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Chapter 8
Momentum and Collisions
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8.1 Linear Momentum The linear momentum of a particle or
an object that can be modeled as a particle of mass m moving with a velocity is defined to be the product of the mass and velocity:
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Fig 8.1
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Linear Momentum, cont Linear momentum is a vector quantity
Its direction is the same as the direction of
The dimensions of momentum are ML/T The SI units of momentum are kg · m / s Momentum can be expressed in
component form: px = m vx py = m vy pz = m vz
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Newton and Momentum Newton called the product m the
quantity of motion of the particle Newton’s Second Law can be used to
relate the momentum of a particle to the resultant force acting on it
with constant mass
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Newton’s Second Law The time rate of change of the linear
momentum of a particle is equal to the net force acting on the particle This is the form in which Newton presented the
Second Law It is a more general form than the one we used
previously This form also allows for mass changes
Applications to systems of particles are particularly powerful
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Conservation of Linear Momentum Whenever two or more particles in an
isolated system interact, the total momentum of the system remains constant The momentum of the system is
conserved, not necessarily the momentum of an individual particle
This also tells us that the total momentum of an isolated system equals its initial momentum
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Conservation of Momentum, 2 Conservation of momentum can be expressed
mathematically in various ways
In component form, the total momenta in each direction are independently conserved
Conservation of momentum can be applied to systems with any number of particles
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Conservation of Momentum, Archer Example The archer is standing
on a frictionless surface (ice)
Approaches: Newton’s Second Law –
no, no information about F or a
Energy approach – no, no information about work or energy
Momentum – yes
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Archer Example, 2 Let the system be the archer with bow
(particle 1) and the arrow (particle 2) There are no external forces in the x-
direction, so it is isolated in terms of momentum in the x-direction
Total momentum before releasing the arrow is 0
The total momentum after releasing the arrow is p1f + p2f = 0
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Archer Example, final The archer will move in the opposite
direction of the arrow after the release Agrees with Newton’s Third Law
Because the archer is much more massive than the arrow, his acceleration and velocity will be much smaller than those of the arrow
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Conservation of Momentum, Kaon Example
The kaon decays into a positive and a negative particle
Total momentum before decay is zero
Therefore, the total momentum after the decay must equal zero
Fig 8.3
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8.2 Impulse and Momentum From Newton’s Second Law, Solving for dp gives Integrating to find the change in
momentum over some time interval
The integral is called the impulse, , of the force acting on an object over t
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Impulse-Momentum Theorem This equation expresses the impulse-
momentum theorem:The impulse of the force acting on a particle equals the change in the momentum of the particle
This is equivalent to Newton’s Second Law
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More About Impulse Impulse is a vector quantity The magnitude of the impulse
is equal to the area under the force-time curve
Dimensions of impulse are M L / T
Impulse is not a property of the particle, but a measure of the change in momentum of the particle
Fig 8.4
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Impulse, Final The impulse can
also be found by using the time averaged force
This would give the
same impulse as the time-varying force does
Fig 8.4
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Impulse Approximation In many cases, one force acting on a particle
will be much greater than any other force acting on the particle
When using the Impulse Approximation, we will assume this is true
The force will be called the impulse force represent the momenta
immediately before and after the collision The particle is assumed to move very little
during the collision
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Fig 8.5
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Impulse-Momentum: Crash Test Example The momenta before
and after the collision between the car and the wall can be determined ( )
Find the impulse and force:
Fig 8.6
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8.3 Collisions – Characteristics We use the term collision to represent an
event during which two particles come close to each other and interact by means of forces
The time interval during which the velocity changes from its initial to final values is assumed to be short
The interaction force is assumed to be much greater than any external forces present This means the impulse approximation can be
used
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Collisions – Example 1
Collisions may be the result of direct contact
The impulsive forces may vary in time in complicated ways This force is internal
to the system Momentum is
conserved
Fig 8.7
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Collisions – Example 2 The collision need not
include physical contact between the objects
There are still forces between the particles
This type of collision can be analyzed in the same way as those that include physical contact Fig 8.7
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Types of Collisions In an elastic collision, momentum and kinetic
energy are conserved Perfectly elastic collisions occur on a microscopic
level In macroscopic collisions, only approximately
elastic collisions actually occur In an inelastic collision, kinetic energy is not
conserved although momentum is still conserved If the objects stick together after the collision, it is a
perfectly inelastic collision
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Collisions, cont In an inelastic collision, some kinetic
energy is lost, but the objects do not stick together
Elastic and perfectly inelastic collisions are limiting cases, most actual collisions fall in between these two types
Momentum is conserved in all collisions
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Perfectly Inelastic Collisions Since the objects
stick together, they share the same velocity after the collision
m1v1i + m2v2i =
(m1 + m2) vf
Fig 8.8
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Active Figure8.8
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Elastic Collisions Both momentum
and kinetic energy are conserved
Fig 8.8
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Elastic Collisions, cont Typically, there are two unknowns to solve for and so
you need two equations The kinetic energy equation can be difficult to use With some algebraic manipulation, a different equation
can be used
v1i – v2i = v1f + v2f
This equation, along with conservation of momentum, can be used to solve for the two unknowns It can only be used with a one-dimensional, elastic
collision between two objects
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Elastic Collisions, final Example of some special cases
m1 = m2 – the particles exchange velocities When a very heavy particle collides head-on with
a very light one initially at rest, the heavy particle continues in motion unaltered and the light particle rebounds with a speed of about twice the initial speed of the heavy particle
When a very light particle collides head-on with a very heavy particle initially at rest, the light particle has its velocity reversed and the heavy particle remains approximately at rest
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Problem Solving Strategy – One-Dimensional Collisions Conceptualize:
Establish a mental representation Draw a simple diagram of the particles before and
after the collision Include appropriate velocity vectors
Categorize Is the system truly isolated? Is the collision elastic, inelastic, or perfectly
inelastic?
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Problem Solving Strategy – One-Dimensional Collisions, cont
Analyze Set up the appropriate mathematical
representation for the type of collision Finalize
Check to see that your answers are consistent with the mental and pictorial representations
Be sure your results are realistic
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Fig 8.10
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8.4 Two-Dimensional Collisions
The momentum is conserved in all directions Use subscripts for
identifying the object indicating initial or final values the velocity components
If the collision is elastic, use conservation of kinetic energy as a second equation Remember, the simpler equation can only be used
for one-dimensional situations
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Two-Dimensional Collision, example
Particle 1 is moving at velocity v1i and particle 2 is at rest
In the x-direction, the initial momentum is m1v1i
In the y-direction, the initial momentum is 0
Fig 8.11(a)
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Two-Dimensional Collision, example cont
After the collision, the momentum in the x-direction is m1v1f cos m2v2f cos
After the collision, the momentum in the y-direction is m1v1f sin m2v2f sin
Fig 8.11(b)
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Problem-Solving Strategies – Two-Dimensional Collisions Conceptualize
Set up a coordinate system and define your velocities with respect to that system
It is usually convenient to have the x-axis coincide with one of the initial velocities
In your sketch of the coordinate system, draw and label all velocity vectors and include all the given information
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Problem-Solving Strategies – Two-Dimensional Collisions, 2 Categorize
What type of collision is it? Analyze
Write expressions for the x- and y-components of the momentum of each object before and after the collision
Remember to include the appropriate signs for the components of the velocity vectors
Write expressions for the total momentum of the system in the x-direction before and after the collision and equate the two. Repeat for the total momentum in the y-direction.
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Problem-Solving Strategies – Two-Dimensional Collisions, 3 Analyze, cont
If the collision is inelastic, kinetic energy of the system is not conserved, and additional information is probably needed
If the collision is perfectly inelastic, the final velocities of the two objects are equal. Solve the momentum equations for the unknowns.
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Problem-Solving Strategies – Two-Dimensional Collisions, 4 Analyze, cont
If the collision is elastic, the kinetic energy of the system is conserved
Equate the total kinetic energy before the collision to the total kinetic energy after the collision to obtain more information on the relationship between the velocities
Finalize Do the results make sense?
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Two-Dimensional Collision Example
Before the collision, the car has the total momentum in the x-direction and the van has the total momentum in the y-direction
After the collision, both have x- and y-components
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8.5 The Center of Mass There is a special point in a system or
object, called the center of mass, that moves as if all of the mass of the system is concentrated at that point
The system will move as if an external force were applied to a single particle of mass M located at the center of mass M is the total mass of the system
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Fig 8.13
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Center of Mass, Coordinates The coordinates of the center of mass
are
where M is the total mass of the system
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Center of Mass, position The center of mass can be located by
its position vector,
is the position of the i th particle, defined by
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Center of Mass, Example Both masses are on
the x-axis The center of mass
is on the x-axis The center of mass
is closer to the particle with the larger mass
Fig 8.14
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Center of Mass, Extended Object Think of the extended object as a
system containing a large number of particles
The particle distribution is small, so the mass can be considered a continuous mass distribution
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Center of Mass, Extended Object, Coordinates The coordinates of the center of mass
of the object are
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Center of Mass, Extended Object, Position The position of the center of mass can
also be found by:
The center of mass of any symmetrical object lies on an axis of symmetry and on any plane of symmetry
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Center of Mass, Example
An extended object can be considered a distribution of small mass elements, mi
The center of mass is located at position
Fig 8.15
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Fig 8.16
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Fig 8.18
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Fig 8.12
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8.6 Motion of a System of Particles Assume the total mass, M, of the
system remains constant We can describe the motion of the
system in terms of the velocity and acceleration of the center of mass of the system
We can also describe the momentum of the system and Newton’s Second Law for the system
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Velocity and Momentum of a System of Particles The velocity of the center of mass of a system
of particles is
The momentum can be expressed as
The total linear momentum of the system equals the total mass multiplied by the velocity of the center of mass
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Acceleration of the Center of Mass The acceleration of the center of mass
can be found by differentiating the velocity with respect to time
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Forces In a System of Particles The acceleration can be related to a
force
If we sum over all the internal forces, they cancel in pairs and the net force on the system is caused only by the external forces
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Newton’s Second Law for a System of Particles Since the only forces are external, the net
external force equals the total mass of the system multiplied by the acceleration of the center of mass:
The center of mass of a system of particles of combined mass M moves like an equivalent particle of mass M would move under the influence of the net external force on the system
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Momentum of a System of Particles The total linear momentum of a system of
particles is conserved if no net external force is acting on the system
The total linear momentum of a system of
particles is constant if no external forces act on the system
For an isolated system of particles, the total momentum is conserved
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Fig 8.20
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Fig 8.21
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Motion of the Center of Mass, Example
A projectile is fired into the air and suddenly explodes
With no explosion, the projectile would follow the dotted line
After the explosion, the center of mass of the fragments still follows the dotted line, the same parabolic path the projectile would have followed with no explosion
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8.7 Rocket Propulsion The operation of a rocket depends upon
the law of conservation of linear momentum as applied to a system of particles, where the system is the rocket plus its ejected fuel
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Rocket Propulsion, 2
The initial mass of the rocket plus all its fuel is M + m at time ti and velocity
The initial momentum of the system is (M + m)v
Fig 8.23
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Rocket Propulsion, 3 At some time t + t,
the rocket’s mass has been reduced to M and an amount of fuel, m has been ejected
The rocket’s speed has increased by v
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Rocket Propulsion, 4 Because the gases are given some
momentum when they are ejected out of the engine, the rocket receives a compensating momentum in the opposite direction
Therefore, the rocket is accelerated as a result of the “push” from the exhaust gases
In free space, the center of mass of the system (rocket plus expelled gases) moves uniformly, independent of the propulsion process
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Rocket Propulsion, 5 The basic equation for rocket propulsion is
The increase in rocket speed is proportional to the speed of the escape gases (ve)
So, the exhaust speed should be very high
The increase in rocket speed is also proportional to the natural log of the ratio Mi/Mf
So, the ratio should be as high as possible, meaning the mass of the rocket should be as small as possible and it should carry as much fuel as possible
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Thrust The thrust on the rocket is the force exerted on it
by the ejected exhaust gases
Thrust =
The thrust increases as the exhaust speed increases
The thrust increases as the rate of change of mass increases The rate of change of the mass is called the burn rate
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