DOCUMENTAMDIX,I

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AUTHOR Pendleton, John'TITLE Popular Culture; Mirror of gsgrican Life. A Study

Anido for Courses.by Nevsiapee.I` INSTITUTION' California Univ., San Diego. 'Univ. Extension.1%,SPON$ AGENCY 'National Endowment for the &inanities MAW,

Washington, D.C.PUB DATE - 77NOTE 58p.; For related documents, see SO 010 571-580AVAILAbLE PROM Publisherl's Inc., 243 12th Streite.Draver Pe'Del Mar,

California 92014 ($2.95 paperbound)

EDRS PRICE NP-$0.83 Plus Postage. HC Not Available r(o-M'EDRS..DESCRIPTORS Adult Education; -*Autoinstructional Progtams;

Broadcast Industry; Concept Teaching; Content-Reading; Course Objectives;-Culturai 'sages; Culture;Discussion (Teaching Technique); Educational '

Resources; *Enrichment Programs; Females; Films;futures (of Society) ; Human Living; InstructionalMaterials; *Life Style; *Wass- Media; MediaTechnology; Minority Groups; Music; News Media;Newspapers; Politics;-*Popular Culture; PrimarySources.; Secondary Education; Stereotypes; StudyGuides; Television r

I. IDENTIFIERS United Statesr 4

ABSTRACT,The study guide is one of several supplementaky

materials for a 15-weeknewspaper course about popular culture in theUnited States. Course objectives are to help students understand thepervasiveness of popular culture in American society, its historicaldevelopment, the business aspects of the popular.culture industry,the effects of mass media on its nature and, quality, the emergence' of

tock*Ins roll music as a reflection of a growing youth culture, thehistorical tendency oftslopulae culture, to Perpetuate falsestereotypes of ethnic minorities, and the growing trend towardcultural diversity refleoted.in nei commuoications'systems. The guide

i integrates the themes of newspaper articles and primary source'readings from the accoapanying materials. Presentation'-of- learningobjectives( and discussion of,key concepts enable students to pursuethe course independently as well as in groups. Divisions in the guide'correspond with:the four major units in the reader. Bach unit in theguigle contains a list of appropriate vauspaper.articles and.selection's from the reader, Learning _objectives, overviews ofnewspaper' and reader latefials, discussion of key concepts, faCtualquestions, anddisCussion questions. (Author/AV)

SO 010 .578

****i****0****i*************4********i******************************Reproductions supplied by EDRS arethe best that can be made ° *

from the original document.*****#ffi******i******************************************************** N_

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U S DEPARTMENTIP'HEALTH,EDUCATION& WELFARENATIONAL INSTITUTE OF

EDUCATION

THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRO.DUCE() EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROMTHE PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGINATINO IT POINTS OF VIEW OR OPINIONSSTATED DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRESENT OFFICIAL NATIONAL INSTITUTE OFEDUCATION POSITION OR POLICY

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'PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIMATERIAL MICROFICHE ONLYHAS GRANTED BY

/Pa E riareSTO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCESINFORMATION CENTER (ERIC! ANDUSERS OF THE ERIC SYSTEM "

A STUDY GUIDE FOR. COURSES BY' NEWSPAPER

John Pendleton, Ph.D.

Courses by Newspaper is a Project of University ExtensionUniversity of California, San DiegoFunded by the National Endowment for the Humanitiei

Publishei's Inc. AliDel Mar, California

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4;r" ACADEMIC COORDINATOR

DAVIDIANNING WHITE, Professor of Mass ,Communications, Virginia Commcinwealth.University

EDITORIAL DIRECTOR

JANE I1CHESER, University of California,San Diego

RESEARCH ASSOCIATE

JOHN PENDLETON, Ph.D.

/' FACULTY COMMITTEE, UCSD

PAUL D. SAL-PMAN, Chair; Vice-Chancellor forAcademic Affairs and Professor of BiologyJACK BEHAR, Associate Professor of AmericanLiterature.

. ROBERT o.s.ELLIorr, Professor of EnglishLiteratureJOSEPH R. GUSFIELD, Professor of SociologyJACQUELINE P. WISEMAN, Professor ofSociology

PROJECT DIRECTOR

GEORGE A. ,COLBURN, University ofCalifornia, San Diego

NATIONAL BOARD

DAVID P. GARDNER, Chair; President,University of UtahJESSIE BERNARD, Research Scholar,Pennsylvania State UniversityCARL N. DEGLER, Professor of History,Stanford UniversityRALPH ELLISON, AuthorWILLIAM H. GOETZMANN, Pecssof ofAmerican Studies, University f TexasRICHARD LEONARD, Editor, MILW KEEJOURNALFREDERICK A. OLAFSON, Profess° ofPh4sophy, Univhsity of a , SanOleg°PAUL D. SALTMAN, University of California,San DiegoGERALD WARREN, Editor, S14 DIEGUNION

ilf!EAIN,ILWIVEltSITY EX

MARTIN N. CHAMBERLAIN

SION, UCSD

Copyright °1977 by the Regents of the University of California, All rights reserved.

ISBN: 0-89163.-038-4Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 77=16300

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Notes to the Student 2

Course_Outline 4

Section'One: What Manner of Mirror.? 7

LiafningObjectives-...

OverviewKey Concepts k

Factual Review Questions.Essay and Discussion Questions_

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, . fSection Two Popular Ciilture and American Institutions, 23

Learning- ObleCtkesOverview .

""i- , Key Conceptst______... Factual Review Questions

Essay and Discussion Questions

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Sectimi. Three:, Popular Cu hire and Social Change 37 ....

Learning ObjectivesOtrerviewKey ConceptsFactual Revie;nr QuestionsEssay and Discussiqn Questions

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Section Pour: The Future of Popular Culture 51

as Learning ObjectivesOverviewKey ConceptsFactual Review QuestionsEss4y and Discussion Questions

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NOTES TO THE STUDENT

-The materials for this C6urse by Newspa-per consist of a series of fifteen weekly news-paper articles, which may be thought of as"lectures" by a distinguished faculty; a read-er or anthology of articles that supplementthe newspaper articles; and this study guide,which is intended to integrate the themes ofthe newspaper articles and the articles of thereader. A series of audio cassettes, relateddirectly 'to the newspaper articles, is alsoavailable as a supplementary learning aid. Forthose students who are pursuing this courselargely through independent study, the studyguide serves in some ways as a substitute forclass discussions.

The course has been arranged into fourMajoriicrions with corresponding divisionsin the reader and study guide. A completecourse outline'appears on page 4.

The study guide is designed to facilitate thelearning process for participants in thisCourse by Newspaper. It is meant as a guideto, not a substitute for, a critical teading andevaluation of the course materials.Each sectioribf the study guide begins witha list of the newspaper articles ai-d the ap-propriate supplementary selections in thereader. This is followed by learning objec-tives for the sectionsome of the basic un-derstandings of the issues that those whodesigned the course hope you will develop.

The overview for each section is designed toprovide the connecting links between arti-cles, emphasizing similarities and differ,-ences among, the various approaches tocommon problems. Key concepts highlightsome of the major ideas presented in the sec-tion, and factual questions will enable you totest your owt{knowledge of the materials.The discussion questions are designed to testyour ability to use the facts in a discussion, aswell as to serve as a review and a stimulus tofurther thought about the tonics. -'

Alth each student will discover forhiMself or erself how best to use the cotixse_materials, we would suggest the followingapproach:

I. Read the newspaper article each week;clip it and carefully save tt for future.studyand review.

2. Glance over the learning objectives, over-view, and key concepts in the correspond-ing section of the study guide. These willcall-attention to some of tht-inbfe-inii3or-tant points in the newspaper and readerarticles and will help to foc.us yourreading.

3. Read the appropriate selections in thereader.

4.; Reread the key concepts and overview

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more thoroughly this time.

5. Proceed to the factual questions, rereadingthe articles as necessary to answer them.

6. Consider the essay and discussion ques-tions. Sugliested guidelines to answers areprovided with each question, althoughthere is, of course, no single "correct"answer. t

7. Turn back to the learning objectives. Haveyou-met these goals?

8. Check the bibliographies in threader forsuggestions of further reading on topics 'ofinterest. 'y

The problems raised in the course materi-als are complex, and it is not our aim to comeup with simple solutions to these problems.Rather, we have tried to illuminate their verycomplexity in order to further an understand-ing of the popular culture that is such a perva-sive element in our society today.

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OUTLINE FOR POPULAR CULTURE: MIRROR OP AMERICAN LIFE

' Section One: What Manner of Mirror?.1. popular Cultuie: What Manner of Mirror? ' ..

David Manning White, Professor ofWass'Communicatiops, Virginia CofnmonwealthUniversity- -,

2! Story-Tellers and Story- Sellers: The Makers of Popular Culture .-Herbert Gans, Professor of Sociology, Columbia University . .

3. Popular Ctilture: Who Pays? , *

George Gerbrier, Dean, Annenberg School of Communications, University ofPennsylvania -.

4. America's Popular Culture: Growth and Expansion . d r,Ray B. Browne, Director, (tenter foi Popular Culture, Bowling Green State University'

-Section,Tivo: ?opular Culture and American'Institutions \5. Hollywood: .The Dream Factory . / ,

Robert Sklar, Chairman, Department of Cinema Studies, New York University0 . ,

6. Television: The Pervasivp Medium.

Robert Sklar ;Medium

7. Popular 'Culture and Popular Mligic; Changing DreamsNat Hentoff; Writer, The New Yorker, and Columnist, The Village Voice

. 8. Popular Music: Sounds of the People

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Nat %Hentoff ' <'

'9. Sports: The Pleasure of the Flesh''Robert Lipsyte, Columnist, New York Post - /

10. Sports: sta9t Legends anctSuper HeroesRobe ipgyte

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Section Three: Popular Culture and Social Change11. Politics and Popular Culture

Andrew Hacker, Professor of Government, Queens College, City University of New York

,12.Popular Culture: Mitryzkids and the Media ;

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.4y ' Nathan Irvin Huggins, Professor of History, Columbia Universityi 13. Popular Culture: Mirrorof Women Moving .

Betty Friedan, Founder of N.O.W. and author of The Feminine MystiqueX14. Popular Culture and American Life-Styles

Bennett M. erger, Professor of Sociology, University of California, San Diego

Section Four: The Future of Popular Culture15The Deatlfof the'Mass Media? ,

Alvin Toffler, Lecturer and Author of 'Future ShQck

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NEWSPAPER-ARTICLES

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%READER gELEGTIONS

1. Popular Cti lture: What Mannerof Mirror?David Manning White

1: Story-Tellers and Story-Sellers:The_Maicers of Popular CultureHerbert Gans

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Popular Culture: The MultifacetddMirrorDavid Manning White

Popular Culture: Notes Toward ADefinition t,Ray B. Browne

Parameters -Marshall Fistwick

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The Popular Arts or the Popular AudienceRussel Nye

America Through the Looking Glas4Dav,id Burner, Robert Marcus, Jorj 1'. Tilson

Popular Culture's Defects as aCommercial- EnterpriseHerbert Gans

Network Nexus: TV's Guardians of TasteDavid Grunwald

The DeejaysArnold *Passman

The Electronic Elite Who ShapeAmerica's' TasteBenjamin Stein

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3, Popular Culture: Who Pays?George gerbner

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4. America's Popular Culture:Growth and Expansion _ .

Ray B. Browne

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The Language of AdvertisingRonald Grois

Who Pays for the Nffs?Ben Bagdikian

Love Won't Buy You MoneyRoger Rosenblatt

Pure Entertainment; Walt DisneyProductions, Inc.Herbert Schiller

The Disdovery of the PopularCultureReuel Denney

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Comments onjielass and Popular CultureOscar Handlin

The Concept of Formula inPopular LiteratureJohn G. Cawelti .,

Focus on the WesternJack Nachbar..

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES

To understand

the pervasiveness of popular culture in American society,

the function of popular culture as a mirror of American life

the entertainment and diversionary value of popular culturethe differences and similarities between "high" and "popular" culture

ID the role of the gatekeepers of popular culture_ .

the i)ctive" and "passive theories of popular culture9- °

chi:business aspects of thq popular culture industry

the historical development of popular culturethe effects of the mass media on the nature and qUality of popular culture

X] the main areas of critic41 response to the rise of popular culture

the importance of "formulae= in popular culturethe significance of the Western in American poptilar culture

,OVERVIEW4-- t

This section defines and analyzes the na-ture of popular culture and imevolutiOn fromthe rudimentary story telling and relativelysimplolife-styles of a preindustrial age to thesophisticated mass media and complexpatterns of life ,in contemporary Aniericansociety.

The Nature of Popular CultureThe first newspaper article by David Man-

ning White, coordinator of the Courses ByNewapaper series on popular culture, uiaX-lines the scope of the'course. White-presentsstatistics and examples to illustrate the per-vasiveness of popular culture in American

s life. He also introduces the concept of the

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mirror, which serves as. a unifyillgmethodological approach in the .course.White concludes his- article by urging hisreaders to strive for an understanding of pop-ular culture rather than seeking to judge it. :

White's essay in the reader amplifies hisbasic arguments and nffers more detailedevidence of the omnipresence of popular cul-ture in American society. He also discussesthe complex notion of the "mirror" at greaterlength. ,

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White zeroes in on the chief complaint lev-eled against popular culture by elitist critics.

*It is not "media per se that-trouble those whodenounce popular culture," observes White,"as much as the way other people with a.

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lower cultural I,Q use these media." But asthe author indicates, even well:educatedpeople partake of cultural offerings that areconsidered "inferior" by the defendeis oeliteculture.;While it may seldom edify us, popu-lar culture offers' great recreational benefitsand can be a much-needed salve for people'stired minds and bodies. .

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The selection by Ray Browne in the read-erdiscusi; of reaching aclear-cut definition of popular culture.Gen-erally speaking, the popular artist ,tends tos'restate "the old and accepted,,' while thecreator of high culture is more concernedwith expressing his own ideas in a highlyindividualized fashion: There are exceptions,of course, and, as Browne observes, the "linesof demarcation" between the various types ofculture are very indistinct. The author con-cludes by arguing for inclusiveness zdtherthan exclusiveness in scholarly attempts -todefine popular culture.

Marshall Fishwick's mukngs on the "poprevolution" provide 'additional insights into

.thenature and importance ofpopular culturein American society, He points to the factthatthe icons of the media, such as the CBS

Big Eye, are instantly recognizable to mostAmericans and 'rival, if they do not surpass,the dOminance of religious symbols in ourculture.

RUssell"Nye's article contributes, a his or-Acal dimension to the reader serections onthe meaning-of popular culture. Nye notesthe convergence of several important factorsin the late nineteenth century that stimu-lated the growth of a popular culture that hadbeen established by the mitl-eighteentlI.on-tury. According to Nye, "popular art is folkart aimed at a wider audience" and is .signifi-

cant, 4n this regard, because popular art""confirms the experience of the majority.:'

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'Popular aft can thus be viewed as a,valuabiecultural barometer that indicates existingvalues and preoccupations and is sensitive toany changes in those areas.' . ."

-The selection by David' Burner, RobertMarcus, and Jorj Tilson afso gives some his-torical context to the discussion of popularculture. The authors' definition of "culture"as ".the way ekperience is subjectively orga-nized" helps distinguish it from "society,'I'

klrfiirpliertliesihltitntionil-strueturowelive in: The attictle picks u.p.- on' pointssuggestedly, the previous four selections onthe need'to suspend aesthetic judgments inorder to ,ItVly popular culture,. Finally, theauthors emphasize that popular culture is anactive, ag well it passive, enterprise, a pool of ,materials that.people use "to gi,v,e meaning totheir exPetience.':

7.4Creators and Gatekeepers

The second theineexplored in Section Oneconcerns the creators' and "gatekeepers'? ofOur populat culture, those who faihion theprodu9ts and those who determine what willultimately be,"sold" to.the consnniers. The:

newspaper article Herbert Gans serves,tointroduce this theme,

'Gans offers some insights into the processof creating popular cultUral fare. He obsefiesthat most of the creators are-white, middle-aged, Well-educated males, and that their cre-, --

a ationa are group 'effortk in the 'sense thatthose who stand at the "gates" of the popularculture industriei (the executives and "cen-sor's ") make the final decisions_ont content.Gana also cfelineatesThe twobasicinterpreta-tions about popular culture: the "passivi"theory that views popular culture as a mirror,of American needs and preocckupations, and'the "active" theory, that emphasizes thetastemaker role of popular culture. Gans does

--....," ,not gravitate to.either 'camp, offering a moremodest conclusion, that "the popularculturemakers divert -us because we want to be di-verted." In other words, there is more mutualinteraction than either of the two theories

Jsuggests.. The reader selection by Gans refutes three

of the ,major criticisms of popular cul-ture' creators: that they are prpfit-seeking;that they, must make homogeneous, stan-,, " and-that=their "craft"-turns them Ulm, the artistic equivalent of'assembly-line workers. Gans illustrates thatpopular and high culture actually have muchin common. '. .

Benjamin Stein focuses on the "creativeelite" of television and makes a strong case

..fcir their immense power in transmittingtheir personal attitudes- and prejudicesthrough the images and stories theycreate fortelevision. In essence, the elite mirrors itsenvironment reflecting' the values, ethos,and experience of the Los Angeles mediaempire..

The task of television "censors" is the sub-jeceofDavid Grunwald's essay. In spite of allthe furor over the effects o el-P944iion on theaudience, Grunwaldsees it one of the mostconservative of the mass niedia. lt,is a bigbusiness, designed to "deliver" viewers to theadvertisers, and the so-called censors are em-ployed to make sure offensive material-doesnot flow through the gates. According to thethree network censors interviewed by Grun-wald, television actually tries to achieve a"diversity of presentation," a statement thatBenjamin. Stein would no doubt take issuewith.

The final selection on the oteators andgatekeepers of popular culture is ArnoldPassman's accopnt of the disk jockey as aprominent figure in radio. Although the me-

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dium is definitely changing, as computers ,

enable stations to present more music andless talk, the disk jockey is still a significantgatekeeper. Passman sees the disk jockey inboth lofty and mundane lights,as akin to-theprimitive shaman of tribal cultures or simOyas an "electronic extension" of the travelingsalesmari.

Popular Culture as Big Business---GeOrge,Gerbner's-newspaper-article-begins--the discussion of popular culture as a com-mercial enterprise. Gerbner emphasizes theshift in "public story telling" from the per-sonal face-to-face process of preindustrialtimes to the development of "new machines"owned by wealthy men who could mass pro-duce "stories" for a huge audience..Thistransformation led to the creation of newcorporate elites, with advertisers becomingthe "patrons" of the "art" they created. These

'corporations are essentially "private gov-ernments," according to Gerbner, but he in-dicates that the future may bring about morediversification, thui limiting the tower theynow enjoy.

Advertising, of course, is the cornerstone ofthe popular culture business. Rather thansimply detailing the extent of advertising inthis 'country, Ronald Gross examines the lan-guage of those who try to sell us everythingunder the sun (and perhaps even the sunwhen solar energy becomes a widespreadcommodity). If they simply tried to "wheedleout of us a few greasy quarters or dollars,"Gross declares, the advertisers would not beof much interest. But Advertising techniqueshave spread to other/ areas or- domestic andforeign Policy, and it behooves us to try tounderstand the mentality of the ad men.

It is generally assumed that we pay our 15cents for a newspaper and receive our teliwi-

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sion nevo free. Ben Bagdikian explodes thismyth and, illustrates, with extensive sta-tistical information, that the consumer actu-ally pays a great deal for his newspaper andtelevision news by supporting advertisers.Whenever one purchases a product,, he in-evitably gives sustenance to advertisingcampaigns because the cost of advertising isreflected in the price of a particular product.

The book publishing industry, which has-recent ly-been-boosted_by__such.bes t- seller s as

Roots, is the subject of Roger Rosenblatt'sincisive look at the phenomenon of -Erich

Segal's novel, Oliver's Story. Rosenblattperceives a definite. formula at work in theprocess of writing, promoting, and selling abest-selling book. And, as Rosenblatt ob-

serves, the formula has not changed much=over th6 past sixty years, a.f act that does notspeak tour highly of this aspect of popularculture.

The Disney empire epitomizes popularculture as a commercial enterprise. The read-er selection by Herbert Schiller presents avivid picture of this example of "modernconglomeration." Especially noteworthy isSchiller's observation that the Disney empireskillfully uses one medium, such as televi-sion, to promote other aspects of its enter-prise, such assts parks and films.

The final theme discussed in Section Oneconcerns the question of "change and con-tinuity" in American popular culture, howmuch has endured over the years and howmuch has been altered by the advent of newtechnological forms of communication andinformation. The newspaper. article by RayBrowne argues for a continuity in popularculture because it has "always responded toand reflected life in this country.' Brownedetails some of the main themes of the"American Way of Life" (a concept to be ex-

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plored in more detail in the reader selec-tion by John Pendleton in Section Three),that are mirrored in popular culture The au-thor acknowledges that the ideals seldommatched the reality of American life. He con-cludes by declaring, in a manner similar toHer,bert Gans' conclusions in his newspaperarticle, that entertainment is the "singlemost overriding drive in American popularculture." Sophisticated technology, inBrowne's estimation, has simply crestedmore conrilarrihdei-ofenterrainrnen

The selection by Reuel Denney discussessome of the major patterns of critical re-sponse to the development of popular cul-ture. Denney also touches on some of the- key.changes that have taken place in the rise of

popular culture. While he might agree withBrowne that inuch of the content and natureof popular culture has remained essentiallythe same, he would point to some of the defi-

nite, if somewhat subtle, transformationsthat have occurred, such as the ''cleverlittliza-non" of newspapers.

Oscar Handlin is in even stronger opposi-tion to Browne's point of view. He sees thedevelopment of the mass media as a disrup-tive element in the world of popular culture.Before the mass media, according to Handlin,there existed great rapport between the entertainer and the atidiente, and popular culturewas "closely- related to the felt needs andfamiliar modes of expression of the people itserved." POpular *culture in the mass-mediated society, on the other hand, lostthese distinguishing features. The article onrock 'n' roll by can Beli (in Section Two)contradicts Handlin's assumptions aboutmodern popular culture, but the points madeby Handlin seem valid, if somewhat over-stated.'. -

John CaCvelti, like Roger Rosenblatt, looks

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to the "formula" approach to popular culture.as a vahiable methodological tool in under-standing the entertainment of the masses.Unlike Hand lin, Cawelti sees great simi-larities between the content of popularstories a century ago and those todowHeargues that there are recurring types ofstories

'that hinge upon some -basic formula, that is, a"conventional system for structuring cut=tural products." The formula approach is im-portant to the theme of "change and conktinuity" because it allows us to examinewhat ideas, attitudes; and values continue tobe reinforced and how they have changed intheir expression to meet changing culturalneeds.

KEY CONCEPTS

The final selection in Section ne con-cerns the most prolific American ulastorythe Western. Jack Nachbar, in act,sees the Western as "the most importantAnutrican story form of the twentieth cen-tury." There is little doubt that the Westernethos permeates much of our social and intel-lectual life. In this sense, the Western, whileit has undergone some slight changes overthe years, is evidence that at least one facet ofour popular culture has remained essentiallythe same-, from the popular literature of thenineteenth century to the television pro-grams and movies of today.

"High" vs. "Popular" CulturePopular culture as a "culture of tie people"

has existed since the earliest organization ofhuman beings into society. Most scholarshave referred to these preindustrial 'culturesas "folk" cultures and have contrasted themwith the "official" cultUre of the elites'whorifled societies. The high and folk cultures

'managed to coexist because neither posed athreat to the other.

With the rise of the /piddle class as a majorsocial force in the newly industrialized na-tions, a popular culture emerged. 'This "new"culture had roots in the cultural expressionsof the "folk," but it was closely tied to theentertainment businesses made possible bythe development of technological devicessuch as the Printing pres's.

Unlike the earlier folk cultures, this popu-lar culture was perceived by the elite class asa distinct danger. By the late nineteenth cen-

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wry, the entrenched guardians of highligul-ture had taken the offensive against theupstart popular culture. As Oscar Handlinobserves in his article, the elitists defined"culture" in the very narrow sense of the"finest" artistic and intellectual expression.Anything not "officially approved" by thecustodians of high culture, was thoughtto be of inferior quality and not worthyof the interest of "refined" and educatedindividuals. -

This kind oPcultural elitism also per-meated academic life. With some notable,but very rare, exceptions, scholars refused toconsider popular culture a subject of serious

, inquiry. Their objections to popular culture,'as the articles by White, Gans, Nye, andothers point out, generally echoed the aesthe-tic judgments of the nineteenth-centuryelite. The intellectual community tended tothink of popular culture as "debasing" and as

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'a potential threat to society due to itsallegedability to promote mediocrity in all areas ofAingrican,life. ,

Reuel Denney's article 'discusses some ofthe major responses to the critics of popularculture, While many of them shared the res:ovations of Diight Micdonaldandothers asto the aesthetic worth orpopular culture, -they' argued that the cultural expressions ofthe vast majority of the people must be givenscholarly attention.

The impact of motion pictures in the 1930sstimulated a rash of scholarly books on theSocial significance of film. The question ofwhat effects popular culture had on its audi-ence became a new topic of debate in theacademic world, reaching a fever pitch in.thelast twenty` years in the controversy over theimpactof television violence on the viewing

Despite the continuation of academic as-, saults on popular culture, the field of study is

currently, an accepted, if not completely re-(spes cted, area of scholarly endeavor in mostuniversities and colleges.

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Popular Culture as a Source ofEntertainment and Diversion

A fact virtually ignored by the critics ofpopulir culture is that the masses look for avariety of benefits in the process of participat-ing in popular culture. Unlike the devotees ofhigh culture, those who partake of popularculture seldom concern themselves withbeing uplifted aesthetically and intellectu-ally. As White observes in his articles, theygenerally seek enjoyment, pleasure, recrea-tion, entertainment, diversion from theirpopular culture. Of course, they also seekinformation, instruction, and an occasionalemotional, intellectual, or aesthetic experi-ence from their culture, but they are not as

demanding or selective as the elitists. Theyusually accept what popular culture has tooffer and seldom complain unless somethingis especially objectionable.

As Browne, Gans, and others note, the en-tertainment and diversionary value of popu-lar culture seems to be, the overriding goal ofthose who enjoy the products of,popular.cul-ture. Although many students of popularculture are concerned that so many people'

apparently do not take popular culture se-riously, it must be noted that the choice ofwhat entertainment or what diversion a per-son favors actually reveals great deal aboutthe individual's-values, attitudes, preoccupa-tions, and priorities. When a substantialnumber of people share the same tastes inpopulaisultural pastimes, we can also make,some tentative assumptions about the natureof society in general.

the Creators and Producers ofPopular Culture

One of the significant features 'of SectionOne is its examination of who actuallycreates and produces the popular culture weconsume. Unlike the high culture artist, thecreator of popular culture must gear his, ef-forts to satisfying a highly' diversified audi-ence of anonymous' individuals. While- thepopular artist may wish merely to e4ress hisfeelings or ideas, he is obliged, if he wants tobe successful commercially, to'cater to thetastes- and preoccupations of that unseenpublic.

The process of creating popular culture isnot an individual endeavor, hoWever. Thecreator is aided (or hindered, depending onyour point of view) by a host of "associates,"ranging from editors and publishers (or net-work executives) to agents, public relationspeople, and that ubiquitous group, the spon-

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sors. As Gans puts it in his newspaper article,the creators of popular culture are basicallystory-tellers and the producers are story-sellers .

The creative and production functions alsoinclude the 'role'of the gatekeeper, who has apart in both activities, The term refers tothose who stand at the gates of the mediaempires, so to speak, and who determinewhat will and what will not be allowed toreach the public. The articles by Stein and,Grunwald illustrate just how powerful ahandful of individuals can be in choosing thecontent of the television programs we watch..The same applies to newspapers, radio, andother media, of course, lint television.gatekeepers possess the greatest potential to ,influence the thoughts and behavior of thepublic because of the concentration of powerin the three networks and the ability of tele:.vision to reach such-a vast audience.

The,"Passive" and "Active" Theoriesof Popular Culture

The concept of the mi or used in thiscourse is, roughly speaki g, a "passive"theory of populaf culture. I holds that theprevailing ideas, attitudes, luespreoccu-

.pations, and priorities of a society are re-flected through its popular culture. Thejustification for this theory usually stemsfrom an assumption that, in order to be popu-lar, a cultural offering must exploit publictastes and concerns and reinforce the domi-nant intellectual temper and values of thepeople.. Terms such as "barometer" and "in-dicator" are Similar to "mirror" as meth-odoligical concepts.

The "active" theory, on the other hand,places a great deal of emphasis on the abilityof popular culture, especially as it is dissemi-nated through the mass inedia, to literally

16

.5)

.mold people's,,values, tastes, and life-styles.The. furor over the effects of .television vio-lence on the audience (a theme. that will beexplored in more detail in Section Iwo) indi-cates that many people subscribe 16 the "ac-tive" theory of- popular, culture. Another,group, that accepts the theory, but which is arather small segment of the population, is theradical social and political theorists such asHerbert Marcuse, who believe that popularculture is so powerful that it'can siphon offany form of dissent and - render it ineffective.The reader selection by John Pendleton inSection Three has some discussion on thispoint of view.

The newspaper article by Herbert Ganscontains the best discussion of the "active"and "passive" theories of popular culture, but'many of the reader and newspaper articlesallude to them.

CommercialismAs many of the 'newspaper and reader

articles point out, popular culture is a de-cidedly commercial enterprise. In manyrespects, the growth of popular culture de-veloped very naturally as a manifestation ofan expanding industrial country. The tend-ency to think in terms of production, promo-tion, and salesmanship that marked so muchof American life inevitably became part ofthe popular culture business. As the Gerbnernewspaper article indicates, the productionof stories and other forms of entertainmentand diversion was thought to' be simply an-olier area of industry.

Some people, however, believe That cul-ture, by its very nature, must be free of thestigma of commercialism. They think of cul-ture, as Handlin's reader selection points out,as intellectual and artistic expression. Toput a price tag on those offerings is to debase

18

them. This concern, however/Ries in the faceof the very people who create and producepopular culture. In spite of the many declara-tions of artistic integrity and intellectualindependence, most of thb artists and pro-ducers, the "story tellers" and the "story sell-ers," seek financial reward. In this respect/they are no different from their_ fellowAmericans who toil at jobs inorderto make aliving. _

-----Wffile it is true that the commercial natureof popular culture may result in aestheticallyinferior products being peddled to an uncul-tivated and nonselective audience, it must be

jhremembered that e popular culture of a na-tion reflects t azure and quality of thesociety, as the miribr t:oncept suggests. Toask popular cultuie to be less commercialis-tic, therefore, is putting the cart before thehorse. The American people iiiiist changetheir values andpri.orities befor popular cul-ture can change to meet this ew public

4 mood.

The Impact of Mass Media-on Popular Culture

While certain themes and story forms haveremained essentially the same over the years,the mass media has had some profound ef-

fects on the tone of American life. AlthoughHandlin's dire assessment that pbpular cul-ture is irrelevant to the lives of Arneriscansmay be unduly pessimistic, his observationthat huge conglomerates create culturalproducts for an anonymous audience wouldappear quite valid. This has not created, but itcertainly has furthered, the growing imper,sonality of American life. The 'word "aliena-tion" has become almost a cliché because it,seems to be so appropriate a description forthe dilemma of many of our citizens!'

The impact of the mass media can also be

seen in the trend toward "deverbalization"that Denney discusses in relation to thenewspaper Of the late nineteenth century.One does not have to accept Marshall McLu-han's hypotheses completely to realize thatwords are not as important in contemporarycomn4icatiOnrImages,'symbols, icons, andother forms of visual representation have be-comincreasingly dominant in our society. Itis doubtful whether many people totallyMimic the actors- they see on the silverscreen, but motion pictures, and perhapseven more teleVision, have allowed people tocopy behavior mannelismsand appearancesand incorporate them into their own personalidentities. The phenoinenon of FarrahFawcett-Majors is only the most recentexample of this effect of mass media inAmerican-society:

The controversy over the effects of televi-sion has yet to be resolved, if indeed it everwill be, but it is obvious that those whowatch a great deal of television often developdifferent personality traits from those whoread a great deal and view little television.Television has also had some definite, thoughnotryet completely understood, influence onpeople's views of human nature and sociallife. And, finally, television has infinitely in-creased public awariness of social problems:-and international islues, although the aver-age Anterican has little more 'than a superfi-tial comprehension of those problems andissues. (Thee articles by Patterson andMcClure and Small'in Section Three containdiscussions germane to this theme.)

.19 17

FACTUAL REVIEW QUESTIONS(

L. According to White's newspaper article, whatadjective best describes popular culture?

2. What-is it, according toWhite's reader article, that disturbs elitists most aboutpopUlar culture?

'3. What effects has the ascendancy of television had on the popularity of older mediafcirms?

4. rtenerally speaking, how do the artistic motivations of a high culture creator differ fromthose of a popular entertainer?

5. What are the three meanings of "pop," according to the Fishwick selection?

6. What-Were the six key factors responsible for the rise and rapid growth of Americanpopular culture?

T. What, in the estimation of Nye, are the major requirements for success as a popularartist?

8. What, according to Burner, Marcus; and Tilson, have been the major impediments to thestudy of popular culture?

r9. Why does Gans, in his newspaper article, assert that popular culture makers "appeal to

already existing.tastes"?

10. What are the three major criticisms of poPtilar culture creators discussed by Gans in thereader selection?

t.11, Describe the "L.A. view of life" that the creative\ eltte.of television presents.

12. What is the main function of television "censors"?

13. How do radio disk jo'ckeyS function as cultural gatekeepers?

i4. What was the shift In "public story telling" detailed by Gerbner in his newspaper article'?

15. What are the three main factors that have enabled advertising to become such anenormous part of popular culture?

18 20

i

16, What do advertisers do, according to Gross, to "fabricate a subject matter for their.advertisement other than the product itself"? .1

17. Why is the notion that television news is free and newspapers Cost the reader only the

, purchase price erroneous? -"

18. What are the key featuies-of the best-seller formula analyzed by Rosenblatt?

194 How does the.Disney empire epitomize "modem conglomeratization"?

20. Why does Browne, in his newspaper article, argue that popular culture has remainedessentially the sanie over the yearsN

21 What does Browne'onsider theitsirigle most overriding drive in American popularculture"? ..

.

22. What major effect did the'massiv waves of immigration from 1880 to 1920 have on thenature of popular attuier

t23. How did Woaltlar I influence European attitudes toward American popular culture?

24. What features distinguished pre-mass media popular culture irOm high culture?\.1

25. Why does Handlin consider contemporary popular culture irrelevant to the 'yes of mostAmericans? 0,

2g. How does Cawelti define "formula," as it applies to popplar culture?

27. In what ways are formulas similar to games?

28. Why does Nachbar consider Westerns "the most important American story form of

twentieth century"?

.1\ 19

tC

1

/ESSAY AND pIscussIoN QUESTIONS-

1

0 , t.4. Examine the roles of popular culture as a mirror of American life and as a molder of public

,(values and tastis.

' Suggested Guidelines

1. Consult the newspaper articles by White and Browne and the reader selections byWhite, Nye, Burner, and Cawelti to determine the meaning of the mirror concept.

2. Consider thenewspaper articles by Gans, especially his discussion of the "passive" and-"active" theories of popular culture, and Gerbner, and the reader selections byGrunwald, Stein, and Gross.

3. Use your own experiences with popular cillture to help you assess the extent,to whicho popular culture is a mirror and a molder of American society.

2. Analyze the relationship between the creators, gatekeepers, and producers of popularculture and the audience that consumes their products.

20

Suggested-Guidelines ;..a c.

1. Note Handlin's and Nye's observations on the problems the popular artist faces inusing the mass edia.

2. Consider the int made by Gans, itihis reader selection, on the differencesbetween the way creators and users view culture. ,

3. Based on your personal obiervationsand what you hive read, &icicle whether thecreators and users of popular culture have made significant attempts tdtconummicatemore effectively with one another.

1

22

in6

J

A

I

3. Dischssthe benefits and liabilities of popular eultu e aS a commercial enterprise.

Suggested Guidelines

1. Review the newspaper article by Gerbner and t e readet selections by Gross,Bagdikian, Rosenblatt, and Schiller.

2. Consider the capacity of comnfe'rcially based culture to reach an enormous audi9nce,compared to the patron-supported high culture.of preindustrial societies that wasrestricted to a very small elite class. .

3, Examine the implications of-a non selective culture in whifh everything is packagedand sold as a commodity.

4. Discuss the impact of the mass -media on the nature and quality of popular cultute.

Suggested Guidelines

1. keview., the discussions of the historical development of popular culture in thenewspaper article by Browne and in the reader selections by Nye, Cawelti, andDenney. . , .

2. Consider Handlin's comments on the disc d'f the mass media on populari

. culture. '- / ,. o i

3. Compare White's and Gans' generally favorable attitudes toward the benefits of themass media of communication and information with the somewhat critical views of

. 0.0

Gerbner, Gross, SChiller, and Bagtlikian./

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1.

,

r

23 21

..

S

NEWSPAPER ARTICLES READER SELECTIONS

S. Hollywood: The prism Pa'ctory Windows on a Made-up WorldRobert Sklar . Robert Sklar

*4,Hollywood HarakiriWilliar&Paul

laws in RetrospectMartin S. Dworkin

6. Television: The Pervasive The Scary World of TV'sMedium Heavy Viewer .

Robert Sklar George Gerbner and Larry Gross

:5

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What TV Does to KidsHarry F. Waters

Roots on TV: It Touched Us AllPeter Schillaci

Eyewitless NewsRon Powers

Millennial dreams an ibblersRobert Louis Sham w

,25

in

4.

-

.

7. Popular Culture Mand Popular usic:Changing DreamsNat Hentoff

and

13: Popular Music: 'Somas of thePeopleNat Hentoff

9. Sports: The Pleasure Of the FleshRobert Lipsyte

and

10. Sports: Instant Legends andc, Super Heroes

Robert Lipsyte

'10

What,IsTopulai Music?A DefinitionR. Serge Denisoff

Rock as Folk ArtCarl Be lz

Something's Happening and Yozi Don'tKnow.What It IsNat Hentoff

4

Singing Along with the SilentMajorityJohn D. McCarthy, Richard A., Petersqn,and William L. Yancey O

O

Age of Pretty PopRobert Hilburn

Sports WorldRobert Lipsyte

6

The Super Bowl: Mythic SpectacleMichael Real s.

Sports: The Natural ReligionMichaeMslovak

"Glory, Glory,New Patriotism and SportsJerry Izenberg

Middle America Has Its Woodstock, Too, Jeff Greenfield

26 25

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

t6 understand

e

O the extent to wiich movies provide insights into the nature of American life

O the rise and decline of the motion picture industry

0, the effects of television on American society

O the blurring distinction between information and entertainment in television news,programs

O the emergencaticick 'n' roll music as a reflection of a growing youth culture

O the popular music trends of the late sixties and the seventies' as a reaction to the culturalrebellion reflected by rock 'n1 roll

O the manner in which sports mirror the values of American society

Oy the significance of ritualism to the popularity of sports

OVERVIEW

t.

Section Two in the anthology focuses onfour types of American entertainmentmotion pictures, television, popular music, .

and sportsas major social institutions thatboth mirror and mold the nature of Americanculture.

Movies .The newspaper article by Robert Sklar that

begins the sec ion on movies highlights the .importance of movies in AmeriCan life. Sklardiscusses the 'psychOlogical meaningoofwatching motion pictures as a kind of corn-fnon denominator of the film experience. Thearticle traces the history of movies, from

-their 'origins as entertainment for the urban,often immigrant, working class to their cur-rent status as "spectaCles" that seem to Sklarto be increasingly out of touch with therealities of American society.

26 ,

t

Sklaris concluding comments in his news-paper article are pic d up and amplified inhis selection in th reader. The thrust ofSklar's essay is the movies are not reallymirrors of the Ameri experience. They aresimply "about theniselv " and can be.betterunderstood as "windows" t allow us to"look into" the minds of those who run theindustry and to occasionally catch a glimpseof what it means to live in American society.

The selection by William Paul givegsi verygood assessment of the motion picture indus-try as a busineg, tracing both its rise to powerand its decline as a major commercial enter-priseaul analyzes the impact of televisionas well as other key factors that have contrib-uted to the demik of the movie industry asthe preeminent power in popular culture. Inamanner similar to Sklar, Paul' bemoans thecurrent state of movies that seem to be little

;27

more than superficial "events" designed toreap box-office receipts.

The generalizations made in the Sklar andPaul.essays are given specific support in Mar-tin S. Dworkin's article on the phenomenonof Jaws. The hoSpla surrounding the releaseof the film repreisents the current trend in themovie industry- toward the "blockbuster"that could keep the studios in the black.Dworkin's analysis also includes.some im-portant insights into the entire realm of pop-ular culture in America.

TelevisionTurning to television, Robert Sklar, in his

second newspaper article, builds on the pointmade at the Conclusion of his newspaper arti-cle on movies, about the importance of tele;vision in telling us "who we are." He notes'that major technological advances have al-ways stimulated heated controversy abouttheir social effects, but he contends that tele-vision's "impact on society nay be so muchgreater than that of any other device as tomake comparisons irrelevant."

The reader selection by George Gerbnerand Larry Gross offers some very convinc-ing evidence of the impact of television, par-ticularly on those the authors label "heavy"viewers. Perhaps most noteworthy is thehypothesis that those who watch a lot oftelevision tend to think the world is muchmore dangerous and violent than it actually

"his. In this respect, the authors conclude thattelevision may function very much like thechurch once did in America, a stitutionthat could generate respect for es blishedauthority by instilling fear into the p ple.

The Newsweek article by Har . WatersPresents even more diversified informationon the effects of television on the viewingaudience. He discusses both the tendency of

television to arouse aggressive feelings andthe capacity of the medium to foster passiii-ity. The public outcry against excessive vio-lence in television programming is alsoconsidered.

In contrast to all of the other readeressays on television, the selection, by'PeterSchillaci emphasizes the valuable social con-tributions television can make, The articlepresents a case study of the television seriesbased on Alex Haley's novel Roots to illus-trate this assertion. Schillaci motes that inaddition to iqcreasing public awareness ofthe black experience in Anierica, Roots wastruly a "unique media event" because theproducers managed to sustain a Very power-ful ad campaign and to schedule the programsvery skillfully so that a certain momentum or"build" was created.

Pulitzer Priie-iinning TV critic Ron Pow-ers sees little to applaud in the way manytelevision stations handle their newt, pro-grams. The current trend of "eyewitness" (or"eyewitless," to use Powers' epithet) presen-tations has made -network journalism littlemore than a slick format for entertainment.Powers particularly dislikes the fact that,those who watch these programs _do notrealize "what information is left out of anewscast to make room for the audience-building gimmicks and pleasant repartee."Powers' observations recall the-points madeby Gans and White about the "gateeepers"of popular culture who exert tremendouscontrol over what is' presented to the public.The Powers selection also adds another di-mension to the discussion of news reportingin Bagdikian's article in Section One.

Like most of the other authors in the sec-tion on television, Robert Shayon has seriousreservations about the role of the medium InAmerican society. Shayon is especially con-.

28 ,27

4

ois

cemed about the problem of identity in ourculture and how television, by fdstering pas-sive reception of messages, aggravates thatproblem. This question of the relationshipbetween' audience and entertainer has al-ready been .introduced in Section One, inarticles by White, Nye, Handlin, and othersand will be looked at again in a much differ-ent fashion in the science fiction article byLafferty in Section Four.

Popular MusicNat Hentoff begins 'the section on popular

music. with his first newspaper article. HePresents an overview of the role of popularmusic as a mirror of tlitrAmerican expenenceand introduces the importance of rock 'n' rollas a purveyor0 cultural rebellion. His secondnewspaper afticle delves into some theoreti-cal questions about the nature of popularmusic and points to the history of criticism ofpopular music that reveals how some seg-ments of American society have resented theculture of the masses. This theme, of course,has been gcliscussed in detail by White,Fishwick, Old others in Section One.

The reader article by g. Serge Denisoffpre is a concise definition of popullirmusiNnd discusses the difficulties those inthe industry face in trying to appeal to adiversified audience. The article by Nye inSection One introduced this theme, but Den=isoff's article provides a good specific exam-ple to aid the student's understanding of theproblems confronting the creators of popularculture: According to Denisoff, the "formulafor a hit popular record remains elusive,"recalling Gans' assessrrint of entertainmentmakers as "nervous guessers" about what thepublic wants.

The selection by Carl Belz deals with rock'n' roll; specifically with how it can be con-

sidered a legitimate folk art. Belz amplifiessome of the points made by Browne andothers in Section One about the distinctionsbetween high, popular, and folk culture. Belz

. notes that the reasons for the origins of rock,which the author sees as a response to theneeds of a growing youth culture, illustratethe true folk art characteristics of the music.

Hentoff's reader essay examines the impor-tance of rock as a major stimulus to, andreflector of, the movement of rebellion thatcame to be called the counterculture. Thismovement will be discussed at more lengthin Section Three, in the newspaper article byBennett M. Berger and the reader selection byPendleton. Hentoff notes the effects of "cul-tural outsiders': on the world of popularmusic and on the world, view of white,middle-class youth as important elements inthe cultural rebellion that began to take onmajor proportions in the mid-sixties.

The article by John D. McCarthy, RichardA. Peterson, and William L. Yancey'presentsa sociological study of country and westgmmusic. The authors note that the music defi-nitely mirrors very conservative values andattitudes, but that there is an underlying lib-eral sentiment, especially in economic mat-ters, in many of tie songs. The article alsodiscusses the fact that country and westerncame to be considered, at least by the "silentmajority," the true music of Amefica anctwasused, in many respects, as a much-neededcounterpoint to the rebellious world of rock,.

The final selection on popular music, byRobert Hilbum, deals with the trends of theseventies, especially with the jilt tend-ency of "prettiness" to be a dominant featureof popular singers: This contrasts sharplywith 'the counterculture characteristics ofrock discussed by Hentoff. Hilbum's assess-ment of the current popular music scene in-

28 2.9

dicates that those who embraced country andwestern music were not the only "backlash"against the rebellious quality of rock in thelate sixties.

SportsRobert Lipsyte's two newspaper articles on

sports outline the mkriNualities of profes-sional athletics in Anierica and the centralquestions we should be asking about theworld of sports. In the first article, Lipsytezeroes in on some of the important social,cultural, and psychological factors involvedin spectator sports. In the second article, helooks at Muhammad Ali, Billie JeanKing, andJoe Namath as representatives of important :xievelopments in the world ol:-sports during

e past two decades.Lipsyte's reader selection presents a rather

scathing attack.on what the author calls the"SportSWorlds; mentality. The emphasis onwinning particularly distresses Lipsyte. HAalso notes that, contrary to popular opinion,sports have not really helped blacks advancetoward social equality. Women, according toLipsyte, may learn from the "sorry lesson" ofblack participation in sports and escape someof the same traps. .

Michael Real does a case study of the SuperBowl to make his points about sports as sym-bol and ritual in American society. Real givesa great deal of credit to the wedding of elec-tronic media and spectatcgdeports as astimulus to the increasing importance ofspectacles such as the Super Bowl. He' alsonotes, however, that the, football ex-travaganza is a`ame and,' in this sense, isdoubly attrairilve to Americans, whp can find -both emotroa release and high cultural sig-nificance in watching the Super Bowl.

The idea of sports ai,a ;'civil religion" isdiscussed in the selection by Michael Novak.

I t-%0.

., , ,

The a or notes that Americans think ofthemselv as a special peoplean, observa-tion made b Ray Browne in his newspaperarticle in Sectiotrgneand that this.inflatedsense of self-impoitance carries over intotheir games. Like Real, Novak sees great rit-ualistic significance in the world of sports.But Novak goes even further in his thesis thatsports have actually surpassed religion in thelives of a great number of Americans as theircentral spiritual experience.

The notion of the mirror in popular culturehas appeared frequently in this anthology.The essay by Jerry Izenberg accepts the con-cept unhesitatingly and adds the idea thatsports are also barometers, that they indicatewhere we are going as a society. Izenbetg,however, is very critical of the fact that sportscan be "perverted" by self-seeking politicisand other people who try to mold the miniorto their liking. .

The finalfticle in Section Two deals withthe enormous pop arity of the Indianapolis500 race. In the esti ation of Jeff Greenfield,it is "not simply, or even primarily, the racethat attracts the fans: It is the awesome,terrifying, hilarious spectacle surroundingthe race." In this respect, Gree4field'sanalysis suggests the importance of the "bigevent" mentality that Paul and Doiltin ex-amined in their articles on movies. And, likethe authors of the other articles on sports,Greenfield sees the ritualistic aspects of Indyas central to its popularity.

30 29

KEY CONCEPTS

Movies as Cultuial IndicatorsThe extent to which motion pictures accu-

rately reflect American culture is a subject ofheated debate among scholars. The reader ar-ticle by Sklar, for instance, emphasizesthat movies, while certainly offering periodicimages of actual American life, are more con-sistently "about themselves." That is, whatwe see on the screen reflects the thinking of asmall group of writers, directors, and produc-ers and is more indicative of the peculiaritiesof "the industry" than of ,the nature ofAmerican society in general. This thesissuggests an Interpretation similar to that inthe article by Stein on the television elite inSection One. But, as Stein noted, those whofashion our entertainment inevitably reflectthe social environment and, in this sense, aremore representative,than we might suppose.

Creators and producers do not exist in avacuum; they are perhaps more in touch withthe nature and tempo of American life thanthe average citizen because they are probablymore sensitive and aware than most people.And, as Gans observed in his newspaper arti-cle, the architects of our entertainmentbeit movies, television, or whateverareacutely conscious of the "public mood" andgenerally cater to it. In this respect, movies/while not always providing k "acqu-rate" mirror of American life sfitsmay be ar-gued that no aspect of the American social or,cultural apparatus does), do hdeed indicatemany important features of o culture. Theymay, in fact, be very much like the "barom-eters" Izenberg sees in the sports world,offering sneak previews of what social andintellectual changes to expect in Americanculture in the future.

30

Audience Expectations and BusinessConsidetions in the Motion Picture andTelevision Industries

As suggested by the discussion of the pas-sive and active theories of popular culture inSection One, the question of audience expec-tations looms as a major consideration of themass entertainment businesses. This hasbeen particularly true of the motion pictureand television industries during the pastthirty years.

Before the advent of commercial televi-sion, movie studios responded to the ques-tion of audience expectations by offering arelatively large Quantity of films that repre-sented a wide range of subjects and formsthat is, the musical, the Western, the gang-ster and horror stories, and so forth). Theobject was to cater to the diversity of tastes inthe audience and thus free the movie mogulsfrom having to be, to use Gans' phrase,"nervous guessers" about ,what the publicwants.

Television robbed the movies of theirrather privileged place in popular culture.The new medium also became an importantfactor in the decline of the motion pictureindustry. Sklar's point about television com-ing of age in a suburban period has relevanceto the discussion of audience expectations.Unlike movies, television brought enter-tainment right into the home, at a time whenthe family home was being invoiced as thecornerstone of American society. The. mo-tion picture industry had to confront the real-ity of changing audience expectations. AsPaul points out in his reader selection, themovie- studios realized they could not com-pete with television, so they cultivated an

31

.1

alliance with the new entertainment bus-iness durihg the 1950s.

The current state of the movie inddstryindicates that film, once thought to be animportant mirror of American life by mostobservers, is increasingly out of touch withthe expectations of the audience. The indus-try has been transformed from a vibrant, ex-pansive business into a cautious enterpriselooking for "bankable" stars and some for-mula for guaranteed success. In contrast,television has managed to maintain a closerrelationship with the' viewing public andfunctions as the medium that tells us, asSklar poirits out, "who we are."

The Impact of TelevisionAmerican Life

The movie industry was not the only as-pect of American society to be profoundlyinfluenced by the rise of television. Nearlyevery feature of American life has felt thetremendous effects television has produced.We all seem to agree that teleVision has in-deed had a major impact on our lives, butbeyond that very general observation die ofthe most intense debates about popular cul-ture rages on.

As Sklar indicates in his newspape article,every technological innovation h0. oduceda flood of coniloversy about its soci effercts.The utomobile is perhaps the b st exampleof a to nological devel pment that has beenboth hailed and condemned, in a manner verysimilar to the-public reaction to television.With the current furor over the adverse ef-fects of television, the positive effects of themedium are often ignored. The article bySchillaci, for example, speaks of the "deepsense of common humanity" engendered bythe television series "Roots." In Section

Three, an article by William Small discussesthe value of television in the civil- rightsmovement.

The increased political awareness andcosmopolitanism created by televisionseems, in the minds of many, to be more thanoffset by the danger the medium presents dueto its pervasiveness in American society. Onemajor point of contention is that televisionencourages passivity', as documented by theWaters article. The article by Shayon is par-ticularly critical of the fact that "viewers,in the television-audience game, are passivereceivers of messages rather than active par-ticipants in the shaping and the sending ofthe messages."

The most common criticism of television,of course, is that it is filled with violence andthat this violent content has a definite shap-ing .effect on the world view of those whowatch it, The studies by Cerbner.and Grosssubstantiate this point, emphasizing that theheavy viewer of violence on television tendsto think that life is more dangerous than itreally is. Again, this is nothing new in thehistory of popular culture. Dime novels inthe 1860s and 1870s came under intense fireas being too violent. But it is certainly truethat the potential A television to promoteaggressiveness or foster fear and insecurity ismuch greater due to its pervasiveness.

Popular Music and American DreamsAs the two newrpaper articles by Hentoff

indicate, popular music can be interpreted asa medium that expresses the deeply held de-sires, aspirations, and dreams of the Ameri-.can people. Popular music is perhaps themost,important form of mass entertainmentin this regard. A popular song can expressimple, direct statement of the way peo le

32 31

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feel. With the advahtage of dcatcli), tune and- lyrics that can be easily memorized, songs

also serve' as valuable zeintorcement for thetireanis of the ,people. By examining themakeup of these dreams, the student of popu-lar culture tan acquire important insightsinto the values and priorities of the Americanpeople.

It can be argued, of course, that profes-sional musicians create popular songs for amass market and that any significance popu-lar` music has as an expression of people'sdreams is purely coincidental. (Nye andBrowne in their Section One reader articleshave previously discussed this criticismof popular culture.) While it is true that ahighly, sophisticated recording industry doesindeed churn out songs for mass consump-tion, the'popular music business, as Denisoffpoints out in his article, is at a loss to explainthe reasons for a record's popularity. There is,in other words, no pat formula for success,which suggests that songs generally have tohave some connection to the needs and aspi-rations of people, some meaning to theirlives, in order to become popular.

It should be reinembed that even the pro-fessional creatoks of popular culture areprodu-cts of t'heir social environment and his-tOrical circumstances. They may not always"speak for an age," but they are more repre-sentative of the American mind than many.critics of popular culture would have us be-lieve. In some cases, they are truly prophetic.This was clearly demonstrated by the risepfrock 'n' roll as a vital force in the emergingcultural rebellion of the fifties.

The Relationship of Popular Music toCultural Rebellion

The reader articles on popular music arepredominantly about rock 'n' roll becausethat is the musical form that has had the

32

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O ..,greatest social, politica1,nd cultural ramifi-cations during the past three decades. As thearticle by Belz brings out, rock 'n' roll was, inmany respects, a true folk art becuase it orig-inated as a response to the needs and desiresof the people, at least of the young people, ofthe fifties. While the political activists of thesixties read into rock, 'n' roll much more re-belliousness than it actually contained, tiemusical form was.inherently a challenge to*the values and attitudes of mainstreamAmerica, particularly in such areas as work,sex, and social-political authority. The Hen-toff reader article suggests the scope of rock'sinherent defiance of established culturalnorms.

The basically apolitical defiance of rockbegan to coalesce with the political dissentinjected into the music by such former "folk"musicians as Bob Dylan. By 1965 it had be-come evident that rock was to be the mostimportant voice of the so-called countercul-ture, a development that will be cussed bytthe Pendleton article in Section Thee. _

In some respects the rebellion that rock 'n'roll tended to encourage and exploit helped toproduce a kind of "backlash" against themusic. The article by McCarthy, et al., oncountry and western indicates the signifi-,canct of that musical form in the late sixtiesand early seventies as a counterpoint themessages and tone of rock. And the final arti-cle of the section on popular music showsjust how far the counter-reaction against rockhas taken,us. The "prettiness" discussed byHilburn is as far removed as it could possibly,be from the main thrust of the earlier, morerebellious music of rock 'n' roll, with its em-

-phasis.,on earthy, natural qualities and itsdisdain for the clean; sanitized world of thecrooners such as Perry Como and FrankSinatra.

*, .

33

Sports as Symbol and RitualThe articles on sports in the reader are

concerned with their importance as symbols'for deeply held values and ideas and as ritua'sthat help to provide a sense of order, securityand, in the minds of observers like Novak, areligious quality in American society.

The "Sports World" mentality examined byLipsyte is not peculiar to the world of athlet-ics. It is, as Izenberg points out, only a mirror°Pour own thinking. This, in fact, is at thecore of-the popularity of sports: they reflect

FACTUAL REVIEW QUESTIONS

our faith in the strong individual, in the effi-cacy of competition, in the value *achieve-ment and in the preferability of success, ofwinning. The SportsWorld is only a model ofthe American way of life.

Sports, however, do more than merelysymbelize our ideas and behavior. They alsooffer a very attractive ritual in which specta-tors can participate vicariously and acquire awide range of psychological benefits, from

nisi ple emotional release to a prpfound re- ____gious experience.

1. Why, according t Sklar, is theVeamlike state induced by watching movies moresatisfying than tfre actual dream l people have during sleep?

2. What social class constituted the major portion of motion picture audiences in the earlyyears of the industry?

SS. Why does Sklar, in his reader article, reject the mirror concept intrelution to movies,and what metaphor does hp, substitute for it?

4: Why did movie studios change their attitud4 toward television in the 1950s?

5. Why does William Paul assert that Hollywood currently "is on the lookout for the'pre-sold' project"?

46. What does Dworkin mean when he says that "the film Jaws was to Edgartown what the

shark was to 'Amity'"?, . I

7. Why is it important, according to the newspaper article by Sklar, that television "becamethe priniary Tedium of American popular culture during a suburban era"?

A. "What are the two opposing views of what time period constitutes television's "GoldenAge"?

9. In what ways, according to Gerbner and Gross, is television "diffejgt from all othermedia"?

34 33

vs,

1

10. What effects do Gerbner and Gross believe television violente has on "heavy viewers"? '

11.: How does televiiion foster passivity?

12. What effects does exposure to commercials haveon children and adolescents, accordingto Waters?

13. What criteria does Schillaci use to label "Roots" a "unique media event"?

14. What does Powers mean when he declares that the "eyewitness news" programs lack a. "sense of mission"?

15. How do newspapers and television news programs differ, according to Powers, in theirrelationships to the communities they serve?: , -

s16. How does Shayon view television's relationship to the probleth of individual identity,

. . and what solution does he-propose?....) ** \ .

*17. What differences does Hentoff see between traditional popular music and rock 'n' roll?

- 18. What were the "gerfteel" songs that originated in,the_mid-nineteenth century?...

19. What are some of the key factors involved in the popular music tastes of people?

20. How, according to Belz, does the phenomenon of "one-shot successes" in the world,ofrdck 'n' roll indicate the "essentially folk character" of the music?

21. *hat does Hentoff, in his redder selection, mean when he observes that "the pop-y charts have been democratized, niitcegenated, deregionalized, unclassed"?

22. In what ways does country and western music reflect "liberal" as well as "conservative"ideas and sentiments?

. ,

23. Why does Hilburn consider the success of the Carpenters a harbinger of new trends inthe popular music of the seventies? k

24. How, according to Lipsyte's first newspaper article, does sports participatiOn affectpsychological development?

25.. When and how, according to Lipsyte's second newspaper Aiticie, did Muhammad Ali,Billie Jean King, and Joe Namath becOnie super heroes? ,

34 35

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A eS,

AN

. 26. Why Does Lipsyte, in his reader article, believe that "the sports experience" inAmerica has been "perverted into a Sports World state of mind"? .

,

27. What cultural values, according to Rea1,sre reflected by thp.Super Bo W1 ritual?4 c'.

...

28. How do the ancient Olympic games serve as a precedent for the nature Of Americansport's today? ', °

29. How does Izenberg describe/he half-time show at the 1971 Super Bowl?

30. What, according to Greenfield, is the main atttaction of the Indianapolis 500 for the fans?

ESSAY AND'DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. Examine the relationshiibetween motion pictures and televisiOn during the pastthirty yeirs. a , ,

Suggested Guidelines

1. Consider the information presented in the Sklar newspaper articles..

2. Carefully analyze the points made by Paul in his reader article.

3. Do a comparative evaluation of your own attraction, or lack of attractive, too bothmotion pictures and television.

.

. .,2. Evaluate the posi%ve and negative effects of televisiomon American society.

. .,. .9.

Suggested Guidelines ':; -;,--- +0,'1.,

%.,.

1. Assess the material presentdby Gerbilir and Gross, Shayon, Power§and Waters ono - the negative aspects of television viewing. 0 i .

- a

2. Consider the suggestions of the medium's beneficial effectsin the newspaper Article bySklar and the reader article hy Schillici. ' ,

3. Do an analytical study of your personal viewing habits and correlate them with tchose /.

ti

of the typical "light" and "heavy" viewerk,,,

3635

-5.

3. Discuss the significance of rock 'n' roll music to the development of the cultural rebellionof the fifties and sixties:

Suggested Guid

1. Evaluate the presented by Belz and Hentoff on the orikins of rock 'n' roll.

2. Ciii---isider the points,made by Hentoff, in his reader article, on the importance ofsock to the counterculture.

3. Note the signifiCance of country and western and the recent trends in popular music asreactions to the cultural rebellion associated with rock.

4. Examine the ways in which the world of sports functions as a kind of "civil religion."

Suggested Guidelines

1. Determine what characteristics constitute a "religion."

2. Using your-knowledge of American history and what you have learned from SectionOne eVardite the tendency of Americans to endorse secular or civil religions.!.

3. Study the points made by the newspaper and reader articles relevant to this theme(especially those by Novak and Izenberg).

4. Give serious thought to t spectator sports, mean in your own life.

36.

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SECTION THREE:".

POPULAR CULTUREAND SOCIALCHANGE

ft

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S

NEWSP4PER ARTICLES , READER SELECTIONS

11. Poi ilia and Popular CultureAndrew Hacker

12. Popular Culture: Minorities andthe MediaNathan Irvin Huggins

j

The Pseudo-EventDaniel Boorstin

The Inside of the OutsideTony Schwartz

Political Campaigns: TV PovVer Isa MythThomas E. Patterson andRobert D. McClure

Politics in theGerald Mast

Television and the Black RevolutionWilliam Small

Blacks on TV: A Replay of 1

' Amos 'n' Andy? ,

J. K. Obatala

To Find an ImateJames P. Murra

Puerto Ricans irk American Films. Edward Mapp

,

Another Red Man Bit the DustGeorge N. Fenin and William K. Everson

The Media and the EthnicsCsanad Toth

39

13. Popullr Culture: MilTOIDf Television and the Feminine'Women Moving Mystique'Betty Friedan Betty Friedan

...

14. Popular Culture and AmericanLife-StylesBennett M. Berger -00

The Big LieMolly Haskell

The Lady as lockShelley Armitage

Does Rock Degiade Women?Marion Meade

<Poker and the American DramRex L. Jones

appy MedCcrityElaine endall

Fashion as New SelfTruro E. Moore

7--The Life-Style Rebellion:John Pendleton

t:

40

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'4tro

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A

.39

LEARNING OBJECTIVES'

To understand

O the influence of the mass media on the political process

O the importance of television to the civil rights movement

O the historical tendency of popular culture to perpetuate false or demeaning stereotypes of ,ethnic minorities

O the unrealistic and damaging portraits of women in popular culture,

O the effect of popular' culture on the women's liberation movement

O the manner in which diversions, eating habits, and fashion trends reflect basic Americanvalues and priorities

O the significance-of popular culture to the emergence of the counterculture

OVERVIEW

This section concerns the role of popularculture in the procesS of social change'. Thesignificance of popular culture to politics,ethnic minorities, women, and life-styles isexplored in this context.,

PoliticsThe first newspaper article in Section

Three, by Andrew Hacker, outlines some ofthe problems inherent in the "awkward" al-liance of popular culture and politics., Hackernotes that political theme's,and characters inentertainment tend to be contrived and shal-low. He also makes the point, in a mannersimilar. to Handlin's complains about theraccof audience participation in modernpopular culture, that people have much lessfirst-hand experience with politics than theydid in the nineteenth century. Hacker echoes

-e Powers' critique of television news in sayingthat political awareness is not furthered by a,

4-1

.medium that concentrates on the superficialand the sensational.

The first reader article in Section Threedeals, with the phenomenon 9f "pseudo-events" in the news-gathering professions.

.Daniel Boorstin, much like Powers, claimsthat the main criterion- cirmost news gather-ers is not whether something is"real," butsimply "is it newsworthy?" The studentsliOnld recall Denney's article on the rise ofthe sensationalist press in the late nineteenthcenturY to note that this is hardly a new tend-ency. Particularly noteworthy in Boorstin'sarticle is his assertion that politicians, likethe former Senator Joseph McCarthy of Wis-'consin, can literally build a career by Manipu-/lating the "pseudo-events" they create inconcert with rournalists.' The reader article by Tony Schwartz givesan insider's view of the use of television inpolitical campaigning. A noted media ad-

441

41.

viser, Schwartz has faith in the power of tele-vision. His optimism, however, runs counterto some of the points made by Thomas E.Patterson and Robert D. McClure in the nextarticle.

Like Boorstin, Patterson and McClure takea dim view of the ability of the news-reporting enterprises to inform the publicabout political issues. The authors concen-trate on this failing in television, a mediumthat epitomizes the popular cultural fascina-tion with superficial 'images and constantaction. Patterson and McClure offer as doc-umentation a detailed study of the .role oftelevision in the 1972 presidential ca aign:

Gerald Mast looks at the motio ictureportrayal of politics in his selectio . Mastnotes that most of the stories are little morethan simplistic morality plays in which goodinevitably triumphs over evil. Recent tilmshave introduced a stronger strain of cynicismbut, accofding to Mast, the moralistic moviementality still persists.

Unlike the previous authors on politics,William Small, gives a great deal of credit totelevision as a vital forcein social change. Hedeals specifically with the civil rights move:Went. Without the assistance of the perva-sive medium, black efforts toward freedomand equality, may not have secured as manytangible gains in so short a time. The blackstruggle was so quintessentially, dramaticand so rife with moral fervor that it proved tobe both fascinating, and troubling to whiteAmerica, much in .the manner of the impactof Roots ..Television has made it difficult forwhites to ignore the plight of blacks inAmerican society.

,----.1'

'Ethnic Minorities/ The newspaper article by Nathan Irvin

Huggins, which begins the section on ethnic

I

minorities, also deals with the relationship ofthe media to the struggle for equality. Theauthor is somewhat pessimistic about theusefulness of popular culture in advancingthe cause of social equality. He notes that thecurrent spate .of situation comedies aboutminorities "are now serving mass media'sgood-natured indulgence in ethnic humorjust as Jewish and Italian Americans havebeen _doing for -years." Huggins admits that

fastprogress has been made in thefast fifteen. years; but he bemoans 'the diffi:culty faced by talented ethnics in breakiriginto an entertainment industry that seems towant only established stars from the ranks ofminority groups. He is particularly critical ofthe fact that whites "defipt whatever ethniccontent will get aired." The article by Gans,inSection One detailed the characteristics othose,who create our popular cul so ift\..should ,not be surprising that t allthe content of entertainment off hasa distinctly white, middle-aged, malepoint-of-view.

J. K. Obatala's reader selection is moresympathetic with the creators'of popular cul-

-ture. The author refutes the charge that aprogram such as "Sanford and Son" is simplya throvThack to the days of "Amos 'n' Andy."Indeed, he even sees.a great deal of value inthat supposedly racist program. He points outthat the stereotypes of blacks in popular cul-

-tune have a basis in fact, but the problem isthat e stereotypes have come to be tfiede 'ng identity for d11 blacks. Like most oft e authors of articles on both minorities and

omen, Obatala is hopeful that, blacks willecome'more active in creating positive im-

ages of themselves in popular culture.In contrast to Obatala, the reader selec-'

tion by James Murray has a harsher attitudetoward the stereotypes prOmulgated by popu-

4 2A

lar culture, in s case movies. He lamentsthe fact that the hite movie moguls spreaddamaging messages of white superiorityAbuthe es critical of the fact that blacks

re so effective y excluded from films. Andthose that did appear were always cast as"cowardly, subservient, obsequious, lazy."Unlike Obatala, Murray contends that blacksdid not identify with these unrealistic anddemeaning types. It was Tarzan, not the Afri-can natives, whom blacks cheered in themovie theaters, according to Murray.

The article by Edward Mapp on Puerto Ri-cans in films is similar to the previous one onblacks. Kapp notes that despite Jose Ferrer'sOscar in'1961, there have been very few tri-umphs for Puerto Ricans in films, a mediumin which they still remain "mostly shadowand little substance." Although Mapp im-plies that Puerto Ricans can help to changethis situation by more active involvement inthe movie induitry, he indicates that hehas seen little to make his outlook moreoptimistic.

George N. Fenin and William K. Everson'sarticle deals with the stereotypical treatment

--of Native Americans in movies, but there aresome important differences between the wayin which Indians have been portrayed and theway other minorities have been pictured. Inthe early twentieth century, the AmericanIndian was actually cast as a hem, but always,as the authors point out, as more of a symbolthan azi individual, Then, from about 1910 to1950, the characterizations of Indians lostmost of their admirable qualities. It is in-teresting to note, however, that as early as1950 the pendulum was definitely swingingthe other way, at a time when all other ethnicminorities were still receiving unfavorabletreatment in popular culture.

42

WomenThe final article on ethnic minorities by

Csanad Toth concerns the much-ignored "si-lent majority" ethnic type, who is neithernonwhite nor poor (although not rich), and isseldom seen protesting anything. Toth, ofEastern European ancestry, sees almost noevidence that the media is even aware ofthese ethnics and their unique cultures. This"pervasive neglect" has created serious prob-lems for those who wish to preserve their .

ethnic identity in American society, accord-ing to Toth.

Betty Friedan's newspaper article beginsthe section on women in popular culture. Sheobgerves that the women's movement, insome respects, can be construed as a massivereaction against the portrayal of women in-popular culture. The black revolution dis-cussed by Small also, according to Friedan,had a powerful ,effect on many women whowere _inspired to protest their situation inAmerican society. Friedan. is generally op-timistic about current trends in the Massmedia, especially after noting how badfthesituation was.for women only.a decade ago.

This unhealthy and potentially damagingsituation is detailed in Friedan's reader selec-tion. Written in 1964, this article has none ofthe hopefulness she expresses in her news-paper article. Based on a study of televi-sion prograins and commercials, Friedan'spiece reads like an indictment of the indus-.try. She is particularly puzzled by the factthat television had supposedly become the ,

medium that catered to the average house-wife. She just could not accept the assertionthat the electronic box was giving thesewomen the kind of content they reallywanted, and she worried about what effectthe demeaning portraits of women would

43

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have on both the sexes. The article by Grosson advertising in Section One had many ofthe same complaints about commercials, soit should be noted that human beings in gen-eral are not treated with much respect bythose who seem interested only inmaking abuck.

Molly Haskell's article deals wits the "BigLie" of women's inferiority perpetuated. bymovies. She contends that the movie indus-try "maneuverqd to keep women in theirplace," but that, ironically, women achievedheights of wealth and prestige in motion pic-tures that would be almost unthinkable inany other facet of American life. In fact, thegreat female movie stars, who almost neversacrificed love for a career in films, did so allthe time in real life. Thus, the discrepancybetween film images and socialreality helpedto generate support for the women's move-ment, according to Haskell. Sklar's reader ar-ticle in Section Two, of course, makes thepoint that most features of American, lifewere not too accurately portrayed by movies.

The selection by Shelley Armitage looks atthe progress women have made in profes-sional athletics. She observes that, in spite ofstrict cultural conditioning, women havemanaged to break many social barriers andexcel in the world of sports. Like the articlesby Lipsyte in Section Two, the selection byArmitage details the difficult road womenmust travel in overcoming the sexism ofAmerican culture. The passage of Title IX hasbeen a boon to women's sports, the authorpoints out, but we are still a long way fromachieving any kind of equality between thesexes in athletics._

Marion Meade sees little to applaud in themanner in which women are treated by' tDworld of rock music. She is particularly criti-

f

cal of the lyrics of musicians such as BobDylan, and the Rolling Stones, who picturewomen in a variety of unflattering ways. Shenotes the irony of the fact that rock playedsuch a central role in the rebellion againstmiddle-class values but that it has never freeditself from the grip of male chauvinism.

Life-StylesThe section on life-styles begins with the

newspaper article by Bennett M. Berger, whooffers a good definition of what a '"life-style"is. Some of his comments are similarto whatGans discussed in his newspaper article inSection One. Berger'focuses on the counter-culture as arrexample of a life-style and tasteculture that could be understood in terms ofthe people Who comprised it and the back-grounds they came from. He observes thatthe counterculture as a movement has lostsome intensity but that its impact is veryobvious in many aspects of contemporaryAmerican society. Berger concludes by not-ing that a major problem if popular culture,due to the diversity of life-styles and socialgroups, is to strike a balance between culturalpluralism and a common identity as Ameri-cans. This theme will also be explored byAlvin Toffler in his newspaper article in Sec-

, tion Four.One common value held by many. Ameri-

cans has been a belief in the AmericanDream. To Rex Jones, poker epitomizes theAmerican Dream, with its emphasis onchance, equality of opportunity, and the cru-cial importance of individual effort. Indeed,as his article points out, many people look topoker as one of the few, perhaps the only,opportunity to pursue the Ameritan Dream.This might help explain poker's popularityamong its estimated 47 million players. As

4 143

the ntwspaper article by Browne in SectionOne pointed out, the idea of the AmericanDream is still a central element of our na-tional faith.

Eating habits represent another importantfacet 'of American life-styles. The selectionby Elaine Kendall examine:. the meaning ofthe astronomical increase in the number offast food establishments during the last twodecades. The article singles out theMcDonald's hamburger chain as representa-tive of this trend in American popular cultureand analyzes the implications of the Ameri-can embrace of "consensus food."

Along with their desire for the "instant,"most Americans, argues Truman Moore inhis reader selection, have an almost insa-tiable appetite for the "new." This "nou-veaumania," as Moore calls it is most evi-dent in fashion trends. The author consid-ers the sixties a key decade in the accelera-

KEY CONCEPTS

tion of this tendency toward nouveaumaniabecause it was a time of rapid social change,and a time when "style" was construed to bean important symbol of one's value system.

The final article in Section Three examinesthe rise of the counterculture, a movementpreviously discussed by Nat Hentoff in hisreader selection in Section Two. JohnPendleton views the emergence of the coun-terculture as essentially a life-style rebellion.Like Berger, in his tiewspazer article, Pendle-ton locates some of the important features ofthe counterculture and the factors that gaverise to this trend in American society. Theimportance of popular culture to this move-ment is also discussed. The. fact that pOpularartists used their particular medium- to con-demn American society indicated that theyhad departed from the noncontroversialstance of most popular culture, a quality dis-cussed by Nye in Section One.

The Importance of Image inPolitical Life

The controversy over violence in televi-sion 'is nearly matched in intensity by theargument over what effects the image-conscious mass media has on political' life. Ithas become commonplace to speak of politi-cians using the media to enhance their pres-tige. The most common reference is to John F.Kennedy, especially his dramatic "win" overRichard Nixon in the 1960 televised debates.But some important studies indicate that the"image" is not as important as wg think?Amercians do have more laudable reasons forselecting a candidge.-The article by Patter-

44

4 5.

son and McClure, based ion intensive re-search and interviews, makes precisely thispoint. -

Perhaps the most accurate statement to '

make is thatthe mass media does indeedISiornote superficial images and an actionformat in their treatment of political life, butthese presentations cawliave a varlet), of ef-fects do those who watch them. It should beremembered that such factors as party affilia-.tion and personal life-style priorities havemuch to do with a voter's choice of a candi-date. The best that the media can do is toprovide exposure for a politician. In thissense, it is true that those who can attract

media attention have definite advantages in.reaching the public with their messages. Butthis is not the same thing as saying that vot-ers buy "prepackaged" candidates and thatthe image, the appearance, is paramount intheir "purchase." The debate over the role of,

image simply points up the problem scholarhave in determining how the content of themass media is received by the audience.

The FunctionAf the Mass Media inPolitical Protest Movements

Like the discussion of image, the questionof what effects mass media have on politicalprotest movements' is a difficult oue. Politi-cal activists such as Jerry Rubin and AbbieHoffman have tended to believe that televi-sion, for instance, can be a potent weapon inthe social protest struggles. It can flashdramatic pictures of demonstrations,-such asthe one that occurred in 1968 during theDemocratic Convention in Chicago, topeople who may have previously been una-ware of a protest movement. This is, ofcourse, ,true, but to say that the pictures ofdissent can "radicalize" someone is some-thing else. Many people, M fact, were so oueraged by the actions of the demonstratorsthat they lost What little syl-npathy they mayhave had for the protestors.

Despite the assertions of those like Wil-liam Small, in his reader selection, manyobservers feel the mass media are inherentlyinjurious to protest movements. They basetheir assumption on what they see as thetendency of the media to concentrate on themost flamboyant aspects of the movement.Of course, as Betty Friedan pointed out in hernewspaper article, protestors can manipulatethe. media by understanding this sen-sationalist piopensity of most news gather-

ers.But "playing along" with the media runsthe risk of invalidatinthe credibility of pro-test movements in the minds of some. Andthere are those, like social theorist Herbert.Marcuse, who believe that the media siphonsoff all meaningful dissent and renders it inef-fective by making it a popular cultural corn-modity. This theme was discussed in the"passive" versus "active" theories of popularculture introduced in Section One.

46

The Problem-of Ethnic Ide tityThe problem of et i entity in Ameri-

can society is a very eriou one, as regardsthe role. of popular c ure. Huggins (andGans before him) poi ted o t, those whocreate and produce pop r lture are over-whelmingly from the white middle and uppermiddle classes. They define what ethnics arefor Americans. The articles in Section Threeon minoritie have detailed just how damag-ing this has been for blacks, Hispanic Ameri-cans, Native Americans, and others seekingsocial equality who have suffered greatly atthe hands of the popular culture creators andproducers.

The solution to the problem, according tomost of die articles, is for ethnic minoritiesto assert themselves and become more activein popular culture. This -is easier said thandone. One major stumbling block is money.It takes a great deal of financial backing toproduce a television program or a motionpic-ture, and most minority group members lackthe resources for such projects. Another ob-stacle is the difficulty for minorities to breakinto the creative positions in popularculture.Progress is being made, but it is so slow in

icoming it could have the effect of discourag-ing many ethnic minorities in their pursuit ofcareers in entertainment.

45

The Image of Women inPopular Culture

Women have been portrayed in an array ofimages, but in almost all of them women areseen as subservient to men. Even in some ofthe "tough" women parts given to Vae West,Joan Crawford, and Katharine Hepburn, theidea of living one's life for a man managed tocreep in. The article by Molly Haskell onfilms indicates the scarcity of realistic andadmirable characterizations of women in themovies. Even today, very few aspects of massentertainment do justice to the contributionsof women and their varied experiences inAmerican society.

Again, we must return to the problem of.who creates and produces popular culture. Asin the case of ethnic minorities, it is not sur-prising to find demeaning stereotypes orunrealistic portrayals of women in #n enter-tainment industry dominated by men. Untilmore women create and produce storiesabout themselves, the situation may notchange appreciably. Betty Friedan is optimis-tic about current trends, but so much more

c needs to be done..

It can be argued, however, -that not onlywomen and ethnic minorities, but most ofAmerican society is not adequately or accu-rately portrayed by popular culturethatpopular culture is not a very reliable.mirrorof American life. This concern is aggravatedby the fact that popular culture today is al-most entirely disseminated through themassmedia, which, as Handlin pointed out in Sec-tion 9ne, further removes the entertainerfrom the entertained. Its this sense, womenare only feeling the effects of a traditionalproblem inherent in mass-produced popularculture. However, they are more victimizedbecause images of'women in popular culture

have been so uniformly unfavorable, whilemen have been accorded both positivenegative representations.

Life-style Patterns as Windows intothe "American Mind"

The style of life adopted by people has sig-nificance beyond its description of patterns ofliving. The way people dress, their eatinghabits, and their tastes in a host of other areasare fairly reliable indexes of the way theythink. By observing fife-style trends inAmerican society in general, it is possible tomake some educated generalizations aboutthe makeup of the so-called American mind.

There is, of course, no actual "collectiveconsciousness" observable in American cul-ture, but there are many common values andattitudes that underlie the "American Way ofLife." The article by Pendleton, as well as theSection One newspaper article by Browne,detail some of these values and attitudes. Justas the choice of a type of-entertainmentnecessarily says something about one'stastes, so does a particular style of living say agreat deal about one's basic priorities. Whileit may be argued that clothing and eatinghabits are trivial matters, there is much evi-dence to indicate that Americans "definethemselves" as much by these supposedlymeaningless things as they do by choosing aform of entertainment, subscribing to a par-ticular religion, or supporting a politicalparty, The articles on life-styles in this sec-tion illustrate how much we can learn fromexamining these facets of American,olife.

The CountercultureThe idea Of the counterculture is signifi-

cant in the discussion of American life-styles. As the article by Pendleton pointsout,

NI/

46 4 7

the counterculture movement was some-what unique because of its strong concentra-tion on life-style patterns. As Bergh's news-paper article observes, the counterculture, inmany respects, began as an unorganized re-bellion agaihst the tendency of white,middle-class culture to "program" childreninto certain acceptable ways of living. Thesuburban-corporate image was rejected bymillions of young Americans, who sought amore meaningful, "authentic" exi tence.Many of them turned to the cultur of the"out groups" in American socie blacks,American Indians, drug cultists, political"

FACTUAL REVIEW QUESTIONS

radicalsfor inspiration and instruction onhow to forge alternative life-styles.

The counterculture is important beyondits historical value. We can definitely see evi-dence of its impact today. As Berger pointsout, such characteristics as liberalized sexualattitudes, the use of marijuana and other out-lawed drugs, more expressive clothing, and agreater concern with harmonizing with thenatural environment and relating more"meaningfully" with other people attest tothe lasting effects of the counterculture onAmerican society.

1. How does Hacker view the importance of popular music to politics?

2. How does Hacker characterize the general public reaction to the televised presidential

debates?

3. What is a "pseudo-event"?

4. WI&t is the significance of the term "news release" to the rise of the pseudo-eventtendency of the news-gathering professions?

5. What does Schwartz mean when he says that "it is much more important for a voter to

feel a candidate than to see him"?-

(4

6. What do Patterson and McClure say about the assertion that "images" win more votesthan either issues or parties?

7. What is Patterson's mid McClure's assessment of the effectiveness of the five-minutepolitical "spot" commercials?

8. How did Frank Capra's films epitomize the standard portrayal of politics in motion

pictures?

4847

fp9. Does Mast believe that movie attitudes toward politics are consistent with the general

public orientation toward political life?(

10. In what ways, according to Small,, did television serve as an ally for the black revolution?

11. What significance does Small see in the increasing number of blacks in televisioncommercials?

12. How does Huggins view the value of ethnicsituation comedies to the understanding ofthe social problems of minorities?

13. What does Huggins mean when he says that "media exposure has cut both ways" in theblack revolution?

-14. Why does Obatala believe that those who'played the black stereotype roles "served thecause of equality"? , , .

15. What suggestions does Obatala offer for blacks to strive-for equality in the entertainmentustry?

16. Why does Murray believe that demeaning black stereotypes in iilms."did more toreinforce the at itudes of whites than they did to injure the self-image of blacks"?,

17. How does Mapp assess the importance of the film West Side Story to the progress ofPuerto Ricans in/notion pictures?

18. How did film portrayals of Indians change after 1950?

19. What does Toth mean when he declares that ethnicity suffers in the mass media om,"pervasive neglect"?

20. According to Friedan's newspaper article, what effect did the media coverage the blackrevolution have on many women?

21. How does Friedan view magazines such as Viva and Playgirl? tit

22. What does Friedan, in her reader article, sere-as the main features of the portr als ofwomen in daytime soap oPeras?

23: What is the "Big Lie" Molly Haskell discusses in herreaderselection?

24. What does Haskell feel our attitude today sho-uld be toward the film stedittypes ofwomen in the past? .

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4849

25. What were the three basic areas in which popularization of competitive athletics forwomen occurred?

26. What is the "femininity game" discussed by Armitage?0 --

27. Ho , according to the selection by Meade, did rock lyrics change fioni the fifties to the

sixties in their portrayal of women? 4' 1010

28. Why are the roots of rock 'n' roll important in the prevailing notiotz of masculinesupremacy reflected through the music?

29. How does Berger, in his newspaper article, interpret the counterculture terms of tlsocial batkgroundeand circumstances of the people who shared it"?

30. How, according to Jdnes, is poker "a puce expression of the American dream"? f31. Why does Kendall see little hope that the "consensus food" trend will be reversed?

32. How, according toMoore, is the American love of you_ thfulness mirrored in the"nouveaumania" of American culture?,

33. Why was the American dream 'of success attacked by young tieople in the fades andsixties?

34. What is the significance of the "first television neratioe to the emergence of thelife-style rebellion?

...

.ESSAY AND DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. Discuss the effectiveness of popular culture in increasing the political awareness of theAmerican people: ,

Suggested Guidelines-, .. ,:c,,- ,

Pl. Consider the points made by 1d4icer and Boorstin 'on the tendency of popular culture

' to present superficial treatmenfrof iitzlitics. ,

2. Examine the ideas of SchViartz ind,tife.e4iiitenoe presented by Patterson and McClure

on theimpact of the mass media 8;1 thi'lioViii: . _

,

,.. " 1., .;-,

3. Note the arguments made by Small on the effectiveness of television in the blackf ,-,

revolution. .,4 -

-'

A::.:610.; ,. , er '

.. ,,, -,, ..). ,O' 49 .

4. Evaluate your own reasons for liking or disliking certain politicians, and for takingparticular stands on specific issues in an attempt to discern possible media influenceon your ideas and attitudes.

2. Compare and contrast the image and role of blacks in popular culture with that of otherethnic minorities.

Suggested Guidelines

1.. Determine whit cha teristics have traditionally been assigned to the various ethnicminorities in t polar cultural stereotypes of them.

2. Analyze the material and opinions presented in the articles on minorities, particularlynoting Toth's observations on the "silent majority" ethnic.

3. Draw up lists of the minority group members that you are aware of in popular cultureand make a comparative analysis of them.

3. Examine the key elements in the traditional composite portrait of women in populariulture and disc* the alterations that have been made in this image in recent years.

Suggested Guidelines

1. Note the traditional tendencies of popular culture, discussed by the Friedan, Haskell,and Meade reader articles, in promoting denteaningeimages of women.

2. Examine the points made by Friedan, in her newspaper article, and Armitage, in herreader selection, on recent trends relevant to this subject.

3. Compare the popular cultural portrayal of women,with your own conceptions of.thestatus of women in American society.

4. Outline the basic values and behavioral patterns inherent in the American Way of Life andanalyze the challenges made to them by the counterculture.

50

Suggested Guidelines

1. Note the article by Pendleton in order to acquire an understanding of the.AmericanWay of Life:

2. Analyze the key features of American life alluded to in.the Jones, Kendall, and Moorearticles.

3. Consider the points made by Pendleton and Berger on the emergence of theCounterculture.

51,

SECTION N FOUR: ,

THE FUTURE OFPOPULAR CULTURE

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52 51

NEWSPAPER ARTICLE READER SELECTIONS

15. The Death of the Mass Media? The Electronic CommunityAlvin Toffler Kas Kalba

The Untouchable WondersShepherd Mead

About a Secret Cro.codileR. A. Lafferty

So You Think TV Is Hot Stuff?Erik Bamouw

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4t

7

LEARNING OBJECTIVE'Sar.

To understand

O the c &place in the mass media,

\ .

O the grow'' trend toward cultural diversitydiversity reflected in new communications aclvanses

O the teclmological innovations that will trainfOrm television t a ripphisticated system og`communications

O the problems confronting the development of new communications systems

O the challenge facing the "software" people in providing mean"hardware", of thehture

OVERVIEW

pastiines for the pew

,.The final section in this course concerns

the future development of popular cultureand what possible effects this development

- will have on our lives.The newspaper article by Alvin Toffler

analyzes the changes that have already takenf. place in the mass media. Toffler points to the

virtual extinction of mass market magazinesis an indication of a new trend toward greatercultural selectivity. The abundance of reg-ional and specialized magazines would seemto confirm his assessment, although the suc-cess of Peop/eitiagazine illuAtrates that theold format has not completely 'died. In manyrespects, as Toffler points out, popular cul-ture seems to be returning to a preindustrialquality, to a time ydien heterogeneity ratherthan homogeneity was the rule. Even televi-sion, -which Toffler calls "the eats stan-dardizinf medium," is on the b of radicalalterations. And, it should be remembered,television' is still a relatively primitive medi-um. In essence, Toffler sees the changes tak-

= 4 ingplace in popular culture as representative

pf a broad and worldwide pheno.menon ofincreasing social, political, and culturaldiversity. . 0

The first reader article in Se. ction Four con-.cerns the future of television. According tKas Kalba, it is evftable that the househol 1

systems that offe a wide array of entertain-).o f tomorrow , I include communications

ment and services, from a videotape recorderand playback machine to a remote learningand shopping terminal. Kalba also pondersthe consequences of technological advance-ment. lie points out that there is sharp Clisa-greenient over whether the telecommunica-tions evolution will prove a benefit or willJende humans slaves to the"B>siars. But,as Kal a declares, the future is dependent onus. Only by concern and inyoLvement in deci-sion making that will profoundly affect theirlives can Americans determine the kin' offuture they, want.

The article by Shepheld Wad assertswe already have great technical capabilities,but that political hureaucracy,in the form of

l' ,

54 53

(r.

"red tape" and unfairly -restrictive laws ispreventing the United States from puttingthem to -use. In a manner similar to Kalbl'sanalysis, Mead argues that only by workingthrough the political system can we insurethat the technical advances already devel-oped can be implemented.

R. A. Lafferty's intriguing story of the "Se-cret Crocodile," that "controls the attitudesand dispositions of the world," presents arather sobering Orwellian vision of the fu--ture. In- contrast to the gederally favorableattitude toward technology exhibited byKalba, Mead, and Barhouw, Lafferty con-structs a scenario in which a powerfulorganization that "manufactures all thecatchwords and slogans of the world" is beingthreatened by three human beings who refuseto be taken in by the "official" way of talkingand thinking. In the end, th9Crocodile man-ages to save itself from the danger of the se-cret society of three that would not "goalong." It takes very little extrapolation tosee the implications of Lafferty's science-fiction piece for our own society in whichelite groups exert enormous-power over theimages and ideas transmitted to us.

the final selection discusses the fact thatwe are on the threshold of great technologicaladvances in communication Like Kalba andMead, Erik Ikrnouw illustratei that "the fu-ture is alreatrtiere." He zeroes in on specificelements of thi's new technology, such as thepptical fiber on which laser beams can traveland "carry innumerable streams of commu-nication simultaneously in both directions."Bamouw also discusses the computers, satel-lites, cassettes, and other technological mar-vels . that will transform our personal andsocial lives. Barnouw seems to have confi-dence that the "hardware" people can deliver

4'

their creations, but he wonder whetherthe 'software" people, those who must fash-ion the content to be .disseminated, can ef-fectively keep up with the rapid pace of tech-nology.

.1

55

J

4

KEY CONCEPTS

4

The Telecommunications RevolutionMost observers. are in general agreement

that we have already entered the first stage ofwhat will prove to be the most far-reachingtechnological transformation in the field ofmass communications. The phrase "tele-cominunications revolution" is often used todescribe this movement that is currently tak-ing shape. Most of the discussions certter onthe role of television as the crucial mediumin the new home communications centers oftomorrow. The advent of cable TV, cassettes,and videotape recorder and playback ma-chines indicates that the changes are already,.occurring.

Obstacles to Technological ProgressUnfortunately, at least from the viewpoint

of the advocates of new technology, there aresome serious obstacles to new advances inthe field of communications. The situationin cable TV, outlined by Mead, is 'only oneexample, Like many other agencies in gov-ernment, the Federal CommunicationsCommission feels the heat of, powerfulbroadcasting 'merest groups who opposesuch things as ble TV because they per-ceive them as threats to their dominance inthe arena of communications. While thismaybe true to a certain extent, it is also beingargued that those who operate the major tele-vision networks, for instance, are well placed'to reap .enormous profits and to gain addedpower from their involvement with newtechnological forms of communication. Thehistory of popular culture is rife with inci-dents of established media resisting new de-

. velopmenti in the field. .

56

Cultural DiVersityThe newspaper article by Toffler and the

reader articles by Kalba and Barnouw bringout the point that the telecommunica-tions revolution may very well create a greatdeal more diversity in our culture. Toffler,forone, believes the diversity that is being gen-erated in popular culture is merelysymptomatic of a larger phenomenon of so-cial fragmentation, ethnic diversity, and po-1Ttical decentralization throughour theworld. Kalba and Barnouw indicatethat thenew home Ommunications systemi will en-able individuals to literally "talk back," to bemore involved in their entertainment avidtheir technological pastimes.

The question arises, however, as to whateffects this individualization and the relatedtrend toward privatism will really have, onour culture. Will diVersity, for individuals, inother words, really carry over into interper-sonal and social relationa.Will individualseven have much social contact at all in afilture that promises' gadgeIs that enablepeople to function in all areas of life withoutever leaving home? Rather than accepting thefacile assumption that a greater number andvarie rural offerings necessarily leadsto great diversi in culture at large, studentsof popular culture should examine all facetsof contemporary 'American 'life and try- tospeculate about just what effects, both p6si.:tive and negative, new form's of technologywill haAre on the entire spectrum of oursociety.

55

FACTUAL REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What does Toff ler mean by "the de-massification of the mass media"?

2. Why, in Toff ler's estimation, did Lift, Look, and the Saturday Evening Post discontinuepublication?

3. What does Toff lei believe will be the end results of the de-massification of the massmedia?

4. In what respect;according to Kalba, do the two perspectives of our communicationsfuture converge?

5. What are the five ways in which television will be technologically transformed into the"home communications center of tomorrolW "?

-4"

6. What social transformations have been caused by, as well as contributed to, the trendtoward more individualistic and selective television viewing patterns? 3

7. Flow will television become an increasingly important part of the communityenvironment of the future?

S. What are the three types of cable networks sug,gested by Peter Goldmarki as discussed inthe Mead article? .

9. Why, according to Mead, are the technological advances in communications systems notbeing implemented to any widespread extent?

10. What future uses could communications satellites be put to?.

11. What does Mead propose that could allow maximum development of newcommunications systems?

12. What is the "Secret crocodile" Lafferty writes about?

13. What is an "optical fiber"?

14. What is meant by `fhafdware" and "software" people in the langiihe oftelecommunications? . ,

15. Is Barnouw essentially optimistic or pessimistic about the "telecommunicationsrevolution"?

.56 57

4

.

ESSAY AND DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. blems confrontintthe'development of new communications systems.

nggested Guidelines

1: Review the article by Mead.e

2. Use the knowledge and insights you have acquiredfrom studying the first threesections to determine whether the American people will be enthusiastic about newtechnological advances in the field of tommunications.

1..

2. Discuss the possible effects the "teleommunications revolution" will have on the nlitureand quality of American life.

Suggested Guidelines

1. Study the arguments of Kalba and Bamouw.

2. Consider the possibilities suggested by Lafferty's fictio mount.

If 3. Determine what the phrase "quality of life" means to you and to other Americans.

4. Recall some of the previous articles on the effects technology has had on Americansociety.

H

l

58

4.

57