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Physical and Life Scientists. Bulletin 2205-5.Bureau of labor Statistics (DOL), Washington, D.C.84,

13p.; Reprinted from the Occupational OutlookHandbook, 1984-85 Edition. For earlier edition, seeED 158 125.Superintends of Documents, U.S. Governmenr-OrintingOffice, Washahton, DC 20402.Reports - Desc-iptive (141) -- Guides -.General (050)

MF01/PC01 Plus Postage.Agriculture; *!3iological Sciences; Chemistry;Conservation (Environment); Employment; *EmploymentQualifications; Forestry; Geology; Geophysics;Meteorology; * Occupational Information; *PhysicalSciences; Physics; *Science Careers; *Scientists;Secondary Education; Secondary School Science

ABSTRACTThis document provides information about careers in

the agricultural sciences, the biological sciences,,,chemistry,forestry and conservation, geology and geophysics, meteorology, andphysics. The information, presented in separate sections for each ofthese disciplines, includes: (1) nature of the work performed by -

'scientists in,the discipline(s); working conditions; (3)employment; (4) training,- other qualifications, and advancementopportunities; (5.) job outlook; (6) earnings; (7) relatedoccupations; and (13) sources of additional information. (JN)

**************************************+******************************Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made

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Agncultural Scientists'tn 01 040 9.4 mo. 014. o1K. onl. 042. act -094.1141 IIFt 11l4. lie. Ana .2i

Nature el the %WykThe work done by agnculturar scientists hasplayed an important pan in mak mericanfaun workers the must prodthaiveWorkers in the world Agricultural scientistsstudy farm crops and animals and develop wasof improving their quantity and quality. Theyhsik for ways to increase yields with less labor.control pests and needs more effectively. andconserve sod and wallet Agricultural science isclosely related to biological science in that bothinvolve the study of living organisms; agri-cultural scientists then apply this knowledge tosolving practical problems in agriculture.

About 40 percent of all agricultural scientistsmanage or administer research and develop-ment project4 or =tilting or production oper-ations in companies that produce agriculturalchemicals or machinery. About 20 percent do,research and development. Some spend most oftheir time in laboratories. but some in researchand development spend much of their timeworking with plants and animals In the field.Some agricultural scientists teach in collegesand universities and others work as consultantsto business firms or to government.

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-Agricuhural scientists usually specialize inone of the following areas. Agronomists(D.O.T. 040,0614)10) are concerned with thegrowth and improvement of field crops. Theyimprove the quality and yield of crops such ascern, wheat. and cotton by develpping newgrowth methods or by controlling diseases,pests. and weeds. Some agronomists may spe-cialize in a particular crop or crop problem.

Animal scientifis (D.O.T. 040.061-014) doresearch on the breeding. feeding. and diseasesof domestic farm animals.

Pairs scientists (D.O.T. 040.0614)181 andPoultry scientists (6.0.1. 040.061-042) con-duct research on the breeding. feeding, endmanagement of-dairy cattle and poultry.

Horricsdruzists (D.O.T. 040.061-038) workwith orchard and garden plants such as fruit and-nut trees. vegetables. and flowers. They seek toimprove plant culture methods for the beau-tification of communities. homes. parks. andother areas as well as for increasing crop qualityand yields. ere.

Soil scientists (D.O.T. 040.061-058) studysoil characteristics, map soil.aypes, and deter-mine the best types of crops for each soil. Theystudy the responses of various types of soils tofertilizers. tillage practices. atop rotation. andother actions which affect the soil.

Animal breeders (D.O.T. 041.08M14) andplant breeders (D.O.T. 041.0614M2) developsystem!, of breeding to develop and improvedesirable characteristks of animals and plants.

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Agricultural scientists examine a developed variety Of ?Thum,-

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kilt athirists 11).0.T. 0410614)18i -,turfythe culture and breeding of bees.

Working ConditionsAgricultural scientists generally work regularhours in offices, 1.shoratories, or classrooms.Some agric:ultural scientists spend much timeouts pors conductir g research on farms or agri-cultural research stations.

EmPleYMentApricuhural scientists held about 2208) jobsin 1982. In addition, Ma I SAM persons held

agricultural science faculty positions in colleges and universities in 1982 (See the state-ment on college and university facultyelsesvheart.in the Handbook.)

Almost half of all agricultural scientists workfor Federal. State. or local governments. Al-niost 3.000 worked for the Federalritivernmentin 1982. mostly in the Papariment of Agri-culture. Large numbers worked for Stote gov-ernments at State agricultural colleges or agri-cultural research stations. Almost It) pereem ofall agricultural scientists work for agriculturalservice companies; others work tar fertilizercompanies, seed companies. and wholesaledistribution companies.- Over 2.0(h) egretcultural scientists were sell - employed in 1982.mainly as consultants.

.Matting, Other Qualilicathaie. and .

AdvancementTraining requirements for agricultural scientistsdepend on the specialty and the type ti workperformed. A Ph..14 degree in an agriculturalscience specialty is usually required for collegeteaching. iqdepentient research, and for ad-vancement to many administrati.e and man-agement jobs. A master's degree is sufficientfor some jobs in applied research. The bach-elor's degree is adequate preparation for somejobs in sales. inspection. and other niantesearrhattics. in some cases. promotions may belimited for those who hold no higher degree.Those who hold degrees in related sciencessuch as biology. chemistry. or physics alsi mayenter some agricultural science jobs.

All States have at least one land-grant collegewhich offers tagricuhural scenes curriculums.Many other colleges and universities also offersome kind of agricultuial science courses.Since some schools may not offer all spe-deltic's. students should invedigate carefullythe course offerings tot the school, they 'areconsidering. Requirements tor advanced de-grees usually include fieldwork and laboratoryresearch as well as classroom studies and prepa-ration of a thesis based on independent re-search.

Agricultural scicnti:. ts shi)uld be able to workindependently or as part .4. team and must beable to communicate their told ngs clearly andconcisely. both orally and to run:.

Agricultural scientists solo ',aye advanceddegrees usually begin in research or teachingjobs. With elipenence. the:. mas advance tojobs such as supervisors of fcscari.t nrotsfrm

Job OutlookEmployment of agricultural scientists is ex-pectztl to gross. more slowly than the mei sec for

Fur vale by the gupefintenitent et Doeuniente, U.R. Clorenuilent Printing OfileeW1112b1haten. soot 3

all occupations through the mid, lAM's. Many:agricultural scientists work tor federal. State.

4in local governments %hoc tittle mph isinentgrowth isespet.led Emplo ment ors agrtc ulturalscientists int-inked in research may growrapidly in prat atc initistr) as adsancs such astecomhtnant RNA now being made mtechnology ale applied agriculture. In al.::non to Jobs arising from growth in demand foragricultural scientists. lob openings w ill occuras agricultural scientists transfer to other ocupatiimix, refire. tit die

I.mploy mem opportunities in agriculturalsi:lenve are e'pected to he Inciter tor those withadvanced degrees Howe% et, a bachelor's de-gree in agricultural science is useful for ecupateems such as tamer or fano manqet, cooper-ante extensioa sersice worker. technician. orseed or tersiliter company sales representative.Persons with degrees in agneyltural sciencealso wtirk for businesses that deal with farmerssuch as hanks and farm equipment manufae-turers

EarningAccording to the College Placement Council.beginning salary titters for agricultural scienfists with the bachelor s degree as eragedS1b.74X1 :t year in 19X2.

In the Federal Ciovernment in earls I9N.A.

agneulfUral scientists with a bachelor's degreecoLd start at $13..1b9 or %lb.:1059 a year. de-pending on their college records. Those havingthe master's degree could start at Slb.559 ur$20.25b. depending on their academic recordsor work expertence; and those having the Ph.D.degree could begin 'at $24.508 or $29.374 ayear. Apricultdral scientists in the Federal (lot.,ernment averaged about $2S,000 a year inI482

Related OccupationsThe work of agricultural scientists is otiose l)related to that of biologists as well as to othernatural scientists such as chemists and phys-icists. It is also related to agricultural produc-non occupations such as farmer and farm manarc! and to cooperative extehsion serviceworkers as well as to forester. and conservationscientists. Certain specialties of agricultural.ounce are also related to other occupations.For example. animal scientists are related. toveterinarians. horticulturists to landscape architects. and soil scientists to soil conservatinusts.

Source of Additional InformationInformation on i.arers in agricultural science is.itailahle lion)

Higher I.duLation hog rains.SLIA S DC114fitliCfn

isiratikin 1-4ih Si and Ihdrpoidcr.e AteSW . Washingtim.'n C 20250

Anieneati t177 S ;sego,. Rd

Madison, Skis S 1 7 1 {

Crop St tence Sts tots at Amen,. 677 S tie} Jets lid .

Madison. Wis 51711

Soil Scierke So. iki ti 7.7 S Segue Rd .

Madison, Wis s 471

hit on careers in horowituralsOlid stamped, self addiessel#en1e

lope to.

American Som) 1,11 e. 701

North Saint Asaph St Atetandria, 21414

IntOtillation on Federal lob opportunities isatailable from focal offices of Stair employ-ment %en leet and the U.S. Office of PersonnelManagement or from Federal,Job InformaitonCenters located. in tatious ltge ittiesthroughout the country.

Biological Scientists100 r 04I Irhr. ek.tr 01.3. 0014, (17b, 1NJ. oar070. 1174. 0142. 41111 ii41t. and 00

Nature of the VVOrkBiological scientists study all aspects in lit mgorganisms and the relationship of animals andplants to their environment Although manyspecialise in some area such as ornithology ;thestudy ot birds) or imerbiology ithe studs ofmicroscopic organisms). all hate in commonthe study of lite.

Many biological scientists are primatil rn

volved in research and development Some. conduct basic research to increase knowledge

of livin organisms. Others in applied researchuse this *knowledge in Jetty mes such as des-eloping new medicines. increasing cropyields. and imprint inc the environment. Thoseworking in laboratories must he familiar withresearch techniques and the use of laboratoryequipment and computers. Not all research.however. is performed in Ilhoratones hir esample. a botanist may do research in the vol,canic valleys of Alaska to see what plants growthere.

Other biological scientists work in manage.rent tir administration. for example plann: igand administering programs for testing foodsand drugs and directing activities at Joins or,botanical garden+. Some work as consultants tobusiness firms or to government, while otherstest and inspect foods, drug+. and ahem proofnets or write for technical publications. (See thestatement tin technicauriters elsewhere in theHandinook.) Some work in techincal sales andservice fobs for companies manufacturingchemicals or other technical products. (See thestatements on manufacturers' sales reir*sen-tatives and wholesale trade sales Wotli.erselsewhere in the Handbool

Most hiologieal scientists who come underthe broad category of bio/oero IDA) 1(91.061.0:R)i arc further classified by the typeof organism they Vfialy or by the specific :te-nsity they perform.

Anatomists 041.061-010) stu 'y andesainine the structure of organisms. from cellstructure to the fonnann of tissues and organs.Many' specialue in human anatomy. Researchmethods may entail dissections or the use ofelectron microscopes.

Boraniris (D.QT. 041.061- 013Xt dial pri-marily with plants and their environmentSome study all aspects of plant hie. while oth-ers specialize in areas such as identification and

Biological scientists study living organisms andlife processes

classification of plants. the structure and func-tion of %aunts plant parts. and the causes andcur..., of plafi't diseases

brtbrso/ogists stud) the detdopment of ananimal from a fertilized egg through the hatch -tug process or birth, and the causes of healthyand abnormal development

robiologist% ID .0.T. (141.0161 058i in-xestigate the growth and characteristics of ttu-croscopic organisms such as bacteria. viruses.and molds. *theca nth tobtalogivA study therelationship between bacteria and disease or theeffect of antibiotics on bacteria. Other micro-biologists specialize in soil bacteriology (theeffect of microorganisms on soil fertility ). viro-logy (sit-uses). or immunology !mechanismsthat tight infections).

Pharmacologists ID UT 11-41.0t, .074?'andtom ologusts conduct test on animals such asrats, guinea pigs. and monkey s to determine theeffects of drugs. gases. poisons. dusts, andother substances inn the functioning of tissuesand organs. Phariavologists Ina) de%elop newor improved drugs and medicines

Phs iD .0 1 041 .0bI -07X) studylife functions of plants and animals under nor-mal and abnormal conditions Physiologistsmay specialize in functions such as growth.reproduetion, photosynthesis. respiration. ormovement. or in the ph) siolopy of a certainarea or system of the hotly

bniifireith (110,1 . (541 Oft 1 ISM) study vanoils aspects of animals their origin. bchas tor.diseases. and hie processes Some eer:monwith live animals in controlled or natural %tic.roundings while others dissect dead animals tostuds their structure 7oologists are usuallyidentified by the animal group studied ornithologists thirds entomologists (insects%mammaiogists I mammals,. herpetologists(reptiles). and ichthyologists ;fishy

Some mologleal scientists apply their knowl-edge actoss a number of areas and nias beclassified by the functions pertormed fa oiogita. for example. study the relationship be-tween organisms and their environments andthe effects of influences such as pollutants.

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sainfall. temperature. and altitude on organ-isms . For example, ecologists examineplankton imictoscopic water plants, and am-

: Iasi and measure the radioactive -content ofto determine the effects of pollution.

Agricultural scientists: who may also beclassified as biological scientists. are includedin a separate statement elsewhere in the Hand-kook .

Working ConditionsBiological scientists generally work regularhours 'in offices. laboratories. or classroomsand usually' are not exposed to unsafe or un-healthy conditions. Some biological scientistssuch as botanists. ecologists, and zoologistsmay take field trips which involve strenuousphysical afitisrity and primitive living condifirms.

1...riploymentBiological scientists held about 52.00 jobs in19)42. In addition. an -almost equal number ofpersons held biology faculty positions in col-leges and universities.. (See the statement oncollege and university faulty elsewhere in theHaratif, Poi, .1

About 14.1XIO biological scientists worked

offer all curriculums: Requirements for ad-vanced degrees usually include fieldwork andlaboratory researct as well as classroom studiesand preparation of a thesis. Biological scientistswtfo have advanced degrees usually begin inresearch or teaching jobs. With 'experience.they may advance to jobs such as supervisors ofresearch Programs.

Prospective biological scientists should heable to work Mt:pendently or as pan of a teamand must he able to communicate their findingsclearly antEconcisely. both orally and in writ-mg. Biological scientists conducting field re-search in remote areal. rillust have physicalstamina.

Job,. Outlook .

Employment of biological scientists is expectedto increase faster than the average for all occupations through the mid - 1990's due to recentadvances in genetic research that should resultin now ijiugs, improved plants, and medicaldiscoveries. Advances in biological technology

"shouldiesult in many additional research jobsfor biological scientists in private industry: ad-ditional jobs' arc likely to he created by theproduction. by biological methods, of products,which are presently produced by chemical or

tor the Federal Govemment m 1982. Over one- other methods. EttOrts to preserve the environ-quarter worked for the Department of Ago- mem should also result in additional employculture. and about one -fifth isorkeettOr the Na-tional Institutes of Health. Large numbers -o

were employed by the Department of the ii4e-nor and the Defense l)epantment. State andloi. al gust:nu/lents combined cniployed about8.3tX),

Over 12.000 worked in prwate industry..mostly, is the .phamiirceutical. chemical. food.and agricultural sr1; ices industries in 1982.About 4.(K1 worked tor nonprofit research or-gam/anon% and foundations: a feu were self-employed .

Training. Other Qualifications:andAdvancementThe Ph D. degree generally is required for col .lege teaching. independent research, and foradvancement to administrative research posi-Mins and other management jobs. A master'sdegree is sufficient, for some jobs in appliedresearch The bachelor's degree is adequatepreparation for some beginning iobs. but pro-motions often are limited for those who hold nohigher degree New graduates with a bachelor'sdegree can start their careers in testing andinspecting lobs. or become technical sales andservice representatives. They also can bCcomesenior biology technicians. medical labratorctechnologists and tecimicians or. with coursesin education. high school biology teachers.iSee the statement on'secondary school teach-ers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Man). with abachelors degree in biolpgy enter medical. dental, veterinary, or other health professsonschools. Some enter a wide range of occuationswith little or no connection to biology.

Most colleges and universities offer bach-elr's degrees in biological science and many.advanced degrees. Cumcultims for advanceddegrees in biological slerice often emphasiteparticular area of biological science such asmicrobiology or botany, Not all universities

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rent opportunities. In addition to jobs arisingfrom growth in demand for biological scien-tists, jcth openings Will occur ,i4onie. biolog-kal scientists transfer to other occuptions. re-tir. or die.

Employment opportunities for biologicalscientists are expected to be better for thosewith advanced degrees since most new fobs w illbe research oriented. hrthenn ore. the employ-ment outlook will vary by specialty. Those whohave the ability to do research in :Innis related tothe genetic, cellular. and biochemical areas ofbiology should experience better employmentopportunities than those in other specialties.However. many persons with a bachelor's degree in biological science find jobs in occupa-tions such as science or engineering tee-nicians'or medical laboratory technologists. Some be-conic high school biology teachers. However.they are usually regarded as teachers rather thanbiologists. (See the statement on secondaryschool teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.)Others enter a wide range of occupations withlittle or no connection to biology.

Biological scientists rarely lose their lobsduring recessions, since most are employed onlong-term research projects or in agriculture,activities which are not much affected eco-

nomic* fluctuations.

EarningsAccording to the College Placement Council,beginning salary offers in pnvatc industry in1982 averaged Slb.5(K) a year for bachelor'sdegree recipients anti $17.000 a year for mas-ter's degree recipients n biological science.

In the Federal Government in early 1983.biological scientists having a bachelor's degreecould begin at 513..4x9 o SIn.3,59 a year. de-pending on their college records. Those havingthe master's degree could start at $16.5.59 or$20,25b, depending on their academic records

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or work experience: thta,e having the Ph.D.degree could begin at $24.508 or $29,374 ayear, Biological scientists in the Federal Chic-ernment averaged $31..900 A year in 1982.

Related OccupationsMany occupations are related in some way tobiological scientists since they deal with jivingorganisms. The* include the conservation oc-cupations of foresters. forestry technicians,range panarigers, and soil conservationists. aswell as agricultural scientists, biochemists, soilscientists, oceanographers, and life, sciencetechmciaps. The wide array of health occupa-tions are all related to those in the biologicalsciences, as are occupations dealing with rais-ing pkints and animals such as fanners and farmworkers: florists, and nursery workers.

Sources at' Additional informationGeneral information on careers in biologicalscience , available from:

American Institute of Biological Sciences 14(11

Wilson Boulevard. Arlingion. Vu. 22209.

Amencan Physiological Society. liducatin9650 Rockville Pike. Bethesitii. Md 20814.

Dr. Carol C. Baskin. S.7crelary. botanical Sociely ofAmerica. School of Biological S43CIItC%. Universityof kentueky. Lexington. Kr 40506

American SOCItly tff Zoologists. PO /fox 27Pr.California Lutheran t'ollege. Thousand Oaks. Calif913tiO

For information on careers in horticulturalscience. send a stamped. self-addressed envel-ope to

Arneritan iet tut Horticultural Science. 7(i(North Saint Asaph St . Alexandria. Va. 22314

IntOrmation on Federal lob opportunities isavailable from local offices of State emplo-meat services and the 1.1.S. Office of Personnel'lanagement optroni Federal Job Information(-enters located in carious large citiesthrouthout the country.

Chemistsat (IT 0111 cord 1)14 4'104, ihi tilts. Jthi041 oto-y2to

Nature of the WorkThe clothes, we wear. the foods we cat. thehouses in which we live in fact. most thingsthat help make our lives better. from medicalcare to a eleaties errs tit/non:id result, in partfrom the work done by chemists.

Chemists s'earchlor and put to practical usenew knowledge about sabstances. their re-search has resulted in the development of atremendous variety of synthetic materials.,suchas nylon and polyester fabrics. and processewhich help save energy and reduce pollution.such as improved oil refining methods. Re%cart on the chemis; y of living thingsprovides the hasp, for advances in medicine.agriculture, and other areas

Over WI percent of all chemists work in re-search and developmen.. In basic research.

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chemists investigate the properties. composi-tion, and struciure of matter and the laws thatgovern the combinatnin of elements and reac-tions of substances. In applied research anddevelopment. they create new products or lin-xove existing ones.,often using. knowledgegained from basic research. For example. syn-thetic rubber and plastics haw resulted fromresearch on small molecules uniting to farmlarger ones (polymerization).

The process 4 developing a product begins;;with descriptions of the charaeterita its it should .have. If similar produeta exist. ibeniksts testsamples to determine their ingredienty. If no

- such product exists. chemists experiment withvarious substances. to develop a product withthe A-guild specifications .

About 10 percent of all chemists work inproduction and inspection. In production.chemists Impale. instna-tions (batch Awes) forplant workers that specify the kind and amountof ingtedivads to use and the exact mixing timefor each sta0 in the process or monitor auto-mated pne-esses to ensure proper prodtallyiekland quality. At each step. samples are tested forquality control to meet industry and govern-ment standards. Chemists keep records andprepare natorts showing results 4 tests. Otherswork as marketing or sales representativeswhere they sell and pnwide technical informa-tion on chemical products.

Chemists often specialize in a subfield ofchemistry. Analytical chemists determine thestructure. comp ositkin. and nature of sub-stances. and develop new analytical tech-niques. An outstanding example of the ca-pabilities of this specialty was the analysis ofMoon rocks by an international team of ma-lytical chemists. Biochemists study the chemi-cal comprisition fife living things. They try tounderstand the complex chemical cornhiirai ionsand reactions involved in reproduction.growth. and heredity. Recent advances in bio-chemistry have resulted in the discovery ofmany of the mechanisms of reproduction andheredity. including how to splice genes to tech-nique called reeombmant MAL These discov-eries will probably lead to major advances inMedicine and to the development of rim pant-nos and production processes. Organic hem-ists study the chemistry at carbon compounds.When combined' with other elements. carbonform, a cast number of substances. Many mod:,ern commercial products. including drugs.plastics. and Aber synthetics. have resultedfrom the work of organic chemists. Inorganicchemists study compound, other than carbon.They may. for example. develop materials forelectronic components. Physical chemistsstudy the physical characteristics of atoms andmolecules and investigate how chemical reac-tions work. This research may result in new andbeater enerey. sources.

Working ConditionsChemists usually work regular hours in officesand laboratories. Some are exposed to health orsafety hazards when handling certain chernicats. but there is little risk if proper proceduresare followed..

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Chemists with a bachelor's degree lien get jobs analyzing or testing products or assisting seniorchemists In research and development laboratones.

EntidoymentChemists held about RYAN) rids in 198,2. Al-most tivo-thirds Of all chemists work form:m-urmuring firms about one -halt of these arc in,tie chemical manufacturing industry: the restare scattetvd throughout other manufacturingindustries. Chemists also work for Suite andlocal governments. primarily in health and agn-COM. and for Fdesal agencies. itiedy theDepartments of Defense. Health and HumanResources. and Agriculture. Smalkr numberswork for nonprofit research orgameatione 'Inaddition, about 19.000 persons held chemistryfaculty positions in colleges and universtties to19142. (See the statement on college and um versit,' faculty elsewhere in the HondhitA.

Chemists arc employed in all parts of thecountry. but they are concentrated in large in-dustrial areas

'fraining. Other Qualifications, andAdvantementA bachelor's degree with a major in chemistryor a related discipline is sufficient for man)begin/ling jobs as a chemist. However, graduatetraining is required for most research nibs. andmost college teaching jobs require a Ph.D. de-

gree. Beginning chemists should have a broadtriceniund in uhemistry with good laboratoryskills.

Many colleges and universities oiler a bath.elor's degree program in chemistry. About 350are approved by the American Chenucal So-ciety. In addition to required 4:0111-ses in ana-lytical. inorganic. organic. and physical chm-istry. undergraduates usually study mathe-matics. physics. and liberal arts.

Several hundred coney,- and universitiesaward advanced degrees in nom soy . tirailuate

students generally sp cutlet in a subfield ofchenushy. Requirements for the master's anddoctor's degree usually include a thesis basedon independent research.

Students planning careers as chemist: shouldennw studying science and mathematics. andshould like working a nth their hands buildingscientific apparatus and performing exist:h

. meets Perseverance and the ability to concen-trate on detail and to work independently are

' essen(ul Other assets include an inquisitivemind and imagination.

Craduates with the bac'helor's degree getter.ally begin their careers in gowinnall: o r indus-try by analysing or testing products. working in

technical salts .Cfp:L . or assisting semorchemists in research and des ch mment lab( irato-'ties. Sonic ill entry evil positions are consid-ered chenust's, others arc CorNtleredchemical technicians Employers may havetraining and orientation programs whichprtyvitie special knots ledge needed tot the' em-ployet% type of %Lurk ('alutidatcs tor an ad-vanced degree often tca4.11 or do research ancolleges and universine. while workinelowardtheir degrees . .

lieginnimacacmists :ill flat fluster'. degreecan usually teach in a 2 y CM college or go Imoapplied research in g nernincilt or private indusny. .1 he Ph I). generally Is requited forbasic research. 14.3-year college poseturns. and 14 ad:amonent to mans admin-

istrative positionsMany people aim a haihetor. degree m

chemistry also enter a vc idc tange art i!ccupanon, with belle or no LOilneition to choruorSome enter Medical. denial. veterinary. orother-health profession schools

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Job (okFnipkitnent '4 eheinrts is rpecwd to growtiiit as tst as the tlage tin all ticeupaftons

through (w ninl "J'0's in addition to jobsarising from rnjsed demand tot chemists.many openings will resuft ch aras chemiststraaster It) other ticcupatums. retire, or die.

Tbe majority of job openings are pect..J tohe in private indusu-. primarily in the develop-lkflt ot new pnkIUCIS. In addition. industhalcompanies will need more chemistscspeciall) biichemisis--*o do hi*echnology re-seanh and to desdop piudui.ts and pnidutiiunproci ses arising from this neareh.

Lmk growth in the employment ill chemis-Ii laculty in cilkges and unversatics Is es-peet&'il.

('hemistr graduates may become highschor td(rs. However. they usually are thcnregarded as science tcaehcrs nultier than diemisis. Others mas qujlity as engineers. Cs-

pecialk ii thes base takcn some courses inefigUietflflg (SiX statemtliIs On secondarysdiiiol Wahers and engineers clew-here in theHandb,io

EarningsAccording to the Colke laccnwnt Council.chemists vuh the b s degree itrc of-kiçd starting saiarics .iscr 'ng S2 I .0(X) a yearin I9t2; thoc ith the mastcrs degree.S23.$00: and thosc with the Phil.

According to the Awerican Chemical So-cicty. salaries of espertenced chemists in pri-vaiC industry having a bacheksr's degree aver-aged S2l&tWN) a sear in 19)t2; for those with amaster's dcgrec. S3.(KK); and ltw those with aPhi).. S42.U0(.

t)cpendmg on a person's college record. theannual starling salar) in the federal Cloven-ment in early t91 for an ineiipenenccd diem1st with a bhelor\ degree was either $13.3o9or SIh.9. Those who had 2 years of graduatestudy could begin at S20.2b a year. Chemistshaving the Phi) degree could start at $24.St114tw 29.374. The average salajy for all chemistsin the Eçderal Government in 19X2 was

a year.

Related ()ceupatlons

The wont of chemical engineers, oixupalionalsaicty, and health workers. agricultural scien-tists. biological scientists, and chemical 'echni-ciins is closely rclatcd to thc work done bychemists. Many manufacturers' sale,.s rcpiscn-.talives and wholesale trade sales workers inchemical marketing use a knowledge of chem-istry in their work. as do many technical writ-ers. The work of other physical arid life scienceoccupations ma also be similar to that ofchemists.

Sources of Additional informationGeneral r'formation on career opportunitiesand earnings for chemists is available from,

American ('berrncal Snciet. ll 1(5th Si NW.

W.ishuiiglon. I) C i.ti

information tin caleers ii, biochemistry is

asailablc from;

Arneritan St'tii *4 Hitiiogial ('hcniisls. iI(I

kks,lk Pih. Hvthe'wlAl, Md 1X)l4.

6

lnhwmanim on h*rui job oppohlunhtIes isavailable frsin kcal t4bces of State employ-ment services and the U.S. Otbec ofManagenieni or from Federal Job- lufonnat 'onCcnlers kicated in various large citiesthroughout the cuntry

Foresters andConservationists*1) UT t44O1W,i-4Il -044. -114& -0511. -iIc4. .inJ trn2.

itJ It,7-U22. mI 4i 117-01(1,

Nidnrv of 11* WorkForests and range lands serve a sanely of needs:They provide hbitats for wildlife. scre as sitesfor recreational ieEis-iIies. and suppi lumber.minerals, and water. foresters and con-servationists manac. develop, and help protectthese and other natural esnurces

Fwrers plan and supervise the growing.prolecran. and harvesting f trees. hey mapforest areas. estimate the amount of standingtimber and future growth. ad manage timbersalc. Foresters 3154) protect the trees from tire.harmful insects, anti disease. Some forestersalso pn*cct wildlife and manage watersheds;develop and supervise dimps. parks. and grai-iug lands. and do research. Foresters in esien-sloii Work i)Iosltk inturinafton 11) f()flS1 LW. flCls

and to the general puhlls.Range manage's. also called r:nga' inn-

wrnitumtst.s. range' r* -tile 'gist or iang' Se -sen -

this, manage. imprinc. and pI-t*cel rangelandsto niasimii'e their use without damaging thecnvicmmcnt. Rang4mds cover more than Ibillion acres't4 thc United Statcs. mostly in theWestern Slates and Alaska. Thes contain manyuatural resources: Grass and shnibs for animalgrazing. wildlife habitats, waler tninr vast Wa-tersheds. recrealitin lAciliti's. and valuablemineral and energy resources. Rangelands alsoserve as areas tor scienlitic study of the environ-ment. Range managtrs help ranchers attain op-timum livestock production by determining thenumber ansi kird of animals hi graze. the gra#-ing ssIeni to usc. and the best s&'asimn fur gnur-mg At the same time. however, they ay Lu

conserve the soil and si.'geleitiihi br eithei usessuch as wildlife haSitat. outdoor recreation.and timbei.

.SoiI t-tmwr;isI:on, sr provide technical assis-tance to farmers, ranchers. and others con-

- ccrnd with ilie conservation of soil, water, and

related natural resources, They deselop prngrams 'that are designed to get the most preiduc-tise use of land without damaging it. Soil eon-servaliornsts do most of their work in the held.('onset ,'ationists visit areas with erosion prob-lems, find the source of the problem. and de-velop a program to combat the erosion.

Foresters and conservationists often spe-cialize in one area of work. such as timbermanagement. outdoor recreation, or leirest ceo-mnnics

fl¼irklng Conditions

Working cirnditions for borcslers and cnn-scrvalionists var's onsukrahl) their inuge as

7.

sofitjry horsi back riders. singkhandcdly pro-tecting large areas iW land tar from civilizationno lotiger hoMs true Modern l,'ccstcrs and con-st'rvatiunists spend a great deal idlirne workingwith people. They deal regularly with land-owners. loggers, forestry technicians 'andaides. farmers, and ranchers -

The work can still he physically denfanding.though. Many foresters and cunscrvatiunislsoften work outdoors in all, kinds t4 weatht.4.sametimes in remote areas - To gel to these

areas, the's use airplanes, helicopters, and tour-wheel drive vehicles Foresters and contservatKmisls alsrma' work long hours lighting

tires or on search-and-rescue missions.

EmploymentForesters and conscr%atiomsts held nearly31.0(X) jobs in 12 - About one-half worked

tot the Federal Gilveniment. primarily in theI)cpartment of Agriculture About one-fourth

worked (or State gswenlmcnts The remainderutrkcd in private industry, mainly for lumber.paper. and logging companies. and (or loealgincmme'nts and consulting firms. A fewselt-empkis-ed cithet as consultants or forest

ow tiers -

Most soil eonschatiernists work for theFederal Government, niainly'with' the i)eparl-ment t4 Agriculture's Soil ('imservation Sciv-ice -

Although tiii-sters and consi'rs'al,onistswork in every State. employment is euncen-trah'd in the Western and Southeastern 'Stateswhere many national forests and parks arc lo-cated and where most of the lumber ad p'alp-wood producing hire sis are located. RangeniaIagers work almost entirely in the WesternStates where rangdand is locatc'd. Soil con-sersanonists, on the iitlx'r hand. ieemploycdin almst every county in thy etsurtry.

Training, Other Qualilkall is, andMvaneementA bachelor's degree in forestry! the minimumeducational requirement (or ( 1eion31 ca-

reJs in forestry. Howewt In keen job

1,

I

Fotestars and tnsetsutionlsta work outdoors in

all kinds of we*her.

competition mkt the nu:teasingly camplexnature cif the forester's work. many employerspeter graduates who tudd'advanced degrees.Certain sobs such as teaching and researchquire advanced degrees

In 1982. about 50 colleges and universitiesoffered bachelor'. or higher degrees in fOrestry:43 of these were accredited by the Society ofAmerican Iiiresters Curriculum.. stress the hh-

, era, art, and communic.iions skills as well astechnrcr! finestry sulnects. Courses in foresteconomic, and business adminiscrancm supple-ment the student's scientific and technicalknow ledge Many colleges require students tospend one,summer ina field eamp operated bythe college. All sch000ls encourage summerlobs that give experience in forest or con-servation work.

A bachelor's degree m range manareinedt orrange science is the usual minimum educationalrequirement fOr range managers. The FederalGovernment requires at least 42 tenifs in plant,animal. or soil sciences and natant( resourcesmanagement courses. including at least 1Khours in range management. Graduate degreesin range management generally are requited forteaching and research positions and may behelpful for advancement i a other jobs.

In 1982. about 18 colleges and universitieslittered degrees m range management or rangescienca. A number of other schools offeredsome courses in range management. Spe-c:Wired range management courses combineplant. animal. and scal sciences with principlesof ecology and resource management. Desir-able electives include economics. forestry. hy-drology, agronomy. wildlife. computer sci-ence. and recreation.

Very few colleges and universities offer de-grees in soil conservation. Most soil con-servationists have degrees in agronomy. agri-cultural education, or general agriculture; a fewhave degrees in related fields such as wildlifebiology. forestry. and range maniwern mt. Pro-grams of study generally include 30 semesterhours in natural resources or agriculture. in-cluding at lea-f 3 hours in soils..

In addition to meeting the intelketuJ de-mands of forestry and conservation work. for-esters and conservationists must enjoy workingoutdoors. be physically hardy. and be willing tomove often to remoteplaces. They must alsobe afire to work well with people and have goodcommunication skills

Recent forestry and range management grad-uates usually work under the supervision ofexperienced foresters or range managers. Aftergaining experience. they may advance to moreresponohle position.. In the Federal Govern-ment. an experienced torester may supzrvise anentire finest area, and m iy advance to regionaltowst supers ism or to a top administrative pi)*trna In private industry. foresters start by learn-

ing the practical and administrative aspects ofthe business, Many fOresters work their -iay qpto top managerial positions within their com-panies.

Sod consersationists usually iiegin workingwithin one county and with experience mayadvance to the area and State level. Also, soil

conservationists can transfer to related occupa-tions slich as farm management advisors or landappraisers.

Job OutlookEmployment of foresters and conservationistsis expected to grow, more slowly than the aver-age fair all occupations through Ow mid- I 990'..Employment should continue to grow faster inprivate industry than in Federal and State goy-enuttents where budget limitations arc likely torestrain growth. More foresters will he neededin private industry to ensure an increasing out-put of forest products. Private owners of tirn-berland also are likely to employ more forestersas they recognize the need for---and the higherprofitability of improved low try and loggingpractices. The griolcing demand for ;neat, se ild-life habitats. recreation, and water. as well ascontinued environmental concerns shefuld stim-ulate the need for more range manaers.However, the employment of soil con-servationists is expected to change little throughthe mid-1990's since the Federal Government.the major employer, is not expected to increaseits employment of soil conservationists. Be-sides job openings created by growth Or em-ployment, many foresters and conservationistswill be needed to replace thci.c who retire.transfer to other ix.eupations. or die.

EarningsMost graduates entering the Federal (iciv cm-naent as foresters. range manager.. or soil con-servationists in early 1983 with jte.t a bachelor'sdegree started at $13.369 a year. although Thos.:with high grades Iva master's degree could startat $16,559. In 1982, the average Federal salary.for foresters was about $27.900. for range cor,servationisoc. about $23.700; and for soil conservationists. about $26.(KKf.

Relited OccupationsForesters and conservationists are nut the onlyworkers concerned with managing. develop-ing. and protecting natur..l resources. Otherworkers with similar responsibilities includeagricultural scientists. agricultural engineers.biological scientists, farmer.. farm managers.ranchers, and wildlife managers.

Sources of Additional informationGeneral information about the forestry profes-sion and lists of school. tittering education inforestry are available from.

Society ui American Forcster. -101.1 irscnorLane. Bethesda, Md 241814

American Forestry Association 1 A l') f xiii Si !SA'

Washington, fa C 21)11.1ri

Information about a Caret7t as .t range man-ager as well as a list tit %Chi 4 it training

is available from

Fociety tor Range Nianagenierit '"'tai 11 irtiDenver. Colo. 802(i4

For inforniatum about career opportunities inthe federal Government. coma,. t

Bureau ill land klanagenicin. 1)criscr Scrii,c ("nter. federal Center Building sets 1)rier t1411223

S 1)epartmentot Agriculture. I ote.1 Strike. )

Hos 2417. Washington. 1) C 2.001;

t' S I kilaUftleill cot Agtit, . la ( 411INVI %A MP

Sets . Pt) Bos 2144441. W011440041, 2001;

Geologists andGeophysicists

(ii 1124 OM iii. .11K1 16'1-------Nature of the WorkGeologists and geophysicist. study the phy %scataspects and history of the ciath., They analy reinformation collected through seismic prcispecling whiny. which invOlve bouncing soundwaves off deeply buried rock layers; examinesurface ocks and samples of hurled rock, recovered oy drilling: and study information col.lected by satellites. The also identity rocksand minerals. conduct geological surveys. construt( maps. and use instalments such .as thegravimetec and magnetometer to measure theearth's gravity and magnetic field An impor-tant application of geological research is locat-ing oil and other minerals.

Gee dogists and geophysicists exAmne chem-ical and physical properties of specimens inlaboratories under ettntrolled temperature andpressure. They may study fossil remains of ammat and plant life or experiment with the flowedwater and oil through rocks. Laboratory equipmerit used includes instruments such as.the X-ras cid fraetometer. which determines the struc-ture of minerals, and the petrographic micro -scope. used for close study of rock formations.

Resides locating resources and working inlaboratmies, geologisisond genphsicists alsoadvise ennstruction companies and governmentagencies on the suitability of proposed loca-tions for buildings. dams. or highways. Someadminister and manage research and explora-tion programs.

A geologist studies geological data plotted by acomputer

7

The hekis of geikisp and jeophysies are

1i,sel% teLited hut there are ái1erene%.tlojists stih ih inposiftoil. '4flietun..and,hs*on of the e.ulk- rus1 Ftwir try hi hadout hoii arious rneks tcre tonqcd and haiha happened to them thiiUhouI hisitir),Liehitit. use the prine;pks itt pbysi.s andnialheuiatri.s to stud% the c.aflh\ ifltt?i'd c,m-

position_ wrtaee. and atrnt)sp)wrc and alsotartous I oives such as if manmc.and !raslI.dntnaI fiek!.

(nolQlsts and gcphsicists usually spi'talije (;m-u, 'uJ the sw. shape. andt..itattiinat held of the earth iheir principal

task is hi niaIe sen preisse nleasurements kuiIi.sppin the carih\ surtatc. YtdroItgiir.istuik she distribution. .sreulattim, and phsseaIpriper1ie-. it umkrgniun$ and swt*ce watcrsihc nsa stud the form and intensity tt pre-

cipitaltiwl. ii-. rate ot infthndion mlii the sin!.and itS It1Ufli hi the ocean and aITmtWrerf,nr,lot,i,' .injli and ctassit mineralsand pret*nis 'limes ai.cnidiñg to eiwnpiisittonand structure I%th-ts'uuhsgiitr. study fossils

ttWlkt in liiieal ttwnulitms to race the eso-luttim of pi.tiii and anunal hie iinhigñ1sstuth and interpret data tnni set graphs.which measure small mosemcni. itt the earth.and tithet instrument-, to locate Thquakes and

nhuak taults . rrau',ap'wr study the disiribunon and .uranemenl of sedimen1ar' rocklasers bs eaniinin tlwir fossil and mineralcontent Mt'ht.fl'I'&i5ti miirncs are class,tied as phssical sCnhists tSee the see-Ilhfll till Iii I)l%lfistS elsesitiere in the hand-h,oA i

Wnrking ('undilksnsSlost get'ktgist' and gcoph%skist'. diside theirtulle Iiclssixti hddssork and i'ltice or lahiirah'rwink. While in the field. geologists often trawlto remote sites h h icipti:r or jeep and cowrI.srge areas t' loot t:sploranun lignts andgenph sicist'. often sstwk osiisc is or in remoteareas When mit wiiiiing outdoor.. geokigtsisare in comutirtable. wdIlighteil. wcllcntilated iifhees and laborai flies

Ernphrymrnt(kttigists and gei'ph'.'ssc.sts held almost49.1Xl pi4is in I)42. Oscrtwit-hflhs rein ;'iIand gas it upames. and almost one snth were.in sers lie tunis. muan of which inohed inml and gas espliiralion Mining and quarrungt.*impasues also cmpkn many geilkigish andgciph%skisis Sell cniIted geokigist'. heLdabout I iii b ohs. prlth.trsl) as industn andg44crnm%nt consultants

Ihe I eticral (3oscmnwnt .mp!oyed almostS .15k) gciulogisls. gciphs sic IsIs. geudesists..tntl hdrtikigists in I9N. Almost two thirds

it the l)eparmwnt al the Interior in theL S (et4ogutal Survei. the Burcw of Mines.and the Iurciu iii Reclamation Other Icdcralagencies that :mlo geologists andgeophslcsst% include the tkparimcnls of 1k-fiise. Agriculture. Commerce. and EnergyState agencie'. also cmpki geologists andgetiphssieisls. some work on surveys in cooper-aIon with the ) .S (icologreal Suri'cy(icoltigists and 1zeophitcssts also work forminpiof ii research institutions and museums

8

Some are etiiphwcd 1w American hrms metseas tot saning periods of lime. In addition.about 1.5)1k) persons held gci'higv ndgeophsws lau1iy pusitlims in college'. andunivrsitws in 19k2 Sec the statement on cut

and uruiwtsit tamult cl.ess hew in theHandb.ru'.)1

1ahiing, Other Quaftficatkns%, and

AthancrmrntA ba.hekirs tk'grm in getilogs. in gemiph sick Isadequate, for entry into sonic lower leelgeology ohs. but msgjer 5uhs with good adsanccmeni pmnentiat'usually require at k,tst amasters degree in geokigy or geop1wsk's Persims with stnuig haekgntunds .utphics. math-ematics. in computer science also in.n qualityfist some geoph)sies tths. A PhI) degree isessential tar most research piisitiyns.

(her SIX) colleges and uniiemslses o(Ier ahachekk\ degree in geottigy and about 7'4 ci'!leges and unisenities Mcr a bactiekns degreein gemiphysi.s, Other pnigrains off eriiip trasiling for beginning geiiph,sicisss includegetiphy steal tcchnoliiy. gvophi steal engineermg. geaph steal prospeet:ng - engineeringgeology. petroleum geology, and get'des

Mine than 22I) umserulies aniard ailsanueddegrees in geology and about 7t) unisersitiesgrant athaneed degrees in geophsucs.

(kotogists and gcnph siusts need ii' tic ableto work as part it a teani. ihey should becurious. analytical, and able to ctmmiunicaleeficetiseb 1 hose insolsed in hddwsni musthate phsieaI stamina.

(hs'togists and gc*'phsicisis usuall begintheir career'. . field esphiratitin in as researchassistants in laboratories. With esperlenee.they can tie promoted Ii' ptiiscct leader. pn'graninunager. in other mnanagenient and iescarchp'.itt0fl'.

job OutlookEnipkiyment °t geologists and gemipb sicist. isi. speeted to grow about as last as the aerage I in'all occupation'. through the mid- 19911's In addthiin to acts jm.th created by increased demandfur geologists, many openings will arlsc eachyear as geologists leave the miccupittion. retire.ondic

I:ftm'rts .o locate m'w souices 'at encrgs asoldem sources become eshausted will cinitlriucto stimulate domestll esploraikm aclis nie'. andcrCate a need for many additional cnkigisls.although eiiploralion iactisity nia van user theshort run depending an the price and demandtot oil. (icologists and geophysicists wttti hseknowledge and ciperienee in tgeophvsical oiland gas epkiration techniques may epertcnceheuer employment opportunities than other'.Additional geologists and griiphs;cists will tieneeikd tn discover new mineral resources, todc%Ise tcchsiqucs fat cspktring deeper withinthe earlhs crust. and to deselop mine elfaticnfmediodsit mining. They also will he necik-d liidevelop more adequate water supplies andwaste disposal mcthods and to di' site csaluaurn tin' cons.Irpctuin activities.

EarningsMedian annual earnings of full lime gcilogisTsand geophysicists were about $33 .0(X) in'l9$2;

the middle SI) perceilt earned between 52&(NK)and 5411.511K) aminually Aciinditig It' surveysdime h the ('ollege Plaisiiwnl (ouniti. gtaduales with hachekn 's degree'. in pIty steal ansiearth sciences nxeist-d asi-lage slatting offersit S2.$111) a year in 19142 tiiaduats withflusters degree'. in getiltigs afld ielaled get'.1* igical scle'lees recci ted at em.igc slat Bug offersni s2,5XN) a

In the h?deral (iosemniuieist in early l9$.eologmsts and geoptiy sicisis has ing a bach

dots degree i,ioufd begin at SI .1t1t901 Slh.559a year. depending on theim college recordsthose basing .t tiuster's degree could start tSIh.59 nt S2t).2.ti a 'cii. those hating thePh I) degree. at $24.t)it or 52'I..73 In Ifl42.die it er.tge salary fin geologists in the Federal(im'semnmm'nt tsas about S.(NK) t '.cam and fngeophysicists. about SS.2il a

ktlated Otcuputluns'Mans geologists and geiiph sic;sts stink in thepi'trtiteuiis and tutumal gas mmluslr.y this mndustry also ciusploys nuns tither winkcrs who areinsulted in the sciemulic and ttxhtnical aspectsof petrokum .ini natOtal gas esplorahtisfi andestract lull - including that ten'.. cngui;eenngtechnicians. latiotatmu ,isslstaills m petroleumproduction-i. petmoleuni engineers, and sun-setmn-s. Also relateti ti. the stint iii geologists.snd'geophysscssts ate thei plismc.tt scienceticcupathitis .uIi a'. p1i sicists. twiiiist'.. mete-ort$tigzsts. and iiceanogmaphers as well js mathematicuns and ct'mnputer ....ieni isis

Suwm of Additional lnformatkmInlornution. ia training and career iippi'rtutuhies lot geologists is .njuljhle from

autrIu .*ti 4,4.ttt .11 Insunut', '24 51 I eesburg like.I-ails I hunk. %.m llti4i

Initnmaiion on training and career oppor-utiullics for geophysiCists s .,nailahlc ti-tim.

flWTI4fl (ieiijihs si ,sl I ni.in Il NNI I loud se

Wastiiiigitn lit' I1MNN

if Isploraiuim (mphi sui isis. Pt) 14m'sliStS, 'jUlsJ, Ua 74 14)1

I-or iñli,rmation on-b edetal (,iisrnmcitt careers. s'oflt.wt

I S (kiii&' it Putstinhii !th.uuiagcuiicni. 191N1 1 Si

NW. Wa4uuugmmmn, Or' 2114 IS

Meteorologists11(51 Ii' (V. 1)111,

Nature of 11w itrrkMetciru'luigy is lIlt' study it the atmosphere.

is the air that sum mm'unds the earth Meteurologist'. try tm4 understand the stmt".ptwrc'sphysical ctiarai'me 1 istis s, unitutins. and pro-cesses, and iletenninc the way the atnuisphcrcaffects she re'.i it ur ensrojpacat The hestknown application itt this knowledge is in understamuding .and forecasting the swatherHowever, weather intormatitin nd metennu'Iogiial research also s applied in manyisher areas, such as air pollution iontnl. lure

6.

prevention. agriculture. air and.sea transporta-tion. and studying trenos in the earth's climate.

Meteorologists who tiareasi the weather,known professionally as operational or ivuop-tic nierreirologrsts are the largest group of spe-cialists in this field. They study past and currentweather inlorniation. such as air pressure. tem-perature. humidity. and wind vt.areity. and ap-ply physical and mathematical eelatitinships tomake short-range and long-range predictions.Their data emu: from weather satellites andobservers in many parts of the world. Althoughsonic forecaster, still prepare and analyzeweather maps. most data now are plotted andanalyzed by computers.

Some nieleirrologists, engage in basic andapplied research. For example, physical nine-orologisis stud!: the chemical and physicalprOperties it the atmosphere. They do researchon the effect of the atmosphere on transmissionit light. sound. and radavvaves. as well asstudy factors affecting formation of clouds,rain. snow. and other' weather phenomena.Other meteorologists, known as lirnarologists,study trends in climate and analyze past recordsoft wind. rainfall. sunshine. and temperature todetermine the general pattern of weather thatmakes up an area's climate.. 'these studies areused to plan heating and cooling systems, de-sign buildings, and aid in effective land utiliza-non

Working ConditionsJobs in weather stations. most of which operatearound the clock 7 days a week. often involvenight work and rotating shifts. Most stations areat airprwts or in or near cities; some are inisolated and remote areas. Meteorologists insmaller weather stations generally work alone;in larger ones. they work as part of a team.

EmploymentMeteorologists held about 3.71at Jobs in 19142.In addition. about 1010 persons held mete-orology faculti positions in colleges and uni-versities in 1982. (See the statement on collegeand university facrtitt elsewhere in the Hand-two L.

The largest employer ' civilian mete-orologists was the National Weather Service.where about I JOE worked at stations in allparts in the United States and in a small numberof foreign areas the Department of Defenseemployed altruist 24X1 civilian meteortjogists.A few worked for State and )seal governmentsand for nonprofit organizations.

In addition to government. private weatherconsulting firms and radio and taloa. ion stamons employed many meteorologists Commercial airlines also employed meteorologiststo forecast weather along Bight routes and tobrief pilots on atmospheric conditions. Othermeteorologists- worked for companies that de-sign and manufacture meteorological instru-ments or for Innis in aerospace. engineering.utilities. and other industries.

In addition to civil:an meteorologists. thou-sands of members of the Armed Forces didforecasting and other meteorological work.

ti

p

1

16,

Employment of meleorcoglsts is expected to grow more.; cough the mid-1990*s.

'halving, Other Qualifications, andAdvancementA hay helor's degree with a major in mete-marine), is the usual minimum requirement forbeginning jobs in weather forecasting.Howe ver. employers prefer to hire those with anadvanced degree. and an advanced degree isincreasingly necessary for promotion.

For research and college teaching and forman > top level positions in other mete-orMagical activities, an advanced degree. ptr-terably in tneteorology, .is essential. Peoplewith graduate degrees in other sciences alsomay qualify if they have advanced courses inmeteorology. physies. mathematies. and chem,istry.

In 1982. about 35 colleges and universitiesoffered a hachelor's- degree in meteorology oratmospheric science; about 40 schools offeredadvanced degrees Many other institutions of-fered some courses in meteorology Before selaming a degree program in meteorology. students should insestigatz the particular emphasis of the program. since many meteorologyprograms are combinv1 with the study of arelated scientific or engineering field.

Beginning meteorologists often start in jobsinvolving routine data collection. computation.or analysts Experienced meteorologists mayadvance to various supervisory or admin-istrative jobs. A few very well qualified meteorologists with a background in business ad-ministration may establish their own - weatherconsulting. services.

10

41. 4uif 44$ "'144.

.....1;11

-1

o . 4.. a- .

, , a'#)s I --..: -,' .a . ..A.

.. .,, .C..!:'Zie, ,4.1'

1'

than the average tor all occupations

job OutlookEmployment of meteorologist* is expected togrow more slowly than the average for all oc-cupations through the mid-1990's. Little or nogrowth in employment is tspectcd in the Na-tional Weather Service. which employs mostmeteorologists. Some new jobs will be createdin private industry as companies mognize thevalue of having their ,,wn weather forecastingand mmorological services but most of the jobopenings in this very small occupation willarise from the need to replace tt' ase who changeoccupations. retire. or die Persons with anadvanced degree in meteorology should havethe hest job prospects.

EarningsThe average salary for meteorologists emplayed by the Federal Government wasS:44.200 in 1982 In early 19143, meteorologiosin the Federal Government with a bachelor'sdegree and no experience received starting sal-aries of S13.4(i9 or S 1 b.5.f.9 a year. dependingon their college grades. Those with a o astersdegree could start at $16.559 or S20.256; thosewith the Ph.1) degree. at $24.508 or 529.314.However. the National Weather Scar. 14:e hired .

few professamal level meteorologists in 1983:instead it hired meteorological technicians.most at a starting-salary of $13.369. Qualifiedmeteorological technicians in the National

9

Weather Service may eventually he promoted toprofessional metetwologIsts.

Related tkrupationsWorkers in other occupations conceined withthe physical environment include forest ecolo-gists, foresters. geologists. geophysicists.oceanographers. range managers. and soil con-WINadiollists

SWIMS of Additional Informationlnfomiatioa on career opportunities in mete-orology is available for 75 cents from:

American Meteorological Society. 45 Beacon Si .

Ploston. Mass 021(iii

' For facts about Joh opportunities with theNational Weather Service. COMA:t.

National Weather Sell ice. Personnel Section. Gramax nkftt . now t nth Si . Silver Spring", Md 2(910

Physicists41)(1T ILIA Ohl 1110, 1113 0h7400 141 Ohl (04.

1/2).(a10 and '

Nature of the WorkThe flight of the space shuttle. the accuracy ofadvanced medical instruments, and even thesafety of the fmnily car depend on research byphysicists. Through systematic obstrvation andexperimentation. physicists use mathematicalterms to describe the structur_ of the universeand the interaction of matter and energy. Phys-icists also develop theories that describe the

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fundamental forces and laws It nature. Deter-mining the basic laws governing phenomenasuch ac gravity. electromagnetism, and nuclearinteractions leads to discoveries and innova-tions that advance nuclear energy. electronics.communica:iors and aerospace technology..and medical instrumentation.

Astronomy is usually considered a suhheldid physics. Astronomers use the principles ofphysics and mathematics to answer questionsabout the fundamental nature of the universe.such as its origin and history and the evolutionof the solar system.

Most physicists work in research and de-velopment. Some do basic research to increasescientific knowledge. For example. they inves-tigate the structure of the atom or the nature ot.gravity. The equipment that physicists designfor their research can often he applied to otherareas. For example. lasers (devices that amplifylight and emit it in a highly directional, intensebeam) are utilized in surgery: microwave de-vices are used for ovens: and measurementtechniques and instruments can detect the kindand number it cells in blood or the amount ofmercury or lead in foods.

Many physicists conduct applied researchand help develop new devices, products. andprocesses. For instance. their know ledge of sol-id-state physics led to the development of tran-sistors and then to the integrated circuits used incalculators and computers. A small numberwork in inspect;on. testing. quality control. andother production-related jobs in industry. Somedo consulting work.

Almost all astrorromc -. do research. Most oftheir time is spent analyzing the large quantities

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to data col levied by their own and IlihCrs obser-vations and writing scientific papers on the re-sults of their research Most astronomers spendonly a few weeks each year making observa-tions with telescopes. ruciw telescopes. andtither instruments (some in orbiting satellites)that can detect electromagnetic radiation fromdistant sources. Contrary to the popular image.astmnomers almost never actually look througha telescope because photographic and elec-tronic iadiation detecting equipment is snoreeffective than the human eve.

Most physicists specialize in one of morebranches of the science- elementary particlephysics: nuclear physics: atomic, electron, ormolecular physics: physics of condensed mat-ter: optics: acoustics: health physics: plasmaphysics: and the physics of fluids. Some spe-cialize in a subdivision of one of thesebranches. For example. subdivisions of solid-state physics include superconductivity. crys-tallography, and semiconductors. However.since all physics involves the same fundamen-tal principles, several specialties may overlap,and in the course of their carers physicistsfrequently switch from one subfield to another.

Growing numbers of physicists are specializ-ing in fields such as biophysics. chemical phys-ics, and geophysics in which physics arelated science arc combined. Furthermore, thepractical applications of physicists' work in-creesingly have merged with engineering.

Working ConditionsPhysicists generally work regular hours iriland-nnories. classrooms. and offices. Most phys-icists do not encounter unusual hazards in theirwork. Astronomers who make observationsmay need to travel to observation facilitieswhich are usually in remote locations and fre-quently work at night.

EmploymentPhysicists held almost 19.000 lobs in 1952. Inaddition. abtrn an equal number of personsheld physics faculty positions in colleges anduniversities. (See the statement on college anduniversity faculty elsewhere in the Hundbmri.)Private industry employed almost two-thirds ofall nonacademic physicists. primarily in com-panies manufacturing electrical equipment. air-craft and missiles. chemicals. and scientificinstruments. Many others worked as re-searchers in colleges and universities. hospi-tals. commercial laboratories, and independentresearch organizations 1 he Federal Gownmem, mostly the Departments ot Defence andCommerce. employed about out of 10 ph).-icists.

Although physicists .ire emptily cif in all partsof the country. their employment is greatest inareas that have "heays industrial concettliaLtimand large college and unisersify enrollments

'framing. Other Qualifications. andAdvancementGraduate training in phi s to a closely relatedfield is almost essential tot most entry level Doh.in physics and for ads aneement I he doetotate

usually is required for full faculty status at col-leges and universanes and tor industrial or gov-ernment nibs :administering research and development programs A diktoratc is also thetisua! requirement for a job in astronomy.

'those has mg master's degrees may qualityfor some research jobs in private industry and inthe Federal Government as well as for teachingjobs in 2-year colleges. In universities, sonicteach and assist in research while studying fortheir Ph.D.

'thirst: having bautielor's degrees ma# qualitytor a few applied research and developmentiohs in private industry and in the Federal-I.-Nov-corment Some are employed as research orteaching assistants in colleges and universitieswhile studying for advanced degrees. Manywith undergraduate physics degrees work inengineering and other scientific fields. (Seestatements on engineers. geologists andgeophysicists. programmers. and systems ana-lysts elsewhere in the Handbook.)

Almost 800 colleges and universities otter abachelor's degree in physics. The undergradu-ate program provides a broad background in thescience and serves as a base for later specializa-tion either in graduate school or On the job.Some typical physics courses arc metitanics.electromagnetism electronics. optics. ther-modynamics. and atomic and molecular phys-ics. Studerts also take courses in chemistry andmany courses in mathematics.

About 270 colleges and universities offeradvanced degrees in physics. In graduateschool. the student. with faculty guidance. usu-ally works in a specific subfield of physics.Graduate students. especially candidates forPh.D. degrees. spend a large portion of theirtime condacting researcn

About Si) univer.it:es offer the Ph.D. degreein astronomy. These programs include ad-vanced courses in astronomy. physics. andmathematics Some schools require that gradu-ate students spend several months working at anobservatory. The usual qualification for en-trance to a graduate program in astronomy is abachelor's degree in astronomy. physics. ormathematics vt ith a phy sacs minor.

Students planning a career in physics shouldhave an inquisitive mind. mathematical ability.

and imagination They should be able to workon their own. since physicists. particularly inbasic research. often receive only limited supervision

Physiersts. especially those who hold lessthan a Ph. D, . often begin their careers doingroutine laboratory tasks. After some expertenvy. they are assigned more complex tasks andmay. advame to work as project leaders or re-search directors: Some %sink in top manage-mem jobs. Physicists who develop new prodtiers or proci-sses sometimes form their owncompanies or join- new Wins to exploit theirown ideas.

Job OtillookEmployment opportunities in physics are ex-pected to be good through 1995 for personswith a doctorate in physics because employ-ment is projected to grow' faster than the aver-age for all occupations over the period and thenumber of graduate degrees awarded annuallyin physics has been declining since 1970.However. persons seeking jobs in astronomyare expected to continue, to encounter competi-tion for the small number of available openingsthat will occur through 1995. Despite the fasterthan average growth projected in this occupa-tion. most job openings will arise as physiciststransfer to other occupations. retire. or die.

Many physicists work in research and de-velopment (R&D). 'the anticipated increase inR&D expenditures through 1995 should resultin increased employment for physiemis. If actu-al R&D expenditure levels and patterns differsignificantly from those assumed. however, theoutlook v.ould be altered.

Some with advanced degrees in physic, u illhe needed to teach m eirlleges and universities,but opportunities will he better in private Industry. Since little employment growth is expectedin colleges and universities. -most openings inthis area will result from thv need-to replaceMose who leave the occupation

Persons with only a bachelor's degree inphy sic,. are not qualified to enter must phy sic t

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physics find albs as engineers. technicians. Icomputi:r specialists Others become high

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school physics teachers. However. they are nSnally regarded as teachers rather than as phys-icists. (See the statement on secondary schoolteachers elsewhere in the iiandbinek.1

EarningsMedian annual earnings of Lull time physicistswere Allow $33.00 in '1982: the middle 50per...ent earned betv.-en ahoia $28.000 and$45.01.10 annually.

According to an American Institute of Physits Survey 14 19$2 degree recipients. starringsalaries for physicists in private industry aver-aged about $26er0 for those with a master'sdegree and $34.tXX) for those with a Ph.D. .

Depending on their college records. phys-icists with a bachelor's degree could start in theFederal GovernMent in early 1983 at either$13:30 or $16.559 a year. Beginning phys-icists having a master's degree could start at$16.559 or $20.25h. and those having the'Ph.D. degree could begin at $24.508 or529.374. Average earnings tor all physicists inthe Federal Government in 1982 were $38.400a year.

Starting salaries for physics college and uni-versity faculty with the Ph.D. averaged$23.00 in 1982. according to the American.Institute of Physics. t See the statement on col-lege and university teachers elsewhere in theHandbook. Many faculty physicists supple-ment their regular incomes by working aa con-sultants and taking on special research mixers.

Related OccupationsPhysics is closely related other wientitie oc-cupations such as chemistry. geology. andgeophysics. 1- mincers and engineering and scionce technicians also use a knowledge of theprinciples otrAy.ics in their work.

Sources /of Additional informationGeneral information oil cattier opportunitievpphysics is available frontAnk.114.an inlihne cot Pftysic.. 315 t.asi 45111 St

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tin a pamplilli containing intormation oncareers in astronomy and on SO1001% offeringtraining in the field. send 25 cents to.lit ftatry Shipman. I.dt .atietn (Miter. Amvni. anV.11,144.1iiik, Skit WIS. I .1/1011.1 ii IN:1414.11C. NT,..N

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