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The Managerial Tutor: A producer of knowledge in a global arenaRoland Fletcheraa University of Glamorgan, UK
To cite this Article Fletcher, Roland(2007) 'The Managerial Tutor: A producer of knowledge in a global arena', Journal ofHigher Education Policy and Management, 29: 3, 303 314
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The Managerial Tutor: A producer ofknowledge in a global arena
Roland Fletcher*University of Glamorgan, Pontypridd, UK
The role of the educational professional and the speed at which educational reforms have been
introduced within higher education has transformed the academic into a manager. This is explained
through a variety of changes; for example, technology and the transformation of traditional
workplaces being replaced by virtual workplaces through the use of computing and advanced
communication networks. The UK government has developed the role of the academic by producing
policies that have initiated mass higher education and increased the number of knowledge-based
workers to manage employability within a global labour market. This process has produced the
managerial tutor. The managerial tutor is the amalgamation of the academic and manager who must
be committed to the development of total quality through the delivery of educational provision
within both domestic and global markets. This discussion draws upon the national and international
policies that have led to the various changes within higher educational institutions and the directeffect these changes have had on the role of the educational profession. It will be shown how tutors
have been re-positioned as knowledge producers for a knowledge economy in a global market, and
who must be able to trade through a new form of currencyeducation.
Introduction
The role of the educational professional is continuing to evolve as a result of the
impact of globalization and educational policies introduced and being introduced to
accommodate the needs of educational provision within a global market. The speed
at which educational reforms have been introduced has been referred to as a policyepidemic (Levin, 1998) and this epidemic has reformed the role of those who deliver
educational provision (Ball, 2001, p. 2). These changes, arguably, question the social
identity (Bernstein, 1996, p. 73) of those who provide and deliver education. As
Willmott (1993) suggests:
employees are simultaneously required, individually and collectively, to recognise and
take responsibility for the relationship between the security of their employment and their
contribution to the competitiveness of the goods and services they produce. (p. 522)
*Law School, University of Glamorgan, Pontypridd, Wales, UK CF37 1DL. Email: rfletch1
@glam.ac.uk
Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management
Vol. 29, No. 3, November 2007, pp. 303313
ISSN 1360-080X (print)/ISSN 1469-9508 (online)/07/030303-11
2007 Association for Tertiary Education Management
DOI: 10.1080/13600800701457897
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Consequently, the role of the tutor or lecturer has mutated and produced the
manager (Ball, 2001, p. 5). The impact of the managerial role placed upon the tutor or
lecturer has led to the educational profession emulating the business techniques of the
private sector and undertaking self-management. This has produced a new identitythe managerial tutor who must be committed to the development of total quality
management within their institution. It will be argued that this approach fits with a
framework that will allow education to be used as a global product in a knowledge-
based economy. Peters (2003) discusses the work of Carnoy and Rhoten (2002), who
believe that a knowledge economy is fundamental to the development of a global
economy. The need to supply this knowledge is shaping and reconstructing
educational institutions. It will be shown how education in a knowledge-driven global
economy presents many challenges for the teaching profession. The profession needs
to respond to the proliferation of macro policies introduced by successive British
governments in order to produce a world-class education system (Bottery, 2004, p. 1)
that is flexible and able to compete at a global level.
It is within this context that the provision of education and the role of the
educational profession will be evaluated in order to understand todays practices and
educational activities within higher educational institutions. Assessing some of these
macro policies and their impact on the educational profession will deepen
understanding and broaden perception of the role of the educational profession.
Certain government policies have resulted in higher educational institutions
adopting a business strategy and producing a culture and language that is best
suited to multinational organizations. This goes some way to explain why theimplementation of best business practices (e.g. performance targets) dominates the
policy agenda; promoting the development of domestic structures alongside an
increasing number of students. This is instrumental in the British governments
White Paper The Future of Higher Education (DES, 2003a, p. 57), which discusses the
expansion of higher education to meet the needs of the UK (global) economy. This
has had a direct effect upon the educational profession, who has implemented the
demands and initiated mass higher education to increase the number and
employability of knowledge-based workers within a global labour market. This will
be considered in conjunction with changes introduced in the 1990s that have madeuniversities more accountable and, again, changed the role of the academic by
increasing their managerial responsibilities.
International Boundaries and Higher Education
Globalization and education needs to be viewed as a whole unit and not as a member
state joining another state and being part of an economic community. For example,
Waters (1995) believes that our preconceived ideas and understanding of a global
economy needs to be re-evaluated because of the advancement of technology
emails and the Internet have built bridges between continents. He suggests (Waters,
1995, p. 3) that we need to view globalization as a social process in which the
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constraints of geography on social and cultural arrangements recede and in which
people become increasingly aware that they are receding. Within this framework
Peters (2003) believes that:
The transformation of knowledge production and its legitimationare central to an
understanding of globalization and its effects on education policy. If transformation in
knowledge production entails a rethinking of economic fundamentals, the shift to a
knowledge economy also requires a profound rethinking of education as emerging forms
of knowledge capitalism, involving knowledge creation, acquisition, transmission and
organization. (p. 363)
Peters (2003) model mirror images a culture of competitive performance being
used to introduce a culture in which targets are used as an inducement to bring about
changes inside an organization to produce self-management and school improve-ments (Ball, 2001, p. 5). This, it is suggested (Du Gay, 1996, p. 62), allows for
individual initiative and an opportunity for every member of an organization to
develop their full potential and deliver the services of the organization. Therefore,
the reformation of the education system and the delivery of this knowledge is being
carried out through the work of the manager, the new hero of educational reform
(Ball, 2001, p. 5). This is linked directly to Peters (2003) perception and the re-
packaging of education as a product or a commodity to export. This, in turn, has
developed the role of the academic, who must develop the infrastructure of the
organization by redesigning or producing programmes to accommodate the
transmission of this intellectual property within a global market.
A global community is about sharing and merging economic policies that include
educational provision, and at the same time produces economic globalization. This
view is supported by Burton-Jones (1999, p. vi), who believes that knowledge is the
most important form of capitalism in a global community. His evaluation of various
reports produced by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
(OECD) (1996a; 1996b; 1996c) and the World Bank (1994; 1998) suggests that
there should be a coalition between education, learning and work. This approach is
now being adopted by national governments. For example, the World Bank (1998,
p. 2) report draws upon the connection between knowledge and the role universitiesplay in the development of future industries around the world and, as Burton-Jones
(2003, p. 317) points out, a fact not missed by countries like China who are busy
restructuring their university system for the knowledge economy. The role of the
World Bank is changing to accommodate these advancements. This approach is
supported by the former Chief Economist, Joseph Stiglitz, of the World Bank, who
wrote: We now see economic development as less like the construction business and
more like education in the broad, and comprehensive sense that covers knowledge,
institutions and culture (Stiglitz, 1999, p. 2). If this is correct, then the role of the
educational profession and the management of education within this framework(model) are being recycled to produce a new type of educational professionthe
managerial tutor.
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Management of Knowledge and the Educational Professional
By the middle of the 1980s there was an international focus on higher education and its
role within a global economy. The political agenda centred on a transition from elite to a
mass system that would produce a workforce with the necessary knowledge and skills
needed within a global marketplace (Marginson, 1993; Dudley & Vidovich, 1995). This
market has been developed by domestic governments, which liaise with international
governmental organizations in order to trade within each others market. A prime
example is the World Bank, which supports developing countries by attempting to
engage in a free market by negotiating and eliminating trade barriers. This is made
possible by providing financial incentives for developed countries, who subsequently
allow developing countries to participate in their (developed) market by removing any
economic barriers. This demonstrates the relocation of political power, within a global
economy, and should not be overlooked as it allows for a global community to prosper,while at the same time it illustrates political power being removed from a nation State in
exchange for increased global competitiveness. However, Bottery (2004, p. 4) believes
this approach has led to domestic States limiting their future prospects by locking
themselves into international financial arrangements and, at the same time, providing
the knowledge and skills to compete within this market.
When considering the impact of globalization upon the educational professional,
the correlation between economics and a nation States dependency upon a global
market must not be overlooked. For example, the management of knowledge has
introduced the notion of intellectual capital (see Stewart, 1998). This capital places
the educational profession within a global market that must now trade through a new
form of currencyeducation. This has placed even greater pressure on the
educational profession and has brought about a fundamental change that has
increased managerial responsibility and fostered the role of the managerial tutor. Ball
(2001, p. 5) believes: The act of teaching and the subjectivity of the teacher are both
profoundly changed within the new management panopticism (of quality and
excellence) and the new forms of entrepreneurial control (through marketing and
competition). This has resulted in the introduction of various policies and piecemeal
legislation that continues to shape the infrastructure of higher educational
institutions and the role of the education profession.
A Quasi-Independent State of Affairs
Many of these rapid changes came about at a time when the global market was under
economic constraints and domestic governments were being placed under increased
pressure to reduce public expenditure and at the same time demonstrate higher
educational institutions were indeed value for money. The British governments
response was to reduce funding (inputs) and instead introduced a new system of
funding based upon outcomes and structured around performance indicators(Van Vught & Westerheijden, 1994). Therefore, the relaxation of State support has
re-positioned higher educational institutions and produced a quasi-independent
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state of affairs. For example, the Further and Higher Education Act 1992 initially
redesigned the framework that governs higher education and led to the introduction
of funding councils. This in turn produced a stringent system dealing with quality
assurance and has made universities more accountable. Between 1992 and 1994 aproliferation of reports were published dealing with the future of higher education.
Many of these reports focused on the changes needed to increase student numbers
and how to manage mass higher education (HEFCE, 1993; Morley, 2003, p. 16)
and the overseas market. The current position is that successive governments have
achieved greater control over universities through the implementation of quality
(macro) policies that are linked directly to funding mechanisms. The educational
profession implements policies and quality is measured through productivity and
providing student (customer) satisfaction (Morley, 2003, p. 17). This is illustrated
through the work of Gibbs (1997), who produced a report for the HEFCE to
examine various approaches to teaching and learning. Gibbs concluded that
funding should be linked to learning strategies. This is known as incentive funding
and has been adopted by some higher educational institutions in the United States
(Morley, 2003). This strategy, arguably, is forcing an educational institution to
demonstrate their worth and how they are performing in the market. Currie and
Newson (1998) are critical of this approach and believe that:
Performance indicators have opened up the possibility of gaining control over the
academic work process; that is, of shifting from collegial forms of control within
autonomous institutions to managerial forms that give priority to objectives that are not
necessarily academic. (p. 178)
Orzach (1992) examined the use of performance indicators within a global setting
and their effect upon the role of the educational profession. He focused on the
production and process of universal standards and believes that the introduction of
international performance indicators would produce a single global university
system. This may be the next stage but Orzachs recommendations need careful
consideration, alongside issues of quality control, before they are realized.
Quality assurance in a global market has involved a degree of change for many
academics, who must now produce and deliver programmes not only for a domesticaudience but also for a global audience. This involves a degree of multiskilling
academics have to operate as managers and providers of educational provision
hence the term managerial tutor. Given the increased pressure placed upon
managerial tutors to achieve various political goals; that is, provide quality education
and manage projects, it is arguable that professional knowledge is at risk in favour of
managerialism. Peters (2003) believes that the tide will not turn and he suggests that:
In the age of knowledge capitalism, we can expect governments in the West to further
ease themselves out of the public provision of education as they begin in earnest to
privatise the means of knowledge production and experiment with new ways of designingand promoting a permeable interface between knowledge business and public education
at all levels. (p. 376)
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It would seem that national government policy is re-positioning the role of the
educational professional through a new educational system designed to meet the needs
of a global educational market. Furthermore, this approach has redefined higher
education and brought about significant changes for the educational profession.
Redefining Higher Education
Higher educational institutions have changed radically over the past 30 years (Foley,
2004, p. 3). The very idea of every university being a corporate campus, competing in a
global market, while every project is overseen by the educational professional who must
manage, produce and deliver the project adds weight to the saying that every
professional person should understand themselves to be a leader (McWilliam et al.,
1999, p. 60). This in itself is a paradoxknowledge producers are expected to operate
managerially (re-positioned), while being led by macro policies. It tends to sum up the
phrase: responsibility without any authority. For example, Foley (2004) suggests that
education has become another product that can be sold within a global market and, in
order to do so, providers of educational provision have adapted their role and
restructured their organisations to compete in this market. Foley (2004, p. 132) clearly
describes this evolutionary process: The mantra of neoliberal economics is endlessly
repeated: adult education must help economies become lean, mean and internationally
competitive. The educational profession has thus been re-invented in order to deliver
teaching and learning for a new market. In conjunction with this political policy is the
re-shaping of the educational profession, driven by domestic and international marketsrather than the will of the educational profession. Kenway et al. (2004) believes:
that current knowledge economy policies and innovation systems tend to ignore the
distinctive features of universities and scholarly communities and that, in so doing, they
put in peril aspects of what they seek to achieve and much else besides. This is a damning
statement and arguably reflects the current infrastructure within which the educational
profession operates. (p. 331)
The infrastructure of higher educational institutions and the duties placed upon
the education profession has been examined by Miller (1995), who carried out an
assessment of the decision-making processes within UK universities. His findings
revealed the feelings of many academics who are adapting to their new roles and
found that tutors have become managers as well as providing educational provision.
Miller (1995) illustrates the feelings of one academic who was interviewed. This
short extract demonstrates the impact such change is having upon the roles of
educational professionals:
Its the ethos of the market, the language being used is the management style, completely
market led, almost a profit driven type of enterprise and we thought we were academics.The talk is of clients or consumers rather than students. But the management style is
discredited, [sic] it uses techniques which are pretty naff [outdated and na ve] in terms of
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modern business practice the breaking up of academic communities into a rigid
hierarchical structure. We used to elect Deans! (p. 58)
Bottery (2004, p. 7) refers to such organisations as a knowledge-based companyand Stewart (1998, p. 189) believes that the job of managers and leaders then moves
from the traditional one of POEM (plan, organize, execute and measure) to that of
DNA (define, nurture, allocate). These organizations are referred to as learning
organizations (see Bottery, 2004) and the re-positioning of the educational
profession as managerial tutor accommodates this structure. It is arguable that this
structure appears to be a good model; it demonstrates a flexible system, allowing
individuals to develop and promote education through new projects and collaborate
with an overseas market. Alternatively, it may be viewed as a free market that has
allowed universities to manage themselves and have been emancipated by the State.
For example, government intervention has been relaxed but is still an interveningplayer (Currie & Newson, 1998, p. 145) when it comes to accountability and shaping
the role of the managerial tutor in an ever-expanding higher education system.
Mass Education and the Role of the Profession
The expansion of higher education across national and international boundaries has
increased the need to monitor and ensure quality assurance is maintained. Morley
(2003, p. 91) believes this has both re- and de-professionalize[d] academics.
Research on the de-professionalization of educationalists suggest that removing theeducators discretion in the area of pedagogy and imposing specific teaching
practices in order to meet a bureaucratic criteria imposed by the quality assurance
agency, has constrained innovation and autonomy (Bottery & Wright, 1997).
However, the need to have an external body such as the Quality Assurance Audit
(QAA) to enhance quality and maintain professionalism is supported by Hart (1997,
p. 305), who suggests that everyone needs a voice of contradiction somewhere,
which may also be a voice of conscience, to keep them up to the mark. The balance,
it would seem, is between whether the external body replaces the judgement of the
educational professional by asserting that quality assurance becomes the norm
(Morley, 2003). For example, policy, formulated by central government andmonitored by QAA, is how the educational profession is evolving and how the
profession will continue to develop.
Maintaining quality within higher education is importantparticularly as
domestic governments are producing policies to export education to developed
economies, which in turn are reliant upon the production of knowledge and skills
being produced by higher educational institutions to enhance employability (Brown
et al., 2003, p. 107). However, the strong links between accountability and
government funding may be seen as a mechanism to dilute the decision making
process of an organization, which must comply with the demands of a government,and increases pressure to seek funding from overseas projects. Therefore, the
relationship between the monitoring of quality assurance, funding and the
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implementation of global policies has placed even more pressure on those who
provide educational provision. For example, the future of work in the 21st century is
being promoted through a knowledge-based economy, a political objective of the
current British government, and is being fostered through higher education.Consequently, the globalization of educational requirements has produced an
interdependent relationship between education and the worlds economic needs
(Spring, 1998, p. 6). This relationship is a two-way process that allows for mutual
benefits; for example, a global economy needs a high standard of education to be
able to compete and educational institutions are dependent upon a strong economy
to achieve its goals. However, globalization is not just about market forces (although
this is a dominating factor), it is also about cultural integration and social practices.
This is evident when Currie and Newson (1998, p. 1) discuss the shrinkage of time
and space and distinguish between globalization that has speeded-up methods of
communication, allowing individuals to think globally, within the world of business.
It is within the latter perception that the role of the educational profession is being
influenced. Within this framework the priorities of universities have become part of
the political policies being played out through educational institutionsto support a
knowledge based society and the economy. This approach gives a deeper
understanding of why universities are being restructured and the roles of academics
are changing through the implementation of business models that are more
commonly associated with multinational corporations. This is linked directly to
government policies that regulate higher educational institutions, and demonstrates
central government obtaining more control over universities through their policies,while increasing accountability and its relationship with funding.
A Universal Relationship
The globalization of higher education suggests there is a universal move to
economic, political and social relationships. However, Currie and Newson (1998,
p. 2) believe this is far from the truth and argue that each country modifies their
economic and political philosophies to demonstrate a harmonized structure with
other nations, whilst maintaining an individualist approach. This, they believe,
accommodates the notion of choice while allowing for modification to be party to a
wider agenda. If Currie and Newsons (1998) model is accepted, then the role of the
educational profession is changing to fit with a traditional business modelsupply
and demandwhilst keeping overheads down. If this is correct then there is a
conflict of interest between the role of the academic in a higher educational
institution, which is to encourage critical thinking within society and not merely to
reproduce the product. Currie and Newson (1998) echo these very concerns:
we are particularly concerned about the future of universities in that we believe a
significant factor in their functioning is to encourage critical thinking within society.They are institutions where broadly based knowledge is supposed to be developed and
disseminated widely, for social purposes. If the university is silenced, who will be able to
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maintain critical judgments within society and speak with a critical voice to the wider
community? (pp. 23)
Higher educational institutions must be more than mere engines to implementpolitical policy; they must maintain integrity through independent critical analysis of
social issues (see Currie & Newson, 1998, p. 3). For example, Halsey (1992) is
critical of the way universities in the UK have responded to the economic pressures
placed upon them:
Managerialsim gradually comes to dominate collegiate cooperation in the organisation of
both teaching and researchResearch endeavours are increasingly applied to the
requirements of government or industrial demands. The don becomes increasingly a
salaried or even a piecework labourer in the service of an expanding middle class of
administrators and technologists. (p. 13)
The re-positioning of the role of the educational profession is a direct result of
government policy to produce a global producteducationwhich needs to be
repackaged in order to compete in a worldwide market. In conjunction with this,
Polster and Newson (1998, p. 180) argue that the introduction of universal
standards, linked to funding, for higher education may allow for the creation of
a single global system. With governments focusing on the supply side; the demand
to provide this provision lies with the educational profession, which must continue to
adapt and evolve with current trends. This is evident through the efforts being made
to introduce a universal qualification framework to provide increased compatibility
(OECD, 1994; 1997a). This approach supports Orzachs (1992) argument to
introduce universal performance indicators and the engagement of the managerial
tutor to produce such a frameworkherein may lie the future.
Conclusion
The implementation of political policy, to compete within a global market, has had a
significant impact upon the role of the educational profession. The restructuring of
educational institutions to package their product and export this commodity hascreated the managerial tutor. Managerial skills are needed to implement macro
policies, which are monitored by central government through QAA, whilst sustaining
a knowledge-based economy in a global arena. There is no doubt that performance
indicators have taken away academic autonomy and engineered a managerial model
for the academic. This model does not prioritise academic objectives but instead
focuses on performance targets. This has re-positioned the role of the educational
profession, which must create and operate a knowledge-based company and
collaborate with an overseas market. The role of the educational profession, as
knowledge producers for a knowledge economy, is linked directly to the relationshipbetween political policies. This relationship continues to re-shape the infrastructure
of universities and, at the same time, has increased accountability and the pressure to
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perform. This inter-related relationship dominates the role of the educational
profession. Critical thinking and its dissemination are being curtailed unless it pays
for itself. As Halsey (1992) argues (above) this has taken away the right of the
academic to research unless it is funded by a project. Knowledge, as a product, andthe repacking of the product for the overseas market has changed the social identity
of those who are providing educational provision. The academic has evolved and the
result is the managerial tutor. The role of the managerial tutor has replaced the
traditional academic by developing multiple skills. These skills are used to achieve
political goals by producing, managing and delivering projects through a global
market.
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