Download - 10 Thinking and Language
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Thinking
Cognition
mental activities associated with thinking,
knowing, remembering, and communicating Cognitive Psychologists
study these mental activities
concept formation
problem solving
decision making
judgment formation
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Thinking
Concept
mental grouping of similar objects, events,
ideas, or people
Prototype
mental image or best example of a category
matching new items to the prototype provides aquick and easy method for including items in acategory (as when comparing feathered creaturesto a prototypical bird, such as a robin)
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Thinking
Algorithm
methodical, logical rule or procedurethat guarantees solving a particularproblem
contrasts with the usually speedierbutalso more error-prone--use of heuristics
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Thinking
Heuristic
simple thinking strategy that often
allows us to make judgments andsolve problems efficiently
usually speedier thanalgorithms
more error-prone than algorithms
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Thinking
Unscramble
S P L O Y O C H Y GAlgorithm
all 907,208 combinations
Heuristic throw out all YY combinations
other heuristics?
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Thinking
Insight
sudden and often novel realization of the solution toa problem
contrasts with strategy-based solutions
Confirmation Bias
tendency to search for information that confirmsones preconceptions
Fixation
inability to see a problem from a new perspective
impediment to problem solving
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The Matchstick
Problem
How would youarrange six
matches to formfour equilateraltriangles?
Th Th J
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The Three-Jugs
Problem
Using jugs A,B, and C,
with thecapacitiesshown, howwould you
measure outthe volumesindicated?
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The Candle-Mounting
Problem
Using thesematerials, how
would youmount thecandle on abulletin board?
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Thinking
Mental Set tendency to approach a problem in
a particular way especially a way that has beensuccessful in the past but may or
may not be helpful in solving a newproblem
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Thinking
Functional Fixedness
tendency to think of thingsonly in terms of their usualfunctions
impediment to problem solving
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The Matchstick
Problem
Solution to thematchstick
problem
Th Th J
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The Three-Jugs
Problem
Solution:a) All seven problemscan be solved by the
equation shown in(a): B - A - 2C =desired volume.
b) But simpler
solutions exist forproblems 6 and 7,such as A - C forproblem 6.
C
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The Candle-Mounting
Problem
Solving thisproblemrequiresrecognizing thata box need notalways serve as
a container
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Heuristics
Representativeness Heuristic
judging the likelihood of things interms of how well they seem torepresent, or match, particularprototypes
may lead one to ignore other relevantinformation
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Heuristics
Availability Heuristic
estimating the likelihood of eventsbased on their availability in memory
if instances come readily to mind(perhaps because of their vividness),we presume such events are common
Example: airplane crash
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Thinking
Framing
the way an issue is posedhow an issue is framed can
significantly affect decisions andjudgments
Example: What is the best wayto market ground beef--as 25%fat or 75% lean?
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Thinking
Belief Bias the tendency for ones preexisting beliefs to
distort logical reasoning sometimes by making invalid conclusions
seem valid or valid conclusions seem invalid
Belief Perseverance clinging to ones initial conceptions after the
basis on which they were formed has beendiscredited
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Artificial Intelligence
Artificial Intelligence
designing and programmingcomputer systems
to do intelligent things
to simulate human thought processes
intuitive reasoning
learning
understanding language
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Artificial Intelligence
Computer Neural Networks
computer circuits that mimic thebrains interconnected neural cells
performing tasks
learning to recognize visual patterns
learning to recognize smells
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Language
Language
our spoken, written, or gesturedworks and the way we combine themto communicate meaning
Phoneme in a spoken language, the smallest
distinctive sound unit
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Language
Morpheme
in a language, the smallest unit that carries
meaning may be a word or a part of a word (such as
a prefix)
Grammar a system of rules in a language that
enables us to communicate with andunderstand others
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Language
We are all born to recognize speech sounds from all theworlds languages
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Percentage able
to discriminate
Hindi ts
Hindi-
speaking
adults6-8
months 8-10months 10-12months English-speakingadultsInfants from English-speaking homes
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Language
Babbling Stage
beginning at 3 to 4 months
the stage of speech development in whichthe infant spontaneously utters varioussounds at first unrelated to the householdlanguage
One-Word Stage from about age 1 to 2
the stage in speech development during
which a child speaks mostly in single words
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Language
Two-Word Stage
beginning about age 2
the stage in speech development duringwhich a child speaks in mostly two-wordstatements
Telegraphic Speech
early speech stage in which the childspeaks like a telegram-go car--usingmostly nouns and verbs and omitting
auxiliary words
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Language
Summary of Language Development
Month
(approximate)
Stage
4
10
12
24
24+
Babbles many speech sounds.
Babbling reveals households
language.
One-word stage.
Two-world, telegraphic speech.
Language develops rapidly into
complete sentences.
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Language
Genesdesign themechanismsfor alanguage,andexperienceactivatesthem as itmodifies thebrain
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Language
New languagelearning gets
harder withage
1009080706050
Native 3-7 8-10 11-15 17-39
Percentage
correct on
grammar
test
Age at school
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Language
Linguistic Determinism
Whorfs hypothesis thatlanguage determines the waywe think
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Language
The interplay
of thoughtand language
Animal Thinking and
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Animal Thinking and
Language
The straight-linepart of the dance
points in thedirection of anectar source,
relative to thesun
Direction ofnectar source
Animal Thinking and
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Animal Thinking and
Language
Gestured Communication
Animal Thinking and
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Animal Thinking and
Language
Is thisreally
language?