowledged by each side and form abasis for constructive dialogue witheach other.

There is a need to share controlthrough appropriate representationof organized labor and vocational-technical education on state boardsof education, advisory councils, andadvisory committees. Both sidesneed to avoid the "unless we cancontrol it we won't cooperate"syndrome. Each party can and shouldwillingly contribute expertise andresources toward improvement andexpansion of the programs needed.

There is a need for more state,regional, and national conferenceswhere vocational-technical educa-tors, organized labor, and govern-ment officials can join together forconstructive dialogue. One nationalconference a year, although helpful,is far from adequate for the type ofinformation and ideas exchangeneeded.

There is need for more research onthe problem areas of common concernto both vocational-technical educa-tion and organized labor. Manyproblems, such as credit for ad-vanced placement, competency-testing, and matching trainingpositions with job openings, couldbe addressed through joint researchefforts.

IThere is a need for both organizedlabor and vocational-technical edu-cation to contribute more financialand other resources to the implemen-tation of training programs foryouth and adults. Strong leadershipis required at the local, state, andnational level to meet this criticalneed. All our youth and adultsshould be entitled to an appropriateopportunity to train or retrain forsuccessful and satisfying employ-ment. State and federal funds alsohave an obviously important role toplay here as well.

Educators at all levels need to bewilling to recognize and to instructtheir students about the important

Summary

There is much to be gained and little,if anything, to be lost through increasedcollaboration by vocational-technical edu-cation and organized labor, as both strivetoward the mutually agreed upon goal ofmore effectively preparing America's workforce for tomorrow's jobs. Both vocational-technical education and organized labor areespecially concerned with the approximately80 percent of the population who will enterthe work force as semiskilled, skilled, andtechnical workers. Both groups want today'sand tomorrow's workers to be productivelyemployed in real jobs of their own choos-

role that organized labor has playedin our society. Appropriate unitson the role of organized labor inAmerica need to be developed andwidely disseminated to vocational-technical educators. Staff develop-ment for their effective use shouldbe offered.

Labor and education leaders shouldpromote cooperative and effectiveworking relationships betweenvocational-technical education andorganized labor leaders. The atti-tudes and ideas espoused by thesepersons can be powerful motivatorsfor encouraging collaborative andmutually beneficial relationships atthe state and local levels.

ing. Both labor and education want pro-grams that are up-to-date technologicallyand that seek to maximize benefits for theyouth and adults involved, whether they areundergoing training, retraining, or upgrad-ing. Both seek to maximize the impact ofthe always limited financial resourcesavailable for education and training.These barriers to linkages and guidelinesfor more effective linkages provide a basisfor constructive action for anyone wantingto develop new linkages or expand currentefforts within their state or community.

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Bhaerman, Robert; Fitch, Brian; Goldwair, William; Lankard, Bettina; Pritz, Sandra; andZahinser, Gale. Apprenticeships in Emplojment and Training Programs: An ActionPlanning Guidebook. Columbus: The National Center for Research in VocationalEducation, The Ohio State University, 1981.

Edwards, Kenneth, R. The Perspective of Organized Labor on Improving America'sProductivity. Occasional Paper series no. 89. Columbus: The National Center forResearch in Vocational Education, The Ohio State University, 1983.

Elliman, Peter J. Critical Issues in Vocational Education: An Industrialist's View.Occasional Paper series no. 95. Columbus: The National Center for Research inVocational Education, The Ohio State University, 1983.

Frey, Donald N. The Economy, Productivity, and Training--A CEO's View. Occasional Paperseries no. 88. Columbus: The National Center for Research in Vocational Education,The Ohio State University, 1983.

Humbert, Jack T., and Woloszyk, Carl A. Cooperative Education. Information Series no.254. Columbus: The National Center for Research in Vocational Education, The OhioState University, 1983.

Long, James P.; Gordon, Robert A.; Spence, Charles; and Mohr, Gary. Economic Develop-ment and the Community College. Columbus: The National Center for Research inVocational Education, The Ohio State University, 1984.

MacKenzie, John R. Organized Labor Education and Training Programs. InformationSeries no. 286. Columbus: The National Center for Research in VocationalEducation, The Ohio State University, ;984.

Norton, Robert E., and Belcher, James 0. A Guide to Linkages between VocationalEducation and Organized Labor in the United States. Columbus: The National Centerfor Research in Vocational Education, The Ohio State University, 1984.

Norton, Robert E.; Harrington, Lois G.; and Spencer, Carol J. Develop a Linkage Plan.Module LT-J-1, Competency-Based Vocational Education Administrator Module Series.Athens, GA: American Association for Vocational Instructional Materials (AAVIM),1984.

Norton, Robert E.; Harrington, Lois G.; Spencer, Carol J. Establish Linkages withBIL/GM. Module LT-J-2, Competency-Based Vocational Education AdministratorModule Series. Athens, GA: American Association for Vocational InstructionalMaterials (AAVIM), 1984.

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Norton, Robert E.; Harrington, Lois G.; and Spencer, Carol J. Providing CustomizedTraining Programs for BIL/GM. Module LT-J-3, Competency-Based VocationalEducation Administrator Module Series. Athens, GA: American Association forVocational Instructional Materials (AAVIM), 1984.

Warmbrod, Catharine P., and Faddis, Constance, R. Retraining and Upgrading Workers: AGuide for Postsecondary Education. Columbus: The National Center for Research inVocational Education, The Ohio State University, 1983.

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SP500 OPTIONS: Expanding EducationalServices for Adults (complete set) $174 00

SP500A The Educators Guide 5.25

SP5008 Orientation to Options(videocassetteVHS) 25.00

SP500C Publicity Kit 29 95

SP500D Linking with Employers 39.95

SP500E Developing a Curriculum inResponse to Change 39 95

SP500F Special Services for Adult Learners(includes) 29 50

SP500FA Adult Career Guidance 12 95

SP500FB Literacy Enhancement 9 50

SP500FC Entrepreneurship Education 9 50

SP500G Case Studies of Programs ServingAdults 39.95

NOTE: Comple e package price of $174.00 represents a 1 5 % +discount of total individual product prices. Sub Total $

(less % discountas applicable) Minus

Total $