ED 217 703,

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SPONS AGENCYREPORT NOPUB DATECONTRACTNOTEAVAILABLE FROM

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FL 012 966

Haverpon, Wayne W.; Haynes, Judith L.ESL/Literacy for Adult Learners. Language inEducation: Theory and Practice, No. 49.ERIC Clearinghouse on Languages and Linguistics,Washington, D.C.National Inst. of Education (ED), Washington, DC.ISBN-0-87281-306-1May 82400-77-004970p.

Center for Applied Linguistics, P.O. Box 4866,Hampden Station, Baltimore, MD 21211 ($6.00).

MF01/PC03 'Plus Postage.Adults; *English (Second Language); *FunctionalLiteracy; Immigrants; Learning Activities; LessonPlans; *Literacy Education; *Reading Instruction;Refugees; Teaching Methods; *Writing Instruction'

ABSTRACTThis guide takes' an eclectic approach to literacy

training, that is, it allows the instructor to select those materialsand methods that best fit the needs of individual-learners. Itincludes a definition of the target population which Will-includeadults who are nonliteiate, preliterate, semiliterate, and thOsSe whoare. literate in a non-Roman alphabet. A section of the book describes --the goals and content of literacy training, a summary of pre-readingskills and minimal competencies, a checklist for,the teacher, and 10pre-reading activities. The next section deals with teachingfunctional language skills and the bas. vocabulary and structurewhich will have immediate application o the daily living situationsin which immigrants find themselves. T e third section of the guidepresents a rationale for teaching writing and an initial lesson planfor introducing numbers. The final section on teaching reading

4 discusses teaching the association of the oral and written form and ,

provides lesson plans for teaching sight words, sound /symbolrelationships, and the experience story technique. Three appendiceson teaching the alphabet, number exercises, a list of Oregon MinimalCompetencies, and an annotated bibliography complete the volume.

,AMH )

0

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from the original document.***********************************************************************

c!)

I Ike

CDLANGUAGE IN EDUCATION:Theory and Practice

49

Wayne W. Haversonand Judith L. Haynes

ESL/Literacyfor AdultLearners

"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THISMATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY

TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCESiNfORMATION CENTER (ERIC)."

US. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION

EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATIONCENTER (ERIC)

This document has been reproduced asreceived from the person or organizationoriginating it.Minor changes have been made to improverep-r-Oduction quality.

Points of view or opinions stated in this-docd.ment do not necessarily represent official NIEposition or policy.

Published by

el& Center for Applied Linguistics

Prepared by

(ERIC Clearinghouse on Languages and Linguistics

2

This publication was prepared with fundinglafrom the National Institute of Education,U.S. Department of Education under contractno. 400-77-0049, The opinions expressed inthis report do not necessarily reflect thepositions or policies of NIE or ED.

Language in Education: Theory and PracticeSeries'ISBN: 87281-092-5

ISBN: 87289'- ,306 -1

_

May 1982Copyright 1982

By the Center for Applied Linguistics3520 Prospect Street NWWashington DC 20007

Printed in the U.S.A.

LANGUAGE IN EDUCATION: THEORY AND PRACTICE

ERIC (Educational Resources Information Center) is a nationwidenetwork of information centers, each responsible for a giveneducational level or field of study. ERIC is supported by theNational Institute of Education of the U.S. Department of Educa-tion. The basic objective of ERIC is. to make current develop-ments in educational research, instruction, and personnelpreparation more readily accessible to educators and members ofrelated proestions.

ERIC/CLL. The ERIC Clearinghouse on Languages and Linguist.,:s

(ERIC/CLL), one of the specialized clearinghouses in the ERICsystem, is operated by the Center for Applied Linguistics.ERIC/CLL is specifically responsible for the collection and dis-semination of information in the general area of research andapplication in languages, linguistics, and language teaching andlearning.

LANGUAGE IN EDUCATION: THEORY AND PRACTICE. In addition toprocessing information, ERIC/CLL is also involved in informationsynthesis and analysis. The %:learinghouse commissions recognizedauthorities in languages and linguistics to write analyses of thecurrent issues in their areas of specialty. The resultant doc-uments, intended for use by educators and researchers, are pub-lished under the title Language in Education: Theory andPractice. The aeries includes practical guides for classroomteachers, extensive state-of-the-art papers, and selected bibli-ographies.

The material in this publication was prepared pursuant to acontract with the National Institute of Education, U.S. Depart-ment of Education. Contractors undertaking such projects underGovernment sponsorship are encouraged to express freely theirjudgment in professional and technical matters. Prior to publi-cation, the manuscript was submitted to Teachers of English toSpeakers of Other Languages for critical review and determinationof professional competence. This publication has met such stan-dards. Points of view or opinions, however, do not necessarilyrepresent the official view or opinions of either TESOL or NIE.This publication is not printed at the expense of the FederalGovernment.

This publication may be purchased directly from the .enterfor Applied Linguistics. It also will be announced in the ERICmonthly abstract journal Resources in Education (RIE) and will beavailable from the ERIC Document Reproduction Service, ComputerMicrofilm International Corp.., P.O. Box 190, Arlington, VA 22210.See RIE for ordering information and ED number.

For further information on the ERIC system, ERIC/CLL, andCenter/Clearinghouse publications, write to ERIC Clearinghouse on-Eanguage-s- and Linguistics; -Center- for Applied tinguistin, 1520Prospect St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20007.

Sophia Behrens, Editor

4

CONTENTS

Overview 1

Target Population 3

. Goals of Literacy Training 4

Content of Literacy Training 5

Prereading Skills 5

Prereading ActiVities 11

Functional Language Skills 23

Introducing Writing 27

Writing Activities 4 27

Introducing Reading 30

Reading Activities 32

Notes 43

Appendix A. Alphabet 44

Appendix B. Number Exercises 45

Appendix C. Oregon Minimal Competencies 47

Bibliography 54

v

5

Overview

a

The recent influx of lion- or limited English-speaking adult

learners who are nonliterate or semiliterate in their own lan-guage is a matter of special concern to adult educators., Thetask of trying to cope with our print-oriented society isvirtually impossible for these learners. Not only must theypossess certain minimal literacy skills.to meet the demands ofdaily life in this country, but they must learn a nea languageat the same time. In order to meet the varying needs of thesegroups of learners, special emphasis must be placed on thedevelopment of literacy training components in ESL (English as asecond language) programs.

The question of whether or not to teach native language literacyskills prior to teaching second language (English) literacyskills often arises in the literature dealing with these adultlearners. Research in this area is inconclusive. In fact, thequestion of whether or not nonliterate limited English-speakingadults should be taught to read at all frequently appears.However, there is research that supports the notion that initialprogress in learning to read (basic literacy) is more rapid inthe learners' native language than in a second language (see,for example, Thonis 1970, Modiano 1968).

On the other hand, the availability of instructors qualified todeliver native language literacy programs to the diverse lan-guage grOup^ found in most adult classrooms must be considered.Strauch (19.8) reports that it is this factor which most oftendetermines the teacher's choice of the language to be used inliteracy instruction. There are also other barriers to nativelanguage literacy instruction. Gudschinsky (1962) found thatmany speakers of minority languages are convinced that controlof the official language is the only door to prestige oradvancAent, and some parents are reluctant to allow theirchi.1,--dren to receive native language instruction-in111111Fial pro-grams.

Teaching literacy skills to nonliterate and semiliterate limitedEnglish-speaking adults is much different from teaching theseskills to native speakers of English. Native speakers alreadyhave control over some of the systems of language -- specifically,listening and speaking--and can concentrate on gaining control

of the other systems--reading and writing. The sounds of Eng-lish, the, vocabulary, and the structure of the language are sys-teths that are all in place for the native speakers. They, areready to begin Prereading, word attack, comprehension, andwriting exercises. The limited English speaker does not havethis advantage.

A clear di§tinction must be made between the teaching of readingand writing. Letter formation is.taught systematically and sep-arately from reading. Individual goals as well as the goals ofthe program need to be weighed equally when determining theextent of a writing program. Mastery of_the writing system isespecially difficult for nonliterate adults who,are limited Eng-lish speakers!

In fact, all aspects of literacy training will be extremely dif-ficult for most adult learners. Programs need to develop arationale for the teaching of literacy skills that reflects theneeds, educational backgrounds, and abilities of the learners aswell as *realistic expectations or the part of the instructors.

There are three major approaches to teaching literacy: syn-thetic, analytic, and eclectic. Synthetic approaches are con-cerned with the mastery of the elements of words, i.e., lettersand syllables. Once these elements have been put into place, ;,

the learner prOgresses to larger units. Usually this is donethrough the use of gr4ded reading materials. An assumption ismade that comprehension will automatically follow mastery ofword-recognitiOn skills. This method works best with languagesfor which the graphemes consistently represent the same sounds.

Analytic approaches focus on the meaning of whole units. Thelearner is shown a word or phrase and is told-the-freanrET.- Thelearner looks for visual-clues==ttTrall-u-rations--in order to

_associate-WI visual form with the word or phrase. Comprehen-sion is stressed at all times. Once the word-meaning relation-ships have been mastered, the phrase may be broken down intoindividual words, words into syllables, syllables into. letters,and appropZiate sounds given to the component parts.

An eclectic approach to literacy training is a combination ofboth synthetic and analytic methods. This approach allows theinstructor to select those materials and methods that best fitthe needs of the individual learners. It also takes into con-sideration the fact that adults have different learning styles

2

0

4

and learning rates; each learner progresses at his or her ownspeed.

,This booklet, which is based impart on an earlier publication(Teaching ESL to Illitekate Adults, No. 9; Indochinese RefugeeEducation;Guides, Center for Applied Linguistics, 1981), willtake an'eclectic approach. It will include a definition of thetarget population, lfScuss the goals of literacy training, anddescribe the content of a literacy training program, includingthe specification of minimal competencies. In addition, it willprovide an extensive annotated bibliography on literacy trainingin first and second languages. The suggestions and guidelifiespresented here have been gathered from many sources and field-tested over a period of years. It is the hope of the authorsthat instructors will use this material to develop unique liter-acy programs that reflect the needs of their learners.

Target Population

Limited English-speaking adults who need literacy training canbe grouped, into four major categories:

1. Non literate: Learners who have no reading and Writingskills in any language, but who speak a language forwhich there is a written form.

2, Preliterate:- Learners who represent a group for whichthere exists only an oral language.

3. Semiliterate: Learners who have the equivalent of threeto four years of formal education and/or possess minimalliteracy skills in some language. These learners prob-ably know the names of the letters, can recognize somecommon words by sight (e.g., name, 'address, names oflocal shops) but usually can write only their name andaddress. Because of limited exposure to formal educa-tion, they have little confidence in their ability tolearn.

I. 4. Literate in a non-Roman alphabet: Learners who areliterate in their own language. (e.g., Khmer, Lao, Chi-

nese, etc.) but need to learn the Roman alphabet and thesound-symbol relationships of English.

3

Goals of Literacy Training 0

4

It is important for the ESL instructor to have a clear idea ofthe goals of instruction prior to planning a program. By estab-lishing goals, the teacher an better organize and evaluate theprogram. At the conclusion of literacy training, the learnershould be able to accomplish the

1. Follow simple oral and written directions

4.2. Recognize and match similarities and differences -in

shapes, (symBols), letters, and words

3; Arrange shapes (symbols), letters, 'and words in logicalsequence

0 4

4. Recognize as sight words material already practiced inlistening and speaking

5. Demonstrate an_understanding of uord order and sentencesequencb-

6. Distinguish auraLly the differences among initial con-sonants, short and long vowels, common consonant blends,andconsonant and vowel digraphs

7. Produce orally initial consonants, short and longvowels, common consonant blends;6and consonant and voweldigraphs

8. Recognize the graphemic representation of initial con-sonants, short and long vowels, common. consonant blends,and consonant and, vowel digraphs

9. Produce the graphemic representation of initial conso-nants, short and long vowels, common consonant blends,and. consonant and vowel digraphs

The purpose'of distinguishing among and producing sounds, andrecognizing and producing graphemes is to enable the learner to

4

O 3

tit

collect as many clues as cossible from words and to use that. information in context to enhance meaning. Sounds and symbols,

,however, are not to be taught for their own sake in an isolatedcontext. The overall goal of understanding must be foremost inthe objectives of instruction.

9

Content of Literacy°Training

Literacy training for limited English-speaking adult learnersinvolve% the following steps:

1. Prereading skills

2.____Batio-vacbulary and grammar suited to the needs of thelearners until a control in listening and speaking canbe established .

3. Identification of symbols

4.. Association of the basic oral patterns with the writtenforms of sentences, words, and. letters

5. Reading of material already mastered aural-orally

6. Reading of material made up by recombining andrearranging those materials already masteredaural-orally

Prereading Skills

Pre- and nonliterate limited English-speaking adult learnersmust be introduced to a. formal learning environment. They have '

been successful adult learners, but never or rarely in a formal

classroom setting. Since the ability to focus on a single topicfor an uninterrupted period of time is critical to the learningprocess, learners must be able to demonstrate an effective con-

: centration span of no less than ten minutes.

ID

11,

Pre--and nonliterate adults do not automwtica)ay know that pic-tures, the lifeblood of English as a second language instruc-tion, represent real objects. They must be taught thattwo-dimensiorAl objects'may be used to convey meaning. Mostadult pre- and nonliterates have learned in the past through

.experience--through the use of objects and not through abstrac.tions. In addition, teachers cannot automatically assumethattheir students can followirections or work with others in agroup, as well as independently.

oen

Limited English-speaking learners who are preliterate, n&liter-.

ate, semiliterate, or literate in a non-Roman alphabet cannothave enough practice in listening skills. Activities that focuson auditory.discriminat.ion, responding to classroom commands,and the development of an active and passive vocabulary areprerequisite to the reading/writing process. The concentration

on listening skills; _oral Production is minimized. Compre-'bension is best expressed through physical response.

. .

.

Skill in visual perception needs to be developed. Learnersshould be able to categdritiesame and different, recognize anddespond to colors and different sizes and shapes, and followleft-to-right and top-to-bottom progression. Appropriateresponses to gestures must be taught. 2

Other prereading activities include practice in vissal/auditoryrecognition and motor skill development (both fine and gross A

muscle skills) and in the ability to manipulate-Language(recognize auditory statements and questions, recognize and pro-duce intonation patterns).

r.

- Special consideration must also be given to the emotional readi-ness of the adult learner. Can he or she tolerate group work?Most nonliterate, semiliterate and preliterate learners havevery poor self-images. They have probably had very limited - -if ".any--success in a formalized learning environment.

Minimal Competencies

In order to begin the reading process, adult learners must beable to perform certain task-oriented goals or "competencies."T4e following list of minimal competencies in prereading wasdeveloped for use in, the Oregon Vocational English., as a Second

A Language Program.

vlk6

Yr

CONCEPT OF'SAME AND DIFFERENT

Learner orally or through actions matches two or moreobjects that are the same'.

Given three objects, learner points to two objects ofthe same color, shape, 'and size.

Given three objects, learner- points to the object that_-is different from-the-others.

LEFT-TO-RIGHT PROGRESSION

Given a picture story of three or pore pictures in left-to-right sequence,-.learner poiAts to correct picture asstory is told.

Given three pictures",\ learner sequences them from leftto right as story is bold.

Given a symbol at the left of a page and a series. of

symbols aligned acrossX.re page, learner marks the samesymbol.

TOP-TO-BOTTOM SEQUENCING

Given a series of exercises, learner Completes in orderfrom top to bottom.

Prereading Checklist

*

1

This checklist, is designed to be used by teachers as a diagnos-tic tool prior to.any literacy instruction; No assumptions can

0- be made about what the students can or cannot do. "If there isan indication of lack of skills,in'any area, these skills mustbe 'taught. Mastery of these prereading concepts will prepare alimited English-speaking adult learner for initial reading andwriting'instruction.

74

1

The checklist was designed to be used as an integrated unit, notas individual categories to be applied one after the other. An

instructional sequence may deal with concepts in several cate-gories simultaneously: for example, left-to-right progression,top-to-bottom progression, sound-letter relationships, attentionspan, independent work, and two-dimensional objects representingrealia may all be featured in the same lesson. Learning does-not take place in a one-unit neatly planned progression; there-fore, it is necessary to try to control the learning factors toheighten the expe7ce in many areas at the same time.

THE LEARNER EXHIBITS:

General

Ability to concentrate for a minimal amount o time

Ability to follow directions

Ability 11 work with others

Ability to work independently

Visual and auditory skills

Recognition othing

e

Recognition omay be used to

f the idea that a picture represents a real

f the idea that a two-dimensional objectconvey, meaning

Recognition that oral speech may be written

Listening Skills

Ability to follow oral commands

Command of passive survival vocabulary

8

13

Ability to discriminate phonemes

Command of active survival vocabulary

Sound-Symbol Recognition

Recognition of visual/auditory symbols

Ability to compare and contrast_visual/audttory symbols--

Motor Skills

Ability to perform gross motor skills functions

Ability to perform fine motor skills functions

Ability to follow along a line of print

Coordination of visual/motor skills

Ability to distinguish left-to-right progression

a4

Ability to distinguish top-to-bottom progression

Ability to recognize symbols, including upper- andlower-case letters

Ability to form symbols

Visual Perception

Ability to follow proxemic signals (hand, facial, body)

Ability to recognize colors

9

1 4

Ability to recognize shapes

Ability to categorize (same, different)

Ability to follow left-to-right progression

Ability to follow top-to-bottom progression

Ability-to name things in pic ures

Ability to Manipulate Language

Ability to recognize auditory statements and questions

_ Ability to recognize and produce intonation patterns

Psychological Readiness

Success in the learning environment

Positive self-concept

Ability to accept peet relationships

Physical Readiness

General good health

Visual acuity

Auditory acuity

101*7.

;..)

Prereading Activities

Effective prereading activities can be designed by the instruc-tor. The following materials and activities are examples ofteacher-made materials, developed by the authors and publishedby MOdulearn, Inc., San Juan Capistrano, California as part oftheir ESL literacy program.1 These prereading activities weredesigned to help the learner with visual discrimination tasks.Activity One is a teacher-directed activity. The teacher workswith the learners on all five of the "sentences." The lineshere-are-called sentences to acquaint.the_learner with thenecessary vocabulary. At this point in the lessons, there is noneed to explain the concept of sentences, but be sure to use the

-Word "sentence" when working on this activity. In this a]Oti-vity, learners practice visual discrimination, "reading" fromleft to right and from top to bottom. Notice that the visualdiscrimination tasks in Activity one are very easy. The tasksbecome more difficult as the lessons progress, until the learneris discriminating between letters of the alphabet instead ofshapes.

It would be ideal to follow Activity One with Activity Two onthe same day. The tasks are very similar, and a good basis isestablished for the coming activities. Each activity incor-porates a number of useful details that adult learners will needto know. - Notice that Activities One and Two ask tLe learner towrite NAME and ADDRESS at the top of the paper. Activity Threeasks for NAME and TELEPHONE NUMBER. The directions will changeslightly to incorporate CIRCLE, PUT AN Y, UNDERLINE, and PUT ACHECK. (These are the most common directions given in fillingOut forms besides FILL IN THE BLANK.)

By the time learners reach Activity Four, they are begintang todiscriminate shapes that look like letters of the Roman alpna-bet. Activity Four requires a more subtle ability to distin-guish shape, and Activity Five requires an even finer ability.If the learners are experiencing difficulty with the activities,use these prereading worksheets as guides and make up lessonssimilar to them for more practice. It is very important thatthe learners master each activity with no errors before they areallowed to progress to the next step.

Activity Six gets the learner ready for the reading lessons thatfollow. Be sure that your learners can discriminate these let-ters one from another. It is not necessary that they know whatthe letter name is or the sound. Those concepts will be tatght

11

later. It is necessary, however, that they be able to distin-gurSh one'letter from another.

The final activities include discrimination of printed lettersin normal type. The learner discriminates between lower- aswell as upper-case letters. All the prereading activities couldbe used with an overhead projector whiled the students work ontheir papers. The sheet of activities can be copied onto atransparency, and the sheets duplicated for use by students. It-may-be hdlpfdito duplicate materials on colored paper using aseparatecolor for each lesson. In that way the teacher will beable to tell at a glance whether the students are all working onthe correct lesson. The instructor, using the overhead and hand-out lesson sheets, demonstrates the responses that are expectedfrom the student's. If necessary, the same lesson (or similarlessons) is repeated using the same teaching strategy.

Similar activities may be created by the teacher to supplementexisting materials. The teacher is in the best position tounderstand the unique needs of the preliterate limited English-speaking adult learner. Existing materials may not be suffi-cient to reet these needs. It is the teacher's responsibilityto provide as many opportunities as possible for prereadingactivities.

READING

Pre-reading Activity 1

IREGT-IONS:Put- -an-X-on-th-e-sha-p-e-that is not the same in each sentence.

1

2.

3.

.1

X

2

2

0002 3 4

G.

1 . 2 , 3 4 5

e

5.

READING

Pre-reading Activity 2 ADDRESS

1REbtIONS: Put an X on the shape in each sentence that is not the same.

4

4

READING

Pre-reading Activity 3

NAME

TELEPHONE NUMBER

DIRECTIONS: Put an X op',the shape in each sentence that is not the same.

AI

3 4

3 4

4

READING NAME

Pre-reading Activity 4 ZIP CODE

DIRECTIONS: Circle the shape that is not the same in the sentence.

1.

fl

2.

1

3.

A

2

3

'3

4

4

READING -- -------- ---Pre reading ActilAty 5

.

NAM,

SCKAAL SECURITY NUMBER

DIRECTIONS: Circle the shape that is not . % .iam. '1 th..:. s,enience.

1 2

0 I

3,

0 02 3

4

4

.

1

2

2

3 4

4c

1 2 3 4

4,9 11

11%,

READING

Pre-reading Activity 6

DIRECTIONS: Circle the letter in the sentence that is the same.

EXAMPLE

NAME

1-94

CLSO SDAICG-I A

2 3 4

,2. M 0 nri

3. r4,

5.

9

b,7.

e

5 7

,n1 2 3

r n r4mh 7r-t

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

I- by k -lc o -r k1 2

p g b'4 5

q d6bgqpd b b

1 2 3 5

1 2

W 1-18.

9.

1

C 123

3 4 5 6 7

3 4- 5 6 7

a p2 3 5 6 7

It I f h f f k.1 2 - 3

18

READINGo Pre-reading Activity 7

.

FIRST NAME

LAST NAME

Put an X on the letter in the sentence that is the same.

EXAMPLE:- d

1.

2.

3.

4.

'5. A

6.

7.

8. A

9.

10. a

of

a M a s a

samsas

msasam

M-ASAMS

SM A AMA

MS M A S

SsmMas

MaASsa 1

s S M a in A

AsmaAa

19

1

READING 4

Pre-reading Activity 8--N

ADDRESS

Put a on the lettenin the sentence that is the same.

,EXAMPLE: d a

f a _f_ d

2. a d f d

3. D M F A, S

READING MST, NAMEPrereading Activity 9

eCITY

Underline the letter iti the sentence that is the same.

6.

7. a

8. A

10.

m t s

t d f m

f td t f t

IDFFTD

F T D T D

T t f TF t

f t TfmF

L a Asma

a s F AST

a

21

I

.9f)

.4.0

e

READINGPre-reading Activity'10i

LAST-NAME

ZIP CODE

Circle the letter in the sentence that is the same.

EXAMPLE:

4 1.

k.0 Z.

S.

m 1 O

m n s p n i

p i a n s i

n p

4. N I N I S N F ri

411

TIFPIA

8.

9.

10.

N

1

S.

a N p S N

'a'

a

T p P 'S p

iITtif

S pcp.

s a

22 9 1.1

Functional Language Skills

Limited English-speaking adult learners often have difficultyadapting to a highly sequenced program of instruction. Theymust adapt work schedules, child care, problems with their ownhealth and that of their family, other family responsibilities,and, many times, simple exhaustion to the sequential nature ofthe program and the learning materials. Learners who miss pre-vious lessons generally become so frustrated that they vote with

their feet and stay home.

It is vital, therefore, that initial instruction address func-tional language skills that have immediate application withinthe local setting, have definite beginnings and endings, andcan be taught within limited time frames. This provides thelearner with an opportunity to adapt to the unknown, unfamiliarlearning proce4 and at the same timed experience the success sovital for succesSful language acquisition.

The basic vocabulary and structure taught should focus on sur-vival skills* and should comprise the following: the languageinvolved in (1) providing personal information and seekingemployment, (2) using the phone on a limited basis, (3) askingfor clarification and requesting/following simple directions,(4) making introductions, and (5) coping with basic health/-safety, consumer, and emergency situations. This will providethe necessary control in listening and speaking that is pre-requisite to literacy instruction. Survival skill trainingsh-Obld also emphasize the management of time, schedules, andappointments.

The Oregon Vocational English as a Second Language Program hasidentified the following minimal skills as the basis for initialinstruction:

*Editor's note: For an extensive discussion of teaching sur-vival skills, see Ellen Vaut, ESL/Coping Skills for Adult Learn-ers, No. 46, Language in Education series.(Washington, DC:Center for Applied Linguistics/ERIC Clearinghouse on Languages

- and Linguistics, 1982).

23

* .:),)

-

Basic Classroom Process

Learner responds,to_classroom commands.

o

Learner responds to common gestures.

Learner expresses lack of understanding (e.g,, I don'tunderstand,"-"Please repeat," "Go slowly, please,""Excuse me").

Learner uses "where" questions with a person, place, orthing. _

Learner understands appropriate responses to abovequestions (e.ij., "here," "there," "over there,""downtown").

. Learner understands, uses, and responds to simple com-pound directions (e.g., "straight ahead," "turn left,""turn right," "upstairs," "downstairs," "go get theand bring it here).

Personal Information

Learner responds to such questions as "What's yourfirst/last name?"'"What's your birthdate/age?" "Whereare you from?" "'Are you a refugee?"

Learner writes the above items and checks, circles,underlines and/or makes an X beside these or additionalitems on a form (e.g., male/female, Mr./Mrs./Ms./Miss,m/s/w/d).

Learner spells name and address orally and/or producsname and address.

Learner makes out a card to carry with him or her con-taining name, address, phone number, English-speakingperson to call in an emergency (e.g., sponsor, employer,

24

teacher, neighbor, interpreter's name/address/phonenumber).

Learner responds orally to "Who's your sponsor?" "Whatis your sponsor's phone number?" "How much education doyou have?" "What is your past work experience?"

Learner produces appropriate documents (e.g., socialsecurity card, 1-94).

Time/Schedules/Appointments

11

e

Learner knows that he or she.is expected to come toclass on time, take proper breaks, and leave on time.

Learner asks and answers the following questions: "Whattime is Lt?" "What day, is it?" "When ?"

Learner understands and uses the following expressions:.next week, next rt*th, this month, on Tuesday, etc.;today, yesterday, tomorrow, now/later, days ago, andcorresponding abbreviations.

Learner reads and writes clock and digital time.

Learner reads and writes the date in numbers in thecorrect order.

\

Simple Body Language

Learner understands and uses simple body language (e.g.,"sh" = fihger on mouth).

ntrodwtions

Learner performs introductions ("My name is ." "ThisiV 'my boss/teacher, ").

25

on

4 .

Learner-retains the name of the person being introduced(*Hung, this is Mr. Smith." "Hello, Mr. Smith.").

e

Money

Learner recognize and computes the values of coins andbills.

o

Learner reads and understands the symbols related to,money (e.g., $, C, $.05).2,

Learner produces orally from memory the correct amountfrqm the above.

Numbers

Learner copies numbers.

Learner takes number dictation.

Letters

Learner reads (spells) letter names.

Learner spells name and address.

Learner spells name and address from memory.

Learner copies letters.

Learner takes letter dictation. .

26

Ass

4

a

Introducing WritLag

Most preliterate and nonliterate learners have definite idbasabout school and its purpose. They tend to regard literacy,both reading and writing, as the primary goal and bften do notshare the instructor's inte ;est in the mastery of aural-oralskillsas a prereqUisite. Teachers should capitalize on thishigh motivation to write English. Indeed, most learners willwrite regardless of whether or not they have been instructed todo so. By teaching the correct formation of numbers (andletters) early, high motivation ji.s retained and many bad writinghabits are reduced. A combination of numbers, e.g., socialsecurity, 1-94, address, and telephone, is often the only secu-rity that a limited English-speaking adult brings to the class-room. These shapes already carry meaning; the learners canfocus on the additional skill of shape ,formation. The learnersare then more willing to allow the instructor to lead them fromlistening to speaking to reading to writi,ng in the acquisitionof .words and phrases.3

The nature of the nonliterate population requires that a highlystructured sequence of activity be planned. Meaningful activitymust take place in a controlled sequence in order that none of".the essential elements is inadvertently omitted. The followingsequence of activities was designed by the authors. This modelprovides not only the generalized framework for instruction butalso an example of a lesson plan for number and letter forma-tion. The left-hand column provides a model for the teacher;the right-hand column indicates the activity and/or responseperformed-, uring the lesson.

Teacher

Writing Activities

Lesson Plan for Teaching Numbers

01 Activity/Response

1. Let's learn to write num- 1. Distribute lined paper andpencils.4bers.

2. Let's draw lines (circles). 2. Draw a row of each of the

following lines/itrokes onboard (point out thespacing). / / /

27

O

3. Let's make.the number 1.

4. Let's make the number 7.

5. Let's make the number 4.

6. Here is .your homework.

7. Practice making the numbers1, 7, 4. Make one row ofthese numbers.(Follow with 6, 9, 8, O.)(Follow with 3, 2, 5.)

Learners drawa row oflines/strokes on paper.(Follow with circles and

) ) Y.]

3. Demonstrate on board.Learners make a row of l'son paper.

4. Demonstrate on board.Learners make a row of 7'son paper.

5. Demonstrate on board.'Learners make a row of 4'son paper.

6. Distribute lined paper.

7. Learners are to make onerow of each number.

Numbers can form the basis for maw) prereading activities aswell. The materials in Appendix B, for instance, which weredeveloped by Karen Hlynsky,ohave been used successfully atChemeketa Community College, Salem, Oregon.

Prereqdisite to writing instruction is a thorough understandingof the content of the material to be written. Strict adherenceto the principle. that all reading and writing lessons will havepreviously been mastered aural-orAly will eliminate problemswith comprehension of the lesson.

There are three readily recognized forms for "aching beginningwriting:

1. Block form, in which. the letters are all in upper cake.This form eliminates early confusion between capital andlower-case letters, tall and short letters, and lettersthat are formed by dipping beneith the line.

28

2. Manuscript form, in which both upper- and lower-caseletters are used. The advantage of teaching this formis that it is used in the.bulk of printing in books;newspapers, and magazines.

ti

3. Cursive form, in which a connective flow of the lettersis taught. Most adults consider this form advantageousbecause of its psychological associatOn'with adulthood.Another advantage for the limited English speaker the

ease with which words in cursive form can be distin-guished from-one another.

A combination of these forms should be considered for teachinglimited English-speaking adults. Instead of adopting form

of writing for all instruction, teachers should use L.- formthat is the most appropriate for the purpose of the learner.Adjustments may be made to reflect learner needs. If a learnerneeds to Write a signature, for example, block style would be aninappropriate choice for that learner. If the learner is read-ing and writing about signs or forms, the block style wouldprobably be tge most appropriate. Standard print, or manuscriptstyle, may be the best for most students.

Summary Lesson Plan for Teaching Writing

Teacher Activity/Response

1. Let 's learn to write. t. Distribute lined paper.Distribute pencils.

2.. Let's make lines. 2. Draw a row of verticallines on board. Learnersdraw a row of lines onpaper.

3. Let's make circles.

4. Let's make the letter m.

5. Let's make capital M.We use capital M fornames.

29

.1

3. Draw a row of circles onboard. Learners draw arow of circles on paper.

4. Demonstrate on board.Learners make a row of m'son paper.

5. Demonstrate on board.Learners make a row ofcapital M's.

1

6. Let's make the letter s. 6. Demonstrate on board.Learners make a row of s'son paper.

7. Let's make capital S. 7. Demonstrate on board.We use capital S for Learners make a row ofnames. capital S's.

Let's make the letter a. 8. Demonstrate on board.Learners make a row of a'son paper.

9. Let's make capital A.We use capital A fornames.

10. Here is your homework. '

9. Demonstrate on board.Learners make a row ofcapital A's.,

10. Distribute'lined paper.

it. Practice making the let- 11. Learners are to make oneters M m, S s, and A a. rowof each group of

letters.

12. Practice making the words"am" and "Sam."

12. Learners are to make onerow of each word.

Care must be exercised in the consistency of letter formation.It is vital that the teacher provide an accurate and consistentmodel for the learners. It may be necessary for teachers oflimited English-speaking adults to practice consistent letterformation. An alphabet model is inc]uded for this purpose inAppendix A.

Introducing Reading

Association of the Oral and Written Forms

The limited English-speaking 'idol; learner will at some time beready to associate basic oral patterns with written forms.Structures and individual words are taught using previouslymastered raterials.

Written forms may be ihtroduced as the learner works on aural/oral presentation. Sentence strips, long pieces of -taper with

30

the sentences or phrases printed on them, can be introducedalong with the initial oral-presentation to help the learnerassociate the oral patterns with the written forms. The sen-tence patterns should be used in daily lessons and posted on thewalls of the classroom for reference ,..henever they are needed.The use of color for_,, identification of patterns that go togetheror for distinguishing questions from answers should be encour-aged. Familiarity with the patterns through daily practice isimportant. The learner begins with a knowledge of the meaningof the phrase through prior aural/oral practice, and then he orshe learns the phrase by sight, combining the component partsinto sentences and questions and anVIers. Only after thesephases have been completed can the ;learner begin to break themeaningful sentences into smaller parts, or words. Similarly,thorough understanding of the words 'and much practice with

-building the sentence and breaking it down again must take placebefore the words can be divided into their parts, or letters.This whole proCess involves training in sight word identifica-tion.

Sight Words. Sight-WOrdS are selected for instruction from anywords that learners have mastered aural-orally but have not seenprior'to formal presentation. During initial instruction, thelimited English-speaking adult learns to identify oral languagepatterns visually, e.g., "What's your name?" as opposed to "Whatis your name?" This configuration can be taught via deliber-ately structured materials until the relationship of graphemeand phoneme is established.

Sentence cards are an important component of sight word instruc-tion. The cards may be color2coded wit, questions one color andanswers another. Sentence cards are held by the instructor andshown to all learners. The instructor models the sentence;learners repeat. The instructor asks individual learners toread the serriance card; learners respond. Sentence cards arethen torn into parts (wvxds and punctuation). The instructormodels individual words; learners listen. The instructor askslearners to read individual words; learners respond. Wordcard(s) are 'given to individual learners. The process continuesuntil all words or punctuation cards are distributed to learners.

Learners are asked to reconstruct the sentence from the wordcards. This can be done With a flannel board, chalkboard, tackboard or even on the floor. Learners are asked to read the sen-tence. Sentences remain on display in the room for reentrypractice.

31

In order for the learner to follow instructions, the words"sentence," "questions," "period," "question mark," "word,' ai.d"contraction" are used by the teacher throughout the presen-tation. Articles ("a,"'"an," "the") are always included withthe noun-on the same word card.

Reading Activities_

Summary Lesson Plan for Teaching Sight Words....

Teacher

1. This is the questionare you?"

Activity/Response

"How 1. Show sentence card.Learners listen and repeatthree times.

1

2. This is the word "how."

3. Please read this word.

4. This is the word "are."

5. Please read this word.

6. This is the word "you."

7. Please read this word.

8. Let's makelthe question"How are you?"

9. After a question there isa queon mark.

10. Please read the question.

32

2. Cut off "how" from sen--tence_card.

3. Show word card "how."Learners respond. Giveword card to learner.

4. Cut off "are" from sen-tence card.

5. Showoword card "are."' 'Learners respond. Give

word card to learner.

6. Cut off "you" from sen-tence card.

7. Show word card "you."Learners respond:., Give

word card to learner.

8. Ask learners to sequencequestion on flannel board.

9. Put question mark aftjquestion.

10. Point to question. Learn.;

"ers read in chorus andindividually.

11.'This is the answer "Fine,thank you."

12. This is the word "fine."

13: Please,.read this word.

t

14..Thisis.the word "thank."

15. Please read this word.

16. This is the word "you."

17. Please read'this word.

-

18. Let's answer the question"How are you?"

19. After an answer there is aperiod.

20. Please read the answer.

21. Please read the question.

22. Please read,the answer.

* .

11. Show Sentence card.Learneis listen and repeat

7three times.*

12: cut off "fine" from seu-tence card.

13. Show word card "fi.)."Learners respond. Giveword card to learner. -

14. cut off "thank" from sen-tence card.

15. albw word card "thank."Learners respond. Giveword card to learner.

16. Cut off "you",from sen-tence card.

17. Show word card 'you."Learners respond. Giveword card to learner.

18. Ask learners to,sequence.answer on flannel boardunder question.

19. Put period after answer.

20. Point to answer. Learnersread in chorus andindividually.

21. Point.to question.ers read in chorusindividually.

Learn-and

22. Point to answer. Learnersread in chorus andindividually.

A suggested list of minimal competencies for sight word instruc-tion was designed hy.the Oregon Refugee Vocational English as aSecond Language Program.

33

1. 38

1'

Basic Survival Sight Words

Learner reads by sight the following words used onforms: first name, last name, city, state (see pp. 38-39 for a discussion of the language used on form's).

Learner reads by sight the following words requiringnumbers as responses on forms: telephone number, housenumber, apartment number, zip code, date, socialsecurity number, alien registration number, birthdate.

Learner reads orally his or her own name and address.

Learner reads and marks the following words appropri-'ately on a form: male/female, r122, Mr./Mrs./Ms./Miss.

Learner reads days of the week, months, and theirabbreviations.

Learner reads key survival words, e.g., MEN, WOMEN, BUSSTOP, DON'T WALK,-WALK, EXIT, ENTRANCE, DANGER, HOSPI-TAL, NO SMOKING.

Learne4 reads his or her bus number:and symbol.

Learner reads orally commonsight words relating to hisor her.oral vocabulary, e.g., what, Eb they, a, and.5

Relating Sounds to Symbols. It is necessary to establish arationale for literacy instruction for each learner. This willdictate whether or not the learner exits from the program, °of-tinues with a more advanced course of study, or repeats theprogram. The rationale will be determined by an ongoing processof subj'ective evaluation.

During the process of ,zvaluation, the teacher will discoverwhether br it the learner is ready for some sound-symbol rela-tidnship training. If it has been determined that such trainingis needed, there should be a structured sequence of activitiedeveloped for instruction. The teacher should determine as a

34

3C

e.

0

part of the evaluation process what needs the student has andhow they may best be met. As a guide for the teacher,. theauthors have developed a model for presentation of sound-symbolrelationship training.

Presentations are made for common long and short vowels, commonconsonant blends, consonant digraphs, and all consonants in ini-tial positions. Key words that relate to vocabulary known bylearners are used in all presentations, thus maintaining the

comprehension component that is so vital to the-purposes ofinstruction. The material is presented as rapidly es the learn-ers are able to master the concepts. Letters are presented notin alphabetical order, but according to oralflanguage productiOnconsistency in an initial position:6 0

S, D, F, T

P, N, I, L, B, Z, C

G, H, E, J, Fe; V

K, W, U, Y, Q, 0, i

The letter is printed on the chalkboard And identified by name.The instructor shows a prepared visual of the key word and %

models the word for the learners. The learners listen to the. d

instructor and repeat the key word a number of times. TheInstructor identifies the initial sound and models othe'r wordscontaining the same initial sound. The learners listen to themodela and repeat each one several times after the teacher.Instruction on the formation of the sound is given to the Learn-ers-if it is needed. Positions of the lips, tongue, and teeth

4 may be demonstrated and practiced. The name and sound of eachletter are identified and drilled by the use of the key word.

c Three-by-five letter cards are made by the teacher prior to pre-sentation-of-the new lessop and distributed to the learners.The instructor models several words using the letter sound in aninitial position. Ate learners hold up the letter card whenthey hear the sound of the letter printed on the card. The keyword is printed on the chalkboard under the letter. Learnersare asked to read key words'in chorus and individually.

35,

i.

00

. Sample Lesson Plan for Teaching Sound/Symbol Relationships

Lesson One: M m

Teacher

1. This is the letter m.

-2. This is a man.

3. This is the fetter me

4. The sound of the letter mis /m/ as in the word"man."

1.

5. m-an man, m-iss miss, m-opmop (much, myl

o 6. What is the sound of them?

7. What is the name of theletter?

8 Listen to some words withthe sound /mi.

9. Listen and repeat.

10. is is the letter m.

36

Activity/Response

1. Print letter m on board.Learners listen..

2. Show visual. Learnerslisten and repeat threetimes.

3. Point to letter m on -.board. Learners listen.

4. Learners listen.

5. Teach learners to make thesound /m/. Model soundand each word separately.Learners listen and repeatthree times. .

6. Learners respond /m/. Iflearners 'have difficulty

With the formation of thesound /m/, repeat steps,1-6.

7. Point to letter m.Learners respondPrompt, if necessary.-

8. Learners listen.

9% Model each word sephr-, ately. Learners listen

and repeat three imps.N.,

1G. Show 3 5 card th theletter m on it.1 Learnerslisten.

I

11. The sound of the letter in 11. Distribute 3 x 5 cardsis /m/ as in the,word printed with letter m to"man." learners. Learners'

listen.

12. Wild up your caed when you 12. Demonstrate activity.hear the sound'of the Learners7 listen.letter m.

13. What is the sound of the 13. Learners respond /m/. Ifletter m?

, learners still have dif-ficulty with the formationof the sound /m/, repeatsteps 7-13.

14. Hold up your letter card 14. Model each word. Learnerswhen you hear the sound hold up letter m card'for/m/. "Man, hello, miss, appropriate word.my, last." ,

o

15. This is the word "man." 15. Print "man" on board underlepter m.

16. Please read this word. 16'. Point to word "man."Learners read in chorusand individually.

For instruction in relating sounds to symbes, we have includedbelow a list of minimal competencies developed by the OregonRefugee Vocational English as a Second Language Program.

Association of Spoken and Written Sentences

Learner recites memorized sentences as he or she looksat the written sentence.

Learner arranges question and answer sentence strips insequence and reads sentences aloud.

Association of Spoken and Written Words

Learner arranges flash cards in proper sequence andreads, words (sentences) aloud.

37

Association of Sound with Letter

Learner marks/points to initial letter of ,a word givenorally.

Learner,,writes initial letter of a word given orally.

Learner reads words with specific consonant/vowel/conso-nant combinations.

Form Language. Among the skills of interpreting the written ,

word lies a very, important, although neglected area of compre-hension: understanding "form language," or wording that is usedspecifically on forms that everyone must fill out. It is sur-vival language because every person who deals with the govern-mentor with any public agency must be aware of the language andbe able to use it with very little hesitancy. It is of primaryimportance that the learner be familiar with this type of Ian-guage. Form language has a specific purpose and even looks dif-ferent from language used for other purposes.

Form language is nearly always written in capital letters. It.assmee that the reader knows that the language is a writtencommand and will realize that he or she has to do something inresponse to the request. Even someone who has some knowledge ofthe English 1paguage may have to be given some instruction on t,

interpreting form language because of its precise commandnature. There is no room for errors in form language.

A

Form language requires that the reader know where the answer isto be placed in the blank. Sometimes the command is writtenabove the line on which the answer goes, and'sometimes the com7,mand is written below the blank. Interpretations such as this,when the reader makes decisions from knowledge and not justaccording to the written word, can be very. sophisticated and maybe beyond the learner's realm of knowledge.

When the learner has difficulty interpreting form language, itis an indication that he or she has not had sufficient exposureto the concept. This concept may best be presentedIt is recommended that the teacher provide daily class practice.For example, why does NAME always appear on the work-sheet? The obvious answer is that the teacher needs that infor-'

38

mation to give full credit to the proper student. It would bejust as easy to add another line under NAME that asks foranother piece of information such as ADDRESS or CITY or STATE.The NAME could just as easily be FIRST NAME or LAST NAME or FULLNAME. The point is that it may be incidental learning, but itis essential to the learner and can be learned with a littlepractice. Practice is easy to initiate once the concept is

_understood. Directions for the learner to follow on a worksheetcould easily use such common form language as CIRCLE, PUT ANUNDERLINE, CHECK. Adults have to respond to form language everyday, so daily practice in class may be required for successfulinterpretation and completion of those tasks.

We have developed the following 'example for teaching formlanguage:

Form Language

Learner copies personal data terms hand-printed on a 'chalkboard and on a sheet of paper.

Upon request, learner writes the following personalinformation: first name, last name, city, state, zipcode, birthday, telephone number, social securitynumber, alien registration number, date.

Learner completes a familiar form with correct personaldata.

Learner correctly completes a post office change7of-address card.

Experience Story. Another approach to teaching reading, onethat deals primarily with comprehension, is the ex eriencestory. A language experience story is developed fr m a sharedexperience by the learners. During the introductory parts ofthe lesson, learners may indicate an unusual experiene thatthey have had. The teacher then asks the learners to tell thestory. The teacher writes the story on the chalkboard:\beingcareful to use only the vocabulary of the learners. Stilkcturemay be supplied, but otherwise the story is exactly as thelearners tell it. A language experience story can be as Sortas the learners make it. It could be as short as two sentences.

39

.1%

The story is then read aloud by the class. They may copy it forfuture practice read to a tutor/paraprofessional). The teachermay copy it for inclusion in an "Oar Stories" book for futurereading praCtice. The experience story may be used for wordattack skill practice at a future time.

As a sample guide for,using the experience story approach, wehave included the outline that follows. These.steps,are recom-mended only as a guide that the teacher may elect to reduce oraugment. If changes in the procedure are undertaken, cautionshould be taken to insure that all the processes are repre-sented.

Sample Lesson Plans for Experience Story Technique

Introduction

Teacher Activity/Response

'1. Tell M6 about the class-room.

2. This is a picture of me infront of the class.

3. Show it where you are inthe classroom.

4. Draw a picture of yourself(write your initials).

40

1. Draw diagram of classroomon chalkboard or newsprintflip chart. Prompt, ifnecessary, to make surethe placement of chairsand tables is included..Learners describe the

ti classroom. Fill in thediagram with descriptions.

2. Draw stick figure of"teacher" on diagram infront of the chairs andtable. Learners listed.

3. Ask one learner to come tothe diagram and indicateposition in classroom.One learner comes to frontand indicates position on .0diagram.

4. Learner draws picture ofhimself or herself ondiagram. Other learnersindicate correctness oflocation.

Continue with this activity until learners understand that tw6-diniensional objects can represent real items. This may takeseveral class periods.

Continuation

1. Let me tell you my story. 1. Prior to class, divide asheet of newsprin't intothree sections. Drawstibk figures to indicatecoming to class, teachingclass, and going home.(Story must have a defi-nite beginning, middle,and end.) Learnerslisten.

2. Please tell the class my chart into threestory. sectionn. Give each sec-

tion to a differentlearner. Learners retellthe story.

It may be necessary to do many stories for the learners tounderstand the process. Story may be kept for sequencing prac-tice during a later class period.

Language Experience Story

1. Tell me your story.

2. (Ask questions that havepredictable answers tohelp learner to tell thestory.)

41

1. A picture collage orshared experience is

selected by learner as abasis for 'the story.

Learner tells his or herstory to the teacher.

2. Write the story inmanuscript exactly as thelearner tells it. Do notsupply new vocabulary. Dohelp with structure. Makea carbon copy of thestory. Learner tellsstory.

3. (Read the entire story tothe learner.) ,

4. (Reread a sentence,pointing to the wordsuntil the entire story hasbeen,read.)

5. (Pick out meaningfulwords.)

6. (Teach words as sightwords.)

7. (Mix the word cards.)

8. (Make word cards for theremaining words in story.)

3. Poiht to individual words.

Learner listens.

4. Point to each word.Learner reads story.

5. Underline meaningfulwords. Learner listens.

6. Write a word card for eachword selected. Learner .

matches word with'dupli-. cate word in story.

4

7. Learner reads word tardsindependently.

8. Be satisfied with a rea-sonable number of wordslearned, depending onlearner's ability andpace.

9. (Give learner copy of his 9. Learner" takes story homeor her story.) for practice.

10. (Type story.) 10. Distribute story forlearner to read in classor for part of "OurStories" book.

* * *

We have attempted with these few suggestions and guidelines toconvey information that we have gathered from many sources andfield-tested over a period of years. Teachers will want to usethis information to establish their own individual programs.Local instructors are the only people who can design programs tofit the needs of the learners in each particular situation.They have a unique opportunity to make a meaningful cor -ibutionto the learning process of their students.

42 - _-----------ri

4

NOTES

1. W. Haverson and J. Haynes, Modulearn ESL Literacy Program_(San Juan Capistrano, California, 1980).

2. Oregon Minimal Competencies (Corvallis, Oregon: *OregonState University, 1980).

3. R. Kurzet, Oregon Literacy Training Competencies: A Handbookfor Instructors (Corvallis, Oregon: Oregon StateUnivetsity, 1'980).

.

4. Start with only a quarter of a page and progress as leatnersdevelop confidence to a half, and then a full page.

5. Oregon'Minimal Competencies.

6. Literacy,Volunteers of America English as a Second LanguageTutor Training WOrkshop.-

7. Karen Hlynsky, Chemeketa Community College, Salem,-Oregon.

43

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z tpt, izt

c) tour It, AL Pi. It ;

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0

APPENDIX B

NUMBER EXERCISES

.Draix a line.

6c 08 99 6

66 8_

8 0Make an X.

0 6 9 IK 8 ;0: 66 9 6 0 8 6 98 6 g 9 6 0 89 9 9 6 8 0 9

45

0.123456789 10

Fill in.

0 -56 89 1001 23 567 9 100 234 6 89 10

345 7 91 456 8 10_

-0 _6_81

46

APPENDIX C

OREGON MINIMAL COMPETENCIE.9

The Oregon List of Minimal Competencies grew out of a concern onthe part of English as a second language educators in the state

of Oregon that traditional adult programs and approaches to in-struction were not sufficient to meet the needs of the changingrefugee population.

Initially, a group of representative', from Oregon State

Universit Y, the community colleges, and the State Office ofEdployment and Adult and Family Services developed a list ofminfmal,competencies in survival skills, literacy, basic skills,general.. vocation (prevocation) and home :management. This list/was field-tasted at Portland Community College, CheleketaCommunity College, and Lane Community College. The Competencieshave had 'wide distribution in the United States and form thebasis for the intensive ESL programs in the UNHCR-funded refugee.camps in Southeast Asia,

The principal Authors of the list:

Chemeketa Community College: Ron Bassett-Smith, Marge French,Karen Hlynsky, Her Lee, NguyenHung, Mark Turpin, Joyce Wilson

Clackamas Community College: Kay Davis, Molly Williams

Lane Co : Sheri Lieberman-Preiss, JeanTesche

Mt. Hood Community College: Bill Baker, Richard Campbell, TouMeksavanh, Jaimie Runkel

Portland Community College: Ros Menache, Suzi Mayr, GerryPearson, Jim Pullen, Non Soulatha,Elizabeth Tiktin, Barbara Trotter,Normal Wallace, Kuxeng Yongcha

47

Oregon State tzersity: Wayne Haverson, Judith Haynes

The field besting.teaa:: .\. i.

_.

,

Chemeketa Community Colrg lynge: Karen Hlynsky, Mari Prothero,- - Joyce Wilson

Lang Community College: Sheri Lieberman-Preiss, Toni °Shapiro

- jprtland Community College: Kay Kandrac, Ruel Kurzet, LeeNussbaum, Kat Masek, Ros Menache,Steven Stoynoff

Oregon State University: Wayne Haverson, Judith Haynes,Robert Froudfoot

OREGON MINIMAL COMPETENCIES IN LITERACY TRAINING

1. Pre-reading

1.1 The adult learner will understand concept of same and. different.

1.1.1 Learner can orally or throdgh actions match two. or more objects or pictures which are the same.

1.1:2 Given three objects, learner can point to twoobjects of the same color, shape, and size.

1.1.3 Given three objects, learner can point to theobject which is different from the others.

48

e73

11.17.11

0 1.2 The adult learner is familiar with left-to-right

progression.

1.2.1 Given a picture story of three or more picturesin left-to-right sequence, learner can point tocorrect picture as.story is told.

1.2.2 Given three pictures, learner can sequence themfrom left to right as- story is told.

. ...

,

1.2.3 Given a symbol the leit of a page and aseries of symbols aligned across the page,learner can mark th'esame symbol.

e

1.3 The adult learner is familiar with sequencing from topto bottom.

1.3.1 Given a series of exercises as in 1.2.3, learnercan complete.in order from top to bottom.

2, Number Identifi:ation

2.1 The adult learner will identify numbers.

2.1.1 Leagner can orally count objects, pictures andsymbols from 0 - 10.

2.1.2 Learner can point to correct number as thenumber is spoken.

2.1.3 Learnet can match a given number of objebts orpicp(res with the correct written number.

2.1.4 Learner can sequence numberd from 1 - 10.

s

. 2.2 The adult learner will read numbers.

49t:

a

2.2.1 Learne can read numbers itten as numerals,i.e., 1 2, 3.

O'

2.2.2 Learner an read his/her o telephone number, '

house num er, apartment number, zip code, social.security umber, alien registration number andbirthdate.

2.2.3 Learner can produce orally-frOm memory thecorrect numbe from the above'.'

.2.3 The adult learner wil write numbers.

' 2.3.1 Learner can cop number's.

2.3.2 Learner can take number dictation.

\ w.

3. Letter Identification

3.1 The adult learner will identity letters.'

3.1.1 When shown a letter, learner can say lettername.

3.1.2 Given a letter, learner can identify as capitalor sme.11.

3.2 The adult learner will read (spell) letters.

3.2.1 Learner can read (spell) letter names.

3.2.2 Learner can spell'name and address.

3.2.3 Learner can spell name and address from memory.

50

3.3 The adult learner will write letters.

3.3.1 Learner can copy letters.

3.3.2 Learner can take letter dictation.

4. Codimon Survival Symbols

4.1 The adult learher will, recognize common:SYMbols foreveryday survival, health, and economic needs.

4.1.1 When shown common symbol, learner can give anappropriate oral interpretation, i.e., lb.,ft./in., $,'C, : (as in time), poison, restroomsymbols, ? . (question/answer), do not used ininternational road signs.

5. Basic Sight Words

5.1 The adult/learner will read basic sight words relatedto his/heir survival needs.

;----

5.1.1 Learner can read by sight the following wordsrequiring numbers as responses on forms:

telephone number, house number, apartmentnumber, zip code, date, social security number,alien registration number, birthdate.

5.1.2 Learner can read by sight the following words1 used on forms: first name, last name, city,

state.

5.1.3 Learner can read orally his/her own name andaddress.

5.\1.j4 Learner can read and mark appropriately on aform male/female, LE, Mr./Mrs./Ms./Miss.

51

\

5.1.5 Learner can read key survival words, i.e., MEN,WOMEN, BUS STOP, DON'T WALK, WALK, EXIT,ENTRANCE, DANGER, HOSPITAL, NO SMOKING.

5.1.6, Learner can read days of the week, months andtheir abbreviations.

5.1.7 If appropriate, learner read his/her busnumber and symbol.

1

5.1.8 Learner can read orally common sight wordsrelating to his/her oral vocabulary, e.g., what,

\ my, the, a, and.

6. Form 'Language

60' The adult learner will write basic numbers and wordsused in filling out forms.

6.1.1 Learner can copy hand-printed words from chalkboard and from a second sheet of paper.

6.1.2 Upon request learner can write the followingpersonal information: First name, last name,city, state, zip code, birthday, telephonenumber, social security number, alien registra-tion number, date.

6.10 Given a familiar form, learner can complete formwith correct personal information.

6.1.4 Learnex can complete post Office change-of-address card.

7. Spoken Language With Written Forms

7.1 The adult learner will associate spoken sent withwritten', sentence.

52

C P.41t-I

7.1.1 Given a sentence already known orally, learnercan recite sentence as he/she looks at writtensentence.

A

7.1.2 Given a question and answer on a "sentencestrip," learner can arrange strips in sequenceand can read sentence aloud.

7.2 The adult learner will associate spoken word with writ-ten word.

7.2.1 Given the words for, known sentence onflashcards, learner can arrange cards in propersequence and read words (sentence) aloud.

7.3 The adult learner will associate sound with letter.

7.3.1 Given word orally, learner can mark/point to'letter that begins that word.

7.3.2 Given word orally, learner can.write initialletter of that word.

7.3.3 Given consonant/vowel/consonant combination,learner can read word.

7.3.4 Given survival word in learner's vocabulary,learner can 'read word based on initial consonant

clue.

53

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Most documents identified by an ED number may_ be read on micro-fiche atan ERIC library collection or ordered from the ERIC

_Document Reproductioh Service, P.O. Box 190, Arlington, VA22210. Ordering information for all those ED-numbered documentsnot available directly through the ERIC system can be found inthe ERIC monthly abstract journal, Resources in Education.

Anders, Patricia A. 1981. Test review - Tests of functionalliteracy. Journal of Reading 24 (April): 612-19.

Anders briefly reviews five tests of functional literacythat are commercially available:

1) Reading/Everyday Activities in Life (R/EAL)2) Performance Assessment in Reading (PAIR)3) Senior High Assessment of Reading Performance (SHARP)4) Life Skills (Reading)

5) Minimal Essentials Test (MET)

Chu-chang, Mae. 1981. The dependency relation between orallanguage and reading in bi'ingual children. Journal ofEducation 163 (Winter): 30-55.

The literature reviewed includes studies of oral languageand reading in monolingual speakers, models of reading pro-cesses, phonological recoding as an intermediary process in

\ reading, studies in reading instruction for bilingualchildren, and the processing of dual languages_by bilingualspeakers. A model-of monolingual-versus bilingual readingis developed based on the review of literature. An experi-mental study by Chu-chang (1979) verifying the model is pre-sented. Implications of this model for reading instructionfor bilingual children and future research are discussed.

Colll.ns, Cathy. 1979. Criterion-referenced prereading skillstest to predict first grade reading eadiness and achieve-ment. Reading Improvement 16 (Fall): 182-89.

54

5

Examination of the predictive power of five specificprereading skills tests for first grade reading achievement,and assessment of their value as indicators of readingreadiness..

Durkin, Dolores. 1976. Strategies for identifying words.Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

A workbook for teachers and those who are preparing toteach. It is meant to be used by teachers who fel:1 unsureof what t) teach and deals with three areas:

1) Use of context2) Structural analysis3) Phonics

Feeley, Joan T. 197g. A workshop tried and true: Languageexperience for bilinguals. The Reading Teacher 33 (Octo-ber): 24-27.

The author describes a workshop in which she taughtbilillgual children to read using the language experienceapproach. She gives a step-by-step, very detailed descrip-tion of the technique as well as the rationale for theprocedute.

Fries, Charles C. 1963. Linguistics and reading. New York:Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

Fries presents a nontechnical descriptive survey of modernlinguistic knowledge, an analysis of the nature of thereading process in the light of that knowledge, and asomewhat detailed linguistic examination of the kinds ofmaterials to which the reader must develop high-speedrecognition responses.

Gans, Roma. 1964. Pact and fiction about phonics. New York:Bobbs-Merrill.

This book discusses the history of phonics and its use inteaching readiAlg. It presents the facts and fiction in aneasily read format.

Garland, Colden. 1978. Developing competence in teachingreading. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown.

55

GO

A compilation of modules that were originally one componentof the competency-based teacher education program of thedepartment of early childhood and elementary education,College of Education, Temple University. The original mod-ules were field tested and revised. The revisions are pre-sented in the book.

Gemake, Josephine S. 1979. A checklist for the readingteacher. Reading improvement 16 (Wint.r): 288-91.

The checklist was developed by reading teachers to be usedas an evaluation in visiting reading labs. The assessmentquestions reflect the ideas of reading teachers about theessentitl components of a remedial reading program.

Gipe, Joan P. 1980. Use of relevant context helps kids learnnew word meanings. The Reading Teacher 33 (January):398-402.

This study examines four techniques for teaching vocabularyand finds context to be the most successful.

Graham Janet R. 1980. Bilingual adult basic educationproject. Final report. Millersville, PA: MillersvilleState College. ED 195 724.

A description of a project that provided bilingual lifeskills instruction to approximately 150 non-iglish-dominantadults across Pennsylvania by means of contracts to localeducation agencies. Includes copies of English, Vietnamese,Spanish, Lao, and Cambodian versions of the APL NeedsAssessment Survey; English, Spanish, and Vietnamese versionsof APL pre- and post-tests; and Cambodian versions of fourpre-tests.

Gray, William S. 1961. The teaching of reading and writing.Chicago: Scott, Foresman.

Gray reviews prevailing practices, evaluates the efficacy ofmethods being employed, and sums up the results of researchand experience that have made significant contributions tothe subject area.

56 GI

GrOff, Patrick. 1980. Research versus the psycholinguisticapproach to beginning reading. The Elementary SchoolJournal 81 (September): 53-58.

The author discusses the different psycholinguisticapproaches to the study.of reading and settles on a'discussion of the pros and cons prOposed by Mary Melvin.

Gudschinsky, Sarah. 1962. Handbook of literacy. Summer Insti-tute of Linguistics, University of Oklahoma.

Ms. Gudschinsky is a well-known linguist with great experi-ence working with noaliterate populations around the world.This book deals primarily with native language literacyinstruction.

Hoffman, Stevie and H. Thompson Fillmer. 1979. Thought, lan-guage and reading readiness. The Reading Teacher 33(December)i 290-94.

The authors propose ,that language is a result of thought andthat it is the thinking process that should be motivated byconcrete experiences in beginning reading or readiness-activities.

International Reading Association Committee for Basic Educationand Reading. 1981. Checklist for evaluating adult basiceducation reading material. Journal of Reading 24 (May):701-6.

An extensive checklist accompanied by a quantitative evalu-ation formula and scale.

Joseph, Grace et al. 1975. A selected ERIC bibliography onteaching English as a second language to the illiterate.Arlington, VA: ERIC Clearinghouse on Languages andLinguistics. ED 105 779.

The 44 items cited here are grouped into four subsections:(1) teacher training (preservice and inservice); (2) pro-grams (descriptions, evaluations, rand related research);(3) instructional and resource materials; and (4) theory and

.methodology.

57

6')

Judd, Ronnie Dustin. 1955. Setting the stage for Johnny toreed. New York: Pageant Press.

This book outlines the reading readiness or prereadingstages of the reading process.

Kasworm, Carol E. and Buddy L. Lyle, eds. 1978. Competency-based adult education. Proceeding_ of a national invita-tional workshop (Austin, TX). Washington, DC: NationalAssociation' for Public Continuing and Adult Education;Austin: Texas Education Agency, Division of Adult andContinuing Education, UniversitS, of Texas. ED 174 765.

Lite cy education was one of the major topics of thiswork hop.

Korpi, Barbara, comp. 1979.

tional literacy in Northof North Dakota. ED 199

A bibliography intendedideas, and methods thatfunctionally literate.

Materials for teaching adult func-Dakota. Grand Forks: University479.

to help educators locate materials,will enable adults to become moreA special section is devoted to ESL.

Kottmeyer, William. 1974. Decoding and meaning. New York:McGraw -Hill.

This book is devoted to helping teachers master the ideas ofdecoding and comprehension and how they are related.

Lee, Dorris M. and R. V. Allen. 1963. Learning to read throughexperience. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.

The authors describe a plan for developing reading ability,as an integral part of the development of all communicationskills.

Lehr, Fran. 1981. Integrating reading and writing instruction.The Reading Teacher 34 (May): 958-61.

This article provOes teachers with a brief review of(1) research concerning the relationship between reading andwriting and (2) the teaching strategies suggested by thatresearch.

58

63

UEVin, A. Joyce. 1974. Classroom activities for encouragingreluctant readers. New York: The Center for AppliedResearch in Education.

A collection of activities that are intended to aid theteacher in setting a new environment fon.the reluctantreader so that he may gain confidence in reading, acquirenew skills in r4ding, and overcome his initial reluctance.

Mattran, Kenneth J. 1981. From illiteracy to literacy: A casestudy. Reading Psychology 2 (July): 165-72.

Describes acase study in adult literacy, including theinstructional method, in which a 57-year-old English-speaking immigrant woman who was illiterate was taught toread to a fourth-grade level in a relatively short period oftime.

McGee, Donna. 1978. Reading skills for basic literacy. TESLTalk 9 (1): 53-58:

ESL teaching procedures and activities are outlined forreinforcing the following reading skills: phoneticanalysis, structural analysis, sight words, use of contextclues, and comprehension.

Meltzer, Bernice. 1979. Uiing experience to teach readingskills to adults.. Journal of Reading 23 (December): 251-53.

An article that describes events from everyday life that maytbecome reading lessons,for ad It `students.

Mendoza, Amelia. 1979. pevelopi an ESOL curriculum.ED 191 604.

Prepared for instructors in ad at, literacy programs, thispaper summarizes a reading cut iculufi designed to meet theneeds of a predominantly Spani h-speaking community.Includes two bibliographies.

Misl, Alice, ed. 1958. Individualizing reading practices. NewYork: Columbia University Teachers College Press.

A collection of chapters written by teachers about theirexperiences in teaching readingr-experiences that revolve.

'around the process of individualizing reading.

59

a

Modiano, Nancy. 1968. National or mother tongue in beginningreading: a comparative study. Research in the Teaching ofEnglish 2 (Spring): 32-43.

Morris, Darrell and Edmund H. Henderson. 1981. Assessing theLeginning reader's 'concept of word.' Reading World 20(May): 279-85.

The writers desoribe a procedure for assessing a beginning,reader's knowledge of the spoken word/written word match inreading.

National Association, for Public Continuing and :Adult Education.1980. Proceeding of the 1980 National Competency Based 'Adult Education Conference (Orlando, FL). ED 204 602.

AMbng the topics covered are adult illiteracy in the U.S.,establishing competency -based ESL programs,-and a study ofadult learning_in nonschool settings.

Otto, Wayne and Robert D. Chester. 1976. ObjAtive-basedreading. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

. ,

This book is part of a system, developed to teach teachersand is used in conjunction with other materials (films,filmstrip's, video tapes) to enhance the teaching process.It is one 'segment in an individually guided educationseries..

Payne, Ryder and Frank.McTeague. 1976. Developing literacyskills in adolescents and adults. TESL Talk 7 (September):60-82.

This article provides teachers of adolescents and adultswith a number of instructional activities designed to de-velop basic literacy abilities.

Reifman, Betty, Ernest T. Pascarella and Ann Larson. 1981.Effects of word-bank instruction on sight word acquisition:An experimental note. The Journal of Educational Research74 (January/February): 175-78.

A description of a study of first grade readers using thelanguan experience approach and a supplemental word-bankactivity. The theoretical and classroom implications of theresults of the study are discussed.

60

Rivera, William, comp. Literacy in the 70s: An annotated bib-liography. Syracuse University Publications. ED 195 660.

This annotated bibliography contains books and periodicalson literacy as well as literature for newly literate per-sons. A special section is devoted to ESL. .

Ruddell Robert B., Evelyh J. Ahern, Eleanor K. Hartson and-JoEllyn Taylor. 1974. Resources in reading-languageinstruction. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hal1.0

A collection of current readings.

Schulwitz, Bonnie, ed. 1975. Tlachers, tangibles, techniques.Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

A compilation of papers from the Denver and Atlantic Cityconventions of the Intethational Reading Association.

,

Singer, Harry and Robert B. Ruddell, eds. 1970. Theoreticalmodels and processes of reading. Newark, DE: InternationalReading Association.

Six papers read at a symposium held ih Kansas City in 1969treat the linguistic, perceptual, and cognitive componentsinvolved in reading. t. second part of the volume in udes.published papers on theories and processes of readin p

Smitn, Frank. 1979. Reading without nonsense. New York:Columbia University Teacher's College Press.

This book focuses on,., the nature of reading. The author'smessage is that concern should change from what teachesshould do (in reading, instruction) to what teachers shouldknow (about the nature of language-- including the readingprocess).

Strauch, Ann1166fialle. 1978. Methods and iaterials for ESL'literacy. Los Angeles: University of California.

A master'd degree thesis that examines methods and materialsfor reading and writing as well as a thorough description ofexisting literary training programs.

1

61 4.4

p

Thonis, Eleanor Wall. 1970. Teaching reading to non-Englishspeakers. New York: Collier Macmillan.

The author discusses different approaches to teachingreading in the vernacular as well as teaching reading tonon-English speakers.. There is a special section on theunique problem of the limited Eng)'sh-speaking adult.

Thorndlxe, Robert L. 1973. Reading comprehension education infifteen countries. New York: 'John Wiley.

A report of a study of reading instruction in fifteen coun-tries. The writer describes in detail the study hypotheses,instruments, and concldsions.

.Wheat, Thomas E.,_Nancy R. Galen and Molly Norwood. 1979.Initial reading experiences for linguistically diverselearners.' The Reading Teacher 33. (October): 29 -31.

The authors urge teachers to acknowledge the student's lan-guage as useful and worthwhile. At the same time, theyencourage teachers to allow students to become accustomed towritten textbook language.

White, David E. 1980. Language experience: Sources of informa-tion. Laliguage Arts (November/December): 888-89. .

10

A bibliography of current articles and books about languageexperience.

fct

62

4

WAYNE W. HAVERSON (Ed.D., University of Northern CoLrado),assistant professor of adult education, Oregon State University,is. the staff development coordinator of the Oregon RefugeeVocational ESL Program. He is also a member of the networkstaff of the Language and Orientation Resource Center of theCenter for Applied Linguistics. Dr.. Haverson is the author ofAmerican English for Success (University of Northern Colorado,1975) and co-author, with Judith Haynes, of then ModulearnLiteracy Training Program (Modulearn, 1980). In addition, he

contributing, author to the Indochinese Refugee EducationGuide, Adult Education Series #9 (Center for Applied Linguis-tics, 1981), and TheAnn and Ben Listening Comprehension Test(Oregon State University, 1980).'

1JUDITH L. HAYNES (Ed.D., Oregon State University), researchtaosistant in adult education, Oregon State University, astaff development coordinator of the adult basic education pro-gram for the state of Oregon. She was the coordinator of theD.E.,L.I.V.E.R.S. project for the state of Oregon in 1978-79, andhas authored several including the Modulearn LiteracyTraining Program- (with Wayne Haverson)..

es

,

4

LANGUAGE IN EDUCATION: THEORY AND PRACTICE

The Langua0mItn Education series can be purchased by volume or byindividual titles. The subscription rate is $32.00 per volumefor Volumes 1 and 2; $37.00 for Volume 3; $47.00 for Volume 4;and $45.50 for Volume 5.' Add /$1.50 postage and handling charges '

for individual orders. ALL ORDERS MUST BE PREPAID. To subscribeto the complete series of publications, write to:

Center for Applied' Linguistics

'Box 4866, Hampden StationBaltimore MD 21211

Billow is a selected list of series titles:

Voluble 1 (1977-78)

2. The Linguist in Speech Pathology, by Walt Wolfram. $2.95.ED 153 504

3. Graduate Theses at ,ssertations in English as a SecondLanguage: 1976-77, by Stepl*n Cooper. $2.95. ED 153 505

4. Code Switching and the Classkoom Teacher, by GuadalupeVald4s-Fallis. $2.95. ..ED 153 506\

5. Current Approaches to the TedChing of Grammar in ESL, by

6. From the Community to the Cla sroom: Gathering Second-David M. Davidson. $2.95. 154 620

Language Speech Samples, by Barbara F. Freed. $2.95.ED 157 404

. Teacher Talk: Language in the lassroom, by Shirley B. Heath.$2.95. ED 158 575..

10. Language and Linguistics: Base for a Curriculum, by Julia S.Falk. $2.95. ED 158 576

Vold e 2 (1978-79)

14. Problems and Teaching Strate i s in ESL Composition, by AnnRAimes. $2.95. ED 175 243

15. Graduate Theses and Dissertations in English \as a Second Lan-guage: 1977-78, by Stephen Cooper. $2.95. ED 175 244

16. Foreign Languages, English as a Second/Foreign Language, andthe U.S. Multinational Corporation, by Marianne Inman.$4.95. ED 179 089 I

21. Chicano English, by Allan A. Metcalf. $2.95. ED 176 591

22. Adult Vocational ESL, by Jo Ann Crandall. $5.95. ED 176 592

Volume 3 (1979-80) 4

23. A Linguistic Guide to English Proficiency Testing in Schools,by Thomas G. Dieterich and Cecilia Freeman. $5.95.ED 181 746

24. Testing in Foreign Languages, ESL, and Bilingual Education,1966-1979: A Select, Annotated ERIC Bibliography, compiled byDale L. Lange an Ray T. Clifford. $7.95. ED 183 027

27. Graduate Theses and Dissertations in English as a SecondLanguage: 1978-79, by Stephen Cooper. $2.95. ED 193 973

Volume 4 (1980-81)

3. ESL Theses and Dissertations: 1979-80, by Stephen Cooper./$3.25. ED 208 673

37. Discourse Analysis and Second Language Teaching, by Claire' J.Kramsch. $7.00. ED 208 675

38. Teaching Conversation Skills in ESL, by Ronald D. Eckard andMary Ann Kearny. $4.50. ED. 208 676

41. Needs Assessment in ESL, by Thomas Buckingham. $4.00.ED 208 679

42. Indochinese Students in U.S. Schools: A Guide for Administra/-tori. Language and Orientation Resource Center, CAL. S7.00.ED 1 208 680

Volumei5 (1981-82)

45. Teaching the Non-Englit,h-Spe king Child: Grades K-2, by MaryAshworth and Patricia Wakefield. $5.75.

46. ESL/Coping Skills for Adult, Learners, by Ellen D. Vaut.$5:00. I .

)/47. Childrdn's Second Language (Larning, by Barry McLaughlin.

$7.00. :1 /

48. Creative Activities for the Second Language Classroom, byDine W. Birckbichler. $8.95. /

)

49. ESL Literacy for Adult Learners, by Wayne W. Haverson, andJu ith.L. Haynes. $6.00 I I

e ,

li I

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