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BUS7000 Organizational Behavior &Theory
Week 7
Dr Jenne Meyer
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Article Analysis
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Chapter 13
Designing Organizational Structures
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2013 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Merritt’s Bakery’s Evolving Organizational Structure
Merritt’s Bakery has grown
over the years, and
throughout this growth the
Tulsa, Oklahoma, company
has adapted its
organizational structure.
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Organizational Structure Defined
• Division of labor and patterns of coordination, communication, workflow, and formal power that direct organizational activities
• Relates to many OB topics (e.g. job design, teams, power, work standards, information flow)
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Division of Labor
Subdividing work into separate jobs assigned to different people
Division of labor is limited by ability to coordinate work
Potentially increases work efficiency
Necessary as company grows and work becomes more complex
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Coordinating Work Activities
1. Informal communication• Sharing information, forming common mental
models• Good for flexibility, nonroutine and ambiguous
situations• Easiest in small firms• Larger firms apply informal communication through
- Liaison roles- Integrator roles- Concurrent engineering
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Coordinating Work Activities
2. Formal hierarchy• Direct supervision• Assigns legitimate power to manage others • Necessary in most firms, but has problems
3. Standardization• Standardized processes (e.g., job descriptions)• Standardized outputs (e.g., sales targets)• Standardized skills (e.g., training)
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Elements ofOrganizational
Structure
Span of Control
Centralization
Department-alization
Formalization
Elements of Organizational Structure
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KenGen’s Flatter Structure
KenGen, Kenya’s leading electricity
generation company, reduced its
hierarchy from 15 layers to just 6
layers. “This flatter structure has
reduced bureaucracy and it has also
improved teamwork,” explains
KenGen executive Simon Ngure.
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Span of Control
Number of people directly reporting to the next level• Related to coordination through direct
supervision
Wider span of control possible when:1. Other coordinating mechanisms are
present
2. Routine tasks
3. Low employee interdependence
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Tall vs Flat Structures
As companies grow, they:• Build a taller hierarchy• Widen span, or both
Problems with tall hierarchies• Overhead costs• Worse upward information• Focus power around managers, so
staff less empowered
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Centralization and Decentralization Centralization -- Formal
decision making authority is held by a few people, usually at the top
Decentralization increases as companies grow
Varying degrees of centralization in different areas of the company• Example: sales decentralized;
info systems centralized
Upper Mgt
Middle Mgt
Front line
Supervisory
Upper Mgt
Middle Mgt
Front line
Supervisory
Upper Mgt
Middle Mgt
Front line
Supervisory
Production SalesInformation
Systems
= locus of decision making authority
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Formalization
The degree to which organizations standardize behavior through rules, procedures, formal training, and related mechanisms.
Formalization increases as firms get older, larger, and more regulated
Problems with formalization• Reduces organizational flexibility• Discourages organizational learning/creativity• Reduces work efficiency• Increases job dissatisfaction and work stress
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TAXI’s Organic Structure
TAXI, Canada’s creative agency of
the decade, has an organic
structure that relies on small
teams, low formalization, and
decentralized decision making. “We
needed a flexible infrastructure, able
to move with the pace of change,”
says co-founder Paul Lavoie (right in
photo with CEO Rob Guenette).
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Mechanistic vs. Organic Structures
Mechanistic Structure• Narrow span of control• High formalization• High centralization
Organic Structure• Wide span of control• Low formalization• Decentralized decisions
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Effects of Departmentalization
Specifies how employees and their activities are grouped together
Three functions:
1. Establishes chain of command
2. Creates common mental models, measures of performance, etc
3. Encourages staff to coordinate through informal communication
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Organizes employees around specific knowledge or other resources (e.g., marketing, production)
CEO
Finance Production Marketing
Functional Organizational Structure
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Evaluating Functional Structures
Benefits• Economies of scale• Supports professional identity and career paths• Easier supervision
Limitations• More emphasis on subunit than organizational
goals • Higher dysfunctional conflict• Poorer coordination -- requires more controls
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Organizes employees around outputs,clients, or geographic areas
Divisional Structure
CEO
HealthcareLightingProducts
Consumer Lifestyle
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Divisional Structure
Different forms of divisional structure• Geographic structure• Product structure• Client structure
Best form depends on environmental diversity or uncertainty
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Globally Integrated Enterprise
Fewer geographic divisions because:• Less need for local representation• Reduced geographic variation• More global clients
Globally integrated enterprise• Connects work processes around the world rather
than replicating them within each country or region• Functional heads are geographically distributed• Firm’s “home” country is no longer focus of
business
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Evaluating Divisional Structures
Benefits• Building block structure -- accommodates growth• Focuses on markets/products/clients
Limitations• Duplication, inefficient use of resources• Specializations are dispersed--silos of knowledge• Revising divisional structure emphasis produces
politics and conflict among executives
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Team-Based Structure
Self-directed work teams Teams organized around work processes Typically organic structure Usually found within divisionalized structure
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Evaluating Team-Based Structures
Benefits• Responsive, flexible• Lower admin costs• Quicker, more informed decisions
Limitations• Interpersonal training costs• Slower during team development• Role ambiguity increases stress• Problems with supervisor role changes• Duplication of resources
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Audio DeptLeader
SoftwareDept Leader
Art DeptLeader
Game1Project Leader
Game2Project Leader
Game3Project Leader
Matrix Structure (Project-based)
CEO
Employees ( ) are temporarily assigned to a specificproject team and have a permanent functional unit
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Evaluating Matrix Structures
Benefits• Uses resources and expertise effectively• Improves communication, flexibility, innovation • Focuses specialists on clients and products• Supports knowledge sharing within specialty• Solution when two divisions have equal importance
Limitations• Increases goal conflict and ambiguity• Two bosses dilutes accountability• More conflict, organizational politics, and stress
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CoreFirm(USA)
Productdevelopment
partner(France)
Call centerpartner
(Philippines)
Accounting partner(USA)
Package design partner
(UK)
Assembly partner(China)
Network Organizational Structure
Alliance of firms creating a product or service
Supporting firms beehived around a “hub” or “core” firm
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Evaluating Network Structures
Benefits• Highly flexible• Potentially better use of skills and technology• Not saddled with same resources for all products
Limitations• Exposed to market forces• Less control over subcontractors than in-house
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External Environment & Structure
Dynamic
• High rate of change• Use team-based, network, or
other organic structure
Stable
• Steady conditions, predictable change
• Use mechanistic structure
Complex
• Many elements (such as stakeholders)
• Decentralize
Simple
• Few environmental elements• Less need to decentralize
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Diverse
• Several products, clients, regions
• Use divisional form aligned with the diversity
Hostile
• Competition and resource scarcity
• Use organic structure for responsiveness
Integrated
• Single product, client, place• Use functional structure, or
geographic division if global
Munificent
• Plenty of resources and product demand
• Less need for organic structure
External Environment & Structure (con’t)
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Effects of Organizational Size
As organizations grow, they have: More division of labor (job specialization)
Greater use of standardization
More hierarchy and formalization
More decentralization
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Technology and Structure
Technology refers to mechanisms or processes by which an organization turns out its product or service
Two contingencies:• Variability -- the number of exceptions to standard
procedure that tend to occur. • Analyzability -- the predictability or difficulty of the
required work
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Organizational Strategy
Structure follows strategy• Strategy points to the environments in which the
organization will operate• Leaders decide which structure to apply
Innovation strategy• Providing unique products or attracting clients who
want customization
Cost leadership strategy• Maximize productivity in order to offer competitive
pricing
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Chapter 13
Organizational Culture
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2013 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Facebook’s Organizational Culture
Facebook has been able to
maintain a strong corporate
culture even as it expands
globally. “Maintaining culture is
one of the top priorities we
have as a company,” says
Sarah Smith (shown in this
photo), head of Facebook’s
operations in Austin, Texas.
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Organizational Culture Defined
The basic pattern of shared values and assumptions shared within the organization.
Defines what is important and unimportant.
Company’s DNA—invisible, yet powerful template that shapes employee behavior
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Elements of Organizational Culture
Organizational culture
Artifacts of organizational culture
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Content of Organizational Culture
The relative ordering of values.• A few dominant values• Example: Facebook – creative, proactive, risk-oriented
Problems with measuring org culture• Oversimplifies diversity of possible values• Ignore shared assumptions• Adopts an “integration” perspective
An organization’s culture is fuzzy:• Diverse subcultures (“fragmentation”)• Values exist within individuals, not work units
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Organizational Culture Profile
Org Culture Dimensions Dimension Characteristics
Innovation Experimenting, opportunity seeking, risk taking, few rules, low cautiousness
Stability Predictability, security, rule-oriented
Respect for people Fairness, tolerance
Outcome orientation Action oriented, high expectations, results oriented
Attention to detail Precise, analytic
Team orientation Collaboration, people-oriented
Aggressiveness Competitive, low emphasis on social responsibility
Source: O’Reilly et al (1991)
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Organizational Subcultures
Dominant culture -- most widely shared values and assumptions
Subcultures• Located throughout the organization• Can enhance or oppose (countercultures) firm’s
dominant culture
Two functions of countercultures:• provide surveillance and critique, ethics• source of emerging values
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Artifacts: Stories and Legends
Social prescriptions of desired (or dysfunctional) behavior
Provides a realistic human side to expectations
Most effective stories and legends:• Describe real people • Assumed to be true• Known throughout the organization• Are prescriptive
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Artifacts of Organizational Culture
• Observable symbols and signs of culture
• Physical structures, ceremonies, language, stories
• Maintain and transmit organization’s culture
• Need many artifacts to accurately decipher a company’s culture
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Artifacts: Rituals and Ceremonies
Rituals• programmed routines • (e.g.., how visitors are greeted)
Ceremonies• planned activities for an audience• (e.g.., award ceremonies)
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Artifacts: Organizational Language
Words used to address people, describe customers, etc.
Leaders use phrases and special vocabulary as cultural symbols
Language also found in subcultures
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Artifacts: Physical Structures/Symbols
• Building structure -- may shape and reflect culture• Office design conveys cultural meaning
• Furniture, office size, wall hangings
Courtesy of Microsoft Corp.
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Organizational Culture Strength
How widely and deeply employees hold the company’s dominant values and assumptions
Strong cultures exist when:• most employees understand/embrace the
dominant values• values and assumptions are institutionalized
through well-established artifacts• culture is long lasting -- often traced back to
founder
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Functions of Strong Corporate Cultures
Functions ofStrong Cultures
• Control system• Social glue• Sense-making
OrganizationalOutcomes
• Org performance• Employee well-being
Culture strength advantages depend on:
• Environment fit• Not cult-like• Adaptive culture
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Contingencies of Organizational Culture & Performance
Organizational culture strength moderately predicts organizational performance
Need to consider contingencies:1. Ensure culture-environment fit
2. Avoid corporate “cult” strength
3. Create an adaptive culture
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Organizational Culture Assimilation in the Southwest--AirTran MergerOrganizational culture assimilation practices helped
AirTran Airways employees understand and embrace the Southwest Airlines culture, known as the “Southwest Way.” Southwest’s success and its popular culture assisted this assimilation process.
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Merging Cultures: Bicultural Audit
Part of due diligence in merger Minimizes cultural collision by diagnosing companies Three steps in bicultural audit:
1. Identify cultural artifacts
2. Analyze data for cultural conflict/compatibility
3. Identify strategies and action plans to bridge cultures
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Merging Organizational Cultures
Assimilation
Deculturation
Acquired company embraces acquiring firm’s cultural values
Acquiring firm imposes its culture on unwilling acquired firm
IntegrationCultures combined into a new composite culture
SeparationMerging companies remain separate with their own culture
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Changing/Strengthening Organizational Culture
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Changing/Strengthening Organizational Culture
Actions of Founders/Leaders• Org culture sometimes reflects the founder’s
personality• Transformational leaders can reshape culture
-- organizational change practices
Aligning Artifacts• Artifacts keep culture in place• e.g., create memorable events,
communicating stories, transferringculture carriers
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Changing/Strengthening Organizational Culture
Introducing Culturally Consistent Rewards• Rewards are powerful artifacts – reinforce
culturally-consistent behavior
Attracting, Selecting, Socializing Employees• Attraction-selection-attrition theory• Socialization practices
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Attraction-Selection-Attrition Theory
Organizations become more homogeneous (stronger culture) through:
• Attraction -- applicants self-select and weed out companies based on compatible values
• Selection -- applicants selected based on values congruent with organization’s culture
• Attrition -- employees quit or are forced out when their values oppose company values
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Lindblad’s Shipshape Socialization
As part of its socialization process, adventure cruise
company Lindblad Expeditions shows applicants a video
program with a realistic preview of what it’s like to work
onboard.
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Organizational Socialization Defined
The process by which individuals learn the values, expected behaviors, and social knowledge necessary to assume their roles in the organization.
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Socialization: Learning & Adjustment
Learning Process• Newcomers make sense of the organization’s
physical, social, and strategic/cultural dynamics
Adjustment Process• Newcomers need to adapt to their new work
environment- New work roles- New team norms- Newcomers with diverse experience adjust better
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Stages of Socialization
Role Management
• Insider
• Changing roles and behavior
• Resolving conflicts
EncounterStage
• Newcomer
• Testingexpectations
Pre-EmploymentStage
• Outsider
• Gathering information
• Forming psychological contract
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Improving Organizational Socialization
Realistic job preview (RJP)• A balance of positive and negative information
about the job and work context
Socialization agents• Supervisors – technical information, performance
feedback, job duties• Co-workers – ideal when accessible, role models,
tolerant, and supportive