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American Government
Chapter 1 The Study of American Government
Power the ability of one person to get another person to act in accordance with the first
persons intentions. People who exercise political power may or may not have the authority
to do so.
Authority the right to use power
Direct democracy all, or most, citizens participate directly in either holding office or
making policy
Representative democracy people elect leaders to represent them. For representative
democracy to work, there must be an opportunity for genuine competition of leadership.
This requires that individuals and parties be able to run for office, that communication be
free, and that voters perceive that a meaningful difference exists.
Majoritarian politics when the actions of officeholders follow the preferences of the
people very closely. In this case elected officials are the delegates of the people, acting as
the people would act were the matter put to a popular vote. The issues handled in a
majoritarian fashion can only be those that are sufficiently important to command the
attention of most citizens, sufficiently clear to elicit an informed opinion from citizens, andsufficiently feasible to address so that what citizens want can actually be done.
Elite identifiable group of persons who possess a disproportionate share of some valued
resource
Marxism government is a reflection of underlying economic forces, primarily the pattern
of ownership and the means of production. All societies are divided into classes on the basis
of the relationships of people to the economy. In modern society two major classes contend
for powercapitalists and workers. Whichever class dominates the economy also controls
the government, which is nothing more than a piece of machinery designed to express and
give legal effect to underlying class interests.
Power elite theory a nongovernmental elite makes most of the major decisions, but this
elite is not composed exclusively of corporate leaders. The important policies are set by a
loose coalition of three groupscorporate leaders, top military officers, and key political
leaders. Government is dominated by a few top leaders, most of whom are outside the
government and enjoy great advantages in wealth, status, or organizational position. They
act in concert, and the policies they make serve the interests of the elite.
Bureaucratic theory all institutions fall under the control of large bureaucracies whose
expertise and specialized competence are essential to the management of contemporary
affairs. Government agencies are dominated by those who operate them on a daily basis.
Pluralist theory political resources are so widely scattered that no single elite has
anything like a monopoly over them. There are so many governmental institutions in which
power may be exercised that no single group can dominate most of the political process.
Policies are the outcome of a complex pattern of political haggling, compromises, and
shifting alliances. Almost all relevant interests have a chance to affect the outcome ofdecisions. Not only are the elites divided, they are responsive to their followers interests,
and thus they provide representation to almost all citizens affected by a policy.
Chapter 2: The Constitution
Articles of Confederation created a league of friendship among the states that could
not levy taxes or regulate commerce. Each state retained its sovereignty and independence,
each state had one vote in Congress, 9/13 states were required to pass any measure, and
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the delegates who cast these votes were picked and paid for by state legislatures. Congress
had the power to make peace, coin money, appoint the key army officersbut the army was
small and dependent for support on independent state militiasand allowed to run the post
office. There was no national judicial system to settle land claims among states. To amend
the Articles, all 13 states had to agree. Many leaders of the Revolution, such as Washington
and Hamilton, believed that a stronger national government was essential.
Shays Rebellion in 1787 a group of ex-Revolutionary War soldiers, plagued by debts and
high taxes and fearful of losing their property, forcibly prevented the courts in western
Massachusetts from sitting. The governor of Massachusetts asked the Continental Congress
to send troops to suppress the rebellion, but it could not raise the money or manpower. In
desperation private funds were collected to hire a volunteer army, which dispersed the
rebels. State delegates were galvanized by the fear that state governments were about to
collapse from internal dissension.
Virginia Plan called for a strong national union organized into 3 governmental branches
the legislative, executive, and judicial. The legislature was to be composed of two houses,
the first elected directly by the people and the second chosen by the first house from among
the people nominated by state legislatures. The executive was to be chosen by the national
legislature, as were members of a national judiciary. The executive and some members ofthe judiciary were to constitute a council of revision that could veto acts of the legislature;
that veto, in turn, could be overridden by the legislature. A national legislature would have
supreme powers on all matters on which the separate states were not competent to act, as
well as the power to veto any and all state laws. At least one house of the legislature would
be elected directly by the people.
New Jersey Plan enhanced the powers of the national government, but did so in a way
that left states representation in Congress unchanged from the Articleseach state would
have one vote. Thus not only would the interests of small states be protected, but Congress
itself would remain to a substantial degree the creature of state governments.
Great Compromise contained a House of Representatives consisting initially of 65
members apportioned among the states roughly on the basis of population and elected by
the people and a Senate consisting of two senators from each state to be chosen by the
state legislatures. It reconciled the interests of small and large states by allowing the former
to predominate in the Senate and the latter in the House. This reconciliation was necessary
to ensure that there would be support for a strong national government from small and large
states.
Judicial review the power of the Supreme Court to declare an act of Congress
unconstitutional. It is a way of limiting the power of popular majorities by safeguarding the
Constitution against popular passions.
How to propose/pass an amendment can be proposed either by a 2/3 vote of both
houses of Congress or by a national convention called by Congress at the request of 2/3 of
the states. Once proposed, an amendment must be ratified by of the states, either
through their legislatures or special ratifying conventions in each state.Checks and Balances
Congress can check the president in these ways:
-by refusing to pass a bill the president wants
-by passing a law over the presidents veto
-by using the impeachment powers to remove the president from office
-by refusing to approve a presidential appointment (Senate only)
-by refusing to ratify a treaty the president has signed (Senate only)
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Congress can check the federal courts in these ways:
-by changing the number and jurisdiction of the lower courts
-by using the impeachment powers to remove a judge from office
-by refusing to approve a person nominated to be a judge (Senate only)
The President can check Congress by vetoing a bill that it has passed and can check the
federal courts by nominating judges.
The Courts can check Congress by declaring a war unconstitutional and can check the
president by declaring actions by him or his subordinates to be unconstitutional or not
authorized by law.
Federalism the division of political power between a national government and several
state governments. By dividing power between the states and the national government, one
level of government can serve as a check on the other.
Faction political division created by the diverse interests in America. Madison believed
that factions could help protect democracy. One faction might come to dominate
government, or a part of government, in one place, and a rival faction might dominate it in
another. The pulling and hauling between these factions would prevent any single
government from dominating all government.
Antifederalists believed that a strong national government would be distant from thepeople and would use its powers to annihilate or absorb the functions that belonged to the
states. Congress would tax heavily, the Supreme Court would overrule state courts, and the
president would come to head a large standing army. The nation needed a loose
confederation of states, with most of the powers of government kept in the hands of state
legislatures and state courts. If a national government existed, it should be heavily
restricted. They proposed limiting the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court, checking the
presidents power by creating a council that would review his actions, leaving military affairs
in the hands of state militias, increasing the size of the House of Representatives, and
reducing the power of Congress to levy taxes. They wanted a bill of rights to be added to the
Constitution.
Madison argued that liberty is safest in large republics. In a small community, there will
be relatively few differences in opinion or interest; people will tend to see the world in much
the same way. If anyone dissents or pursues an alternative interest, he will be confronted by
a massive majority and will have few allies. But in a large republic there will be many
opinions and interests; as a result it will be hard for a tyrannical majority to form or organize,
and anyone with an unpopular view will find it easier to acquire allies. He suggested that the
national government should be at some distance from the people and insulated from their
momentary passions. Liberty is threatened as much by public passions and popularly based
factions as by strong governments.
Federalist Papers written by Hamilton to promote the Constitution, with help from John
Jay and Madison. They probably played only a small role in securing ratification. In Federalist
10 Madison argues for the benefits of political factions, or special interests. He recommends
regulating factions, not eliminating them. In No. 51 he argues that coalitions formed in alarge republic would be more moderate than those formed in a small one because the bigger
the republic, the greater the variety of interests, and thus the more a coalition of the
majority would have to accommodate a diversity of interests and opinions if it hoped to
succeed.
Liberties guaranteed by the Constitution prior to the Bill of Rights:
-writ of habeas corpus may not be suspended (except during invasion or rebellion)
-no bill of attainder may be passed by Congress or the states
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-no ex post facto law may be passed by Congress or the states
-right of trial by jury in criminal cases is guaranteed
-the citizens of each state are entitled to the privileges and immunities of the citizens of
every other state
-no religious test or qualification for holding federal office is imposed
-no law impairing the obligation of contracts may be passed by the states
The Bill of Rights
Amendment 1: freedom of religion, speech, press, and assembly, the right to petition the
government
Amendment 2: Right to bear arms
Amendment 3: troops may not be quartered in homes in peacetime
Amendment 4: no unreasonable searches or seizures
Amendment 5: grand jury indictment required to prosecute a person for a serious crime. No
double jeopardy. Forcing a person to testify against himself is prohibited. No loss of life,
liberty, or property without due process.
Amendment 6: right to speedy, public, impartial trial with defense counsel and right to cross-
examine witnesses
Amendment 7: jury trials in civil suits where value exceed $20Amendment 8: no excessive bail or fines, no cruel and unusual punishments
Amendment 9: unlisted rights are not necessarily denied
Amendment 10: powers not delegated to the US or denied to states are reserved to the
states
Slavery in the Constitution it is never mentioned explicitly. In determining the
representation of the House, 3/5 of all other persons are included in the states population.
The convention agreed not to allow the new government by law or constitutional
amendment to prohibit the importation of slaves until 1808. The Constitution guaranteed
that if a slave were to escape and flee to a nonslave state, the slave would be returned.
Economic interests at the Convention the Framers tended to represent their states
interests on important matters. Except with respect to slavery, they usually did not vote
their own economic interests.
Economic interests and ratification delegates who were merchants, who lived in cities,
who owned large amounts of western land, who held government IOUs, and who did not own
slaves were more likely to vote to ratify the new Constitution than were delegates who were
farmers, who did not own public debt, and who did own slaves.
Ways of Amending the Constitution
To propose an amendment
-2/3 of both houses of Congress vote to propose an amendment or 2/3 of the state
legislatures ask Congress to call a national convention to propose amendments
To ratify an Amendment
-3/4 of the state legislatures approve it or ratifying conventions in of the states approve it
Key facts-only the first method of proposing an amendment has been used
-the second method of ratification has been used only once, to ratify the 21st Amendment
-congress may limit the time within which a proposed amendment must be ratified. The
usual limitation has been 7 years
-thousands of proposals have been made, but only 33 have obtained the necessary 2/3 vote
in Congress
-27 amendments have been ratified
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Complaints about separation of powers by making every decision the uncertain
outcome of the pulling and hauling between the president and Congress, the Constitution
precludes the emergence of the kind of effective national leadership the country needs. An
increase in presidential power would help the voters hold the president and his party
accountable for their actions. Typically the president cannot get his policies adopted by
Congress without long delays and much bargaining. Government agencies responsible for
implementing a program are exposed to undue interference from legislators ad special
interests.
Line Item Veto Act passed by president Clinton in 1996. It gave the president the power
to selectively eliminate individual items in large appropriations bills, expansions in certain
income-transfer programs, and tax breaks. But it also left Congress free to craft bills in ways
that would give the president few opportunities to veto favored items. It was struck down in
Clinton v. New York, holding that the Constitution does not allow the president to cancel
specific items in tax and spending legislation.
Line-item veto allows the chief executive to approve some provisions of a bill and
disapprove others
Chapter 3: FederalismDevolution the effort to devolve onto the states the national governments functions in
areas such as welfare, health care, and job training. Between 1994-1996, Republican
majorities in the House and Senate made proposals to accelerate the devolution of national
power. There are three main factors driving devolution: the beliefs of devolutions
proponents, the realities of deficit politics, and the views of most citizens. By 1994 many
governors of both parties were convinced that the time had come to let state capitals take
the lead in figuring out how best to address social problems and administer public health
and welfare programs. Congressional Republicans sought not only to fund entitlement
programs with block grants instead of categorical grants but also to make major cuts in
entitlement spending.
Block grants money from the national government for programs in certain general areas
that the states can use at their discretion within broad guidelines set by Congress
Federalism a political system in which there are local units of government, as well as a
national government, that can make final decisions with respect to at least some
governmental activities and whose existence is specially protected. Local units exist
independently of the preferences of national government and can make decisions on a least
some matters without regard to those preferences. Political power is locally acquired by
people whose careers depend for the most part on satisfying local interests. As a result,
though the national government may have vast powers, it exercises many of these powers
through state governments. Federalism has many effects, but its most obvious effect has
been to facilitate the mobilization of political activity. A federal system, by virtue of the
decentralization of authority, lowers the cost of organized political activity. Federalism was
one device whereby personal liberty was to be protected.Sovereignty supreme or ultimate political authority. A sovereign government is one that
is legally and politically independent of any other government
Unitary system one in which sovereignty is wholly in the hands of the national
government, so that the states and localities are dependent on its will
Confederation a system in which the states are sovereign and the national government is
allowed to do only that which the states permit
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Federal regime one in which local units of government have a specially protected
existence and can make some final decisions over some governmental activities
Hamiltons view of federalism since the people had created the national government,
since the law and treaties made pursuant to the Constitution were the supreme law of the
land, and since the most pressing needs were the development of a national economy and
the conduct of foreign affairs, the national government was the superior and leading force in
political affairs and its powers ought to be broadly defined and liberally constructed.
Jeffersons view of federalism the federal government was the product of an
agreement among the states; and though the the people were the ultimate sovereigns,
the principal threat to their liberties was likely to come from the national government. Thus
the powers of the national government should be narrowly constructed and strictly limited.
McCulloch v. Maryland James McCulloch, the cashier of the Baltimore branch of the Bank
of the US, which had been created by Congress, refused to pay a tax levied on that bank by
the state of Maryland. He was convicted for failing to pay the tax. The Court decided that,
although the federal government possessed only those powers enumerated in the
Constitution, the extent of those powers required interpretation. To carry out these powers
Congress may reasonably decide that chartering a national bank is necessary and
proper to fulfilling its power to manage money. Chief Justice John Marshall decided that thegovernment of the US was not established by the states, but by the people, and thus the
federal government was supreme in the exercise of those powers conferred upon it. having
already concluded that chartering a bank was within the powers of Congress, Marshall then
argued that the only way for such powers to be supreme was for their use to be immune
from state challenge and for the products of their use to be protected against state
destruction. The states may not tax any federal instrument.
Nullification the right of the states to nullify a federal law that, in the states opinion,
violated the Constitution
Special-act charter applies to a certain city and lists what that city can and cannot do
General-act charter applies to a number of cities that fall within a certain classification,
usually based on population
Dillons rule authorizes a municipality to exercise only those powers expressly given,
implied by, or essential to the accomplishment of its enumerated powers
Home-rule charter - reverses Dillons rule and allows a city government to do anything
that is not prohibited by the charter or state law. City laws cannot be in conflict with state
laws, and the states can pass laws that preempt or interfere with what home-rule cities want
to do
Dual federalism holds that that though the national government is supreme in its sphere,
the states are equally supreme in theirs, and these two spheres of action should be
separate. Applied to commerce, this implies that there are such things as interstate
commerce, which Congress can regulate, and intrastate commerce, which only the states
can regulate, and the Court can tell which is which.
United States v. Lopez the Court held that Congress had exceeded its commerce clausepower by prohibiting guns in schools
United States v. Morrison the Court said that attacks against women are not, and do
not substantially affect, interstate commerce, and hence Congress cannot constitutionally
pass the Violence Against Women Act
Printz v. United States the Court invalided a federal law that required local police to
conduct background checks on all gun purchasers. The Court ruled that the law violated the
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10th Amendment by commandeering state governments to carry out a federal regulatory
program.
Alden v. Maine the Court held that state employees could not sue to force state
compliance with federal fair-labor laws
Federal Maritime Commission v. South Carolina Ports Authority the Court
expanded states sovereign immunity from private lawsuits
Police power a generally recognized state power. It refers to those laws and regulations,
not otherwise unconstitutional, that promote health, safety, and morals. Thus the states can
enact and enforce criminal codes, require children to attend school and citizens to be
vaccinated, and restrict the availability of pornographic materials.
Initiative allows voters to place legislative measures directly on the ballot by getting
enough signatures on a petition
Referendum enables voters to reject a measure adopted by the legislature. Sometimes
the state constitution specifies that certain kinds of legislation must be subject to a
referendum whether the legislature wishes it or not
Recall a procedure whereby voters can remove an elected official from office. If enough
signatures are gathered on a petition, the official must go before voters, who can vote to
leave the person in office, remove the person from office, or remove the person and replacehim with someone else.
Grants-in-aid money that Congress gives the states. The greatest growth of these
programs began in the 1960s and has continued steadily ever since. They provide state and
local governments with roughly 1/5 of their annual budgets. The system grew so rapidly
because it helped state and local officials resolve a dilemma: on one hand they wanted
access to the superior taxing power of the federal government; on the other hand, prevailing
constitutional interpretationat least until the 1930sheld that the federal government
could not spend money for purposes not authorized by the Constitution. The solution was to
have federal money put into state hands. Until the 1960s most federal grants-in-aid were
conceived by or in cooperation with the states and were designed to serve essentially state
purposes. However, in the 1960s the federal government began devising grant programs
based less on what states were demanding and more on what federal officials perceived to
be important national needs. Federal officials were the principal proponents of grant
programs to aid the urban poor, combat crime, reduce pollution, and deal with drug abuse.
Some of these programs even attempted to bypass the states, providing money directly to
cities or even to local citizens groups.
Why federal money is so attractive to state officials the money is already there.
During most of the 19th century, the federal government was taking in more money than it
was spending. The high-tariff policies of the Republicans produced a large budget surplus.
By the mid-20th century, the federal income tax proved to be a flexible tool of public finance,
for it automatically brought in more money as economic activity grew. Third, the federal
government, unlike the states, managed the currency and thus could print more money
whenever it needed it. Federal money to states seems like free money. That every statehas an incentive to ask for federal money to pay for local programs means that it is difficult
for one state to get money for a given program without every states getting it.
Intergovernmental lobby made up of mayors, governors, superintendants of schools,
state directors, county highway commissioners, local police chiefs, and others who had
come to count on federal funds. The purpose of this lobby is to obtain more federal money
with fewer strings attached.
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Categorical grants a grant for a specific purpose defined by federal law. Such grants
usually require that the state or locality put up money to match some part of the federal
grant, though that amount can be quite small. Governors and mayors often complain about
categorical grants because their purposes are too narrow to meet local needs. One response
to this problem was to consolidate several categorical or project grant programs into a
single block grant devoted to some general purpose and with fewer restrictions on its use.
They are supervised by special committees of Congress.
Block grants began in the mid-1960s to consolidate various categorical grant programs.
They grew more slowly than categorical grants because of the different kinds of political
coalitions supporting each; the federal government likes the control it has over categorical
grants. Also, because this program and revenue sharing cover such a broad range of
activities, no single interest group has a vital stake in pressing for their enlargement.
Revenue sharing adopted in 1972 with the passage of the State and Local Fiscal
Assistance Act. It distributes about $6 billion/year in federal funds to states and localities,
with no requirement as to matching funds and freedom to spend the money on almost any
governmental purpose. The goal of this and the block grant program was to give the states
and cities considerable freedom in deciding how to spend money while helping to relieve
their tax burdens. However, the money available from block grants and revenue sharing didnot grow as fast as the states had hoped nor as quickly as did the money available through
categorical grants. The federal government also steadily increased the number of strings
attached to the spending of this money.
Conditions of aid when the federal government tells the state government what it must
do if it wants some grant money. Some conditions are specific to particular programs, but
most are not.
Mandates when the federal government tells the states what they must do. Sometimes
the mandates must be observed only if the states take federal grants, but sometimes they
have nothing to do with federal aid. Most mandates concern civil rights and environmental
protection. Some mandates create administrative and financial problems, especially when
they are written in vague language. Some mandates take the form of regulatory statutes
and amendments that expand on previous legislation. Others represent new areas of federal
involvement. The federal courts have helped fuel the growth of mandates based on their
current interpretation of the 10th Amendment.
Operational grants for purposes such as running state child-care programs
Capital grants for building local wastewater treatment plants
Entitlement grants for transferring income to families and individuals. Includes AFDC
and Medicaid.
Second-order devolution a flow of power and responsibility from the states to local
governments
Third-order devolution the increased role of nonprofit organizations and private groups
in policy implementation
Welfare surpluses the billions of dollars in unspent welfare funds that the statesamassed in the late 1990s after cutting welfare programs, permitting states to increase their
spending.
Chapter 4: American Political Culture
Political culture a distinctive and patterned way of thinking about how political and
economic life ought to be carried out. Americans do not judge their political and economic
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systems in the same way. It consists of a peoples fundamental assumptions about how the
political process should operate
Five important elements in the American view of the politicalsystem liberty,
equality, democracy, civic duty, and individual responsibility
Political ideology refers to more or less consistent sets of views concerning the policies
government ought to pursue. Up to a point people can disagree on ideology but still share a
common political culture. Some ideologies, however, are so critical of existing government
policies and practices that they require a fundamental change in the way politics is carried
out and thus embody a different political culture as well.
Civic duty a sense that one has an obligation to participate in civic and political affairs
Civic competence - belief that one can affect government policies. Both of these principles
are important to American political culture
American views of economic equality Americans are more likely to think that freedom
is more important than equality and less likely to think that hard work goes unrewarded or
that the government should guarantee citizens a basic standard of living
Civic role of religion religious institutions are the countrys major source of volunteer
and community services. In many urban communities, religious organizations are major
providers of many social and health care services. Since there is no orthodox or officialreligion, it is difficult for a corresponding political orthodoxy to emerge. Churches offer ready
opportunities for developing and practicing civic and political skills, creating miniature
political systems. Developing a participatory political culture was undoubtedly made easier
by the existence of a participatory religious culture.
Adversarial spirit created by the American preoccupation with the assertion and
maintenance of rights. It reflects our long-standing distrust of authority and of people
wielding power, both through political and religious traditions.
Class consciousness thinking of oneself as a worker whose interests are in opposition to
those of management, or vice versa. There is not a high degree of class consciousness in
America due to the combined effects of religious and ethnic diversity, an individualistic
philosophy, fragmented political authority, and a relatively egalitarian family structure.
Americans believe that the opportunity for success is available to people who work hard.
Culture war ideological disagreement between orthodox and progressive camps. It has
been made more widespread by the increase in the proportion of people who consider
themselves progressive and the rise of the media. The tensions generated by the culture
war affect our views as to how well our government works, how much influence ordinary
people can have over it, and how large a measure of freedom we ought to grant our
opponents.
Distrust in government since the 1950s, there has been a more or less steady decline in
the proportion of Americans who say they trust the government in Washington to do the
right thing. Americans are much more supportive of the country and its institutions than
Europeans are of theirs.
Political efficacy a citizens capacity to understand and influence political events. Thissense of efficacy has two partsinternal efficacy (the ability to understand and take part in
political affairs) and external efficacy (the ability to make the system respond to the
citizenry). Since the mid-1960s there has been a fairly sharp drop in the sense of external
efficacy, but not much change in the sense of internal efficacy.
Chapter 5: Public Opinion
John Q. Public the average person on the street
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Middle America - refers to Americans who have moved out poverty but are not yet affluent
and who cherish the traditional middle-class values
Silent majority consists of people who uphold traditional values, especially against the
counterculture of the 1960s
Problems with public opinion it suffers from ignorance, instability, and sensitivity to the
way questions are worded in polls
Role of family the majority of young people identify with their parents political party.
This process begins early in life. As people grow older, they become more independent, but
a great deal of continuity remains. The ability of the family to inculcate a strong sense of
party identification has declined in recent years. The proportion of citizens who say they
consider themselves to be Democrats or Republicans has become steadily smaller since the
1950s. This drop has been greatest among those who strongly identify with one party or
another. Weaker voters have always had a weaker sense of partisanship than older ones.
Children are more independent from their parents in policy preferences than in party
identification.
Religion Catholic families are somewhat more liberal on economic issues than white
Protestant ones, while Jewish families are much more liberal on both economic and social
issues than either Catholic or Protestant families. One theory behind this phenomenon isthat of social status, which predicts that people for traditionally poorer backgrounds are
more likely to vote Democratic. A second theory emphasizes the content of the religious
tradition. Fundamentalists are more likely than some other groups to oppose cuts in defense
spending, abortions, and to favor prayer in schools. Fundamentalists and
nonfundamentalists have about the same opinion on economic issues. Evangelical Christians
have become increasingly attracted to Republican presidential candidates, while Jews and
those without a religious orientation have been consistently supportive of the Democratic
Party.
Christian Coalition a political movement representing the views of conservative
evangelical Christians. It was founded by Pat Robertson and led by Ralph Reed. People allied
with the coalition quickly won power in many local Republican Party organizations. It was
strongest in the South, Midwest, and West, but was a strong force across the nation in the
1994 elections. It disbanded after 2000.
Gender gap the difference in political views between men and women. Men have become
increasingly republican since the 1960s, while voting behavior of women has remained
unchanged. The biggest reason for this gap seems to involve attitudes about the size of
government, gun control, spending programs aimed at the poor, and gay rights.
Schooling college students are more liberal than the population generally. The longer
students stay in college, the more liberal they are. Students studying the social sciences
tend to be more liberal than those studying engineering or the physical sciences. Going to
college also increases the rate at which people participate in politics.
Social Class the voting patterns of different social classes have become somewhat more
similar since the 1950s. Class voting has declined sharply since the 1940s. Unskilled workersare still more likely than white-collar workers to vote Democratic. The divisions among social
class are not as strong as they once were mainly because of the increased importance of
extensive schooling, which brings better-educated people to the higher ranks of society.
Race African Americans are usually Democrats. The differences between white and black
Americans may be narrowing. Latinos also tend to identify themselves as Democrats, but
not as heavily. Asians tend to identify with the Republican Party. Japanese Americans are
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some of the most conservative, whereas Korean Americans are more liberal. Mexican
Americans are more Democratic than Cuban Americans and Puerto Ricans.
Region the South is more accommodating to business and less so to organized labor than
the Northeast. White southerners have become more conservative since the 1960s and less
Democratic.
Political ideology a coherent and consistent set of beliefs about who ought to rule, what
principles rulers ought to obey, and what policies rulers ought to pursue.
Pure liberals liberal on both economic policy and personal conduct. They want the
government to reduce economic inequality, regulate business, tax the rich, allow abortions,
protect the rights of the accused, and guarantee freedom of speech and the press. They are
more likely than average to be young, college-educated, and either Jewish or nonreligious
Pure conservatives conservative on both economic and conduct issues. They want the
government to cut back on the welfare state, allow the market to allocate goods and
services, keep taxes low, and curb forms of conduct that they regard as antisocial. They are
more likely to be older, to have higher incomes, to be white, and to live in the Midwest.
Libertarians conservative on economic matters and liberal on social ones. They want
small, weak governmentone that has little control over either the economy or the personal
lives of citizens. They are more likely to be young, college-educated, and white, to havehigher incomes and religion, and to live in the West.
Populists liberal on economic matters and conservative on social ones. They want a
government that will reduce economic inequality and control business, but they also want it
to regulate personal conduct. They are more likely to be older, poorly educated, low-income,
religious, and female and to live in the South or Midwest.
Political elite people who hold office, run for office, work on campaigns, lead interest
groups and social movements, and speak out on political issues. The more a person is an
activist, the more likely it is that he will display ideological consistency on the conventional
liberal-conservative spectrum. The reasons for this greater consistency seem to be
information and peers. This group includes politicians, bureaucrats, members of the media,
and interest group leaders who have a stake in the growth of government. Because of that,
they often have progovernment views even though they have high incomes. Those that
have access to the media raise and frame important political issues. Elite views shape mass
media views by influencing both what issues capture the publics attention and how those
issues are debated and decided. They also state the norms by which issues should be
settled. By doing this they help determine the range of acceptable and unacceptable policy
options. Elite opinion of foreign affairs is much more influential than that of domestic issues
such as crime and unemployment.
Chapter 6: Political Participation
Voting-age population only 2/3 of the US voting-age population is registered to vote
Registered voters - ~60% of registered voters vote
Motor-voter law designed to make voter registration easier. Requires states to allowpeople to register to vote when applying for a drivers license and to provide registration
through the mail and at some state offices. It took effect in 1995, and has had mixed results.
It has not changed the two-party balance of registrants.
Fifteenth Amendment expands voting rights. In the 1870s the Supreme Court held that
it did not necessarily confer the right to vote on anybody; it merely asserted that if someone
was denied the right, it could not be on the grounds of race. This interpretation opened the
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door to literacy tests, poll taxes, and the grandfather clause, all designed to keep blacks
from voting.
Voting Rights Actof 1965 suspended the use of literacy tests and authorized the
appointment of federal examiners who could order the registration of blacks in states and
counties where fewer than 50% of the voting-age population were registered or had voted in
the past presidential election. In also provided criminal penalties for interfering with the
right to vote. It led to an increase in the amount of African Americans who voted.
Nineteenth Amendment allowed women to vote in 1920.
Voting Rights Act of 1970 gave 18 year olds the right to vote in federal elections
Twenty-sixth Amendment lowered the voting age in state elections to 18
Voting eligibility rules all persons 18 or older can vote, there may be no literacy test or
poll tax, states may not require residency of more than 30 days in the state before a person
may vote, areas with significant numbers of citizens not speaking English must give those
people ballots written in their own language, and federal poll watchers may be sent into
areas where less than 50% of the voting-age population participates in a presidential
election
Twenty-third Amendment allowed members of the District of Columbia to vote in
presidential electionsReasons for decreased voter turnout the hindrances of registration, a decline in
popular interest in elections and a weakening of the competiveness of the two major parties.
Increasing voter turnout would not have a substantial effect on the outcome of elections.
Rising distrust in politics, increased youth of the population, more minorities. Political parties
are no longer as effective as they once were in mobilizing voters, ensuring that they are
registered, and getting them to polls. People no longer feel that elections matter
Australian ballot a government-printed ballot of uniform size and shape that is cast in
secret. Its use cut back on vote buying and fraudulent vote counts
Activists about 1/9 of the population, people who are highly educated, have high
incomes, and tend to be middle-aged. They participate in all forms of politics.
Voting specialists people who vote but do little else; they tend to not have much
schooling or income and be older than the average person
Campaigners get involved in campaign activities. They are better educated than the
average voter, have a clear identification with a political party, and take strong positions
Communalists do not like the social conflict of partisan campaigns. They reserve their
energy for community activities
Parochial participants do not vote and stay out of election campaigns and civic
associations but are willing to contact local officials about specific problems
Factors that increase political participation increased age, increased schooling, religious
involvement
Chapter 7: Political Parties
Political party group that seeks to elect candidates to public office by supplying themwith a label by which they are known to the electorate. It exists as a label in the mind of
voters, an organization that recruits and campaigns for candidates, and as a set of leaders
who try to organize and control the legislative and executive branches of government.
Parties have become weaker in all 3 areas. The federal system of government in the US
decentralizes political authority and thus decentralizes political party organizations.
Federalism means that political parties acquire jobs in local offices, meaning that the
national political parties will be coalitions of local parties, and national party officials rarely
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have as much power as local ones. Political parties are closely regulated by state and
federal laws, and these regulations have the effect of weakening the power of parties. The
president does not need the organization of a political party to get elected.
Federalists supporters of Hamilton. Opposed the followers of Jefferson, Republicans. The
first parties were loose caucuses of political notables in various localities, with New England
being strongly Federalist and much of the South being Republican. The republicans were
much more successful
Jacksonians political participation became a mass phenomenon. The party system was
built from the bottom up. Party conventions were created to replace caucuses.
Mugwumps/ progressives opposed to the heavy emphasis on patronage, disliked the
party machinery, was fearful of the heavy influx of immigrants into American cities and of
the ability of party regulars to organize them into machines, and wanted to see the party
take unpopular positions on certain issues. Their great skills lay in the areas of advocacy and
articulation. At first they tried to play a balance-of-power role, then later began to espouse
measures to curtail or abolish political parties. They favored primary elections to replace
nominating conventions, nonpartisan elections at the city level, argued against corrupt
alliances between parties and business. They wanted strict voter-registration requirements
that would reduce voting fraud, pressed for civil service reform to eliminate patronage, andthey made heavy use of the mass media as a way of attacking the abuses of partisanship
and of promoting their own ideas.
Initiative & referendum advocated by the progressive party. The effect of these
changes was to reduce the worst forms of political corruption and to make boss rule of
politics difficult. They also made political parties less able to hold officeholders accountable,
and less able to assemble the power necessary for governing the fragmented political
institutions created by the Constitution
Critical / realigning periods times when sharp and long-lasting changes occur in the
popular coalition supporting one or both parties. There have been 5 realignments so far:
1800 (when the Jeffersonian Republicans defeated the Federalists), 1828 (when the
Jacksonian Democrats came to power), 1860 (when the Whig party collapsed and the
Republicans under Lincoln came to power), 1896 (when the Republicans defeated William
Jennings Bryan) and 1932 (when the Democrats under Roosevelt came into office). There
are two kinds of realignmentsone in which a major party is so badly defeated that is
disappears and a new party emerges to take its place, and another in which the two existing
parties continue but voters shift their support from one to another. A realignment occurs
when a new issues of utmost importance to the voters cuts across existing party lines and
replaces old issues that were formerly the basis of party identification.
Split tickets creates divided government
Office-bloc ballot lists candidates by office
Party structure at each level a separate and almost entirely independent organization
exists that does pretty much what it wants, and in many counties there is virtually no
organization at all. In every state there is a Democratic and a Republican state partyorganized under state law. Typically each consists of a state central committee, below which
there are county committees and sometimes city committees.
National convention a meeting that occurs every 4 years to nominate a presidential
candidate. Over the years the Democratic convention has shifted from the South and toward
the North and West and in the Republican convention away from the east and toward the
South and Southwest. Democrats give extra delegates to large states while the Republicans
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give extra ones to loyal states. They are now heavily influenced by ideologically motivated
activists.
National committee delegates from each state and territory that manage party affairs.
Selects the time and place of the next national convention and decides the rules by which
delegates will be selected
Congressional campaign committee helps members of Congress who are running for
reelection or would-be members running for an open seat or challenging a candidate from
the opposition party.
National chairman does the day-to-day work of the party, elected by the committee
Soft money funds to aid parties, not used to back candidates by name
Democratic Delegate selection rules equal division of delegates between men and
women; establishment of goals for the representation of African Americans, Hispanics, and
other groups in proportion to their presence in a states Democratic electorate; open
delegate selection procedures, with advance publicity and written rules; selection of the
75% of the delegates at the level of the congressional district or lower; no unit rule that
would require all delegates to vote with the majority of their state delegation; restrictions on
the number of party leaders and elected officials who could vote at the convention; a
requirement that all delegates pledged to a candidate vote for that candidate. These ruleswere altered by the Hunt Commission in 1981 to increase the influence of elected officials
and to make the convention a somewhat more deliberative body. The commission reserved
about 14% of the delegate seats for party leaders and elected officials, who would not have
to commit themselves in advance to a presidential candidate, and it replaced the rule
requiring the delegates pledged to a candidate vote for that candidate.
Superdelegates elected officials at party conventions
1992 Democratic delegate requirements the winner-reward systems of delegate
distribution, which gave the winner of a primary extra delegates, was banned. The
proportional representation system was put into use. This system divides a states publicly
elected delegates among candidates who receive at least 15% of the vote. States that
violate the rules are now penalized with the loss of 25% of their national campaign
delegates.
Political machine a party organization that recruits its members by the use of tangible
incentives and that is characterized by a high degree of leadership control over member
activity. They provided immigrants with services in exchange for their support. As voters
grew in education, income, and sophistication, they relied less on the advice and leadership
of local party officials. And as the federal government created a bureaucratic welfare
system, the parties welfare system declined in value.
Hatch Act made it illegal for federal civil service employees to take an active part in
political management or political campaigns by serving as party officers, soliciting campaign
funds, running for partisan office, working in a partisan campaign, endorsing partisan
candidates, taking voters to the polls, counting ballots, circulating nominating petitions, or
being delegates to a party convention. These restrictions gradually took federal employeesout of machine politics, but they did not end the machines.
Ideological party values principle above all else. Usually contentious and factionalized.
The most firmly ideological parties have been independent third parties. In the 1950s and
60s these ideological groups were reform clubs within local Democratic and Republican
parties. In the 1960s and 70s these reform movements were replaced by more focused
social movements. The result is that in many places the party has become a collection of
people drawn from various social movements. Internal factionalism is now more intense, and
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things for their constituents that a president cannot. They take credit for things that the
federal government provides to their district or state, they send letters to large factions of
their constituents and can visit their districts. Presidents get little direct credit for
improvements and must rely on the mass media to communicate with voters. Presidents are
held responsible for everything that goes wrong, whereas members of Congress can duck
responsibility. Congressional elections are largely independent of presidential ones. The way
people get elected to Congress has two important effects. First, it produces legislators who
are closely tied to local concerns, and second, it ensures that party leaders will have
relatively weak influence over them.
Coattails when the election of a popular president could help congressional candidates in
the same party. There has been a sharp decline in their value. The weakening of party
loyalty and of party organizations, combined with the enhanced ability of members of
Congress to build secure relationships with their constituents, has tended to insulate
congressional elections from presidential ones.
Monetary restraints federal law restricts the amount that any single individual can give
a candidate to $2000 in each election. To be eligible for federal matching grants to pay for a
primary campaign, one must first raise at least $5000 in individual contributions of $250 or
less, in each of 20 states. In response to Watergate, a law was passed stating thatindividuals cannot contribute more than $1000 to a candidate during a single election. All
federal election contributions and expenditures are reported to a Federal Election
Commission. All contributions over $100 must be disclosed, with name, address, and
occupation of contributor. No cash contributions over $100 or foreign contributions. No
ceiling on how much candidates may spend out of their own money unless they accept
federal funding for a presidential race. An individual may not make federal political gifts
exceeding $95000 every two years, of which only $37500 may to a candidate. No
corporation or union may give money from its own treasury to any national political party
(until recently). Members of minor parties get some support in presidential elections from
the federal government provided they have won at least 5% of the vote in the last election.
Political action committees a committee set up by and representing a corporation,
labor union, or other special interest group. They can give up to $5000 per election. A PAC
must have at least 50 members, give to at least 5 federal candidates, and cannot give more
than $5000 to any candidate in any election or more than $15000 per year to any political
party. Most give much less per candidate. It must register at least 6 months in advance of
an election. They may fund electioneering communications up to their expenditure limit.
Over half are sponsored by corporations, about 1/10 by labor unions, and the rest by various
groups, including ideological ones. Ideological PACs have increased faster than any other
kind.
Malapportionment results from having districts of unequal size
Gerrymandering drawing district boundaries in unusual shapes that make it easy for the
candidate of one party to win election in that district
Sophomore surge when most newly elected members become strong in their districtsvery quickly. It is the difference the candidates get the first and second time they run for
election. The main reason for this surge is that members of Congress have figured out how
to use their offices to run personal rather than party campaigns. They also cater to their
constituents distrust of federal government by claiming to run against it.
Delegates congress people who do what their district wants. Tend to value getting
reelected over all other concerns and seek out committee assignments that will produce
benefits for their districts.
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Trustees congress people who use their judgment without regard to the preferences of
their districts. Seek out committee assignments that give them a chance to address large
questions that have no implication for their districts.
Qualifications for the House must be 25, must have been a US citizen for 7 years, must
be an inhabitant of the state from which they are elected
Qualifications for the Senate must be 30, must have been a US citizen for 9 years,
must be an inhabitant of the state from which they are elected
Privileges cannot be sued or persecuted for anything that they say or write in connection
with their legislative duties
Clothespin vote a vote cast by a person who does not like either candidate and so votes
for the less objectionable of the two
Position issue one in which the rival candidates have opposing views on a question that
also divides the voters. Since 1860 many of the great party realignments have been based
on differing position issues.
Valence issue when the question is whether a candidate fully supports the publics views
on a matter on which everyone agrees. What voters look for on valence issues is which
candidate seems most closely linked to a universally shared view. Have become more
important in recent years.General election used to fill an elective office
Primary election used to select partys candidate for an elective office
Closed primary voters must declare in advance that they are a registered member of the
political party in whose primary they wish to vote.
Open primary you can decide when you enter the voting booth which partys primary you
wish to participate in
Blanket primary an open primary that lists the candidates from all parties. Allows for
split-ticket voting
Runoff primary if no candidate gets a majority of the votes, there is a runoff between the
two with the most votes
Presidential primary used to pick delegates to the presidential nominating conventions
of the major parties. They can be run in three main ways. When delegate selection only is in
place, only the names of prospective delegates to the convention appear on the ballot.
Delegate selection with advisory presidential preference means that voters pick delegates
and indicate their preferences among presidential candidates. Binding presidential
preference primaries mean that voters indicate their preferred presidential candidates and
delegates must observe these preferences
Democratic Party v. La Follette the Supreme Court decided that political parties, not
state legislatures, have the right to decide how delegates to national conventions are
selected.
Visual brief filmed episode showing the candidate doing something that a reporter thinks
is newsworthy. These are cheaper than advertising and seem more credible to viewers.
These generally do not provide much informationSources of campaign money presidential candidates get part of their money from
private donors and part from the federal government; congressional candidates get all their
money from private sources. In the presidential primaries candidates raise money from
private citizens and interest groups. The federal government will provide matching funds for
all monies raised from individual donors who contribute no more than $250. The
government also gives lump-sum grants to each political party to help pay the costs of its
nominating convention. In the general election the federal government pays all the costs of
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each candidate up to a limit set by law. Congressional candidates get no government funds,
most of their money comes from individual donors. Incumbent members of Congress
running for reelection get over a third of their money from PACs, challengers have to put in
much more of their own money.
Independent expenditures ordinary advertising that is directed at or against
candidates, but not made at the candidates wishes.
Bipartisan Campaign Finance Reform Act of 2002 banned soft money contributions
to national political parties from corporations and unions. Any money the national parties
get must come from individual donations or PAC contributions as limited by federal law. The
limit on individual contributions was raised from $1000 per candidate per election to $2000.
Independent expenditures by corporations, labor unions, trade associations, and nonprofit
organizations were sharply restricted. None of these organizations can use their own money
to refer to a clearly identified federal candidate in any advertisement during the 60 days
preceding a general election or the 30 days preceding a primary contest. Newspapers,
magazines, and radio and television stations were not affected. The law shifts influence
away from business and unions and toward the media.
Party influence on elections there are more registered Democrats, but Democrats are
more likely to defect from their party. Republicans do better among independents. MoreRepublicans than Democrats vote in elections.
Prospective voting when one examines the views that the rival candidates have on the
issues of the day and then cast their ballot for the person with the best ideas regarding
these matters. Prospective voting requires a lot of information about issues and candidates.
Those who vote prospectively tend to be political junkies. It is more common among people
who are political activists, have a political ideology that governs their voting decision, or are
involved in interest groups with a big stake in the election.
Retrospective voting involves looking at how things have gone in the recent past and
then voting for the party that controls the White House is one likes what has happened and
voting against that party if one does not. It does not require excessive amounts of
information. Elections are decided by retrospective voters. Some believe that retrospective
voting is based largely on economic conditions.
Importance of campaigns they awaken the partisan loyalties of voters. They give voters
a chance to see how candidates handle pressure. They give voters an opportunity to judge
the character and core values of the candidates. The desire of voters to discern character,
combined with the mechanics of modern campaigning lend themselves to an emphasis on
themes at the expense of details. This tendency is reinforced by the expectations of
ideological party activists and single-issue groups.
Party loyalty the loyalty of most identifiable groups of voters to either party is not
overwhelming. Only African Americans, businesspeople, and Jews usually give 2/3 or more of
their votes to one party or the other; other groups display tendencies, but none that cannot
be overcome. The groups that make up the largest part of the Democratic voteCatholics,
union members, southernersare also the least dependable parts of the coalition. Eachparty is a weak coalition of diverse elements that reflect the many divisions in public
opinions.
Chapter 9: Interest Groups
Reasons interest groups are socommon the more cleavages there are in a society,
the greater the variety of interests that will exist. The American constitutional system
contributes to the number of interest groups by multiplying the points at which such groups
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can gain access to the government. When political authority is shared by the president, the
courts, and Congress, there are plenty of places where one can argue ones case. The
weakness of political parties in this country may help explain the number and strength of
our interest groups. Where parties are strong, interests work through the parties; where
parties are weak, interests operate directly on the government. Big periods for interest
group formation have been the 1960s and 70s, 1770s, 1830s and 40s, and 1860s.
Lobby to attempt to influence governmental decisions, especially legislation. A lobby is a
group organized for this purpose
Lobbyist people who spend at least 20% of their time lobbying, people who are paid at
least $5000 in any 6-month period to lobby, corporations and other groups that spend more
than $20000 in any 6-month period on their own lobbying staffs. Twice a year, they must
report the names of their clients, their income and expenditures, and the issues on which
they worked.
Reasons for the rise in interest groups broad economic developments create new
interests and redefine old ones. Government policy helped create interest groups, especially
veterans groups. Professional societies became important in part because state
governments gave to such groups the authority to decide who was qualified to become a
professional in that field. Workers had a difficult time organizing so long as the government,by the use of injunctions, prevented strikes. Unions began to flourish after Congress passed
laws in the 1930s that prohibited the use of injunctions to private labor disputes, that
required employers to bargain with unions, and that allowed a union representing a majority
of the workers in a plant to require all workers to join it. Political organizations do not
emerge automatically, someone has to exercise leadership, often at personal cost. These
organizational entrepreneurs are more abundant at some times than others. They are often
young, caught up in the social movement, drawn by the need for change, and inspired by
some political or religious tradition. The more activities government undertakes, the more
organized interest groups there will be that are interested in those activities.
Interest group any organization that seeks to influence public policy. Well-off people are
more likely than poor people to join and be active in interest groups. Interest groups
representing business and the professions are much more numerous and better financed
than organizations representing minorities, consumers, or the disadvantaged. The most
important task of interest groups is providing information. Interest group activity is a form of
political speech protected by the First Amendment; it cannot be lawfully abolished or much
curtailed. The most significant legal constraints on interest groups come from tax code and
federal finance laws. If an organization does any serious lobbying, it will lose its tax-exempt
status
Federal Regulation of Lobbying Act requires groups and individuals seeking to
influence legislation to register with the secretary of the Senate and the clerk of the House
and to file quarterly financial reports. The Supreme Court restricted this laws application to
lobbying efforts involving direct contacts with members of Congress. This law had little
practical effect.Institutional interests individuals or organizations representing other organizations,
such as business firms, governments, foundations, and universities.
Material incentives money or things and services readily valued in monetary terms
Purposive incentive the appeal of an interests stated goal. If the attainment of those
goals will also benefit people who do not join, individuals who do join will have to be those
who feel passionately about the goal, who have a strong sense of duty, or for whom the cost
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of joining is small. Groups that rely on purposive incentives tend to be shaped by the mood
of the times. Thus such organizations have a powerful motive to stay in the public eye.
Ideological interest groups organizations that attract members by appealing to their
interest in a coherent set of controversial principles. Tend to arise out of social movements
Public-interest lobby when the purpose of the organization will principally benefit
nonmembers. The most visible of these groups are highly controversial. There are two kinds,
those that engage in research and lobbying and those that bring lawsuits designed to
advance their cause. Many of these groups often do better when the government is in the
hands of an administration that is hostile to their views.
Social movement a widely shared demand for change in some aspect of the social or
political order. The effect of a social movement is to increase the value some people attach
to purposive incentives. As a result new interest groups are formed that rely on these
incentives.
Foundation grants grants from foundations to public-interest lobbying groups
Federal grants money given to support projects that interest groups have undertaken
Political cue a signal telling the official what values are at stake in an issue. Cues are
made known by ratings that interest groups make of legislators.
Grassroots lobbying an effort to generate public pressure directly on governmentofficials. It is a part of the outsider strategy. Fewer regulations
Revolving door the practice of former federal government officials taking jobs in private
industry as lobbyists or consultants. Some worry that this may give private interests a way
of improperly influencing government interests
Chapter 10: The Media
Muckraker a journalist who searches through the activities of public officials and
organizations, especially of business firms, seeking to expose conduct contrary to the public
interest
Sound bite a video clip of a presidential contender speaking. Their average length has
decreased significantly
Narrowcasting the proliferation of television and radio stations that target highly
segmented listening and viewing audiences, and the relative decline of electronic and print
media that reach large and heterogeneous populations
Relationship between politics and media though politicians take advantage as best
they can of the communications media available to them, these media in turn attempt to
use politics and politicians as a way of both entertaining and informing their audiences.
Because we have separate institutions that must share power, each branch of government
competes with the others to get power. One way to compete is to try to use the press to
your advantage and make the other side look bad. Cynicism and distrust of government and
elected officials have led to an era of attack journalism.
Adversarial press one that is suspicious of officialdom and eager to break an
embarrassing story that will win for its author honor, prestige, and money. One side effect ofthe increasingly adversarial press nature of the press is the increased prevalence of
negative campaign advertising
National press most of the American press is composed of locally owned and managed
enterprises. The existence of a national press is important because government officials pay
great attention to what these media say about them and their programs. Reporters and
editors for the national press tend to differ from those who work for the local press. They are
usually better paid and have more liberal political views.
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Gatekeeper the media influences what subjects become national political issues and for
how long
Scorekeeper the national media keep track of and help make political reputations, note
who is being mentioned as a presidential candidate, and help decide who is winning or
losing in Washington politics. This role often leads the press to cover presidential elections
as if they were horse races rather than choices among policies
Watchdog close scrutiny of public officials. The media have an instinctive and profitable
desire to investigate personalities and expose scandals. They tend to be tolerant of
underdogs and tough on frontrunners.
Rules governing the media newspapers and magazines need to license to publish, their
freedom to public may not be restrained in advance, and they are liable for punishment for
what they do publish only under certain highly restricted circumstances. The First
Amendment has been interpreted to mean that the government cannot place prior
restraints on the press except under very narrowly defined circumstances. Once
something is published, a newspaper or magazine may be sued or prosecuted if the material
is libelous or obscene or if it incites someone to commit an illegal act. However, this is very
hard to prove. In general, your name and picture can be printed without your consent if they
are part of a news story or some public interest. If a paper attacks you in print, the paperhas no legal obligation to give you space for a reply. Court must decide in individual cases
whether the need of a journalist to protect confidential sources does or does not outweigh
the interest of the government in gathering evidence in a criminal investigation. In general
the Supreme Court has upheld the right of the government to compel reporters to divulge
information as part of a criminal investigation. No one may operate a radio or television
station without a license from the Federal Communications Commission. Radio broadcasting
has been deregulated the most.
Telecommunications Act (1996) allowed one company to own as many as 8 radio
stations in large markets (5 in smaller ones) and as many as it wished nationally. As a result,
a few large companies now own most of the big-market radio stations.
Equal time rule if a station sells time to one candidate for office, it must be willing to sell
equal time to opposing candidates
Right-of-reply rule if a person is attacked on a broadcast, that person has the right to
reply over the same station
Political editorializing rule if a broadcaster endorses a candidate, the opposing
candidate has a right to reply
Fairness doctrine required broadcasters to give time to opposing views if they broadcast
a program giving one side of a controversial issue. In 1987 the FCC abolished this rule,
though most follow it voluntarily
Trial balloon when a source may want to test public reaction to a policy
Loaded language using words to persuade people of something without actually making a
clear argument for it
Market any area easily reached by a television signalSelective attention when citizens only see and hear what they want
Mental tune-out when citizens ignore or get irritated by messages that are not in accord
with existing beliefs
Effects of media probably have much less to do with how people vote in an election and
much more to do with how politics is conducted, how candidates are perceived, and how
policies are formulated. National nominating conventions have been changed to fit the
needs of television broadcasters. Some candidates have found it possible to win their partys
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nomination with expensive advertising campaigns that bypass the parties and weaken them.
Watching the television affects the importance that people attach to certain issues. The
media help set the political agenda on matters with which the citizens have little personal
experience, but they have much influence over how people react to things that touch their
lives directly. The media also affect how we perceive certain issues and candidates. In a
presidential election it is unlikely that newspaper endorsements make a difference
Press secretary heads a large staff that meets with reporters, briefs the president on
questions he will likely be asked, attempts to control the flow of news from cabinet
departments to the press, and arranges briefings for out-of-town editors
Routine stories public events regularly covered by reporters and involving relatively
simple, easily described acts or statements. These are covered in almost exactly the same
way by almost all the media. The political opinions of journalists have the least impact on
these types of stories
Feature stories public events knowable to any reporter who cares to inquire but
involving acts and statements not routinely covered by a group of reporters. Thus a reporter
must take initiative and select a particular event as newsworthy, decide to write about it,
and persuade an editor to run it
Insider stories information not usually made public becomes public because someonewith inside knowledge tells a reporter
Background story one that explains current policy and is given on the condition that the
source not be identified by name
Chapter 11: Congress
Independence of Congress representatives and senators can vote on proposed laws
without worrying that their votes will cause the government to collapse and without fearing
that a failure to support their party leadership. Because Congress is constitutionally
independent of the president, and because its members are not tightly disciplined by a party
leadership, individual members of Congress are free to express their views and vote as they
wish. They are also free to become involved in the details of lawmaking, budget making, and
supervision and administration of laws. They are voted for as individuals rather than
members of their parties. Members of Congress are more concerned with their own
constituencies and careers than with the interests of their party. And since Congress does
not choose the president, members of Congress know that worrying about the voters they
represent is much more important than worrying about whether or not the president
succeeds with his programs. Congress tends to be a decentralized institution, with each
member more interested in his own views and those of his voters than with the programs
proposed by the president.
Powers of Congress
-to lay and collect taxes, imposts, and excises
-to borrow money
-to regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the states-to establish rules for naturalization and bankruptcy
-to coin money, set its value, and punish counterfeiting
-to fix the standard of weights and measures
-to establish post offices and post roads
-to issue patents and copyrights by inventors and authors
-to create courts inferior to the Supreme Court
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-to define and punish piracies, felonies on the high seas, and crimes against the law of
nations
-to declare war
-to raise and support an army and navy and make rules for their governance
-to provide for a militia
-to exercise exclusive legislative powers over the seat of government and other places
purchased to be federal facilities
-to make laws
Seventeenth Amendment provided for the popular election of Senators
Filibuster a prolonged speech made to delay action in a legislative assembly, only takes
place in the Senate
Rule 22 provides that debate can be cut off if 60 members of the Senate present and
voting agree to a cloture motion
Marginal districts districts where the winner gets less than 55% of the vote
Safe districts where the winner wins by 55% or more. Congressional seats have generally
become safer
Reasons for Democratic dominance ofCongress Democratic-controlled state
legislatures have redrawn congressional maps to give Democrats and advantage. Democratsdo well in low-turnout districts such as minority-dominated inner cities, while Republicans do
well in high-turnout districts such as affluent white suburbs. Congressional incumbents also
enjoy certain built-in electoral advantages over challengers, and the Democrats were in the
majority when these advantages grew. Democrats have more experienced congressional
candidates, have more closely reflected district-level voters policy preferences, and have
been able to fashion winning, district level coalitions from among national Democratic
constituencies such as organized labor, civil rights activists, feminists, and
environmentalists. The democrats were also in the majority when the mood turned anti-
incumbent. This mood, coupled with the effects of redistricting after the 1990 census and
the shift of the South to the Republican party brought the Republicans to power in the House
and Senate in the 1994 elections.
Conservative coalition a coalition between southern Democrats and Republicans. During
the 1960s and 70s this coalition came together about 1/5 of the time and usually won when
it did. However, many southern Democrats in Congress were replaced by southern
republicans. This has made Congress, especially the House, more ideologically partisan
Ways to influence legislation conducting hearings, marking up bills in committee
meetings, and offering amendments
Representational based on the assumption that members want to get reelected, and
therefore they vote to please their constituents. Occurs most often when constituents have
a clear view on some issue and a legislators vote on that issue is likely to attract their
attention, such as civil rights bills. The problem with the representational explanation is that
public opinion is not strong and clear on most measures on which Congress must vote. On
many issues the average member of the House has opinions close to those of the averagevoter. Senators, by contrast, are often less in tune with public opinion.
Organizational based on the assumption that since most constituents do not know how
their legislator has voted, it is not essential to please them. But it is important to please
fellow members of Congress, whose goodwill is valuable in getting things done and in
acquiring status and power. When voting on matters where constituency interests or
opinions are not vitally as stake, members of Congress respond primarily to cues provided
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by their colleagues. The principal cue is party. Additional organizational cues come from the
opinions of colleagues with whom the member of Congress feels a close ideological affinity.
Attitudinal based on the assumption that there are so many conflicting pressures on
members of Congress that they cancel each other out, leaving them to vote on the basis of
their own beliefs. This view becomes more important as Congress becomes more
ideological. As this polarization increases, members of opposing parties are more likely to
challenge, investigate, and denounce each other
Party organization in the Senate the majority party chooses one of its members to be
president pro tempore of the Senate, whose job it is to preside over the Senate. Having a
tiny majority in the Senate does not affect most important votes since the other side can
filibuster, but having your own party control the chairmanships is very important because it
helps determine what issues will go to the floor to vote. The key aspect of selecting party
leaders, of making up the important party committees, and of assigning freshman senators
to Senate committees is achieving ideological and regional balance. Compared to the
Senate of the 1950s and 60s, todays Senate is less party-centered, less leader-oriented,
and hospitable to freshmen, more heavily staffed, and more subcommittee-oriented
Majority leader chosen by the senators of the majority party. Schedules the business of
the senate, usually with the minority leader. Has the right to be recognized first in any floordebate.
Minority leader chosen by the senators of the minority party
Whip helps the party leader stay informed about what party members are thinking, rounds
up members when important votes are to be taken, and attempts to keep a count on how
the voting on a controversial issue is likely to go.
Steering committee the democratic committee in the Senate that assigns senators to
the standing committees
Committee on committees the Republican equivalent of the Steering committee
Party structure in the House leadership carries more power in the House than in the
Senate because of the House rules. Being so large, the House must restrict debate and
schedule its business with great care; thus leaders who do the scheduling and who
determine how the rules shall be applied usually have substantial influence. Com